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although this word is arabic this type of journey is done in africa | Afrikaans - wikipedia
Afrikaans (/ ˌæfrɪˈkɑːns, ˌɑːfri -, - ˈkɑːnz /) is a West Germanic language spoken in South Africa, Namibia and, to a lesser extent, Botswana and Zimbabwe. It evolved from the Dutch vernacular of South Holland (Hollandic dialect) spoken by the mainly Dutch settlers of what is now South Africa, where it gradually began to develop distinguishing characteristics in the course of the 18th century. Hence, it is a daughter language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as "Cape Dutch '' (a term also used to refer collectively to the early Cape settlers) or "kitchen Dutch '' (a derogatory term used to refer to Afrikaans in its earlier days). However, it is also variously described as a creole or as a partially creolised language. The term is ultimately derived from Dutch Afrikaans - Hollands meaning "African Dutch ''. It is the first language of most of the Afrikaners and Coloureds of Southern Africa.
Although Afrikaans has adopted words from other languages, including German and the Khoisan languages, an estimated 90 to 95 % of the vocabulary of Afrikaans is of Dutch origin. Therefore, differences with Dutch often lie in the more analytic morphology and grammar of Afrikaans, and a spelling that expresses Afrikaans pronunciation rather than standard Dutch. There is a large degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages -- especially in written form.
With about 7 million native speakers in South Africa, or 13.5 % of the population, it is the third-most - spoken language in the country. It has the widest geographical and racial distribution of all the 11 official languages of South Africa, and is widely spoken and understood as a second or third language. It is the majority language of the western half of South Africa -- the provinces of the Northern Cape and Western Cape -- and the first language of 75.8 % of Coloured South Africans (4.8 million people), 60.8 % of White South Africans (2.7 million); 4.6 % of Asian South Africans (58,000 people), and 1.5 % of black South Africans (600,000 people).
In addition, many native speakers of Bantu languages and English also speak Afrikaans as a second language. It is taught in schools, with about 10.3 million second - language students. One reason for the expansion of Afrikaans is its development in the public realm: it is used in newspapers, radio programs, TV, and several translations of the Bible have been published since the first one was completed in 1933.
In neighbouring Namibia, Afrikaans is widely spoken as a second language and used as a lingua franca, while as a native language it is spoken in 10.4 % of households, mainly concentrated in the capital Windhoek, Walvis Bay, Swakopmund and the southern regions of Hardap and ǁKaras. It, along with German, was among the official languages of Namibia until the country became independent in 1990, 25 % of the population of Windhoek spoke Afrikaans at home. Both Afrikaans and German are recognised regional languages in Namibia, although only English has official status within the government.
Estimates of the total number of Afrikaans speakers range between 15 and 23 million.
The term is ultimately derived from the Dutch term Afrikaans - Hollands meaning "African Dutch ''.
The Afrikaans language arose in the Dutch Cape Colony, through a gradual divergence from European Dutch dialects, during the course of the 18th century. As early as the mid-18th century and as recently as the mid-20th century, Afrikaans was known in standard Dutch as a "kitchen language '' (Afrikaans: kombuistaal), lacking the prestige accorded, for example, even by the educational system in Africa, to languages spoken outside Africa. Other early epithets setting apart Kaaps Hollands ("Cape Dutch '', i.e. Afrikaans) as putatively beneath official Dutch standards included geradbraakt, gebroken and onbeschaafd Hollands ("mutilated / broken / uncivilised Dutch ''), as well as verkeerd Nederlands ("incorrect Dutch '').
An estimated 90 to 95 % of Afrikaans vocabulary is ultimately of Dutch origin, and there are few lexical differences between the two languages. Afrikaans has a considerably more regular morphology, grammar, and spelling. There is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form.
Afrikaans acquired some lexical and syntactical borrowings from other languages such as Malay, Khoisan languages, Portuguese, and of the Bantu languages, and Afrikaans has also been significantly influenced by South African English. Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the other way round. Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch.
In general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is better than between Dutch and Frisian or between Danish and Swedish. The South African poet writer Breyten Breytenbach, attempting to visualize the language distance for anglophones once remarked that the differences between (Standard) Dutch and Afrikaans are comparable to those between the Received Pronunciation and Southern American English.
A relative majority of the first settlers whose descendants today are the Afrikaners were from the United Provinces (now Netherlands and Flanders), though up to one - sixth of the community was also of French Huguenot origin, and a seventh from Germany.
African and Asian workers and slaves contributed to the development of Afrikaans. The slave population was made up of people from East Africa, West Africa, India, Madagascar, and the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia). A number were also indigenous Khoisan people, who were valued as interpreters, domestic servants, and labourers. Many free and enslaved women married, cohabited with, or were victims of sexual violence from the male Dutch settlers. M.F. Valkhoff argued that 75 % of children born to female slaves in the Dutch Cape Colony between 1652 and 1672 had a Dutch father. Some consider this the origin of the ethnic group, the Cape Coloureds, who adopted various forms of speech utilising a Dutch vocabulary. Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman argue that Afrikaans ' development as a separate language was "heavily conditioned by nonwhites who learned Dutch imperfectly as a second language. ''
Beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replace Malay as the language of instruction in Muslim schools in South Africa, written with the Arabic alphabet: see Arabic Afrikaans. Later, Afrikaans, now written with the Latin script, started to appear in newspapers and political and religious works in around 1850.
In 1875, a group of Afrikaans - speakers from the Cape formed the Genootskap vir Regte Afrikaanders ("Society for Real Afrikaners ''), and published a number of books in Afrikaans including grammars, dictionaries, religious materials and histories. In 1925, Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a real language, rather than simply a slang version of Dutch proper.
Afrikaans was considered a Dutch dialect in South Africa until the early 20th century, when it became recognised as a distinct language under South African law, alongside Standard Dutch, which it eventually replaced as an official language.
Before the Boer Wars (1880 -- 81 and 1899 -- 1902), "and indeed for some time afterwards, Afrikaans was regarded as inappropriate for educated discourse. Rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as ' a kitchen language ' or as ' a bastard jargon ', suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants. '' 23 years after the Second Boer War ended in 1902, mostly due to the efforts of the Afrikans Language Movement on 8 May 1925, the Official Languages of the Union Act No 8 of 1925 was passed at a joint sitting of the House of Assembly and the Senate, in which ' Dutch ' was "declared to include Afrikaans ''. The Constitution of 1961 reversed the position of Afrikaans and Dutch, so that English and Afrikaans were the official languages and Afrikaans was deemed to include Dutch. The Constitution of 1983 removed any mention of Dutch altogether.
The Afrikaans Language Monument (Afrikaanse Taalmonument) is located on a hill overlooking Paarl, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Officially opened on 10 October 1975, it commemorates the 50th anniversary of Afrikaans being declared an official language of South Africa in distinction to Dutch. It was erected in Paarl on the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners (Society of Real Afrikaners), an organisation which helped to strengthen Afrikaners ' identity and pride in their language.
The linguist Paul Roberge suggested the earliest ' truly Afrikaans ' texts are doggerel verse from 1795 and a dialogue transcribed by a Dutch traveller in 1825. Printed material among the Afrikaners at first used only standard European Dutch. By the mid-19th century, more and more were appearing in Afrikaans, which was very much still regarded as a set of regional dialects.
In 1861, L.H. Meurant published his Zamenspraak tusschen Klaas Waarzegger en Jan Twyfelaar ("Conversation between Claus Truthsayer and John Doubter ''), which is considered by some to be the first authoritative Afrikaans text. Abu Bakr Effendi also compiled his Arabic Afrikaans Islamic instruction book between 1862 and 1869, although this was only published and printed in 1877. The first Afrikaans grammars and dictionaries were published in 1875 by the Genootskap vir Regte Afrikaners ("Society for Real Afrikaners '') in Cape Town.
The main Afrikaans dictionary is the Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal (WAT) (Dictionary of the Afrikaans Language), which is as yet incomplete owing to the scale of the project, but the one - volume dictionary in household use is the Verklarende Handwoordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal (HAT). The official orthography of Afrikaans is the Afrikaanse Woordelys en Spelreëls, compiled by Die Taalkommissie.
The Afrikaner religion had stemmed from the Protestant practices of the Reformed church of Holland during the 17th century, later on being influenced in South Africa by British ministries during the 1800s "Afrikaner ''. South African History Online. South African History Online (SAHO) (online). Retrieved 20 October 2017... A major landmark in the development of the language was the translation of the whole Bible into Afrikaans. Before this, most Cape Dutch - Afrikaans speakers had to rely on the Dutch Statenbijbel. This Statenvertaling had its origins with the Synod of Dordrecht of 1618 and was thus in an archaic form of Dutch. This was hard for Dutch and Cape Dutch speakers to understand, and increasingly unintelligible for Afrikaans speakers.
C.P. Hoogehout, Arnoldus Pannevis, and Stephanus Jacobus du Toit were the first Afrikaans Bible translators. Important landmarks in the translation of the Scriptures were in 1878 with C.P. Hoogehout 's translation of the Evangelie volgens Markus (Gospel of Mark, lit. Gospel according to Mark); however, this translation was never published. The manuscript is to be found in the South African National Library, Cape Town.
The first official translation of the entire Bible into Afrikaans was in 1933 by J.D. du Toit, E.E. van Rooyen, J.D. Kestell, H.C.M. Fourie, and BB Keet. This monumental work established Afrikaans as ' n suiwer en ordentlike taal, that is "a pure and proper language '' for religious purposes, especially amongst the deeply Calvinist Afrikaans religious community that previously had been sceptical of a Bible translation that varied from the Dutch version that they were used to.
In 1983, a fresh translation marked the 50th anniversary of the 1933 version and provided a much - needed revision. The final editing of this edition was done by E.P. Groenewald, A.H. van Zyl, P.A. Verhoef, J.L. Helberg and W. Kempen.
Afrikaans belongs to its own West Germanic sub-group, the Low Franconian languages. Its closest relative is the mutually - intelligible mother language, Dutch language. Other West Germanic languages related to Afrikaans are German, English and the Frisian languages and the unstandardised languages Low German and Yiddish.
Some state that instead of Afrikaners, which refers to an ethnic group, the terms Afrikaanses or Afrikaanssprekendes (lit. Afrikaans speakers) should be used for people of any ethnic origin who speak Afrikaans. Linguistic identity has not yet established which terms shall prevail, and all three are used in common parlance. The white Afrikaans - speaking community started being referred to colloquially as "The Boere ''. The terms boerseun (farm boy) and boeremeisie (farm girl) became popular among young white Afrikaners for expressing national pride, regardless of whether or not they actually grew up on a farm.
Afrikaans is also widely spoken in Namibia. Before independence, Afrikaans had equal status with German as an official language. Since independence in 1990, Afrikaans has had constitutional recognition as a national, but not official, language. There is a much smaller number of Afrikaans speakers among Zimbabwe 's white minority, as most have left the country since 1980. Afrikaans was also a medium of instruction for schools in Bophuthatswana, an Apartheid - era Bantustan.
Many South Africans living and working in Belgium, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States, the UAE and Kuwait are also Afrikaans - speaking. They have access to Afrikaans websites, news sites such as Netwerk24.com and Sake24, and radio broadcasts over the web, such as those from Radio Sonder Grense, Bokradio and Radio Pretoria.
Afrikaans has been influential in the development of South African English. Many Afrikaans loanwords have found their way into South African English, such as bakkie ("pickup truck ''), braai ("barbecue ''), naartjie ("tangerine ''), tekkies (American "sneakers '', British "trainers '', Canadian "runners ''). A few words in standard English are derived from Afrikaans, such as aardvark (lit. "earth pig ''), trek ("pioneering journey '', in Afrikaans lit. "pull '' but used also for "migrate ''), spoor ("animal track ''), veld ("Southern African grassland '' in Afrikaans, lit. "field ''), commando from Afrikaans kommando meaning small fighting unit, boomslang ("tree snake '') and apartheid ("segregation ''; more accurately "apartness '' or "the state or condition of being apart '').
In 1976, secondary - school pupils in Soweto began a rebellion in response to the government 's decision that Afrikaans be used as the language of instruction for half the subjects taught in non-White schools (with English continuing for the other half). Although English is the mother tongue of only 8.2 % of the population, it is the language most widely understood, and the second language of a majority of South Africans. Afrikaans is more widely spoken than English in the Northern and Western Cape provinces, several hundred kilometres from Soweto.
The Black community 's opposition to Afrikaans and preference for continuing English instruction was underlined when the government rescinded the policy one month after the uprising: 96 % of Black schools chose English (over Afrikaans or native languages) as the language of instruction. Also, due to Afrikaans being viewed as the language of the white oppressor by some, pressure has been increased to remove Afrikaans as a teaching language in South African universities, resulting in bloody student protests in 2015.
Under South Africa 's Constitution of 1996, Afrikaans remains an official language, and has equal status to English and nine other languages. The new policy means that the use of Afrikaans is now often reduced in favour of English, or to accommodate the other official languages. In 1996, for example, the South African Broadcasting Corporation reduced the amount of television airtime in Afrikaans, while South African Airways dropped its Afrikaans name Suid - Afrikaanse Lugdiens from its livery. Similarly, South Africa 's diplomatic missions overseas now only display the name of the country in English and their host country 's language, and not in Afrikaans.
In spite of these moves, the language has remained strong, and Afrikaans newspapers and magazines continue to have large circulation figures. Indeed, the Afrikaans - language general - interest family magazine Huisgenoot has the largest readership of any magazine in the country. In addition, a pay - TV channel in Afrikaans called KykNet was launched in 1999, and an Afrikaans music channel, MK (Musiek kanaal) (lit. ' Music Channel '), in 2005. A large number of Afrikaans books are still published every year, mainly by the publishers Human & Rousseau, Tafelberg Uitgewers, Struik, and Protea Boekhuis. The Afrikaans film trilogy Bakgat (first released in 2008) caused a reawakening of the Afrikaans film Industry (which has been dead since the mid to late 1990s) and Belgian - born singer Karen Zoid 's debut single "Afrikaners is Plesierig '' (released 2001) caused a resurgence in the Afrikaans music industry as well as gave rise to the Afrikaans Rock genre.
Afrikaans has two monuments erected in its honour. The first was erected in Burgersdorp, South Africa, in 1893, and the second, nowadays better - known Afrikaans Language Monument (Afrikaanse Taalmonument), was built in Paarl, South Africa, in 1975.
When the British design magazine Wallpaper described Afrikaans as "one of the world 's ugliest languages '' in its September 2005 article about the monument, South African billionaire Johann Rupert (chairman of the Richemont Group), responded by withdrawing advertising for brands such as Cartier, Van Cleef & Arpels, Montblanc and Alfred Dunhill from the magazine. The author of the article, Bronwyn Davies, was an English - speaking South African.
Modern Dutch and Afrikaans share over 90 percent of their vocabulary. Afrikaans speakers are able to learn Dutch within a comparatively short time. Native Dutch speakers pick up written Afrikaans even more quickly, due to its simplified grammar, whereas understanding spoken Afrikaans might need more effort. Afrikaans speakers can learn Dutch pronunciation with little training. This has enabled Dutch and Belgian companies to outsource their call centre operations to South Africa.
Post-apartheid South Africa has seen a loss of preferential treatment by the government for Afrikaans, in terms of education, social events, media (TV and radio), and general status throughout the country, given that it now shares its place as official language with ten other languages. Nevertheless, Afrikaans remains more prevalent in the media -- radio, newspapers and television -- than any of the other official languages, except English. More than 300 book titles in Afrikaans are published annually. South African census figures suggest a growing number of speakers in all nine provinces, a total of 6.85 million in 2011 compared to 5.98 million a decade earlier. The South African Institute of Race Relations (SAIRR) project that a growing majority will be Coloured Afrikaans speakers. Afrikaans speakers experience higher employment rates than other South African language groups, though half a million remain unemployed.
Despite the challenges of demotion and emigration that it faces in South Africa, the Afrikaans vernacular remains competitive, being popular in DSTV pay channels and several internet sites, while generating high newspaper and music CD sales. A resurgence in Afrikaans popular music since the late 1990s has invigorated the language, especially among a younger generation of South Africans. A recent trend is the increased availability of pre-school educational CDs and DVDs. Such media also prove popular with the extensive Afrikaans - speaking expatriate communities who seek to retain language proficiency in a household context.
After years of slumber, Afrikaans language cinema is showing signs of new vigour. The 2007 film Ouma se slim kind, the first full - length Afrikaans movie since Paljas in 1998, is seen as the dawn of a new era in Afrikaans cinema. Several short films have been created and more feature - length movies, such as Poena is Koning and Bakgat (both in 2008) have been produced, besides the 2011 Afrikaans - language film Skoonheid, which was the first Afrikaans film to screen at the Cannes Film Festival. The film Platteland was also released in 2011. The Afrikaans Film industry started gaining international recognition via the likes of big Afrikaans Hollywood film stars, like Charlize Theron (Monster) and Sharlto Copley (District 9) promoting their mother tongue.
Afrikaans seems to be returning to the SABC. SABC3 announced early in 2009 that it would increase Afrikaans programming due to the "growing Afrikaans - language market and (their) need for working capital as Afrikaans advertising is the only advertising that sells in the current South African television market ''. In April 2009, SABC3 started screening several Afrikaans - language programmes. Further latent support for the language derives from its de-politicised image in the eyes of younger - generation South Africans, who less and less often view it as "the language of the oppressor ''. Indeed, there is a groundswell movement within Afrikaans to be inclusive, and to promote itself along with the other indigenous official languages. In Namibia, the percentage of Afrikaans speakers declined from 11.4 % (2001 Census) to 10.4 % (2011 Census). The major concentrations are in Hardap (41.0 %), ǁKaras (36.1 %), Erongo (20.5 %), Khomas (18.5 %), Omaheke (10.0 %), Otjozondjupa (9.4 %), Kunene (4.2 %), and Oshikoto (2.3 %).
Afrikaans is offered at many universities outside of South Africa including in the Netherlands, Belgium, German, Poland, Russia and America.
Following early dialectal studies of Afrikaans, it was theorised that three main historical dialects probably existed after the Great Trek in the 1830s. These dialects are the Northern Cape, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape dialects. Northern Cape dialect may have resulted from contact between Dutch settlers and the Khoi - Khoi people between the Great Karoo and the Kunene, and Eastern Cape dialect between the Dutch and the Xhosa. Remnants of these dialects still remain in present - day Afrikaans, although the standardising effect of Standard Afrikaans has contributed to a great levelling of differences in modern times.
There is also a prison cant, known as soebela or sombela, which is based on Afrikaans, yet heavily influenced by Zulu. This language is used as a secret language in prison and is taught to initiates.
The term Kaapse Afrikaans ("Cape Afrikaans '') is sometimes erroneously used to refer to the entire Western Cape dialect; it is more commonly used for a particular sociolect spoken in the Cape Peninsula of South Africa. Kaapse Afrikaans was once spoken by all population groups. However, it became increasingly restricted to the Cape Coloured ethnic group in Cape Town and environs. Kaapse Afrikaans is still understood by the large majority of native Afrikaans speakers in South Africa.
Kaapse Afrikaans preserves some features more similar to Dutch than to Afrikaans.
Kaapse Afrikaans has some other features not typically found in Afrikaans.
Kaapse Afrikaans is also characterised by much code - switching between English and Afrikaans, especially in the inner - city and lower socio - economic status areas of Cape Town.
An example of characteristic Kaapse Afrikaans:
The term Oranjerivierafrikaans ("Afrikaans of the Orange River '') is sometimes erroneously used to refer to the Northern Cape dialect; it is more commonly used for the regional peculiarities of standard Afrikaans spoken in the Upington / Orange River wine district of South Africa.
Some of the characteristics of Oranjerivierafrikaans are the plural form - goed (Ma - goed, meneergoed), variant pronunciation such as in kjerk ("Church '') and gjeld ("money '') and the ending - se, which indicates possession.
Although Afrikaans is mainly spoken in South Africa and Namibia, smaller Afrikaans - speaking populations live in Argentina, Australia, Botswana, Brazil, Canada, Lesotho, Malawi, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Swaziland, the UAE, the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, the USA, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Most Afrikaans - speaking people living outside Africa are emigrants and their descendants. Because of emigration and migrant labour, more than 100,000 Afrikaans speakers may live in the United Kingdom.
Due to the early settlement of a Cape Malay community in Cape Town, who are now known as Coloureds, numerous Classical Malay words were brought into Afrikaans. Some of these words entered Dutch via people arriving from, what is now known as, Indonesia as part of their colonial heritage. Malay words in Afrikaans include:
Some words originally came from Portuguese such as sambreel ("umbrella '') from the Portuguese sombreiro, kraal ("pen / cattle enclosure '') from the Portuguese curral, and mielie ("corn '', from milho). These words have become common in South Africa to an extent of being used in many other South African languages. Some of these words also exist in Dutch, like sambreel "parasol '', though usage is less common and meanings can slightly differ.
Some of these words also exist in Dutch, though with a more specific meaning: assegaai for example means "South - African tribal javelin '' and karos means "South - African tribal blanket of animal hides ''.
Loanwords from Bantu languages in Afrikaans include the names of indigenous birds, such as mahem and sakaboela, and indigenous plants, such as maroela and tamboekie (gras).
In Afrikaans grammar, there is no distinction between the infinitive and present forms of verbs, with the exception of the verbs ' to be ' and ' to have ':
In addition, verbs do not conjugate differently depending on the subject. For example,
Only a handful of Afrikaans verbs have a preterite, namely the auxiliary wees ("to be ''), the modal verbs, and the verb dink ("to think ''). The preterite of mag ("may '') is rare in contemporary Afrikaans.
All other verbs use the perfect tense (hê + past participle) for the past. Therefore, there is no distinction in Afrikaans between I drank and I have drunk. (Also in colloquial German, the past tense is often replaced with the perfect.)
When telling a longer story, Afrikaans speakers usually avoid the perfect and simply use the present tense, or historical present tense instead (as is possible, but less common, in English as well).
A particular feature of Afrikaans is its use of the double negative; it is classified in Afrikaans as ontkennende vorm and is something that is absent from the other West Germanic standard languages. For example,
Both French and San origins have been suggested for double negation in Afrikaans. While double negation is still found in Low Franconian dialects in West - Flanders and in some "isolated '' villages in the centre of the Netherlands (such as Garderen), it takes a different form, which is not found in Afrikaans. The following is an example:
Compare with Ek wil nie dit doen nie, which changes the meaning to "I want not to do this. '' Whereas Ek wil nie dit doen nie emphasizes a lack of desire to act, Ek wil dit nie doen nie emphasizes the act itself.
The - ne was the Middle Dutch way to negate but it has been suggested that since - ne became highly non-voiced, nie or niet was needed to complement the - ne. With time the - ne disappeared in most Dutch dialects.
The double negative construction has been fully grammaticalised in standard Afrikaans and its proper use follows a set of fairly complex rules as the examples below show:
A notable exception to this is the use of the negating grammar form that coincides with negating the English present participle. In this case there is only a single negation.
Certain words in Afrikaans arise due to grammar. For example, moet nie, which literally means "must not '', usually becomes moenie; although one does not have to write or say it like this, virtually all Afrikaans speakers will change the two words to moenie in the same way as do not shifts to do n't in English.
The Dutch word het ("it '' in English) does not correspond to het in Afrikaans. The Dutch words corresponding to Afrikaans het are heb, hebt, heeft and hebben.
There are many parallels to the Dutch orthography conventions and those used for Afrikaans. There are 26 letters.
In Afrikaans, many consonants are dropped from the earlier Dutch spelling. For example, slechts (' only ') in Dutch becomes slegs in Afrikaans. Also, Afrikaans and some Dutch dialects make no distinction between / s / and / z /, having merged the latter into the former; while the word for "south '' is written zuid in Dutch, it is spelled suid in Afrikaans (as well as dialectal Dutch writings) to represent this merger. Similarly, the Dutch digraph ij, normally pronounced as / əi /, is written as y, except where it replaces the Dutch suffix -- lijk which is pronounced as / lœk / or / lik /, as in waarschijnlijk > waarskynlik.
Another difference is the indefinite article, ' n in Afrikaans and een in Dutch. "A book '' is ' n boek in Afrikaans, whereas it is either een boek or ' n boek in Dutch. This ' n is usually pronounced as just a weak vowel, (ə).
The diminutive suffix in Afrikaans is - tjie, whereas in Dutch it is - tje, hence a "bit '' is bietjie in Afrikaans and beetje in Dutch.
The letters c, q, x, and z occur almost exclusively in borrowings from French, English, Greek and Latin. This is usually because words that had c and ch in the original Dutch are spelled with k and g, respectively, in Afrikaans. Similarly original qu and x are spelt kw and ks, respectively. For example, ekwatoriaal instead of equatoriaal, and ekskuus instead of excuus.
The vowels with diacritics in non-loanword Afrikaans are: á, é, è, ê, ë, í, î, ï, ó, ô, ú, û, ý. Diacritics are ignored when alphabetising, though they are still important, even when typing the diacritic forms may be difficult. For example, geëet instead of the 3 e 's alongside each other: * geeet, which can never occur in Afrikaans, or sê, which translates to "say '', whereas se is a possessive form.
A few short words in Afrikaans take initial apostrophes. In modern Afrikaans, these words are always written in lower case (except if the entire line is uppercase), and if they occur at the beginning of a sentence, the next word is capitalised. Three examples of such apostrophed words are ' k, ' t, ' n. The last (the indefinite article) is the only apostrophed word that is common in modern written Afrikaans, since the other examples are shortened versions of other words (ek and het, respectively) and are rarely found outside of a poetic context.
Here are a few examples:
The apostrophe and the following letter are regarded as two separate characters, and are never written using a single glyph, although a single character variant of the indefinite article appears in Unicode, ʼn.
For more on the pronunciation of the letters below, see Help: IPA / Afrikaans.
Although there are many different dialects and accents, the transcription would be fairly standard.
In the Dutch language the word Afrikaans means African, in the general sense. Consequently, Afrikaans is commonly denoted as Zuid - Afrikaans. This ambiguity also exists in Afrikaans itself and is either resolved in the context of its usage, or by using Afrikaan for an African person, and Afrika - in the adjective sense.
A handful of Afrikaans words are exactly the same as in English. The following Afrikaans sentences, for example, are exactly the same in the two languages, in terms of both their meaning and spelling; only their pronunciation differs.
Psalm 23 1983 translation:
Die Here is my Herder, ek kom niks kort nie. Hy laat my in groen weivelde rus. Hy bring my by waters waar daar vrede is. Hy gee my nuwe krag. Hy lei my op die regte paaie tot eer van Sy naam. Selfs al gaan ek deur donker dieptes, sal ek nie bang wees nie, want U is by my. In U hande is ek veilig.
Psalm 23 alternative translation:
Die Here is my Herder, niks sal my ontbreek nie. Hy laat my neerlê in groen weivelde; na waters waar rus is, lei Hy my heen. Hy verkwik my siel; Hy lei my in die spore van geregtigheid, om sy Naam ontwil. Al gaan ek ook in ' n dal van doodskaduwee, ek sal geen onheil vrees nie; want U is met my: u stok en u staf die vertroos my.
Lord 's Prayer (Afrikaans New Living translation)
Ons Vader in die hemel, laat U Naam geheilig word. Laat U koningsheerskappy spoedig kom. Laat U wil hier op aarde uitgevoer word soos in die hemel. Gee ons die porsie brood wat ons vir vandag nodig het. En vergeef ons ons sondeskuld soos ons ook óns skuldenaars vergewe het. Bewaar ons sodat ons nie aan verleiding sal toegee nie; en bevry ons van die greep van die Bose. Want van U is die koninkryk, en die krag, en die heerlikheid, tot in ewigheid. Amen
Lord 's Prayer (Original translation):
Onse Vader wat in die hemel is, laat U Naam geheilig word; laat U koninkryk kom; laat U wil geskied op die aarde, net soos in die hemel. Gee ons vandag ons daaglikse brood; en vergeef ons ons skulde soos ons ons skuldenaars vergewe en laat ons nie in die versoeking nie maar verlos ons van die Bose Want aan U behoort die koninkryk en die krag en die heerlikheid tot in ewigheid. Amen
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when should a cold blue finish be applied on a rifle | Bluing (steel) - wikipedia
Bluing is a passivation process in which steel is partially protected against rust, and is named after the blue - black appearance of the resulting protective finish. True gun bluing is an electrochemical conversion coating resulting from an oxidizing chemical reaction with iron on the surface selectively forming magnetite (Fe O), the black oxide of iron. Black oxide provides minimal protection against corrosion, unless also treated with a water - displacing oil to reduce wetting and galvanic action. A distinction can be made between traditional bluing and some other more modern black oxide coatings, although bluing is a subset of black oxide coatings.
In comparison, rust, the red oxide of iron (Fe O), undergoes an extremely large volume change upon hydration; as a result, the oxide easily flakes off causing the typical reddish rusting away of iron. "Cold '', "Hot '', "Rust Blue '' and "Fume Blue '' are oxidizing processes simply referred to as bluing.
"Cold '' bluing is generally a selenium dioxide based compound that colours steel black, or more often a very dark grey. It is a difficult product to apply evenly, offers minimal protection and is generally best used for small fast repair jobs and touch - ups.
The "Hot '' process is an alkali salt solution, referred to as "Traditional Caustic Black '', that is typically done at an elevated temperature, 135 to 155 ° C (275 to 311 ° F). This method was adopted by larger firearm companies for large scale, more economical bluing. It does provide good rust resistance which is improved with the use of oil.
"Rust Bluing '' and "Fume Bluing '' provide the best rust and corrosion resistance as the process continually converts any metal that is capable of rusting into magnetite (Fe O). Treating with an oiled coating enhances the protection offered by the bluing. This process is also the only process safely used to re-blue vintage shotguns. Many double barrelled shotguns are soft soldered (Lead) / silver brazed together and many of the parts are attached by that method also. The higher temperatures of the other processes as well as their caustic nature will weaken the soldered joints and make the gun hazardous to use.
Bluing can also be done in a furnace, for example for a sword or other item traditionally made by a blacksmith or specialist such as a weaponsmith. Blacksmith products to this day may occasionally be found made from blued steel by traditional craftsmen in cultures and segments of society who use that technology either by necessity or choice.
Bluing is most commonly used by gun manufacturers, gunsmiths, and gun owners to improve the cosmetic appearance of and provide a measure of corrosion resistance to their firearms. It was also used by machinists, who protected and beautified tools made for their own use. Bluing also helps to maintain the metal finish by resisting superficial scratching, and also helps to reduce glare to the eyes of the shooter when looking down the barrel of the gun. All blued parts still need to be properly oiled to prevent rust. Bluing, being a chemical conversion coating, is not as robust against wear and corrosion resistance as plated coatings, and is typically no thicker than 2.5 micrometres (0.0001 inches). For this reason, it is considered not to add any appreciable thickness to precisely - machined gun parts.
New guns are typically available in blued finish options offered as the least - expensive finish, and this finish is also the least effective at providing rust resistance, relative to other finishes such as Parkerizing or hard chrome plating or nitriding processes like Tenifer.
Bluing is also used for providing coloring for steel parts of fine clocks and other fine metalwork. This is often achieved without chemicals by simply heating the steel until a blue oxide film appears. The blue appearance of the oxide film is also used as an indication of temperature when tempering carbon steel after hardening, indicating a state of temper suitable for springs.
Bluing is also used in seasoning cast - iron cookware, to render it relatively rust - proof and non-stick. In this case cooking oil, rather than gun oil, acts to displace water and prevent rust.
Bluing is often a hobbyist endeavor, and there are many methods of bluing, and continuing debates about the relative efficacy of each method.
Historically, razor blades were often blued steel. A non-linear resistance property of the blued steel of razor blades, foreshadowing the same property that would later be discovered in semiconductor diode junctions, along with the ready availability of blued steel razor blades, led to the use of razor blades as a detector in the crystal set AM radios which were often built by soldiers during World War II.
Bluing may be applied, for example, by immersing the steel parts to be blued in a solution of potassium nitrate, sodium hydroxide, and water heated to the boiling point, 275 ° F to 310 ° F (135 ° C to 154 ° C) depending on the recipe. Similarly, stainless steel parts may be immersed in a mixture of nitrates and chromates, similarly heated. Either of these two methods are called hot bluing. There are many other methods of hot bluing. Hot bluing is the current standard in gun bluing, as both it and rust bluing provide the most permanent degree of rust - resistance and cosmetic protection of exposed gun metal.
Rust bluing was developed between hot and cold bluing processes. It was originally used by gunsmiths in the 19th century to blue firearms prior to the development of hot bluing processes. The process was to coat the gun parts in an acid solution, let the parts rust uniformly, then immerse the parts in boiling water to convert the red oxide Fe O to black oxide Fe O, which forms a more protective, stable coating than the red oxide. The boiling water also removes any remaining residue from the applied acid solution (often nitric acid and hydrochloric acid diluted in water). Then loose oxide was carded (scrubbed) off, using a carding brush or wheel. A carding brush is a wire brush with very soft, thin (usually about. 002 thick) wires. This process is repeated until the desired depth of color is achieved or the metal simply will not color any further. This is one of the reasons rust and fume bluing tend to be more rust resistant than any other method. The parts are then oiled and allowed to stand overnight. This process leaves a deep blue / black finish.
Modern home hobbyist versions of this process typically use a hydrogen peroxide and salt solution, sometimes with vinegar, for the rusting step to avoid the need for more dangerous acids.
Fume bluing is another process similar to rust bluing. Instead of applying the acid solution directly to the metal parts, the parts are placed in a sealed cabinet with a moisture source, a container of nitric acid and a container of hydrochloric acid. The cabinet is then sealed. The mixed fumes of the acids will produce a uniform rust on the surface of the parts (inside and out) in about 12 hours. The parts are then boiled in distilled water, blown dry, then carded, as with rust bluing.
These processes were later abandoned by major firearm manufacturers as it often took parts days to finish completely, and was very labor - intensive. They are still sometimes used by gunsmiths to obtain an authentic finish for a period gun of the time that rust bluing was in vogue, analogous to the use of browning on earlier representative firearm replicas. Rust bluing is also used on shotgun barrels that are soldered to the rib between the barrels, as hot bluing solutions would dissolve the solder during the bluing process.
Large scale industrial hot bluing is often performed using a bluing furnace. This is an alternative method for creating the black oxide coating. In place of using a hot bath (although at a lower temperature) chemically induced method, it is possible through controlling the temperature to heat steel precisely such as to cause the formation of black oxide selectively over the red oxide. It, too, must be oiled to provide any significant rust resistance.
There are also methods of cold bluing, which do not require heat. Commercial products are widely sold in small bottles for cold bluing firearms, and these products are primarily used by individual gun owners for implementing small touch - ups to a gun 's finish, to prevent a small scratch from becoming a major source of rust on a gun over time. At least one of the cold bluing solutions contains selenium dioxide, to accomplish the bluing. Cold bluing is not particularly resistant to holster wear, nor does it provide a large degree of rust resistance. It does, however, often provide an adequate cosmetic touch - up of a gun 's finish when applied and additionally oiled on a regular basis, however, rust bluing small areas will often match and blend better and wear better than any cold bluing process.
Parts to be niter blued are steel which has been polished and cleaned, then immersed in a bath of molten salts; typically potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate (sometimes with 9.4 grams (0.33 oz) of manganese dioxide per lb of total nitrate). The mixture is heated to 310 to 321 ° C (590 to 610 ° F) and the parts are suspended in this solution with wire. The parts must be observed constantly for colour change. The cross section and size of parts will affect the outcome of the finish and time it takes to achieve. This method must not be used on critically heat - treated parts such as receivers, slides or springs. It is generally employed on smaller parts such as pins, screws, sights, etc. The colours will range through straw, gold, brown, purple, blue, teal, then black. Examples of this finish can be seen commonly on older pocket watches whose hands exhibit what is called "peacock blue '', a rich iridescent blue.
This is the predecessor of all metal colouring typically employed in the firearms industry. Contemporary heat - treatable steels did not exist or were in their infancy. Soft, low - carbon steel was used, but strong materials were needed for the receivers of firearms. Initially case hardening was used but did not offer any aesthetics. Colour case hardening occurs when soft steels were packed in a reasonably airtight crucible in a mixture of charred leather, bone charcoal and wood charcoal. This crucible was heated to 730 ° C (1,350 ° F) for up to 6 hours (the longer the heat was applied the thicker the case hardening). At the end of this heating process the crucible is removed from the oven and positioned over a bath of water with air forced through a perforated coil in the bottom of the bath. The bottom of the crucible is opened allowing the contents to drop into the rapidly bubbling water. The differential cooling causes patterns of colours to appear as well as hardening the part.
Different colours can be achieved through variations of this method including quenching in oil instead of water.
Browning is controlled red rust Fe O and is also known as pluming or plum brown. One can generally use the same solution to brown as to blue. The difference is immersion in boiling water for bluing. The rust then turns to black - blue Fe O. Many older browning and bluing formulas are based on corrosive solutions (necessary to cause metal to rust), and often contain cyanide or mercury salts solutions that are especially toxic to humans.
Bluing only works on steel, cast iron, or stainless steel parts for protecting against corrosion. Because it changes iron into Fe O, it does not work on non-ferrous material. Aluminium and polymer parts can not be blued, and no corrosion protection is provided. However, the chemicals from the blueing process can accomplish uneven staining on aluminium and polymer parts. Hot bluing should never be attempted on aluminium, as it will react violently with the bath of caustic salts, potentially causing severe chemical burns.
Friction, as from holster wear, will quickly remove cold bluing, and will also remove hot bluing, rust, or fume bluing over long periods of use. It is usually inadvisable to use cold bluing as a touch - up where friction is present. If cold - bluing is the only practical option, the area should be kept oiled to extend the life of the coating as much as possible.
In colloquial use, thin coatings of black oxide are often termed gun bluing, while heavier coatings are termed black oxide. Both refer to the same chemical process for providing true gun bluing.
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when did the civil procedure rules and accompanying practice directions come into force | Civil Procedure rules - wikipedia
The Civil Procedure Rules (CPR) are the rules of civil procedure used by the Court of Appeal, High Court of Justice, and County Courts in civil cases in England and Wales. They apply to all cases commenced after 26 April 1999, and largely replace the Rules of the Supreme Court and the County Court Rules.
The CPR were designed to improve access to justice by making legal proceedings cheaper, quicker, and easier to understand for non-lawyers. As a consequence of this, many archaic legal terms were replaced with "plain English '' equivalents, such as "claimant '' for "plaintiff '' and "witness summons '' for "subpoena ''.
Unlike the previous rules of civil procedure, the CPR commence with a statement of their "Overriding Objective '', both to aid in the application of specific provisions and to guide behaviour where no specific rule applies.
In 1994, the Lord Chancellor instructed the Master of the Rolls, Lord Woolf, to report on options to consolidate the existing rules of civil procedure. On 26 July 1996, Lord Woolf published his Access to Justice Report 1996 in which he "... identified a number of principles the civil justice system should meet to ensure access to justice. The system should --
Lord Woolf listed two of the requirements of case management as "... fixing timetables for the parties to take particular steps in the case; and limiting disclosure and expert evidence ''.
The second thread of the report was to control the cost of litigation, both in time and money, by focusing on key issues rather than every possible issue and limiting the amount of work that has to be done on the case.
The report was accompanied by draft rules of practice designed to implement Lord Woolf 's proposals. These rules: granted wide management powers to the court proposed that cases be allocated to one of three tracks depending on their nature, limiting or requiring specific actions; and introduced the concept of proportionality to the costs regime.
The Civil Procedure Act 1997 (c. 12) was enacted on 27 February 1997. It conferred the power to make civil procedure rules. It also established the Civil Justice Council, a body composed of members of the judiciary, members of the legal professions and civil servants, and charged with reviewing the civil justice system.
The Civil Procedure Rules 1998 (SI 1998 / 3132) were made on 10 December 1998 and came into force on 26 April 1999. The draft rules of practice formed their core.
Implemented as a result of reforms suggested by Lord Woolf and his committee, one of the revelations of the rules is the "Overriding Objective '' embodied in Part 1 of the Rules, which states:
The rules are written to be intelligible not just to lawyers but to litigants in person also.
Claims with a value of not more than £ 10,000 (the amount increased on 1 April 2013) are usually allocated to the Small Claims Track unless: the amount claimed for pain, suffering, and loss of amenity is more than £ 1,000.00.; or the cost of the repairs or other work to residential premises claimed against the landlord by a tenant is estimated to be more than £ 1,000 - whether or not they are also seeking another remedy - or the financial value of any claim in addition to those repairs is more than £ 1,000.
A claim for a remedy for harassment or unlawful eviction relating to residential premises will not be allocated to the Small Claims Track even if it meets the financial limits.
Claims with a financial value of no more than £ 25,000 (£ 15,000 for claims issued before 6 April 2009), for which the Small Claims Track is not the normal track are usually allocated to the Fast Track unless: the trial is likely to last for more than one day; oral expert evidence at trial will be in more than two fields; or there will be more than one expert per party in each field.
Any case not allocated to either the Small Claims - or the Fast Track is allocated to the Multi Track.
To support the ethos of narrowing the issues prior to the use of proceedings and encapsulate best practice, the CPR introduced "pre-action protocols ''. They are given force by Practice Direction -- Protocols
Pre-action protocols outline the steps that parties should take in particular types of dispute to seek information from, and to provide information to, each other prior to making a legal claim.
Pre-action protocols, which entails setting out the claim in full to the defendant in an attempt to negotiate a settlement. The emphasis is placed on co-operation to identify the main issues. Failure to co-operate may lead cost penalties, regardless of the eventual outcomes of the case.
Paragraph 1 of the Practice Direction defines the purpose of pre-action protocols as:
Paragraph 2 indicates that the Court may add terms to any order if it feels a party has breached a protocol. These will place parties in the same position as if the breach had not occurred (or as close as possible).
The court may, amongst other remedies, order that the party in breach:
For instance, where a party commences proceedings prior to supplying important information to the other party (s) then the Court might disallow interest for the period prior to the information being provided.
In addition, the protocol might provide grounds to show a party had or had not behaved so unreasonably as to merit penalty under another Rule (for instance CPR 44.3).
Where no protocol has been published Paragraph 4 states that parties should conform to CPR 1 and the Overriding Objective.
It also sets out what would normally be considered reasonable behaviour prior to issue.
Where a case has been commenced prior to the protocol coming into force, but after publication the protocol is not binding. However, the degree to which a party has attempted to follow it anyway might be persuasive.
Section 2 of the CPA requires that the CPR are made by a committee called the Civil Procedure Rule Committee. Members of the committee consist of:
The Lord Chancellor 's appointments are made in consultation with the Lord Chief Justice and all authorised bodies which have members who are eligible for appointment.
Rules must be approved by at least eight members of the Committee, and submitted to the Lord Chancellor who may allow or disallow them. Where he decides to disallow, he must express his reasons for doing so in writing.
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this resident of san antonio was a famous knife fighter | James Bowie - wikipedia
James "Jim '' Bowie (pronounced / ˈbuːiː / BOO - ee) (c. 1796 -- March 6, 1836) was a 19th - century American pioneer, who played a prominent role in the Texas Revolution, culminating in his death at the Battle of the Alamo. Stories of him as a fighter and frontiersman, both real and fictitious, have made him a legendary figure in Texas history and a folk hero of American culture.
Born in Kentucky, Bowie spent most of his life in Louisiana, where he was raised and where he later worked as a land speculator. His rise to fame began in 1827 on reports of the Sandbar Fight. What began as a duel between two other men deteriorated into a melée in which Bowie, having been shot and stabbed, killed the sheriff of Rapides Parish with a large knife. This, and other stories of Bowie 's prowess with a knife, led to the widespread popularity of the Bowie knife.
Bowie 's reputation was cemented by his role in the Texas Revolution. After moving to Texas in 1830, Bowie became a Mexican citizen and married Ursula Veramendi, the daughter of the Mexican vice governor of the province. His fame in Texas grew following his failed expedition to find the lost San Saba mine, during which his small party repelled an attack by a large Indian raiding party. At the outbreak of the Texas Revolution, Bowie joined the Texas militia, leading forces at the Battle of Concepción and the Grass Fight. In January 1836, he arrived at the Alamo, where he commanded the volunteer forces until an illness left him bedridden. Bowie died with the other Alamo defenders on March 6. Despite conflicting accounts of the manner of his death, the "most popular, and probably the most accurate '' accounts maintain that he died in his bed after emptying his pistols into several Mexican soldiers.
According to his older brother John, James Bowie was born in Logan County, Kentucky, on March 10, 1796 (Historical marker: 36 ° 46 ' 25 "N 86 ° 42 ' 10 '' W). Historian Raymond Thorp gave his birth date as April 10, but Thorp did not provide any documentation for that date. Bowie 's surname was pronounced to rhyme with the French "Louis '' (/ ˈbuːiː / BOO - ee). (Although some works refer to the alternate pronunciation / ˈboʊ. i / BO - ee.)
Bowie was the ninth of ten children born to Reason (or Rezin) and Elve Ap - Catesby Jones (or Johns) Bowie. His father had been wounded while fighting in the American Revolutionary War, and in 1782 married the young woman who had nursed him back to health. The Bowies first settled in Georgia and then moved to Kentucky. At the time of Bowie 's birth, his father owned eight slaves, eleven head of cattle, seven horses, and one stud horse. The following year the family acquired 200 acres (80 ha) along the Red River. They sold that property in 1800 and relocated to what is now Missouri, before moving to Spanish Louisiana in 1802, where they settled on Bushley Bayou in what soon became Rapides Parish.
The family moved again in 1809, settling on Bayou Teche in Louisiana before finding a permanent home in Opelousas in 1812. The Bowie children were raised on the frontier and even as small children were expected to help clear the land and plant crops. All the children learned to read and write in English, but James and his elder brother Rezin could also read, write, and speak Spanish and French fluently. The children learned to survive on the frontier and how to fish and run a farm and plantation. James Bowie became proficient with pistol, rifle, and knife, and had a reputation for fearlessness. When he was a boy, one of his Indian friends even taught him to rope alligators.
In response to Andrew Jackson 's plea for volunteers to fight the British in the War of 1812, James and Rezin enlisted in the Louisiana militia in late 1814. The Bowie brothers arrived in New Orleans too late to participate in the fighting. After mustering out of the militia, Bowie settled in Rapides Parish, where he supported himself by sawing planks and lumber and floating them down the bayou for sale. In June 1819, he joined the Long Expedition, an effort to liberate Texas from Spanish rule. The group encountered little resistance and, after capturing Nacogdoches, declared Texas an independent republic. The extent of Bowie 's participation is unclear, but he returned to Louisiana before the invasion was repelled by Spanish troops.
Shortly before the senior Bowie died circa 1820, he gave ten slaves as well as horses and cattle to both James and Rezin. For the next seven years, the brothers worked together to develop several large estates in Lafourche Parish and Opelousas. Louisiana 's population was growing rapidly, and the brothers hoped to take advantage of its rising land prices through speculation. Without the capital required to buy large tracts, they entered into a partnership with pirate Jean Lafitte in 1818 to raise money. By then, the United States had outlawed the importation of slaves, and most southern states allowed anyone who informed on a slave trader to receive half of what the imported slaves would earn at auction as a reward. Bowie made three trips to Lafitte 's compound on Galveston Island. On each occasion, he bought smuggled slaves and took them directly to a customhouse to inform on his own actions. When the customs officers offered the slaves for auction, Bowie purchased them and received back half the price he had paid, as allowed by the state laws. He then could legally transport the slaves and resell them at a greater market value in New Orleans or areas farther up the Mississippi River. Using this scheme, the brothers collected $65,000 to be used for their land speculation.
In 1825, the two brothers joined with their younger brother Stephen to buy Acadia Plantation near Thibodaux. Within two years, they had established the first steam mill in Louisiana to be used for grinding sugar cane. The plantation became known as a model estate, but on February 12, 1831, they sold it and 65 slaves for $90,000. With their profits, James and Rezin bought a plantation in Arkansas.
Bowie and his brother John were involved in a major court case in the late 1820s over land speculation. When the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory in 1803, it promised to honor all former land grant claims, and for the next 20 years efforts were made to establish who owned what land. In May 1824, Congress authorized the superior courts of each territory to hear suits from those who claimed they had been overlooked. The Arkansas Superior Court received 126 claims in late 1827 from residents who claimed to have purchased land in former Spanish grants from the Bowie brothers. Although the Superior Court originally confirmed most of those claims, the decisions were reversed in February 1831 after further research showed that the land had never belonged to the Bowies and that the original land grant documentation had been forged. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the reversal in 1833. When the disgruntled purchasers considered suing the Bowies, they discovered that the documents in the case had been removed from the court; left without evidence, they declined to pursue a case.
Bowie became internationally famous as a result of a feud with Norris Wright, the sheriff of Rapides Parish. Bowie had supported Wright 's opponent in the race for sheriff, and Wright, a bank director, had been instrumental in turning down a Bowie loan application. After a confrontation in Alexandria one afternoon, Wright fired a shot at Bowie, after which Bowie resolved to carry his hunting knife at all times. The knife he carried had a blade that was 9.25 inches (23.5 cm) long and 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) wide.
The following year, on September 19, 1827, Bowie and Wright attended a duel on a sandbar outside of Natchez, Mississippi. Bowie supported duellist Samuel Levi Wells III, while Wright supported Wells 's opponent, Dr. Thomas Harris Maddox. The duellists each fired two shots and, as neither man had been injured, resolved their duel with a handshake. Other members of the groups, who had various reasons for disliking each other, began fighting. Bowie was shot in the hip; after regaining his feet he drew a knife, described as a butcher knife, and charged his attacker, who hit Bowie over the head with his empty pistol, breaking the pistol and knocking Bowie to the ground. Wright shot at and missed the prone Bowie, who returned fire and possibly hit Wright. Wright then drew his sword cane and impaled Bowie. When Wright attempted to retrieve his blade by placing his foot on Bowie 's chest and tugging, Bowie pulled him down and disemboweled Wright with his large knife. Wright died instantly, and Bowie, with Wright 's sword still protruding from his chest, was shot again and stabbed by another member of the group. The doctors who had been present for the duel removed the bullets and patched Bowie 's other wounds.
Newspapers picked up the story, which became known as the Sandbar Fight, and described in detail Bowie 's fighting prowess and his unusual knife. Witness accounts agreed that Bowie did not attack first, and the others had focused their attack on Bowie because "they considered him the most dangerous man among their opposition. '' The incident cemented Bowie 's reputation across the South as a superb knife fighter.
There is disagreement among scholars as to whether the knife used in this fight was the same as what is now known as a Bowie knife, also called an Arkansas Toothpick. Multiple accounts exist of who designed and built the first Bowie knife. Some claim that Bowie designed it, while others attribute the design to noted knife makers of the time. In a letter to The Planter 's Advocate, Rezin Bowie claimed to have invented the knife, however, and many Bowie family members as well as "most authorities on the Bowie knife tend to believe it was invented by '' Rezin. Rezin Bowie 's grandchildren, however, claimed that Rezin merely supervised his blacksmith, who was the creator of the knife.
After the Sandbar Fight and subsequent battles in which Bowie used his knife to defend himself, the Bowie knife became very popular. Many craftsmen and manufacturers made their own versions, and major cities of the Old Southwest had "Bowie knife schools '' that taught "the art of cut, thrust, and parry. '' His fame, and that of his knife, spread to England, and by the early 1830s many British manufacturers were producing Bowie knives for shipment to the United States. The design of the knife continued to evolve, but today a Bowie knife generally is considered to have a blade 8.25 inches (21.0 cm) long and 1.25 inches (3.2 cm) wide, with a curved point, a "sharp false edge cut from both sides '', and a cross-guard to protect the user 's hands.
In 1828, after recovering from wounds suffered in the Sandbar Fight, Bowie decided to move to Coahuila y Texas, at that time a state in the Mexican federation. The 1824 Constitution of Mexico banned religions other than Roman Catholicism and gave preference to Mexican citizens in receiving land. Bowie was baptized into the Roman Catholic faith in San Antonio on April 28, 1828, sponsored by the alcalde (chief administrator) of the town, Juan Martín de Veramendi, and the wife of the administrator, Josefa Navarro. For the next 18 months, Bowie traveled through Louisiana and Mississippi. In 1829, he became engaged to Cecilia Wells, who died in Alexandria, on September 29, two weeks before they were to be married.
On January 1, 1830, Bowie left Louisiana for permanent residency in Texas. He stopped at Nacogdoches, at Jared E. Groce 's farm on the Brazos River, and in San Felipe, where Bowie presented a letter of introduction to Stephen F. Austin from Thomas F. McKinney, one of the Old Three Hundred colonists. On February 20, Bowie took an oath of allegiance to Mexico and then proceeded to San Antonio de Bexar. At the time, the city was known as Bexar and had a population of 2500, mostly of Mexican descent, and Bowie 's fluency in Spanish helped him establish himself in the area. Bowie was elected a commander, with the rank of colonel, of the Texas Rangers later that year. Although the Rangers would not be organized officially until 1835, Stephen F. Austin had founded the group by employing 30 men to keep the peace and protect the colonists from attacks by hostile Indians. Other areas assembled similar volunteer militias, and Bowie commanded a group of the volunteers.
Bowie renounced his American citizenship and became a Mexican citizen on September 30, 1830, after promising to establish textile mills in the state of Coahuila y Tejas. To fulfill his promise, Bowie entered into partnership with Veramendi to build cotton and wool mills in Saltillo. With his citizenship assured, Bowie now had the right to buy up to 11 leagues of public land. He convinced 14 or 15 other citizens to apply for land in order to turn it over to him, giving him 700,000 acres (280,000 ha) for speculation. Bowie may have been the first to induce settlers to apply for empresario grants, which could then be sold in bulk to speculators as Bowie had. The Mexican government passed laws in 1834 and 1835 that stopped much of the land speculation.
On April 25, 1831, Bowie married nineteen - year - old Maria Ursula de Veramendi, the daughter of his business partner, who had become the vice governor of the province. Several days before the ceremony, he signed a dowry contract promising to pay his new bride 15,000 pesos (approximately $15,000 then, or $337,000 today) in cash or property within two years of the marriage. At the time, Bowie claimed to have a net worth of $223,000 ($5,020,000 today), mostly in land of questionable title. Bowie also lied about his age, claiming to be 30 rather than 35. The couple built a house in San Antonio on land Veramendi had given them near the San José Mission. After a short time, however, they moved into the Veramendi Palace, living with Ursula 's parents, who supplied them with spending money. The couple had two children, Marie Elve (b. March 20, 1832) and James Veramendi (b. July 18, 1833).
Maria Ursula, her parents, and both children died in September 1833 from cholera.
Shortly after his marriage Bowie became fascinated with the story of the "lost '' Los Almagres Mine (also known as the lost San Saba Mine and the lost Bowie Mine), said to be northwest of San Antonio near the ruin of the Spanish Mission Santa Cruz de San Saba. According to legend, the mine had been operated by local Indians before being seized by the Spanish. After Mexico won independence from Spain, government interest in the mining potential waned. A number of native groups roamed the area, including Comanche, Lipan Apache, Tawakoni, and Tonkawa. Without government troops to keep hostile natives at bay, mining and mineral exploration were impossible. Some believed that after the Mexican citizens left the area, the Lipan took over the mine.
After obtaining permission from the Mexican government to mount an expedition into Indian territory to search for the legendary silver mine, Bowie, his brother Rezin, and ten others set out for San Saba on November 2, 1831. Six miles (10 km) from their goal, the group stopped to negotiate with a large raiding party of Indians -- reportedly more than 120 Tawakoni and Waco, plus another 40 Caddo. The attempts at parley failed and Bowie and his group fought for their lives for the next 13 hours. When the Indians finally retreated, Bowie reportedly had lost only one man, while more than 40 Indians had been killed and 30 were wounded. In the meantime, a party of friendly Comanche rode into San Antonio bringing word of the raiding party, which outnumbered the Bowie expedition by 14 to 1. The citizens of San Antonio believed the members of the Bowie expedition must have perished, and Ursula Bowie began wearing widow 's weeds.
To the surprise of the town, the surviving members of the group returned to San Antonio on December 6. Bowie 's report of the expedition, written in Spanish, was printed in several newspapers, further establishing his reputation. He set out again with a larger force the following month, but returned home empty - handed after two and a half months of searching.
Bowie never talked of his exploits despite his increasing fame. Captain William Y. Lacey, who spent eight months living in the wilderness with Bowie, described him as a humble man who never used profanity or vulgarities.
Between 1830 and 1832 the Mexican Congress passed a series of laws that seemed to discriminate against Anglo colonists in the province of Coahuila y Tejas, increasing tension between the Anglo citizenry and Mexican officials. In response to the rumblings, Mexican troops established military posts in several locations within the province, including San Antonio de Béxar. Although much of the military supported the administration of President Anastasio Bustamante, Antonio López de Santa Anna led an insurrection against him in 1832. Anglo colonists in Texas supported Santa Anna and General José Antonio Mexía, who led soldiers into Texas to oust commanders loyal to Bustamante.
After hearing that the Mexican army commander in Nacogdoches, José de las Piedras, had demanded that all residents in his area surrender their arms, Bowie cut short a visit to Natchez in July 1832 to return to Texas. On August 2, 1832, he joined a group of other Texans and marched into Nacogdoches to "present their demands '' to Piedras. Before the group reached the building housing the town officials, they were attacked by a force of 100 Mexican cavalry. The Texans returned fire and the Battle of Nacogdoches began. After the cavalry retreated, they initiated a siege of the garrison. After a second battle, in which Piedras lost 33 men, the Mexican army evacuated during the night. Bowie and 18 companions ambushed the fleeing army and, after Piedras fled, marched the soldiers back to Nacogdoches. Bowie later served as a delegate to the Convention of 1833, which formally requested that Texas become its own state within the Mexican federation.
Several months later, a cholera epidemic struck Texas. Fearing the disease would reach San Antonio, Bowie sent his pregnant wife and their daughter to the family estate in Monclova in the company of her parents and brother. The cholera epidemic instead struck Monclova, and between September 6 and September 14, Ursula, their children, her brother, and her parents all died of the disease. Bowie, on business in Natchez, heard of his family 's deaths in November. From then on, he drank heavily and became "careless in his dress. ''
The following year, the Mexican government passed new laws allowing land sale in Texas, and Bowie returned to land speculation. He was appointed a land commissioner and tasked with promoting settlement in the area purchased by John T. Mason. His appointment ended in May 1835 when President Antonio López de Santa Anna abolished the Coahuila y Tejas government and ordered the arrest of all Texans (including Bowie) doing business in Monclova. Bowie was forced to flee Monclova and return to the Anglo areas of Texas.
The Anglos in Texas began agitating for war against Santa Anna, and Bowie worked with William B. Travis, the leader of the War Party, to gain support. Bowie visited several Indian villages in East Texas in an attempt to persuade the reluctant tribes to fight against the Mexican government. Santa Anna responded to the rumblings by ordering large numbers of Mexican troops to Texas.
The Texas Revolution began on October 2, 1835, with the Battle of Gonzales. Stephen F. Austin formed an army of 500 men to march on the Mexican forces in San Antonio with the cannon that had precipitated the fight. The name "Texian Army '' sometimes is applied to this militia. On October 22, Austin asked Bowie, now a colonel in the volunteer militia, and James W. Fannin to scout the area around the missions of San Francisco de la Espada and San José y San Miguel de Aguayo to find supplies for the volunteer forces. The scouting party left with 92 men, many of them members of the New Orleans Grays who had just arrived in Texas. After discovering a good defensive position near Mission Concepción, the group requested that Austin 's army join them.
On the foggy morning of October 28, Mexican General Domingo Ugartechea led a force of 300 infantry and cavalry soldiers and two small cannons against the Texian forces. Although the Mexican army was able to get within 200 yards (183 m), the Texian defensive position protected them from fire. As the Mexicans stopped to reload their cannon, the Texians climbed a bluff and picked off some of the soldiers. The stalemate ended shortly after Bowie led a charge to seize one of the Mexican cannons, at that time only 80 yards (73 m) away. Ugartechea retreated with his troops, ending the Battle of Concepción. One Texian and ten Mexican troops had been killed. One of the men under Bowie 's command during the battle later praised him "as a born leader, never needlessly spending a bullet or imperiling a life, who repeatedly admonished... Keep under cover boys, and reserve your fire; we have n't a man to spare. ''
An hour after the battle ended, Austin arrived with the rest of the Texian army to begin a siege of San Antonio de Béxar, where General Martín Perfecto de Cós, the overall commander of Mexican forces in Texas, and his troops were garrisoned. Two days later, Bowie resigned from Austin 's army because he did not have an official commission in the army, and he disliked the "minor tasks of scouting and spying ''.
On November 3, 1835, Texas declared itself an independent state, and a provisional government was formed with Henry Smith of Brazoria elected provisional governor. Austin requested to be relieved of his command of the army, and Sam Houston was named army chief. Edward Burleson was chosen as temporary commander of the troops in San Antonio. Bowie appeared before the council at some point and spoke for an hour, asking for a commission. The council refused Bowie 's request, likely because of lingering animosity over his land dealings.
Houston offered Bowie a commission as an officer on his staff, but Bowie rejected the opportunity, explaining that he wanted to be in the midst of the fighting. Instead, Bowie enlisted in the army as a private under Fannin. He distinguished himself again in the Grass Fight on November 26. Cós had sent approximately 187 men to cut grass for his horses. As they returned to San Antonio, Bowie took 60 mounted men to intercept the party, which they believed carried valuable cargo. The Mexican troops quickened their pace in the hopes of reaching the safety of the city, but Bowie and his cavalry chased them. At the end of the fight, the Texians had two wounded men, but had captured many horses and mules.
Shortly after Bowie left San Antonio, Ben Milam led an assault on the city. In the ensuing fighting, the Texians suffered only a few casualties, while the Mexican army lost many troops to death and desertion. Cós surrendered and returned to Mexico, taking with him the last Mexican troops in Texas. Believing the war was over, many of the Texian volunteers left the army and returned to their families. In early January 1836, Bowie went to San Felipe and asked the council to allow him to recruit a regiment. He again was turned down as he "was not an officer of the government nor army. ''
After Houston received word that Santa Anna was leading a large force to San Antonio, Bowie offered to lead volunteers to defend the Alamo from the expected attack. He arrived with 30 men on January 19, where they found a force of 104 men with a few weapons and a few cannons, but not many supplies and little gunpowder. Houston knew that there were not enough men to hold the fort in an attack and had given Bowie authority to remove the artillery and blow up the fortification. Bowie and the Alamo commander, James C. Neill, decided they did not have enough oxen to move the artillery, and they did not want to destroy the fortress. On January 26, one of Bowie 's men, James Bonham, organized a rally which passed a resolution in favor of holding the Alamo. Bonham signed the resolution first, with Bowie 's signature second.
Through Bowie 's connections because of his marriage and his fluency in Spanish, the predominantly Mexican population of San Antonio often furnished him with information about the movements of the Mexican army. After learning that Santa Anna had 4,500 troops and was heading for the city, Bowie wrote several letters to the provisional government asking for help in defending the Alamo, especially "men, money, rifles, and cannon powder ''. In another letter, to Governor Smith, he reiterated his view that "the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Béxar out of the hands of the enemy. It serves as the frontier picquet guard, and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna, there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march toward the Sabine. '' The letter to Smith ended, "Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy. ''
On February 3, Davy Crockett appeared with thirty Tennesseans. Neill went on furlough on February 11 to visit his sick family, leaving Travis, a member of the regular army, in command. Bowie was older than Travis with a better reputation and considered himself a colonel, thus outranking Travis, a lieutenant colonel. He refused to answer to Travis, who called an election for the men to choose their own commander. They chose Bowie, infuriating Travis. Bowie celebrated his appointment by getting very drunk and causing havoc in San Antonio, releasing all prisoners in the local jails and harassing citizens. Travis was disgusted, but two days later the men agreed to a joint command; Bowie would command the volunteers, and Travis would command the regular army and the volunteer cavalry.
On February 23, the bells of San Fernando sounded the alarm of the approach of the Mexicans. Travis ordered all the Texan forces into the Alamo. James Bowie hurried to gather provisions and herd cattle into the Alamo compound. Fearing for the safety of his wife 's relatives in San Antonio, Bowie invited her cousins Getrudis Navarro and Juana Navarro Alsbury, as well as Alsbury 's 18 - month - old son, Alijo Perez Jr., to stay inside the walls of the Alamo. Bowie also brought several black servants, some of whom worked at the Veramendi Palace, into the security of the Alamo fortress. Bowie had been ill, and two doctors, including the fort surgeon, were unable to diagnose his illness. Travis became the sole commander of the forces when Bowie was confined to bed. Santa Anna and his army began a siege of the Alamo on February 24. The Mexican army raised a red flag to warn the defenders that no quarter would be given.
Bowie and Travis began sending out couriers with pleas for provisions and assistance. Travis sent Juan Seguin on Bowie 's horse, to recruit reinforcements on February 25, and 32 additional men arrived. On February 26, David Crockett reported that Bowie, though suffering from his affliction, continued to crawl from his bed around noon every day and presented himself to the Alamo 's inhabitants, which much boosted the morale of his comrades. Thirty - five years after the Alamo fell, a reporter identified Louis "Moses '' Rose as the only man to have "deserted '' the Texian forces at the Alamo. According to the reporter 's version of Rose 's account, when Travis realized that the Mexican army would likely prevail, he drew a line in the sand and asked those willing to die for the cause to cross the line. At Bowie 's request Crockett and several others carried the cot over the line, leaving Rose alone on the other side. After its publication, several other eyewitnesses confirmed the account, but as Rose was deceased the story can only be authenticated by the word of the reporter, who admitted to embellishing other articles, "and thus many historians refuse to believe it. ''
Bowie perished with the rest of the Alamo defenders on March 6, when the Mexicans attacked. Most of the noncombatants in the fort, including Bowie 's relatives, survived. Santa Anna ordered the alcalde of San Antonio, Francisco Antonio Ruiz, to confirm the identities of Bowie, Travis, and Crockett. After first ordering that Bowie be buried, as he was too brave a man to be burned like a dog, Santa Anna later had Bowie 's body placed with those of the other Texians on the funeral pyre.
When Bowie 's mother was informed of his death, she calmly stated, "I 'll wager no wounds were found in his back. '' Various eyewitnesses to the battle gave conflicting accounts of Bowie 's death. A newspaper article claimed that a Mexican soldier saw Bowie carried from his room on his cot, alive, after the conclusion of the battle. The soldier maintained that Bowie verbally castigated a Mexican officer in fluent Spanish, and the officer ordered Bowie 's tongue cut out and his still - breathing body thrown onto the funeral pyre. This account has been disputed by numerous other witnesses, and it is thought to have been invented by the reporter. Other witnesses maintained that they saw several Mexican soldiers enter Bowie 's room, bayonet him, and carry him, alive, from the room. Various other stories circulated, with some witnesses claiming that Bowie shot himself and others saying he was killed by soldiers while too weak to lift his head. Alcalde Ruiz said that Bowie was found "dead in his bed. '' According to Wallace O Chariton, The "most popular, and probably the most accurate '' version is that Bowie died on his cot, "back braced against the wall, and using his pistols and his famous knife. '' One year after the battle, Juan Seguin returned to the Alamo and gathered the remaining ashes from the funeral pyre. He placed these in a coffin inscribed with the names of Bowie, Travis, and Crockett. The ashes were interred at the Cathedral of San Fernando.
Despite his continual pronouncements of wealth, Bowie 's estate was found to be very small. His possessions were auctioned for only $99.50. His larger legacy is his position as "one of the legendary characters of the American frontier. '' Bowie left a "frustratingly sparse paper trail '' of his life, and for many "where history failed, the legends prevailed. '' Although Bowie 's name and knife were well known during his lifetime, his legend grew after October 1852, when DeBow 's Review published an article written by his brother John Jones Bowie called, "Early Life in the Southwest -- The Bowies. '' The article focused primarily on the exploits of Jim Bowie. Beginning with that article, "romanticized stories '' about Bowie began appearing in national press. In many cases, "these stories were pure melodrama, with Bowie rescuing some naïve planter 's son or damsel in distress. ''
Jim Bowie was inducted posthumously into the Blade Magazine Cutlery Hall of Fame at the 1988 Blade Show in Atlanta, Georgia, in recognition of the impact that his eponymous design made upon generations of knife makers and cutlery companies.
A number of films have depicted the events of the Battle of the Alamo, and Bowie has appeared as a character in each.
From 1956 to 1958, Bowie was the subject of a CBS television series, The Adventures of Jim Bowie, which was primarily set in 1830s Louisiana, although later episodes ventured into the Mexican province of Texas. The show, which starred Scott Forbes as Jim Bowie, was based on the 1946 novel Tempered Blade.
Rock star David Bowie, who was born David Robert Hayward - Jones, adopted the folk legend 's surname. Jones changed his last name in the 1960s because he feared confusion with Davy Jones, a member of the already famous The Monkees. He chose the Bowie eponym because he admired James Bowie and the Bowie knife, although his pronunciation uses the BO - ee (/ ˈboʊ. i /) variant.
Bowie County in northeast Texas, and the city of Bowie in Montague County, Texas, were both named in honor of James Bowie. James Bowie Elementary in Corsicana, Texas was also named in honor of James.
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pink floyd dark side of the moon songs | The Dark Side of the Moon - wikipedia
The Dark Side of the Moon is the eighth studio album by English rock band Pink Floyd, released on 1 March 1973 by Harvest Records. The album built on ideas explored in earlier recordings and live shows, but lacks the extended instrumental excursions that characterised their earlier work. Its themes explore conflict, greed, the passage of time, and mental illness, the latter partly inspired by the deteriorating mental state of founding member Syd Barrett.
Developed during live performances, an early version of the album was premiered several months before recording began; new material was recorded in two sessions in 1972 and 1973 at Abbey Road Studios in London. The group used some advanced recording techniques at the time, including multitrack recording and tape loops. Analogue synthesizers were prominent in several tracks, and snippets from recorded interviews with Pink Floyd 's road crew and others provided philosophical quotations throughout. Engineer Alan Parsons was responsible for many distinctive sonic aspects and the recruitment of singer Clare Torry. The album 's iconic sleeve was designed by Storm Thorgerson; following keyboardist Richard Wright 's request for a "simple and bold '' design, it depicts a prism spectrum, representing the band 's lighting and the record 's themes.
Upon its release, The Dark Side of the Moon was a commercial and critical success. It topped the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart for a week, and remained on the chart for 741 weeks from 1973 to 1988. Following a change in methodology in 2009, the album re-entered the chart and has since appeared for over 900 weeks. With an estimated 45 million copies sold, it is Pink Floyd 's most successful album and one of the best - selling worldwide. It has been remastered and re-released several times, and covered in its entirety by several acts. It produced two singles -- "Money '' and "Us and Them '' -- and is often regarded as one of the greatest albums of all time.
Following Meddle in 1971, Pink Floyd assembled for a tour of Britain, Japan and the United States in December of that year. In a band meeting at drummer Nick Mason 's home in Camden, bassist Roger Waters proposed that a new album could form part of the tour. Waters ' idea was for an album that dealt with things that "make people mad '', focusing on the pressures faced by the band during their arduous lifestyle, and dealing with the apparent mental problems suffered by former band member Syd Barrett. The band had explored a similar idea with 1969 's The Man and The Journey. In an interview for Rolling Stone, guitarist David Gilmour said: "I think we all thought -- and Roger definitely thought -- that a lot of the lyrics that we had been using were a little too indirect. There was definitely a feeling that the words were going to be very clear and specific. ''
Generally, all four members agreed that Waters ' album concept unified by a single theme was a good idea. Waters, Gilmour, Mason and keyboardist Richard Wright participated in the writing and production of the new material, and Waters created the early demo tracks at his Islington home in a small studio built in his garden shed. Parts of the new album were taken from previously unused material; the opening line of "Breathe '' came from an earlier work by Waters and Ron Geesin, written for the soundtrack of The Body, and the basic structure of "Us and Them '' borrowed from an original composition by Wright for Zabriskie Point. The band rehearsed at a warehouse in London owned by The Rolling Stones, and then at the Rainbow Theatre in Finsbury Park, London. They also purchased extra equipment, which included new speakers, a PA system, a 28 - track mixing desk with a four channel quadraphonic output, and a custom - built lighting rig. Nine tonnes of kit was transported in three lorries; this would be the first time the band had taken an entire album on tour. The album had been given the provisional title of Dark Side of the Moon (an allusion to lunacy, rather than astronomy). However, after discovering that that title had already been used by another band, Medicine Head, it was temporarily changed to Eclipse. The new material premièred at The Dome in Brighton, on 20 January 1972, and after the commercial failure of Medicine Head 's album the title was changed back to the band 's original preference.
Dark Side of the Moon: A Piece for Assorted Lunatics, as it was then known, was performed in the presence of an assembled press on 17 February 1972 -- more than a year before its release -- at the Rainbow Theatre, and was critically acclaimed. Michael Wale of The Times described the piece as "... bringing tears to the eyes. It was so completely understanding and musically questioning. '' Derek Jewell of The Sunday Times wrote "The ambition of the Floyd 's artistic intention is now vast. '' Melody Maker was, however, less enthusiastic: "Musically, there were some great ideas, but the sound effects often left me wondering if I was in a bird - cage at London zoo. '' However, the following tour was praised by the public. The new material was performed in the same order in which it was eventually recorded; differences included the lack of synthesizers in tracks such as "On the Run '', and Bible readings later replaced by Clare Torry 's vocals on "The Great Gig in the Sky ''.
Pink Floyd 's lengthy tour through Europe and North America gave them the opportunity to make continual improvements to the scale and quality of their performances. Work on the album was interrupted in late February when the band travelled to France and recorded music for French director Barbet Schroeder 's film La Vallée. They then performed in Japan and returned to France in March to complete work on the film. After a series of dates in North America, the band flew to London to begin recording, from 24 May to 25 June. More concerts in Europe and North America followed before the band returned on 9 January 1973 to complete the album.
The Dark Side of the Moon built upon experiments Pink Floyd had attempted in their previous live shows and recordings, but lacks the extended instrumental excursions which, according to critic David Fricke, had become characteristic of the band after founding member Syd Barrett left in 1968. Gilmour, Barrett 's replacement, later referred to those instrumentals as "that psychedelic noodling stuff '', and with Waters cited 1971 's Meddle as a turning - point towards what would be realised on the album. The Dark Side of the Moon 's lyrical themes include conflict, greed, the passage of time, death, and insanity, the latter inspired in part by Barrett 's deteriorating mental state. The album is notable for its use of musique concrète and conceptual, philosophical lyrics, as found in much of the band 's other work.
Each side of the album is a continuous piece of music. The five tracks on each side reflect various stages of human life, beginning and ending with a heartbeat, exploring the nature of the human experience, and (according to Waters) "empathy ''. "Speak to Me '' and "Breathe '' together stress the mundane and futile elements of life that accompany the ever - present threat of madness, and the importance of living one 's own life -- "Do n't be afraid to care ''. By shifting the scene to an airport, the synthesizer - driven instrumental "On the Run '' evokes the stress and anxiety of modern travel, in particular Wright 's fear of flying. "Time '' examines the manner in which its passage can control one 's life and offers a stark warning to those who remain focused on mundane aspects; it is followed by a retreat into solitude and withdrawal in "Breathe (Reprise) ''. The first side of the album ends with Wright and vocalist Clare Torry 's soulful metaphor for death, "The Great Gig in the Sky ''. Opening with the sound of cash registers and loose change, the first track on side two, "Money '', mocks greed and consumerism using tongue - in - cheek lyrics and cash - related sound effects (ironically, "Money '' has been the most commercially successful track from the album, with several cover versions produced by other bands). "Us and Them '' addresses the isolation of the depressed with the symbolism of conflict and the use of simple dichotomies to describe personal relationships. "Any Colour You Like '' concerns the lack of choice one has in a human society. "Brain Damage '' looks at a mental illness resulting from the elevation of fame and success above the needs of the self; in particular, the line "and if the band you 're in starts playing different tunes '' reflects the mental breakdown of former bandmate Syd Barrett. The album ends with "Eclipse '', which espouses the concepts of alterity and unity, while forcing the listener to recognise the common traits shared by humanity.
The album was recorded at Abbey Road Studios, in two sessions, between May 1972 and January 1973. The band were assigned staff engineer Alan Parsons, who had worked as assistant tape operator on Atom Heart Mother, and who had also gained experience as a recording engineer on the Beatles ' Abbey Road and Let It Be. The recording sessions made use of some of the most advanced studio techniques of the time; the studio was capable of 16 - track mixes, which offered a greater degree of flexibility than the eight - or four - track mixes they had previously used, although the band often used so many tracks that to make more space available second - generation copies were made.
Beginning on 1 June, the first track to be recorded was "Us and Them '', followed six days later by "Money ''. Waters had created effects loops from recordings of various money - related objects, including coins thrown into a food - mixing bowl taken from his wife 's pottery studio, and these were later re-recorded to take advantage of the band 's decision to record a quadraphonic mix of the album (Parsons has since expressed dissatisfaction with the result of this mix, attributed to a lack of time and the paucity of available multi-track tape recorders). "Time '' and "The Great Gig in the Sky '' were the next pieces to be recorded, followed by a two - month break, during which the band spent time with their families and prepared for an upcoming tour of the US. The recording sessions suffered regular interruptions; Waters, a supporter of Arsenal F.C., would often break to see his team compete, and the band would occasionally stop work to watch Monty Python 's Flying Circus on the television, leaving Parsons to work on material recorded up to that point. Gilmour has, however, disputed this claim; in an interview in 2003 he said: "We would sometimes watch them but when we were on a roll, we would get on. ''
Returning from the US in January 1973, they recorded "Brain Damage '', "Eclipse '', "Any Colour You Like '' and "On the Run '', while fine - tuning the work they had already laid down in the previous sessions. A foursome of female vocalists was assembled to sing on "Brain Damage '', "Eclipse '' and "Time '', and saxophonist Dick Parry was booked to play on "Us and Them '' and "Money ''. With director Adrian Maben, the band also filmed studio footage for Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii. Once the recording sessions were complete, the band began a tour of Europe.
The album features metronomic sound effects during "Speak to Me '', and tape loops opening "Money ''. Mason created a rough version of "Speak to Me '' at his home, before completing it in the studio. The track serves as an overture and contains cross-fades of elements from other pieces on the album. A piano chord, replayed backwards, serves to augment the build - up of effects, which are immediately followed by the opening of "Breathe ''. Mason received a rare solo composing credit for "Speak to Me ''.
The sound effects on "Money '' were created by splicing together Waters ' recordings of clinking coins, tearing paper, a ringing cash register, and a clicking adding machine, which were used to create a 7 - beat effects loop (later adapted to four tracks in order to create a "walk around the room '' effect in quadraphonic presentations of the album). At times the degree of sonic experimentation on the album required the engineers and band to operate the mixing console 's faders simultaneously, in order to mix down the intricately assembled multitrack recordings of several of the songs (particularly "On the Run '').
Along with the conventional rock band instrumentation, Pink Floyd added prominent synthesizers to their sound. For example, the band experimented with an EMS VCS 3 on "Brain Damage '' and "Any Colour You Like '', and a Synthi A on "Time '' and "On the Run ''. They also devised and recorded unconventional sounds, such as an assistant engineer running around the studio 's echo chamber (during "On the Run ''), and a specially treated bass drum made to simulate a human heartbeat (during "Speak to Me '', "On the Run '', "Time '' and "Eclipse ''). This heartbeat is most prominent as the intro and the outro to the album, but it can also be heard sporadically on "Time '' and "On the Run ''. "Time '' features assorted clocks ticking, then chiming simultaneously at the start of the song, accompanied by a series of Rototoms. The recordings were initially created as a quadraphonic test by Parsons, who recorded each timepiece at an antique clock shop. Although these recordings had not been created specifically for the album, elements of this material were eventually used in the track.
Several tracks, including "Us and Them '' and "Time '', demonstrated Richard Wright 's and David Gilmour 's ability to harmonise their voices. In the 2003 Classic Albums documentary The Making of The Dark Side of the Moon, Waters attributed this to the fact that their voices sounded extremely similar. To take advantage of this, Parsons utilised studio techniques such as the double tracking of vocals and guitars, which allowed Gilmour to harmonise with himself. The engineer also made prominent use of flanging and phase shifting effects on vocals and instruments, odd trickery with reverb, and the panning of sounds between channels (most notable in the quadraphonic mix of "On the Run '', when the sound of the Hammond B3 organ played through a Leslie speaker rapidly swirls around the listener).
The album 's credits include Clare Torry, a session singer and songwriter, and a regular at Abbey Road. She had worked on pop material and numerous cover albums, and after hearing one of those albums Parsons invited her to the studio to sing on Wright 's composition "The Great Gig in the Sky ''. She declined this invitation as she wanted to watch Chuck Berry perform at the Hammersmith Odeon, but arranged to come in on the following Sunday. The band explained the concept behind the album, but were unable to tell her exactly what she should do. Gilmour was in charge of the session, and in a few short takes on a Sunday night Torry improvised a wordless melody to accompany Wright 's emotive piano solo. She was initially embarrassed by her exuberance in the recording booth, and wanted to apologise to the band -- only to find them delighted with her performance. Her takes were then selectively edited to produce the version used on the track. For her contribution she was paid £ 30, equivalent to about £ 360 in 2018, but in 2004 she sued EMI and Pink Floyd for songwriting royalties, arguing that her contribution to "The Great Gig in the Sky '' was substantial enough to be considered co-authorship. The High Court agreed with her, but the terms of the settlement were not disclosed. All post-2005 pressings therefore credit Wright and Torry jointly for the song.
Snippets of voices between and over the music are another notable feature of the album. During recording sessions, Waters recruited both the staff and the temporary occupants of the studio to answer a series of questions printed on flashcards. The interviewees were placed in front of a microphone in a darkened Studio 3, and shown such questions as "What 's your favourite colour? '' and "What 's your favourite food? '', before moving on to themes more central to the album (such as madness, violence, and death). Questions such as "When was the last time you were violent? '', followed immediately by "Were you in the right? '', were answered in the order they were presented. Roger "The Hat '' Manifold proved difficult to find, and was the only contributor recorded in a conventional sit - down interview, as by then the flashcards had been mislaid. Waters asked him about a violent encounter he had had with another motorist, and Manifold replied "... give ' em a quick, short, sharp shock... '' When asked about death he responded "live for today, gone tomorrow, that 's me... '' Another roadie, Chris Adamson, who was on tour with Pink Floyd, recorded the snippet which opens the album: "I 've been mad for fucking years -- absolutely years ''. The band 's road manager Peter Watts (father of actress Naomi Watts) contributed the repeated laughter during "Brain Damage '' and "Speak to Me ''. His second wife, Patricia "Puddie '' Watts (now Patricia Gleason), was responsible for the line about the "geezer '' who was "cruisin ' for a bruisin ' '' used in the segue between "Money '' and "Us and Them '', and the words "I never said I was frightened of dying '' heard halfway through "The Great Gig in the Sky ''.
Perhaps the most notable responses "I am not frightened of dying. Any time will do: I do n't mind. Why should I be frightened of dying? There 's no reason for it -- you 've got to go sometime '' and closing words "there is no dark side in the moon, really. As a matter of fact it 's all dark '' came from the studios ' Irish doorman, Gerry O'Driscoll. Paul and Linda McCartney were also interviewed, but their answers were judged to be "trying too hard to be funny '', and were not included on the album. McCartney 's Wings bandmate Henry McCullough contributed the line "I do n't know, I was really drunk at the time ''.
Following the completion of the dialogue sessions, producer Chris Thomas was hired to provide "a fresh pair of ears ''. Thomas 's background was in music, rather than engineering. He had worked with Beatles producer George Martin, and was acquainted with Pink Floyd 's manager Steve O'Rourke. All four members of the band were engaged in a disagreement over the style of the mix, with Waters and Mason preferring a "dry '' and "clean '' mix which made more use of the non-musical elements, and Gilmour and Wright preferring a subtler and more "echoey '' mix. Thomas later claimed there were no such disagreements, stating "There was no difference in opinion between them, I do n't remember Roger once saying that he wanted less echo. In fact, there were never any hints that they were later going to fall out. It was a very creative atmosphere. A lot of fun. '' Although the truth remains unclear, Thomas 's intervention resulted in a welcome compromise between Waters and Gilmour, leaving both entirely satisfied with the end product. Thomas was responsible for significant changes to the album, including the perfect timing of the echo used on "Us and Them ''. He was also present for the recording of "The Great Gig in the Sky '' (although Parsons was responsible for hiring Torry). Interviewed in 2006, when asked if he felt his goals had been accomplished in the studio, Waters said:
When the record was finished I took a reel - to - reel copy home with me and I remember playing it for my wife then, and I remember her bursting into tears when it was finished. And I thought, "This has obviously struck a chord somewhere '', and I was kinda pleased by that. You know when you 've done something, certainly if you create a piece of music, you then hear it with fresh ears when you play it for somebody else. And at that point I thought to myself, "Wow, this is a pretty complete piece of work '', and I had every confidence that people would respond to it.
-- Richard Wright
The album was originally released in a gatefold LP sleeve designed by Hipgnosis and George Hardie. Hipgnosis had designed several of the band 's previous albums, with controversial results; EMI had reacted with confusion when faced with the cover designs for Atom Heart Mother and Obscured by Clouds, as they had expected to see traditional designs which included lettering and words. Designers Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell were able to ignore such criticism as they were employed by the band. For The Dark Side of the Moon, Richard Wright instructed them to come up with something "smarter, neater -- more classy ''. The design was inspired by a photograph of a prism with a colour beam projected through it that Thorgerson had found in a photography book.
The artwork was created by their associate, George Hardie. Hipgnosis offered the band a choice of seven designs, but all four members agreed that the prism was by far the best. The final design depicts a glass prism dispersing light into colour. The design represents three elements: the band 's stage lighting, the album lyrics, and Wright 's request for a "simple and bold '' design. The spectrum of light continues through to the gatefold -- an idea that Waters came up with. Added shortly afterwards, the gatefold design also includes a visual representation of the heartbeat sound used throughout the album, and the back of the album cover contains Thorgerson 's suggestion of another prism recombining the spectrum of light, facilitating interesting layouts of the sleeve in record shops. The light band emanating from the prism on the album cover has six colours, missing indigo compared to the traditional division of the spectrum into red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Inside the sleeve were two posters and two pyramid - themed stickers. One poster bore pictures of the band in concert, overlaid with scattered letters to form PINK FLOYD, and the other an infrared photograph of the Great Pyramids of Giza, created by Powell and Thorgerson.
The band were so confident of the quality of Waters ' lyrics that, for the first time, they printed them on the album 's sleeve.
As the quadraphonic mix of the album was not then complete, the band (with the exception of Wright) boycotted the press reception held at the London Planetarium on 27 February. The guests were, instead, presented with a quartet of life - sized cardboard cut - outs of the band, and the stereo mix of the album was presented through a poor - quality public address system. Generally, however, the press were enthusiastic; Melody Maker 's Roy Hollingworth described side one as "so utterly confused with itself it was difficult to follow '', but praised side two, writing: "The songs, the sounds, the rhythms were solid and sound, Saxophone hit the air, the band rocked and rolled, and then gushed and tripped away into the night. '' Steve Peacock of Sounds wrote: "I do n't care if you 've never heard a note of the Pink Floyd 's music in your life, I 'd unreservedly recommend everyone to The Dark Side of the Moon ''. In his 1973 review for Rolling Stone magazine, Loyd Grossman declared Dark Side "a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites, but demands involvement ''. In his 1981 review of the album, Robert Christgau found its lyrical ideas clichéd and its music pretentious, but called it a "kitsch masterpiece '' that can be charming with highlights such as taped speech fragments, Parry 's saxophone, and studio effects which enhance Gilmour 's guitar solos.
The Dark Side of the Moon was released first in the US on 1 March 1973, and then in the UK on 16 March. It became an instant chart success in Britain and throughout Western Europe; by the following month, it had gained a gold certification in the US. Throughout March 1973 the band played the album as part of their US tour, including a midnight performance at Radio City Music Hall in New York City on 17 March before an audience of 6,000. The album reached the Billboard Top LP 's & Tape chart 's number one spot on 28 April 1973, and was so successful that the band returned two months later for another tour.
Much of the album 's early American success is attributed to the efforts of Pink Floyd 's US record company, Capitol Records. Newly appointed chairman Bhaskar Menon set about trying to reverse the relatively poor sales of the band 's 1971 studio album Meddle. Meanwhile, disenchanted with Capitol, the band and manager O'Rourke had been quietly negotiating a new contract with CBS president Clive Davis, on Columbia Records. The Dark Side of the Moon was the last album that Pink Floyd were obliged to release before formally signing a new contract. Menon 's enthusiasm for the new album was such that he began a huge promotional advertising campaign, which included radio - friendly truncated versions of "Us and Them '' and "Time ''. In some countries -- notably the UK -- Pink Floyd had not released a single since 1968 's "Point Me at the Sky '', and unusually "Money '' was released as a single on 7 May, with "Any Colour You Like '' on the B - side. It reached number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 in July 1973. A two - sided white label promotional version of the single, with mono and stereo mixes, was sent to radio stations. The mono side had the word "bullshit '' removed from the song -- leaving "bull '' in its place -- however, the stereo side retained the uncensored version. This was subsequently withdrawn; the replacement was sent to radio stations with a note advising disc jockeys to dispose of the first uncensored copy. On 4 February 1974, a double A-side single was released with "Time '' on one side, and "Us and Them '' on the opposite side. Menon 's efforts to secure a contract renewal with Pink Floyd were in vain however; at the beginning of 1974, the band signed for Columbia with a reported advance fee of $1 M (in Britain and Europe they continued to be represented by Harvest Records).
The Dark Side of the Moon became one of the best - selling albums of all time and is in the top 25 of a list of best - selling albums in the United States. Although it held the number one spot in the US for only a week, it remained in the Billboard album chart for 741 weeks from 1973 to 1988. The album re-appeared on the Billboard charts with the introduction of the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart in May 1991, and has been a perennial feature since then. In the UK, it is the seventh - best - selling album of all time and the highest selling album never to reach number one.
-- Nick Mason
In the US the LP was released before the introduction of platinum awards in 1976. It therefore held only a gold disc until 16 February 1990, when it was certified 11 × platinum. On 4 June 1998 the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album 15 × platinum, denoting sales of fifteen million in the United States -- making it their biggest - selling work there (The Wall is 23 × platinum, but as a double album this signifies sales of 11.5 million). "Money '' has sold well as a single, and as with "Time '', remains a radio favourite; in the US, for the year ending 20 April 2005, "Time '' was played on 13,723 occasions, and "Money '' on 13,731 occasions. Industry sources suggest that worldwide sales of the album total about 45 million. "On a slow week '' between 8,000 and 9,000 copies are sold, and a total of 400,000 were sold in 2002, making it the 200th - best - selling album of that year -- nearly three decades after its initial release. The album has sold 9,502,000 copies in the US since 1991 when Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales for Billboard. To this day, it occupies a prominent spot on Billboard 's Pop Catalog Chart. It reached number one when the 2003 hybrid CD / SACD edition was released and sold 800,000 copies in the US. On the week of 5 May 2006 The Dark Side of the Moon achieved a combined total of 1,716 weeks on the Billboard 200 and Pop Catalog charts. One in every fourteen people in the US under the age of 50 is estimated to own, or to have owned, a copy. Upon a change in methodology in 2009 allowing catalogue titles to be included in the Billboard 200, The Dark Side of the Moon returned to the chart at number 189 on 12 December of that year for its 742nd charting week. It has continued to sporadically appear on the Billboard 200 since then, with the total at 937 weeks on the chart as of January 2018.
"The combination of words and music hit a peak, '' explained Gilmour. "All the music before had not had any great lyrical point to it. And this one was clear and concise. The cover was also right. I think it 's become like a benevolent noose hanging behind us. Throughout our entire career, people have said we would never top the Dark Side record and tour. But The Wall earned more in dollar terms. ''
In 1979, The Dark Side of the Moon was released as a remastered LP by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab, and in April 1988 on their "Ultradisc '' gold CD format. The album was released by EMI on the then - new compact disc format in 1984, and in 1992 it was re-released as a remastered CD in the box set Shine On. This version was re-released as a 20th anniversary box set edition with postcards the following year. The cover design was again by Storm Thorgerson, the designer of the original 1973 cover. On some pressings, a faintly audible orchestral version of the Beatles ' "Ticket to Ride '' can be heard after "Eclipse '' over the album 's closing heartbeats.
The original quadraphonic mix, created by Alan Parsons, was commissioned by EMI but never endorsed by Pink Floyd, as Parsons was disappointed with his mix. To celebrate the album 's 30th anniversary, an updated surround version was released in 2003. The band elected not to use Parsons ' quadraphonic mix (done shortly after the original release), and instead had engineer James Guthrie create a new 5.1 channel surround sound mix on the SACD format. Guthrie had worked with Pink Floyd since co-producing and engineering their eleventh album, The Wall, and had previously worked on surround versions of The Wall for DVD - Video and Waters ' In the Flesh for SACD. Speaking in 2003, Alan Parsons expressed some disappointment with Guthrie 's SACD mix, suggesting that Guthrie was "possibly a little too true to the original mix '', but was generally complimentary. The 30th - anniversary edition won four Surround Music Awards in 2003, and has since sold more than 800,000 copies. The cover image was created by a team of designers including Storm Thorgerson. The image is a photograph of a custom - made stained glass window, built to match the exact dimensions and proportions of the original prism design. Transparent glass, held in place by strips of lead, was used in place of the opaque colours of the original. The idea is derived from the "sense of purity in the sound quality, being 5.1 surround sound... '' The image was created out of a desire to be "the same but different, such that the design was clearly DSotM, still the recognisable prism design, but was different and hence new ''.
The Dark Side of the Moon was also re-released in 2003 on 180 - gram virgin vinyl (mastered by Kevin Gray at AcousTech Mastering) and included slightly different versions of the original posters and stickers that came with the original vinyl release, along with a new 30th anniversary poster. In 2007 the album was included in Oh, by the Way, a box set celebrating the 40th anniversary of Pink Floyd, and a DRM - free version was released on the iTunes Store. In 2011 the album was re-released as part of the Why Pink Floyd...? campaign, featuring a remastered version of the album along with various other material.
-- Richard Wright
The success of the album brought wealth to all four members of the band; Richard Wright and Roger Waters bought large country houses, and Nick Mason became a collector of upmarket cars. Some of the profits were invested in the production of Monty Python and the Holy Grail. Engineer Alan Parsons received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Engineered Recording, Non-Classical for The Dark Side of the Moon, and he went on to have a successful career as a recording artist with the Alan Parsons Project. Although Waters and Gilmour have on occasion downplayed his contribution to the success of the album, Mason has praised his role. In 2003, Parsons reflected: "I think they all felt that I managed to hang the rest of my career on Dark Side of the Moon, which has an element of truth to it. But I still wake up occasionally, frustrated about the fact that they made untold millions and a lot of the people involved in the record did n't. ''
Part of the legacy of The Dark Side of the Moon is in its influence on modern music, the musicians who have performed cover versions of its songs, and even in modern urban myths. Its release is often seen as a pivotal point in the history of rock music, and comparisons are sometimes drawn between Pink Floyd and Radiohead -- specifically their 1997 album OK Computer -- which has been called The Dark Side of the Moon of the 1990s, owing to the fact that both albums share themes relating to the loss of a creative individual 's ability to function in the modern world.
The Dark Side of the Moon has frequently appeared on rankings of the greatest albums of all - time. In 1987, Rolling Stone listed the record 35th on its "Top 100 Albums of the Last 20 Years '', and sixteen years later, in 2003 the album polled in 43rd position on the magazine 's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time ''. and was voted 43rd again on the magazine 's 2012 list. In 2006, it was voted "My Favourite Album '' by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation 's audience. NME readers voted the album eighth in their 2006 "Best Album of All Time '' online poll, and in 2009, Planet Rock listeners voted the album the "greatest of all time ''. The album is also number two on the "Definitive 200 '' list of albums, made by the National Association of Recording Merchandisers "in celebration of the art form of the record album ''. It came 29th in The Observer 's 2006 list of "The 50 Albums That Changed Music '', and 37th in The Guardian 's 1997 list of the "100 Best Albums Ever '', as voted for by a panel of artists and music critics. The album 's cover has been lauded by critics and listeners alike, VH1 proclaiming it the fourth greatest in history, and Planet Rock listeners the greatest of all time. In 2013, The Dark Side of the Moon was selected for preservation in the United States National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress for being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. In 2014, readers of Rhythm voted it the seventh most influential progressive drumming album.
One of the more notable covers of The Dark Side of the Moon is Return to the Dark Side of the Moon: A Tribute to Pink Floyd. Released in 2006, the album is a progressive rock tribute featuring artists such as Adrian Belew, Tommy Shaw, Dweezil Zappa, and Rick Wakeman. In 2000, The Squirrels released The Not So Bright Side of the Moon, which features a cover of the entire album. The New York dub collective Easy Star All - Stars released Dub Side of the Moon in 2003 and Dubber Side of the Moon in 2010. The group Voices on the Dark Side released the album Dark Side of the Moon a Cappella, a complete a cappella version of the album. The bluegrass band Poor Man 's Whiskey frequently play the album in bluegrass style, calling the suite Dark Side of the Moonshine. A string quartet version of the album was released in 2004. In 2009, The Flaming Lips released a track - by - track remake of the album in collaboration with Stardeath and White Dwarfs, and featuring Henry Rollins and Peaches as guest musicians. Industrial metal band Ministry called their seventh studio album Dark Side of the Spoon as a play of word to The Dark Side of the Moon with reference to heroin, as several members of the band suffered from long - term addiction to said substance at the time.
Several notable acts have covered the album live in its entirety, and a range of performers have used samples from The Dark Side of the Moon in their own material. Jam - rock band Phish performed a semi-improvised version of the entire album as part their show on 2 November 1998 in West Valley City, Utah. Progressive metal band Dream Theater have twice covered the album in their live shows, and in May 2011 Mary Fahl released From the Dark Side of the Moon, a song - by - song "re-imagining '' of the album. Milli Vanilli used the tape loops from Pink Floyd 's "Money '' to open their track "Money '', followed by Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch on Music for the People.
Dark Side of the Rainbow and Dark Side of Oz are two names commonly used in reference to rumours (circulated on the Internet since at least 1994) that The Dark Side of the Moon was written as a soundtrack for the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. Observers playing the film and the album simultaneously have reported apparent synchronicities, such as Dorothy beginning to jog at the lyric "no one told you when to run '' during "Time '', and Dorothy balancing on a tightrope fence during the line "balanced on the biggest wave '' in "Breathe ''. David Gilmour and Nick Mason have both denied a connection between the two works, and Roger Waters has described the rumours as "amusing ''. Alan Parsons has stated that the film was not mentioned during production of the album.
All lyrics written by Roger Waters.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Informational notes
Citations
Bibliography
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como se dice tanda de dinero en ingles | Tanda (informal loan club) - wikipedia
A tanda is the Latin American term for an informal rotating savings and credit association (ROSCAS). They are operated globally, but have over 200 different names that vary from country to country. They are also known as cundinas (Mexico), susu / Osusu (West Africa and the Caribbean), hui (Asia), juntas (Peru), cuchubales (El Salvador and Guatemala), pollas (Chile), pandeiros (Brazil), paluwagan (Philippines), Stokvel (South Africa) or quiniela. An English name for such an association is a partnerhand. In short, a tanda is a form of a short - term no - interest loan among friends.
A tanda may be managed in different ways. The way it usually works is a group of people that know each other get together to collect money (either weekly, monthly, yearly) to help each other financially. Participants can come up with any rules as long as they benefit the group. Usually there is an amount of money and number of people in the group that they all agree to in order to have cash right away. When they come to an agreement of who will be in the tanda and how much it will be (either weekly, monthly, yearly), they have to come up with the order of who is going to receive the money. Participants can either raffle the numbers or make the decision in who needs the money most. It all depends on the group 's decisions.
As an example, a tanda is formed between ten friends and family. Each member gives $100 US D every two weeks to the group 's organizer. At the end of the month, one participant gets the "pot '', $2000. This continues until each member has received the pot.
Tandas are formed for many reasons, but often because at least one member is in need of money to pay a debt right away, or an emergency arises. But they can also be formed with no pressing financial obligations.
Among Mexicans, these forms of informal savings associations play an important role sustaining the livelihood of many people living in both Mexico and the United States. Importantly, tandas are significant cultural practices among other Latino and Chicano populations in the U.S. According to cultural anthropologist Carlos Vélez - Ibáñez -- the first scholar to critically examine this cultural practice among Mexicans -- tandas are based on mutual trust, or confianza. As Vélez - Ibáñez explains, confianza "shapes the expectations for relationships within broad networks of interpersonal links, in which intimacies, favors, goods, services, emotion, power, or information are exchanged ''.
While tandas may play important economic roles in the lives of people, they also serve important social and emotional functions in the everyday lives of people. According to anthropologist Lourdes Gutierrez Najera, tandas are common among Oaxacan migrants.
For women, in particular, tandas facilitate social networks and makes them feel less isolated living in Los Angeles. As the women she quotes jokingly suggest, "the only reason women participate in tandas is for the gossip, otherwise it does n't make sense. '' Consequently, participating in tanda gatherings make the separation from their hometown, Yalalag, more tolerable. Importantly, they also help migrants save money.
The younger generations created companies that modernized Tandas with online platforms. A lot of these platforms solves the problems that are generated by the traditional Tanda, like Transparency, Organization, localization & money collection and distribution methods. One of these companies is Moneyfellows and many more, they provide online solutions for collecting cash, they make it global and it is completely transparent.
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the trade philosophy of india as put forward in the twelfth five year plan emphasizes on | 12th Five - year Plan (India) - Wikipedia
12th Five Year Plan of the Government of India (2012 -- 17) was India 's last Five Year Plan.
With the deteriorating global situation, the Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission Mr Montek Singh Ahluwalia has said that achieving an average growth rate of 9 per cent in the next five years is not possible. The final growth target has been set at 9 % by the endorsement of plan at the National Development Council (NDC) meeting held in New Delhi.
"It is not possible to think of an average of 9 per cent (in 12th Plan). I think somewhere between 8 and 8.5 per cent is feasible '', Mr Ahluwalia said on the sidelines of a conference of State Planning Boards and departments. The approached paper for the 12th Plan, approved last year, talked about an annual average growth rate of 9 per cent.
"When I say feasible... that will require major effort. If you do n't do that, there is no God given right to grow at 8 per cent. I think given that the world economy deteriorated very sharply over the last year... the growth rate in the first year of the 12th Plan (2012 - 13) is 6.5 to 7 per cent. ''
He also indicated that soon he would share his views with other members of the Commission to choose a final number (economic growth target) to put before the country 's NDC for its approval.
Though the 12th Plan has taken off, it is yet to be formally approved. The Planning Commission set a deadline of September for taking the approval of the NDC. The council is expected to meet after July, subject to the convenience of the Prime Minister. It is mainly focused on health. The status of the 12th Plan is in question due to the dissolution of the Planning Commission.
The government intends to reduce poverty by 10 per cent during the 12th Five - Year Plan. Mr Ahluwalia said, "We aim to reduce poverty estimates by 2 per cent annually on a sustainable basis during the Plan period ''.
According to the Tendulkar methodology, the percentage of population below the poverty line was 29.8 per cent at the end of 2009 - 10. This number includes 33.8 per cent in the rural areas and 20.9 per cent in the urban areas.
Earlier, addressing a conference of State Planning Boards and Planning departments, he said the rate of decline in poverty doubled during the 11th Plan. The commission had said, while using the Tendulkar poverty line, the rate of reduction in the five years between 2004 -- 05 and 2009 -- 10, was about 1.5 percentage points each year, which was twice that when compared to the period between 1993 - 95 to 2004 - 05.
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the general term for all of the bones in the head is | Skull - wikipedia
The skull is a bony structure that forms the head in vertebrates. It supports the structures of the face and provides a protective cavity for the brain. The skull is composed of two parts: the cranium and the mandible. In the human these two parts are the neurocranium and the viscerocranium or facial skeleton that includes the mandible as its largest bone. The skull forms the anterior most portion of the skeleton and is a product of cephalisation -- housing the brain, and several sensory structures such as the eyes, ears, nose, and mouth. In humans these sensory structures are part of the facial skeleton.
Functions of the skull include protection of the brain, fixing the distance between the eyes to allow stereoscopic vision, and fixing the position of the ears to enable sound localisation of the direction and distance of sounds. In some animals such as horned ungulates, the skull also has a defensive function by providing the mount (on the frontal bone) for the horns.
The English word "skull '' is probably derived from Old Norse "skulle '', while the Latin word cranium comes from the Greek root κρανίον (kranion).
The skull is made up of a number of fused flat bones, and contains many foramina, fossae, processes, and several cavities or sinuses. In zoology there are openings in the skull called fenestrae.
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The human skull is the bony structure that forms the head in the human skeleton. It supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain. Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.
The skull consists of two parts, of different embryological origin -- the neurocranium and the facial skeleton (also called the membraneous viscerocranium). The neurocranium (or braincase) forms the protective cranial cavity that surrounds and houses the brain and brainstem. The upper areas of the cranial bones form the calvaria (skullcap). The neurocranium includes the mandible.
The facial skeleton is formed by the bones supporting the face.
Except for the mandible, all of the bones of the skull are joined together by sutures -- synarthrodial (immovable) joints formed by bony ossification, with Sharpey 's fibres permitting some flexibility. Sometimes there can be extra bone pieces within the suture known as wormian bones or sutural boneseg. Lambda bone.
The human skull is generally considered to consist of twenty - two bones -- eight cranial bones and fourteen facial skeleton bones. In the neurocranium these are the occipital bone, two temporal bones, two parietal bones, the sphenoid, ethmoid and frontal bones.
The bones of the facial skeleton (14) are the vomer, two nasal conchae, two nasal bones, two maxilla, the mandible, two palatine bones, two zygomatic bones, and two lacrimal bones. Some sources count a paired bone as one, or the maxilla as having two bones (as its parts); some sources include the hyoid bone or the three ossicles of the middle ear but the overall general consensus of the number of bones in the human skull is the stated twenty - two.
Some of these bones -- the occipital, parietal, frontal, in the neurocranium, and the nasal, lacrimal, and vomer, in the facial skeleton are flat bones.
The skull also contains sinus cavities and numerous foramina. The sinuses are lined with respiratory epithelium. Their known functions are the lessening of the weight of the skull, the aiding of resonance to the voice and the warming and moistening of the air drawn through the nasal cavity.
The foramina are openings in the skull. The largest of these is the foramen magnum that allows the passage of the spinal cord as well as nerves and blood vessels.
The many processes of the skull include the mastoid process and the zygomatic process.
The skull is a complex structure; its bones are formed both by intramembranous and endochondral ossification. The skull roof bones, comprising the bones of the facial skeleton and the sides and roof of the neurocranium, are dermal bones formed by intramembranous ossification, though the temporal bones are formed by endochondral ossification. The endocranium, the bones supporting the brain (the occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid) are largely formed by endochondral ossification. Thus frontal and parietal bones are purely membranous. The geometry of the skull base and its fossae, the anterior, middle and posterior cranial fossae changes rapidly. The anterior cranial fossa changes especially during the first trimester of pregnancy and skull defects can often develop during this time.
At birth, the human skull is made up of 44 separate bony elements. During development, many of these bony elements gradually fuse together into solid bone (for example, the frontal bone). The bones of the roof of the skull are initially separated by regions of dense connective tissue called fontanelles. There are six fontanelles: one anterior (or frontal), one posterior (or occipital), two sphenoid (or anterolateral), and two mastoid (or posterolateral). At birth these regions are fibrous and moveable, necessary for birth and later growth. This growth can put a large amount of tension on the "obstetrical hinge '', which is where the squamous and lateral parts of the occipital bone meet. A possible complication of this tension is rupture of the great cerebral vein. As growth and ossification progress, the connective tissue of the fontanelles is invaded and replaced by bone creating sutures. The five sutures are the two squamous sutures, one coronal, one lambdoid, and one sagittal suture. The posterior fontanelle usually closes by eight weeks, but the anterior fontanel can remain open up to eighteen months. The anterior fontanelle is located at the junction of the frontal and parietal bones; it is a "soft spot '' on a baby 's forehead. Careful observation will show that you can count a baby 's heart rate by observing the pulse pulsing softly through the anterior fontanelle.
The skull in the neonate is large in proportion to other parts of the body. The facial skeleton is one seventh of the size of the calvaria. (In the adult it is half the size). The base of the skull is short and narrow, though the inner ear is almost adult size.
Craniosynostosis is a condition in which one or more of the fibrous sutures in an infant skull prematurely fuses, and changes the growth pattern of the skull. Because the skull can not expand perpendicular to the fused suture, it grows more in the parallel direction. Sometimes the resulting growth pattern provides the necessary space for the growing brain, but results in an abnormal head shape and abnormal facial features. In cases in which the compensation does not effectively provide enough space for the growing brain, craniosynostosis results in increased intracranial pressure leading possibly to visual impairment, sleeping impairment, eating difficulties, or an impairment of mental development.
A copper beaten skull is a phenomenon wherein intense intracranial pressure disfigures the internal surface of the skull. The name comes from the fact that the inner skull has the appearance of having been beaten with a ball - peen hammer, such as is often used by coppersmiths. The condition is most common in children.
Injuries to the brain can be life - threatening. Normally the skull protects the brain from damage through its hard unyieldingness; the skull is one of the least deformable structures found in nature with it needing the force of about 1 ton to reduce the diameter of the skull by 1 cm. In some cases, however, of head injury, there can be raised intracranial pressure through mechanisms such as a subdural haematoma. In these cases the raised intracranial pressure can cause herniation of the brain out of the foramen magnum ("coning '') because there is no space for the brain to expand; this can result in significant brain damage or death unless an urgent operation is performed to relieve the pressure. This is why patients with concussion must be watched extremely carefully.
Dating back to Neolithic times, a skull operation called trepanning was sometimes performed. This involved drilling a burr hole in the cranium. Examination of skulls from this period reveals that the patients sometimes survived for many years afterward. It seems likely that trepanning was also performed purely for ritualistic or religious reasons. Nowadays this procedure is still used but is normally called a craniectomy.
In March 2013, for the first time in the U.S., researchers replaced a large percentage of a patient 's skull with a precision, 3D - printed polymer implant. About 9 months later the first complete cranium replacement with a 3D - printed plastic insert was performed on a Dutch woman. She had been suffering from hyperostosis, which increased the thickness of her skull and compressed her brain.
Surgical alteration of sexually dimorphic skull features may be carried out as a part of facial feminization surgery, a set of reconstructive surgical procedures that can alter male facial features to bring them closer in shape and size to typical female facial features. These procedures can be an important part of the treatment of transgender people for gender dysphoria.
Artificial cranial deformation is a largely historical practice of some cultures. Cords and wooden boards would be used to apply pressure to an infant 's skull and alter its shape, sometimes quite significantly. This procedure would begin just after birth and would be carried on for several years.
Like the face, the skull and teeth can also indicate a person 's life history and origin. Forensic scientists and archaeologists use metric and nonmetric traits to estimate what the bearer of the skull looked like. When a significant amount of bones are found, such as at Spitalfields in the UK and Jōmon shell mounds in Japan, osteologists can use traits, such as the proportions of length, height and width, to know the relationships of the population of the study with other living or extinct populations.
The German physician Franz Joseph Gall in around 1800 formulated the theory of phrenology, which attempted to show that specific features of the skull are associated with certain personality traits or intellectual capabilities of its owner. His theory is now considered to be pseudoscientific.
In the mid-nineteenth century, anthropologists found it crucial to distinguish between male and female skulls. An anthropologist of the time, James McGrigor Allan, argued that the female brain was similar to that of an animal. This allowed anthropologists to declare that women were in fact more emotional and less rational than men. McGrigor then concluded that women 's brains were more analogous to infants, thus deeming them inferior at the time. To further these claims of female inferiority and silence the feminists of the time, other anthropologists joined in on the studies of the female skull. These cranial measurements are the basis of what is known as craniology. These cranial measurements were also used to draw a connection between women and black people.
Research has shown that while in early life there is little difference between male and female skulls, in adulthood male skulls tend to be larger and more robust than female skulls, which are lighter and smaller, with a cranial capacity about 10 percent less than that of the male. However, later studies show that women 's skulls are slightly thicker and thus men may be more susceptible to head injury than women.
Male skulls can have more prominent supraorbital ridges, a more prominent glabella, and more prominent temporal lines. Female skulls generally have rounder orbits, and narrower jaws. Male skulls on average have larger, broader palates, squarer orbits, larger mastoid processes, larger sinuses, and larger occipital condyles than those of females. Male mandibles typically have squarer chins and thicker, rougher muscle attachments than female mandibles.
The cephalic index is the ratio of the width of the head, multiplied by 100 and divided by its length (front to back). The index is also used to categorize animals, especially dogs and cats. The width is usually measured just below the parietal eminence, and the length from the glabella to the occipital point.
Humans may be:
The skull of fishes is formed from a series of only loosely connected bones. Lampreys and sharks only possess a cartilaginous endocranium, with both the upper and lower jaws being separate elements. Bony fishes have additional dermal bone, forming a more or less coherent skull roof in lungfish and holost fish. The lower jaw defines a chin.
The simpler structure is found in jawless fish, in which the cranium is normally represented by a trough - like basket of cartilaginous elements only partially enclosing the brain, and associated with the capsules for the inner ears and the single nostril. Distinctively, these fish have no jaws.
Cartilaginous fish, such as sharks and rays, have also simple, and presumably primitive, skull structures. The cranium is a single structure forming a case around the brain, enclosing the lower surface and the sides, but always at least partially open at the top as a large fontanelle. The most anterior part of the cranium includes a forward plate of cartilage, the rostrum, and capsules to enclose the olfactory organs. Behind these are the orbits, and then an additional pair of capsules enclosing the structure of the inner ear. Finally, the skull tapers towards the rear, where the foramen magnum lies immediately above a single condyle, articulating with the first vertebra. There are, in addition, at various points throughout the cranium, smaller foramina for the cranial nerves. The jaws consist of separate hoops of cartilage, almost always distinct from the cranium proper.
In ray - finned fishes, there has also been considerable modification from the primitive pattern. The roof of the skull is generally well formed, and although the exact relationship of its bones to those of tetrapods is unclear, they are usually given similar names for convenience. Other elements of the skull, however, may be reduced; there is little cheek region behind the enlarged orbits, and little, if any bone in between them. The upper jaw is often formed largely from the premaxilla, with the maxilla itself located further back, and an additional bone, the symplectic, linking the jaw to the rest of the cranium.
Although the skulls of fossil lobe - finned fish resemble those of the early tetrapods, the same can not be said of those of the living lungfishes. The skull roof is not fully formed, and consists of multiple, somewhat irregularly shaped bones with no direct relationship to those of tetrapods. The upper jaw is formed from the pterygoids and vomers alone, all of which bear teeth. Much of the skull is formed from cartilage, and its overall structure is reduced.
The skulls of the earliest tetrapods closely resembled those of their ancestors amongst the lobe - finned fishes. The skull roof is formed of a series of plate - like bones, including the maxilla, frontals, parietals, and lacrimals, among others. It is overlaying the endocranium, corresponding to the cartilaginous skull in sharks and rays. The various separate bones that compose the temporal bone of humans are also part of the skull roof series. A further plate composed of four pairs of bones forms the roof of the mouth; these include the vomer and palatine bones. The base of the cranium is formed from a ring of bones surrounding the foramen magnum and a median bone lying further forward; these are homologous with the occipital bone and parts of the sphenoid in mammals. Finally, the lower jaw is composed of multiple bones, only the most anterior of which (the dentary) is homologous with the mammalian mandible.
In living tetrapods, a great many of the original bones have either disappeared or fused into one another in various arrangements.
Birds have a diapsid skull, as in reptiles, with a pre-lacrymal fossa (present in some reptiles). The skull has a single occipital condyle. The skull consists of five major bones: the frontal (top of head), parietal (back of head), premaxillary and nasal (top beak), and the mandible (bottom beak). The skull of a normal bird usually weighs about 1 % of the bird 's total bodyweight. The eye occupies a considerable amount of the skull and is surrounded by a sclerotic eye - ring, a ring of tiny bones. This characteristic is also seen in reptiles.
Living amphibians typically have greatly reduced skulls, with many of the bones either absent or wholly or partly replaced by cartilage. In mammals and birds, in particular, modifications of the skull occurred to allow for the expansion of the brain. The fusion between the various bones is especially notable in birds, in which the individual structures may be difficult to identify.
The fenestrae (from Latin, meaning windows) are openings in the skull.
The temporal fenestrae are anatomical features of the skulls of several types of amniotes, characterised by bilaterally symmetrical holes (fenestrae) in the temporal bone. Depending on the lineage of a given animal, two, one, or no pairs of temporal fenestrae may be present, above or below the postorbital and squamosal bones. The upper temporal fenestrae are also known as the supratemporal fenestrae, and the lower temporal fenestrae are also known as the infratemporal fenestrae. The presence and morphology of the temporal fenestra are critical for taxonomic classification of the synapsids, of which mammals are part.
Physiological speculation associates it with a rise in metabolic rates and an increase in jaw musculature. The earlier amniotes of the Carboniferous did not have temporal fenestrae but two more advanced lines did: the synapsids (mammal - like reptiles) and the diapsids (most reptiles and later birds). As time progressed, diapsids ' and synapsids ' temporal fenestrae became more modified and larger to make stronger bites and more jaw muscles. Dinosaurs, which are diapsids, have large advanced openings, and their descendants, the birds, have temporal fenestrae which have been modified. Mammals, which are synapsids, possess one fenestral opening in the skull, situated to the rear of the orbit.
There are four types of amniote skull, classified by the number and location of their temporal fenestrae. These are:
Evolutionarily, they are related as follows:
The jugal is a skull bone found in most reptiles, amphibians, and birds. In mammals, the jugal is often called the zygomatic bone or malar bone.
The prefrontal bone is a bone separating the lacrimal and frontal bones in many tetrapod skulls.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 128 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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where does chris live in everybody hates chris | Everybody Hates Chris - wikipedia
Everybody Hates Chris is an American period sitcom that is based on the troubled teenage experiences of comedian Chris Rock during the 1980s. The show is set between 1982 and 1987, although Rock himself was a teenager between 1978 and 1984, being born in 1965. The show 's title parodies the hit CBS sitcom Everybody Loves Raymond.
In 2008, The CW moved Everybody Hates Chris and The Game to the Friday night death slot. The fourth season of the series premiered Friday, October 3, 2008, at 8: 00PM Eastern / 7: 00PM Central. On May 21, 2009, The CW announced that it had cancelled Everybody Hates Chris. Prior to this, Rock announced that the end of season 4 matched up with his own past, dropping out of high school to become a comedian, and that it was time to end the show.
Everybody Hates Chris received critical acclaim. The American Film Institute selected Everybody Hates Chris as one of the best 10 television series of 2007, stating that the show "provides a very real look at growing up in America -- a challenge that demands a discussion of race and class often absent from television today. '' Everybody Hates Chris was named one of the Best School Shows of All Time by AOL TV. Common Sense Media 's Marjorie Kase and Shanel Walker & Emily Kofoed gave the show 4 stars, and said it was "a prime example of how to take serious issues and approach them in a humorous yet thought - provoking way. The series is innovative, funny, and stereotype - defying -- enjoyable for teens and their parents. ''
UPN
The CW
MTV, MTV2 & TV One
As of 2014 MTV has stopped airing Everybody Hates Chris. The show airs on MTV 2 at random times during the day and week.
Fuse
As of 2015, Fuse airs the show at random times during the day and week.
The show airs regularly on broadcast TV during the week. The show was launched on September 7, 2009 on Nick at Nite, becoming the youngest syndicated show on the channel, beating George Lopez. The series has since expanded from Nick at Nite, and has joined sister network TeenNick, with the first run from July 18, 2011 to August 15, 2011. The show was then replaced by Zoey 101.
The show also aired on YTV in Canada, and now airs on Much in that country. MTV2 also aired episodes of the show, usually in the early morning hours. It aired on TV One until 2016. Now, the series reruns on Up and Fuse. In 2017, VH1 started airing reruns every morning.
Everybody Hates Chris won a NAACP Image Award for its writing in 2007. It has also been nominated for many Golden Globe and Emmy Awards. In December 2008, Entertainment Weekly lists the Kwanzaa episode from this show as seventh on the magazine 's "Must List: 10 Holiday Things We Love. ''
Boldface type indicates a win.
Everybody Hates Chris has been released on Region 1 and Region 2, also available on the iTunes Store.
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song california dreaming by the mamas and the papas | California Dreamin ' - wikipedia
"California Dreamin ' '' is a song written by John Phillips and Michelle Phillips and was first recorded by Barry McGuire. However, the best - known version is by the Mamas & the Papas, who sang backup on the original version and released it as a single in 1965. The song is No. 89 in Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The lyrics of the song express the narrator 's longing for the warmth of Los Angeles during a cold winter in New York City.
The song became a signpost of the California Myth and the arrival of the nascent counterculture era.
"California Dreamin ' '' was certified as a Gold Record (single) by the Recording Industry Association of America in June 1966 and was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2001.
The song was written in 1963 while John Phillips and Michelle Phillips were living in New York City. He dreamed about the song and woke her up to help him write it. At the time, John and Michelle Phillips were members of the folk group the New Journeymen, which evolved into the Mamas & the Papas.
They earned their first record contract after being introduced to Lou Adler, the head of Dunhill Records, by Barry McGuire. In thanks to Adler, they sang the backing vocals to "California Dreamin ' '' with members of the session band The Wrecking Crew on McGuire 's album This Precious Time. The Mamas & the Papas then recorded their own version using the same instrumental and backing vocal tracks to which they added new vocals and an alto flute solo by Bud Shank, which was thought to be the inspiration for the main theme of Andrew Lloyd Webber 's tune for "Memory ''. P.F. Sloan performed the guitar introduction. McGuire 's original vocal can be briefly heard on the left channel at the beginning of the record, having not been completely erased.
The single was released in late 1965 but was not an immediate breakthrough. After gaining little attention in Los Angeles upon its release, Michelle Phillips remembers that it took a radio station in Boston to break the song nationwide. After making its chart debut in January 1966, the song peaked at number 4 in March on both the Billboard Hot 100, lasting 17 weeks, and Cashbox, lasting 20 weeks. "California Dreamin ' '' was the number 1 single of 1966 in Billboard and tied for number 1 with "Ballad of the Green Berets '' in Cashbox. "California Dreamin ' '' also reached number 23 on the UK charts upon its original release and re-charted after its use in a Carling Premier commercial in 1997, peaking at number 9 there.
In the spring of 1979 the band America reached No. 56 on the Billboard Hot 100 with their remake of "California Dreamin ' '' which was the first studio recording by America as the duo of Gerry Beckley and Dewey Bunnell without third founding member Dan Peek who had departed the group in 1977. Bunnell -- who sang lead -- and Beckley -- who sang background -- self - produced the track which featured America 's touring musicians: David Dickey, drummer Willie Leacox, guitarist Michael Woods, percussionist Tom Walsh, and Jim Calire who played keyboards and also saxophone.
America had performed "California Dreamin ' '' at least on occasion in concert as early as 1974, "California Dreamin ' '' being a sentimental favorite of the band 's members having been a setlist staple of the cover band in which all three had performed while London Central High School students in the late 1960s. The recording of "California Dreamin ' '' by America was specifically made for the soundtrack of the American International Pictures (AIP) movie release California Dreaming which had been shot in the final months of 1977: Beckley and Bunnell agreed to record the song after being (at least partially) shown the movie -- (Gerry Beckley quote:) "We liked what we saw '' -- and the track was recorded in the 1978 sessions for the movie 's soundtrack at Studio 55 (Hollywood): (Gerry Beckley quote:) "We did it more as a rock thing (compared to the original), (with) a full sound but reliant on the harmonies. ''
Although the movie California Dreaming had a projected summer 1978 release date, the release of the film -- which featured America 's "California Dreamin ' '' under its closing credits -- would be postponed until 16 March 1979: factoring into the movie 's release was the agreement made by AIP in February 1978 for the California Dreaming soundtrack to be distributed by Casablanca Records which company had recently managed to bolster the modest success of the film Thank God It 's Friday through a hit soundtrack album and the recording of "California Dreamin ' '' by America was given parallel release with the movie, another soundtrack item: "See It My Way '' by session group F.D.R., serving as B - side. Both the America single and (in April 1978) the soundtrack album were issued by AIP on its own label (distributed by Casablanca): outside the US and Canada, Casablanca acted as label of release.
By the spring of 1979 America were involved in sessions for their Capitol Records debut album Silent Letter and were either unable or uninterested in promoting their version of "California Dreamin ' '' which single proved unable to buoy its parent film 's faltering box office take. However the publicity inherent in the film 's release was evidently enough to afford minor hit status to America 's soundtrack item (heard in the film 's trailer, America 's "California Dreamin ' '' was also cited in the movie 's poster), and despite its lowly chart peak America 's "California Dreamin ' '' remake would be more successful than any of their first five Capitol single releases none of which ranked in the Hot 100 (the band 's sixth Capitol single release: "You Can Do Magic '', would in 1982 afford the band a sole latterday Top Ten hit).
"California Dreamin ' '' continued to be featured in America 's live gigs eventually being established as a mandatory America concert title. A live performance of the song by America is featured on In Concert the band 's 1996 album release of a 1982 live gig. The band 's 1978 recording has been included on the 2000 America retrospective box set Highway: 30 Years Of America also being featured in 2001 on The Complete Greatest Hits.
The Beach Boys recorded a second version of "California Dreamin ' '' in 1986 for their greatest hits compilation Made in U.S.A.. It was produced by Terry Melcher and featured Roger McGuinn from The Byrds on 12 - string guitar. Denny Doherty was on the East coast and declined; Cass Elliot had died in 1974. This version of the song was referenced in the lyrics of the Dead Milkmen 's 1988 novelty hit "Punk Rock Girl ''.
Although the song only charted at a modest number 57 on the Billboard Hot 100, it reached No. 8 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary. and it was supported by a music video that saw heavy rotation on MTV. The video featured the Beach Boys along with John Phillips, Michelle Phillips and Roger McGuinn.
Credits sourced from Craig Slowinski and Andrew G. Doe.
The Beach Boys
unknown -- bass, drums, acoustic lead guitar, saxophone, synthesizer
A tropical house version by German DJ / remixer Freischwimmer was released in 2015. This version reached number one on the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart in its February 13, 2016 issue. "Dreamin '' had never before hit No. 1 on any ranking, making this version the first in its nearly 50 - year history to reach the top spot on a Billboard chart.
Bobby Womack recorded a version of the song for his debut album Fly Me to the Moon in 1968. Released as a single, it reached number 43 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 20 on the Billboard Rhythn & Blues Singles chart.
In 1978, a disco version proved popular in European clubs for the Italian project Colorado, reaching 45 on the British charts, and house cover versions have been released by DJ Sammy and Royal Gigolos.
The Liverpool folk quartet River City People recorded a version of "California Dreamin ' '' as a double A-sided single with "Carry the Blame '' in 1990, reaching number 13 on the official UK top 40 singles chart, with the single also charting in Ireland (number 16).
Sia recorded the song for the disaster film San Andreas. The song came out in May 2015 and was featured in the movie 's trailers. The song reached the top 20 in Lebanon, peaking at No. 14 and becoming a big airplay gainer there, position no. 92 on the UK Singles Chart, No. 44 on the Scottish Singles Chart, No. 87 on the chart SNEP Singles Chart.
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what technique csp does for cloud storage security | Cloud computing security - wikipedia
Cloud computing security or, more simply, cloud security refers to a broad set of policies, technologies, and controls deployed to protect data, applications, and the associated infrastructure of cloud computing. It is a sub-domain of computer security, network security, and, more broadly, information security.
Cloud computing and storage provides users with capabilities to store and process their data in third - party data centers. Organizations use the cloud in a variety of different service models (with acronyms such as SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS) and deployment models (private, public, hybrid, and community). Security concerns associated with cloud computing fall into two broad categories: security issues faced by cloud providers (organizations providing software -, platform -, or infrastructure - as - a-service via the cloud) and security issues faced by their customers (companies or organizations who host applications or store data on the cloud). The responsibility is shared, however. The provider must ensure that their infrastructure is secure and that their clients ' data and applications are protected, while the user must take measures to fortify their application and use strong passwords and authentication measures.
When an organization elects to store data or host applications on the public cloud, it loses its ability to have physical access to the servers hosting its information. As a result, potentially sensitive data is at risk from insider attacks. According to a recent Cloud Security Alliance report, insider attacks are the sixth biggest threat in cloud computing. Therefore, cloud service providers must ensure that thorough background checks are conducted for employees who have physical access to the servers in the data center. Additionally, data centers must be frequently monitored for suspicious activity.
In order to conserve resources, cut costs, and maintain efficiency, cloud service providers often store more than one customer 's data on the same server. As a result, there is a chance that one user 's private data can be viewed by other users (possibly even competitors). To handle such sensitive situations, cloud service providers should ensure proper data isolation and logical storage segregation.
The extensive use of virtualization in implementing cloud infrastructure brings unique security concerns for customers or tenants of a public cloud service. Virtualization alters the relationship between the OS and underlying hardware -- be it computing, storage or even networking. This introduces an additional layer -- virtualization -- that itself must be properly configured, managed and secured. Specific concerns include the potential to compromise the virtualization software, or "hypervisor ''. While these concerns are largely theoretical, they do exist. For example, a breach in the administrator workstation with the management software of the virtualization software can cause the whole datacenter to go down or be reconfigured to an attacker 's liking.
Cloud security architecture is effective only if the correct defensive implementations are in place. An efficient cloud security architecture should recognize the issues that will arise with security management. The security management addresses these issues with security controls. These controls are put in place to safeguard any weaknesses in the system and reduce the effect of an attack. While there are many types of controls behind a cloud security architecture, they can usually be found in one of the following categories:
It is generally recommended that information security controls be selected and implemented according and in proportion to the risks, typically by assessing the threats, vulnerabilities and impacts. Cloud security concerns can be grouped in various ways; Gartner named seven while the Cloud Security Alliance identified fourteen areas of concern. Cloud access security brokers (CASBs) are software that sits between cloud service users and cloud applications to monitor all activity and enforce security policies.
A number of security threats are associated with cloud data services: not only traditional security threats, such as network eavesdropping, illegal invasion, and denial of service attacks, but also specific cloud computing threats, such as side channel attacks, virtualization vulnerabilities, and abuse of cloud services. The following security requirements limit the threats.
Data confidentiality is the property that data contents are not made available or disclosed to illegal users. Outsourced data is stored in a cloud and out of the owners ' direct control. Only authorized users can access the sensitive data while others, including CSPs, should not gain any information of the data. Meanwhile, data owners expect to fully utilize cloud data services, e.g., data search, data computation, and data sharing, without the leakage of the data contents to CSPs or other adversaries.
Access controllability means that a data owner can perform the selective restriction of access to her or his data outsourced to cloud. Legal users can be authorized by the owner to access the data, while others can not access it without permissions. Further, it is desirable to enforce fine - grained access control to the outsourced data, i.e., different users should be granted different access privileges with regard to different data pieces. The access authorization must be controlled only by the owner in untrusted cloud environments.
Data integrity demands maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of data. A data owner always expects that her or his data in a cloud can be stored correctly and trustworthily. It means that the data should not be illegally tampered, improperly modified, deliberately deleted, or maliciously fabricated. If any undesirable operations corrupt or delete the data, the owner should be able to detect the corruption or loss. Further, when a portion of the outsourced data is corrupted or lost, it can still be retrieved by the data users.
Some advanced encryption algorithms which have been applied into cloud computing increase the protection of privacy. In a practice called crypto - shredding, the keys can simply be deleted when there is no more use of the data.
Attribute - based encryption is a type of public - key encryption in which the secret key of a user and the ciphertext are dependent upon attributes (e.g. the country in which he lives, or the kind of subscription he has). In such a system, the decryption of a ciphertext is possible only if the set of attributes of the user key matches the attributes of the ciphertext.
In the CP - ABE, the encryptor controls access strategy, as the strategy gets more complex, the design of system public key becomes more complex, and the security of the system is proved to be more difficult. The main research work of CP - ABE is focused on the design of the access structure.
In the KP - ABE, attribute sets are used to explain the encrypted texts and the private keys with the specified encrypted texts that users will have the left to decrypt.
Fully homomorphic encryption allows straightforward computations on encrypted information, and also allows computing sum and product for the encrypted data without decryption.
Searchable encryption is cryptographic primitives which offer secure search functions over encrypted data. In order to improve search efficiency, SE generally builds keyword indexes to securely perform user queries. SE schemes can be classified into two categories: SE based on secret - key cryptography and SE based on public - key cryptography.
Numerous laws and regulations pertain to the storage and use of data. In the US these include privacy or data protection laws, Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS), the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), the Sarbanes - Oxley Act, the Federal Information Security Management Act of 2002 (FISMA), and Children 's Online Privacy Protection Act of 1998, among others.
Similar laws may apply in different legal jurisdictions and may differ quite markedly from those enforced in the US. Cloud service users may often need to be aware of the legal and regulatory differences between the jurisdictions. For example, data stored by a cloud service provider may be located in, say, Singapore and mirrored in the US.
Many of these regulations mandate particular controls (such as strong access controls and audit trails) and require regular reporting. Cloud customers must ensure that their cloud providers adequately fulfil such requirements as appropriate, enabling them to comply with their obligations since, to a large extent, they remain accountable.
Aside from the security and compliance issues enumerated above, cloud providers and their customers will negotiate terms around liability (stipulating how incidents involving data loss or compromise will be resolved, for example), intellectual property, and end - of - service (when data and applications are ultimately returned to the customer). In addition, there are considerations for acquiring data from the cloud that may be involved in litigation. These issues are discussed in service - level agreements (SLA).
Legal issues may also include records - keeping requirements in the public sector, where many agencies are required by law to retain and make available electronic records in a specific fashion. This may be determined by legislation, or law may require agencies to conform to the rules and practices set by a records - keeping agency. Public agencies using cloud computing and storage must take these concerns into account.
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why are us and uk fl oz different | Fluid ounce - wikipedia
A fluid ounce (abbreviated fl oz, fl. oz. or oz. fl., old forms ℥, fl ℥, f ℥, ƒ ℥) is a unit of volume (also called capacity) typically used for measuring liquids. Various definitions have been used throughout history, but only two are still in common use: the British Imperial and the United States customary fluid ounce. An imperial fluid ounce is ⁄ of an imperial pint, ⁄ of an imperial gallon or approximately 28.4 ml. A US fluid ounce is ⁄ of a US fluid pint and ⁄ of a US liquid gallon or approximately 29.57 ml, making it about 4 % larger than the imperial fluid ounce.
The fluid ounce is distinct from the ounce as a unit of weight or mass, although it is sometimes referred to simply as an "ounce '' where context makes the meaning clear, such as ounces in a bottle.
The fluid ounce was originally the volume occupied by one ounce of some substance, such as wine (in England) or water (in Scotland). The ounce in question varied depending on the system of fluid measure, such as that used for wine versus ale. Various ounces were used over the centuries, including the Tower ounce, troy ounce, avoirdupois ounce, and various ounces used in international trade, such as Paris troy. The situation is further complicated by the medieval practice of "allowances '', whereby a unit of measure was not necessarily equal to the sum of its parts. For example, the 364 - pound woolsack (165 kg) had a 14 - pound allowance (6.4 kg) for the weight of the sack and other packaging materials.
In 1824, the British Parliament defined the imperial gallon as the volume of ten pounds of water at standard temperature. The gallon was divided into four quarts, the quart into two pints, the pint into four gills, and the gill into five ounces. Thus, there were 160 imperial fluid ounces to the gallon making the mass of a fluid ounce of water approximately one avoirdupois ounce (28.4 g). This relationship is still approximately valid even though the imperial gallon 's definition was later revised to be 4.54609 litres, making the imperial fluid ounce exactly 28.4130625 ml.
The US fluid ounce is based on the US gallon, which is based on the wine gallon of 231 cubic inches that was used in England prior to 1824. With the adoption of the international inch, the US fluid ounce became 29.5735295625 ml exactly, or about 4 % larger than the imperial unit.
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when does the next episode of star wars rebels come out | List of Star Wars Rebels Episodes - wikipedia
Star Wars Rebels is an American 3D CGI animated television series produced by Lucasfilm and Lucasfilm Animation. Beginning fourteen years after Revenge of the Sith and five years before A New Hope, Rebels takes place during an era when the Galactic Empire is securing its grip on the galaxy. Imperial forces are hunting down the last of the Jedi Knights while a fledgling rebellion against the Empire is taking form.
The series was previewed throughout August 2014 with a set of shorts introducing the main characters before the television film pilot episode premiered on Disney Channel on October 3, 2014. The regular series premiered on Disney XD on October 13, 2014. The second season started on June 20, 2015, and the third season premiered on September 24, 2016. As of November 6, 2017, 68 episodes of Star Wars Rebels have aired. The two - part season three finale aired on March 25, 2017. On March 31, it was announced that the show would return for a fourth season. On April 15, executive producer Dave Filoni announced that the fourth season would also be the final season. On September 2, 2017, a second trailer for season four was released during a panel at Fan Expo in Canada, and the date for the season 's premiere was announced as October 16, 2017.
On a salvage mission to an old Clone Wars battlefield led by Captain Rex, the Ghost crew is captured by a unit of old battle droids. Their commander, a Super Tactical Droid, managed to avoid the armywide shutdown command and wants to pit his forces against Rex and the Jedi in order to conclude whether the Separatist or Republic forces are superior once and for all. As Rex, Ezra, and Kanan battle the droids, Chopper manages to sneak away and send a distress signal to Hera and Sabine. However, the Empire also receives the distress call and dispatches an assault force. Rex and the Jedi manage to reach the Super Tactical Droid, and Ezra points out to him that neither the Republic nor the Separatists won the Clone Wars, but were in fact both defeated by the Empire. Ezra also notes that since the Separatists were originally fighting to resist tyranny, the battle droids should naturally oppose the Empire. The Super Tactical Droid sees the logic in Ezra 's words, and the Ghost crew and the droids work together to escape the Imperial assault force in a pair of old shuttles. Calculating that the Rebellion has less than 1 % chance of succeeding against the Empire, the Super Tactical Droid amicably parts ways with the Rebels. Rex congratulates Ezra for doing what no Senator, Clone, or Jedi ever could: convincing clones and battle droids to set aside their differences.
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list of top ten wicket takers in test cricket | List of bowlers who have taken 300 or more wickets in Test cricket - wikipedia
Taking 300 or more wickets across a playing career is considered a significant achievement in Test cricket. The feat, first accomplished by Englishman Fred Trueman in 1964, has only been achieved by thirty players in the history of the game as of May 2016. Five Australian players have taken more than 300 wickets, along with five Englishmen, four South Africans, four members of the West Indies cricket team, four Indians, three Pakistanis, two New Zealanders and three Sri Lankan players; Bangladesh and Zimbabwe are yet to see a Test player reach the 300 mark.
As of August 2015, the retired Sri Lankan bowler Muttiah Muralitharan has the highest aggregate with 800 wickets. He has also taken the most five - wicket hauls in an innings and ten - wicket hauls in a match, 67 and 22 times respectively, and has the fifth best bowling performance in a match, 16 wickets for 220 runs against England in 1998. Australian fast bowler Dennis Lillee is the fastest to accomplish the feat, taking 56 Tests to do so while West Indian Malcolm Marshall has the best bowling average among those to achieve the milestone, taking 376 wickets at an average of 20.94 runs. West Indian Lance Gibbs is the most economical with 1.99 runs per over while South African fast bowler Dale Steyn has the best strike rate of 41.4 balls per wicket. Among those players to have taken 300 wickets, Indian Anil Kumble has the best bowling figures for an innings, 10 wickets for 74 runs against Pakistan in 1999, which is the second best in the history of Test cricket after English player Jim Laker 's 10 for 53 against Australia in 1956.
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what is an audit report explain clean audit report | Auditor 's report - wikipedia
The auditor 's report is a disclaimer thereof, issued by either an internal auditor or an independent external auditor as a result of an internal or external audit, as an assurance service in order for the user to make decisions based on the results of the audit.
An auditor 's report is considered an essential tool when reporting financial information to users, particularly in business. Since many third - party users prefer, or even require financial information to be certified by an independent external auditor, many auditees rely on auditor reports to certify their information in order to attract investors, obtain loans, and improve public appearance. Some have even stated that financial information without an auditor 's report is "essentially worthless '' for investing purposes.
It is important to note that auditor reports on financial statements are neither evaluations nor any other similar determination used to evaluate entities in order to make a decision. The report is only an opinion on whether the information presented is correct and free from material misstatements, whereas all other determinations are left for the user to decide.
There are four common types of auditor 's reports, each one presenting a different situation encountered during the auditor 's work. The four reports are as follows:
An opinion is said to be unqualified when he or she does not have any significant reservation in respect of matters contained in the Financial Statements. The most frequent type of report is referred to as the "Unqualified Opinion '', and is regarded by many as the equivalent of a "clean bill of health '' to a patient, which has led many to call it the "Clean Opinion '', but in reality it is not a clean bill of health, because the Auditor can only provide reasonable assurance regarding the Financial Statements, not the health of the company itself, or the integrity of company records not part of the foundation of the Financial Statements. This type of report is issued by an auditor when the financial statements are free of material misstatements and are presented fairly in accordance with the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), which in other words means that the company 's financial condition, position, and operations are fairly presented in the financial statements. It is the best type of report an auditee may receive from an external auditor.
An Unqualified Opinion indicates the following --
(1) The Financial Statements have been prepared using the Generally Accepted Accounting Principles which have been consistently applied;
(2) The Financial Statements comply with relevant statutory requirements and regulations;
(3) There is adequate disclosure of all material matters relevant to the proper presentation of the financial information subject to statutory requirements, where applicable;
(4) Any changes in the accounting principles or in the method of their application and the effects thereof have been properly determined and disclosed in the Financial Statements.
The report consists of a title and header, a main body, the auditor 's signature and address, and the report 's issuance date. US auditing standards require that the title includes "independent '' to convey to the user that the report was unbiased in all respects. Traditionally, the main body of the unqualified report consists of three main paragraphs, each with distinct standard wording and individual purpose. Nonetheless, certain auditors (including PricewaterhouseCoopers (1)) have since modified the arrangement of the main body (but not the wording) in order to differentiate themselves from other audit firms, even though such modification is contrary to the clarified US AICPA standards on auditing.
The first paragraph (commonly referred to as the introductory paragraph) states the audit work performed and identifies the responsibilities of the auditor and the auditee in relation to the financial statements. The second paragraph (commonly referred to as the scope paragraph) details the scope of audit work, provides a general description of the nature of the work, examples of procedures performed, and any limitations the audit faced based on the nature of the work. This paragraph also states that the audit was performed in accordance with the country 's prevailing generally accepted auditing standards and regulations. The third paragraph (commonly referred to as the opinion paragraph) simply states the auditor 's opinion on the financial statements and whether they are in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles.
The following is an example of a standard unqualified auditor 's report on financial statements as it is used in most countries, using the name ABC Company as an auditee 's name. Note that this report is acceptable only for periods ending before December 15, 2012:
Board of Directors, Stockholders, Owners, and / or Management of ABC Company, Inc. 123 Main St. Anytown, Any Country
We have audited the accompanying balance sheet of ABC Company, Inc. (the "Company '') as of December 31, 20XX and the related statements of income, retained earnings, and cash flows for the year then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company 's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audit.
We conducted our audit in accordance with auditing standards generally accepted in (the country where the report is issued). Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial statement presentation. We believe that our audit provides a reasonable basis for our opinion.
In our opinion, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Company as of December 31, 20XX, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles in (the country where the report is issued).
AUDITOR 'S SIGNATURE Auditor 's name and address
Date = Last day of any significant field work This date should not be dated earlier than when the auditor has sufficient audit evidence to support the opinion.
Recently modifications have been made by the PCAOB to the opinion in the independent auditors report. These changes can be attributed to the introduction of SAS No. 122 and SAS No. 123. For periods ending after December 15, 2012, the following is an example of a standard unqualified auditor 's report on financial statements as it is used in most countries, using the name ABC Company, which was incorporated in California, as an auditee 's name:
Board of Directors, Stockholders, Owners, and / or Management of ABC Company, Inc. 123 Main St. Anytown, Any Country
We have audited the accompanying financial statements of ABC Company, Inc. (a California corporation), which comprise the balance sheet as of December 31, 20XX, and the related statements of income, retained earnings, and cash flows for the year then ended, and the related notes to the financial statements.
Management 's Responsibility for the Financial Statements
Management is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of these consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles; this includes the design, implementation, and maintenance of internal control relevant to the preparation and fair presentation of consolidated financial statements that are free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error.
Auditor 's Responsibility
Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these consolidated financial statements based on our audit. We conducted our audit in accordance with U.S. generally accepted auditing standards. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the consolidated financial statements are free from material misstatement.
An audit involves performing procedures to obtain audit evidence about the amounts and disclosures in the consolidated financial statements. The procedures selected depend on the auditors ' judgment, including the assessment of the risks of material misstatement of the consolidated financial statements, whether due to fraud or error. In making those risk assessments, the auditor considers internal control relevant to the entity 's preparation and fair presentation of the consolidated financial statements in order to design audit procedures that are appropriate in the circumstances, but not for the purpose of expressing an opinion on the effectiveness of the entity 's internal control. Accordingly, we express no such opinion. An audit also includes evaluating the appropriateness of accounting policies used and the reasonableness of significant accounting estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall presentation of the consolidated financial statements.
We believe that the audit evidence we have obtained is sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for our audit opinion.
Opinion
In our opinion, the financial statements referred to above present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of ABC Company, Inc. as of December 31, 20XX, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles.
AUDITOR 'S SIGNATURE Auditor 's name and address
Date = Last day of any significant field work This date should not be dated earlier than when the auditor has sufficient audit evidence to support the opinion.
Qualified report is given by the auditor in either of these two cases:
The report is mostly like a Clear Opinion Report and only includes a paragraph viz. Basis for Qualification after Scope paragraph and before Opinion paragraph. Opinion paragraph in addition to its standard wording includes "except for the matter described in Basis for Qualification paragraph the financial statements give true and fair view. ''
Detailed below:
A Qualified Opinion report is issued when the auditor encountered one of the two types of situations which do not comply with generally accepted accounting principles, however the rest of the financial statements are fairly presented. This type of opinion is very similar to an unqualified or "clean opinion '', but the report states that the financial statements are fairly presented with a certain exception which is otherwise misstated. The two types of situations which would cause an auditor to issue this opinion over the Unqualified opinion are:
The wording of the qualified report is very similar to the Unqualified opinion, but an explanatory paragraph is added to explain the reasons for the qualification after the scope paragraph but before the opinion paragraph. The introductory paragraph is left exactly the same as in the unqualified opinion, while the scope and the opinion paragraphs receive a slight modification in line with the qualification in the explanatory paragraph.
The scope paragraph is edited to include the following phrase in the first sentence, so that the user may be immediately aware of the qualification. This placement also informs the user that, except for the qualification, the rest of the audit was performed without qualifications:
The opinion paragraph is also edited to include an additional phrase in the first sentence, so that the user is reminded that the auditor 's opinion explicitly excludes the qualification expressed. Depending on the type of qualification, the phrase is edited to either state the qualification and the adjustments needed to correct it, or state the scope limitation and that adjustments could have but not necessarily been required in order to correct it.
For a qualification arising from a deviation from GAAP, the following phrase is added to the opinion paragraph, using the depreciation example mentioned above:
For a qualification arising from a scope of limitation, the following phrase is added to the opinion paragraph, using the inventory example mentioned above:
An Adverse Opinion Report is issued on the financial statements of a company when the financial statements are materially misstated and such misstatements have pervasive effect on the financial statements.
In Audit Report after Scope paragraph but before Opinion paragraph, Basis for Adverse Opinion paragraph is added. In Opinion paragraph the wording changes to, "Because of situations mentioned in Basis for Adverse Opinion paragraph, in our opinion the financial statements of XYZ Co. Ltd. as mentioned in first paragraph does not give true and fair view / are not free from material misstatements. ''
An Adverse Opinion is issued when the auditor determines that the financial statements of an auditee are materially misstated and, when considered as a whole, do not conform with GAAP. It is considered the opposite of an unqualified or clean opinion, essentially stating that the information contained is materially incorrect, unreliable, and inaccurate in order to assess the auditee 's financial position and results of operations. Investors, lending institutions, and governments very rarely accept an auditee 's financial statements if the auditor issued an adverse opinion, and usually request the auditee to correct the financial statements and obtain another audit report.
Generally, an adverse opinion is only given if the financial statements pervasively differ from GAAP. An example of such a situation would be failure of a company to consolidate a material subsidiary.
The wording of the adverse report is similar to the qualified report. The scope paragraph is modified accordingly and an explanatory paragraph is added to explain the reason for the adverse opinion after the scope paragraph but before the opinion paragraph. However, the most significant change in the adverse report from the qualified report is in the opinion paragraph, where the auditor clearly states that the financial statements are not in accordance with GAAP, which means that they, as a whole, are unreliable, inaccurate, and do not present a fair view of the auditee 's position and operations.
A Disclaimer of Opinion is issued in either of the following cases:
The audit report changes significantly when there is Disclaimer of opinion. An additional paragraph "Basis for Disclaimer '' is added in audit report which is placed after Scope paragraph and before Opinion paragraph. In Scope paragraph the wording changes to "We were engaged to audit the financial statements of XYZ Co. Ltd. '' from "We have audited the financial statements of XYZ Co. Ltd. '' In Opinion paragraph wording changes to "We do not express an opinion on the financial statements of XYZ Co. Ltd. due to situations explained in Basis for Disclaimer paragraph ''
A Disclaimer of Opinion, commonly referred to simply as a Disclaimer, is issued when the auditor could not form and consequently refuses to present an opinion on the financial statements. This type of report is issued when the auditor tried to audit an entity but could not complete the work due to various reasons and does not issue an opinion. The disclaimer of opinion report can be traced back to 1949, when the Statement on Auditing Procedure No. 23: Recommendation Made To Clarify Accountant 's Representations When Opinion Is Not Expressed was published in order to provide guidance to auditors in presenting a disclaimer.
Statements on Auditing Standards (SAS) provide certain situations where a disclaimer of opinion may be appropriate:
Although this type of opinion is rarely used, the most common examples where disclaimers are issued include audits where the auditee willfully hides or refuses to provide evidence and information to the auditor in significant areas of the financial statements, where the auditee is facing significant legal and litigation issues in which the outcome is uncertain (usually government investigations), and where the auditee has going concern issues (the auditee may not continue operating in the near future). Investors, lending institutions, and governments typically reject an auditee 's financial statements if the auditor disclaimed an opinion, and will request the auditee to correct the situations the auditor mentioned and obtain another audit report.
A disclaimer of opinion differs substantially from the rest of the auditor 's reports because it provides very little information regarding the audit itself, and includes an explanatory paragraph stating the reasons for the disclaimer. Although the report still contains the letterhead, the auditee 's name and address, the auditor 's signature and address, and the report 's issuance date, every other paragraph is modified extensively, and the scope paragraph is entirely omitted since the auditor is basically stating that an audit could not be realized.
In the introductory paragraph, the first phrase changes from "We have audited '' to "We were engaged to audit '' in order to let the user know that the auditee commissioned an audit, but does not mention that the auditor necessarily completed the audit. Additionally, since the audit was not completely and / or adequately performed, the auditor refuses to accept any responsibility by omitting the last sentence of the paragraph. The scope paragraph is omitted in its entirety since, effectively, no audit was performed. Similar to the qualified and the adverse opinions, the auditor must briefly discuss the situations for the disclaimer in an explanatory paragraph. Finally, the opinion paragraph changes completely, stating that an opinion could not be formed and is not expressed because of the situations mentioned in the previous paragraphs.
The following is a draft of the three main paragraphs of a disclaimer of opinion because of inadequate accounting records of an auditee, which is considered a significant scope of limitation:
We were engaged to audit the accompanying balance sheet of ABC Company, Inc. (the "Company '') as of December 31, 20XX and the related statements of income and cash flows for the year then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company 's management.
The Company does not maintain adequate accounting records to provide sufficient information for the preparation of the basic financial statements. The Company 's accounting records do not constitute a double - entry system which can produce financial statements.
Because of the significance of the matters discussed in the preceding paragraphs, the scope of our work was not sufficient to enable us to express, and we do not express, an opinion of the financial statements referred to in the first paragraph.
Following the enactment of the Sarbanes - Oxley Act of 2002, the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) was established in order to monitor, regulate, inspect, and discipline audit and public accounting firms of public companies. The PCAOB Auditing Standards No. 2 now requires auditors of public companies to include an additional disclosure in the opinion report regarding the auditee 's internal controls, and to opine about the company 's and auditor 's assessment on the company 's internal controls over financial reporting. These new requirements are commonly referred to as the COSO Opinion.
The auditor 's report is modified to include all necessary disclosures by either presenting the report subsequent to the report on the financial statements, or combining both reports into one auditor 's report. The following is an example of the former version of adding a separate report immediately after the auditor 's report on financial statements.
Internal control over financial reporting
We have also audited management 's assessment, included in the accompanying Management 's Annual Report on Internal Control Over Financial Reporting, that the Company maintained effective internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 20XX, based on criteria established in Internal Control -- Integrated Framework issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission ("COSO ''). The Company 's management is responsible for maintaining effective internal control over financial reporting and for its assessment of the effectiveness of internal control over financial reporting. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on management 's assessment and on the effectiveness of the Company 's internal control over financial reporting based on our audit. We conducted our audits in accordance with the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States). Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether effective internal control over financial reporting was maintained in all material respects. Our audit of internal control over financial reporting included obtaining an understanding of internal control over financial reporting, evaluating management 's assessment, testing and evaluating the design and operating effectiveness of internal control, and performing such other procedures as we considered necessary in the circumstances. We believe that our audit provides a reasonable basis for our opinion.
A company 's internal control over financial reporting is a process designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the reliability of financial reporting and the preparation of financial statements for external purposes in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. A company 's internal control over financial reporting includes those policies and procedures that (1) pertain to the maintenance of records that, in reasonable detail, accurately and fairly reflect the transactions and dispositions of the assets of the company; (2) provide reasonable assurance that transactions are recorded as necessary to permit preparation of financial statements in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles, and that receipts and expenditures of the company are being made only in accordance with authorizations of management and directors of the company; and (3) provide reasonable assurance regarding prevention or timely detection of unauthorized acquisition, use, or disposition of the company 's assets that could have a material effect on the financial statements.
Because of its inherent limitations, internal control over financial reporting may not prevent or detect misstatements. Also, projections of any evaluation of effectiveness to future periods are subject to the risk that controls may become inadequate because of changes in conditions, or that the degree of compliance with the policies or procedures may deteriorate.
In our opinion, management 's assessment that ABC Company maintained effective internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 20XX, is fairly stated, in all material respects, based on criteria established in Internal Control -- Integrated Framework issued by COSO. Furthermore, in our opinion, ABC Company maintained, in all material respects, effective internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 20XX, based on criteria established in Internal Control -- Integrated Framework issued by COSO.
Going concern is a term (2) which means that an entity will continue to operate in the near future which is generally more than next 12 months, so long as it generates or obtains enough resources to operate. If the auditee is not a going concern, it means that the entity might not be able to sustain itself within the next twelve months. Auditors are required to consider the going concern of an auditee before issuing a report. If the auditee is a going concern, the auditor does not modify his / her report in any way. However, if the auditor considers that the auditee is not a going concern, or will not be a going concern in the near future, then the auditor is required to include an explanatory paragraph before the opinion paragraph or following the opinion papragraph, in the audit report explaining the situation, which is commonly referred to as the going concern disclosure. Such an opinion is called an "unqualified modified opinion ''.
Unfortunately, many auditors are increasingly reluctant to include this disclosure in their opinions, since it is considered a "self - fulfilling prophecy '' by some. This is because a disclosure for a lack of going concern is viewed negatively by investors, lending institutions, and credit agencies, and therefore reduces the chance that the auditee may obtain the capital or borrowing it needs to survive once the disclosure is made. If this situation occurs, the auditee is more likely to stop being a going concern while the auditor loses potential future audit engagements, and so the auditor may be pressured to avoid including a going concern disclosure. In a study performed on 2001 bankruptcies, nearly half (48 %) of selected public companies who faced bankruptcy in 2001 did not have a "going concern disclosure '' in the previous auditor 's reports. Additionally, 12 of the 20 largest bankruptcies in U.S. history occurred between 2001 and 2002 and none of them had a "going concern disclosure '' in their previous auditor 's report.
As for the actual wording of the auditor 's report, when a lack of going concern is determined by the auditor, the disclosure paragraph should state the situation, state the auditor 's determination, and state the auditee 's plan to correct the situation. The disclosure paragraph should immediately follow the opinion paragraph.
The following is the most widely used format of the paragraph which, in this case, deals with a company that has recurring losses:
The accompanying financial statements have been prepared assuming that the Company will continue as a going concern. As discussed in Note (X) to the financial statements, the Company has suffered recurring losses and has a net capital deficiency. These conditions raise substantial doubt about its ability to continue as a going concern. Management 's plans in regard to these matters are also described in Note (X). The financial statements do not include any adjustments relating to the recoverability and classification of asset carrying amounts or the amount and classification of liabilities that might result should the Company be unable to continue as a going concern.
Although the auditor reports mentioned above are the standard reports for financial statement audits, the auditor may add additional information to the report if it is deemed necessary without changing the overall opinion of the report. Usually, this additional information is included after the opinion paragraph, although some situations require that the additional information be included in paragraphs before the opinion paragraph. The most frequent paragraphs include:
The auditor 's report usually does not vary from country to country, although some countries do require either additional or less wording. In the United States, auditors are required to include in the scope paragraphs a phrase stating that they conducted their audit "in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards in the United States of America '', and, in the opinion paragraph, state whether the financial statements are presented "in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles in the United States of America ''. Some countries, such as the Philippines, use similar reports to those issued in the United States, with the exception that second paragraph would state that the audit was conducted in accordance with Philippine Standards on Auditing, and that the financial statements are in accordance with Philippine Financial Reporting Standards.
Opinion shopping is a term used by external auditors and, after the Enron and Arthur Andersen accounting scandals, the media and general public refer to auditees who contract or reject auditors based on the type of opinion report they will issue on the auditee. The underlying principles of this concept are that auditees determine the compensation to auditors for their work (called "audit fees '') as well as awarding future audit engagements; that such fees are the auditor 's main source of income; that certain auditees may try to contract auditors that will issue audit opinions based on the auditees ' needs; and that certain auditors are willing to comply with such demands so long as they are assured future audit engagements.
The most common example is an auditee that knows that the current auditor is going to issue a qualified, adverse, or disclaimer of opinion report, who then rescinds the audit engagement before the opinion is issued, and subsequently "shops '' for another auditor who is willing to issue an "unqualified '' opinion, regardless of any qualifying situations mentioned in the previous sections. However, opinion shopping is not limited to auditees contracting auditors based on issuing opinions. It also includes auditors who are over-pleasing to auditees by issuing unqualified reports without properly auditing, or by simply overlooking material issues affecting the audit. These auditors ' objective is to appear much more attractive and easy - going than other auditors in order to secure future audit engagements and fees.
Although the great majority of auditors are not willing to jeopardize their profession and reputation for guaranteed audit fees, there are some that will issue opinions solely based on obtaining or maintaining audit engagements. This includes auditors who knowingly emit unmodified unqualified opinions for auditees who are engaged in illegal activities, auditees who have caused a material limitation of scope, auditees that have a lack of going concern, or auditees who present fraudulent financial statements (e.g. Enron and Arthur Andersen). This situation is a clear conflict of interest which should hinder an auditor 's independence and the ability to audit (AICPA Code of Ethics), but some auditors willingly ignore this statute.
Recent laws and industry standards have been implemented in order to correct this situation, which include the Sarbanes - Oxley Act and the AICPA 's practice - monitoring program and Peer Review Program, which are in some cases voluntary, and in other cases, required.
There are various other audits and evaluations which an external auditor performs in addition to the engagements mentioned in the previous sections, each with their respective standard report (s):
The auditor 's report on the financial statements typically provides very limited details on the procedures and findings of the audit. In contrast, auditors provide much more detail to the board of directors or to the audit committee of the board. Beginning in 2002, many countries have tasked the audit committee with primary responsibility over the audit. For example, in the United States, section 204 of the Sarbanes - Oxley Act passed in 2002 required auditors to communicate certain information to audit committees, which were required to be entirely independent, and also made the audit committee responsible for the auditor 's hiring. In August 2012, the U.S. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board finalized Auditing Standard No. 16, which requires additional communications to the audit committee.
The Independent Auditor 's Report on a Complete Set of General Purpose Financial Statements (3)
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where is water used in the catholic church today | Holy water - wikipedia
Holy water is water that has been blessed by a member of the clergy or a religious figure. The use for cleansing prior to a baptism and spiritual cleansing is common in several religions, from Christianity to Sikhism. The use of holy water as a sacramental for protection against evil is common among Anglicans, Roman Catholics, and Eastern Christians.
In Catholicism, Anglicanism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy and some other churches, holy water is water that has been sanctified by a priest for the purpose of baptism, the blessing of persons, places, and objects, or as a means of repelling evil.
The use of holy water used by various sects of Christianity is a practice only attested to in Catholic documents. The Apostolic Constitutions, which goes back to about the year 400, attribute the precept of using holy water to the Apostle Matthew. It is plausible that in earliest Christian times water was used for expiatory and purificatory purposes in a way analogous to its employment in Jewish Law. Yet, in many cases, the water used for the Sacrament of Baptism was flowing water, sea or river water, and it could not receive the same blessing as that contained in the baptisteries in the view of the Roman Catholic church. However, Eastern Orthodox do perform the same blessing, whether in a baptistry or an outdoor body of water.
Sprinkling with holy water is used as a sacramental that recalls baptism. Holy water is kept in the holy water font, which is typically located at the entrance to the church (or sometimes in a separate room or building called a baptistery). Smaller vessels, called stoups, are usually placed at the entrances of the church, to enable people to sprinkle themselves with it on entering. In recent years, with the concerns over influenza, new holy water machines that work like an automatic soap dispenser have become popular.
In the Middle Ages the power of holy water was considered so great that in some places fonts had locked covers to prevent the theft of holy water for unauthorized magic practices. The Constitutions of Archbishop Edmund Rich (1236) prescribe that "Fonts are to be kept under lock and key, because of witchcraft (sortilegia). Similarly the chrism and sacred oil are kept locked up. ''
In Catholicism, holy water, as well as water used during the washing of the priest 's hands at mass, is not allowed to be disposed of in regular plumbing. Roman Catholic churches will usually have a special basin (a Sacrarium) that leads directly into the ground for the purpose of proper disposal. A hinged lid is kept over the holy water basin to distinguish it from a regular sink basin, which is often just beside it. Items that contained holy water are separated, drained of the holy water, and then washed in a regular manner in the adjacent sink.
Holy water fonts have been identified as a potential source of bacterial and viral infection. In the late 19th century, bacteriologists found staphylococci, streptococci, coli bacilli, Loeffler 's bacillus, and other bacteria in samples of holy water taken from a church in Sassari, Italy. In a study performed in 1995, 13 samples were taken when a burn patient acquired a bacterial infection after exposure to holy water. The samples in that study were shown to have a "wide range of bacterial species '', some of which could cause infection in humans. During the swine flu epidemic of 2009, Bishop John Steinbock of Fresno, California recommended that "holy water should not be in the fonts '' due to fear of spreading infections. Also in response to the swine flu, an automatic, motion - detecting holy water dispenser was invented and installed in an Italian church in 2009.
As a reminder of baptism, Catholic Christians dip their fingers in the holy water and make the sign of the cross when entering the church. The liturgy may begin on Sundays with the Rite of Blessing and Sprinkling Holy Water, in which holy water is sprinkled upon the congregation; this is called aspersion, from the Latin, aspergere, to sprinkle. This ceremony dates back to the ninth century. An aspergill or aspergillum is a brush or branch used to sprinkle the water. An aspersorium is the vessel which holds the holy water and into which the aspergillum is dipped, though elaborate Ottonian examples are known as situlae. Blessed salt may be added to the water "where it is customary. ''
This use of holy water and making a sign of the cross when entering a church reflects a renewal of baptism, a cleansing of venial sin, as well as providing protection against evil. It is sometimes accompanied by the following prayer:
"By this Holy water and by your Precious Blood, wash away all my sins O Lord ''.
Although not actually holy water since it has not been blessed by a priest, some Catholics believe that water from specific shrines, such as Lourdes, can bring healing.
The traditional Latin formula for blessing the water is as follows:
Exorcizo te, creatura aquæ, in nomine Dei Patris omnipotentis, et in nomine Jesu Christi, Filii ejus Domini nostri, et in virtute Spiritus Sancti: ut fias aqua exorcizata ad effugandam omnem potestatem inimici, et ipsum inimicum eradicare et explantare valeas cum angelis suis apostaticis, per virtutem ejusdem Domini nostri Jesu Christ: qui venturus est judicare vivos et mortuos et sæculum per ignem. Deus, qui ad salutem humani generis maxima quæque sacramenta in aquarum substantia condidisti: adesto propitius invocationibus nostris, et elemento huic, multimodis purificationibus præparato, virtutem tuæ benedictionis infunde; ut creatura tua, mysteriis tuis serviens, ad abigendos dæmones morbosque pellendos divinæ gratiæ sumat effectum; ut quidquid in domibus vel in locis fidelium hæc unda resperserit careat omni immunditia, liberetur a noxa. Non illic resideat spiritus pestilens, non aura corrumpens: discedant omnes insidiæ latentis inimici; et si quid est quod aut incolumitati habitantium invidet aut quieti, aspersione hujus aquæ effugiat: ut salubritas, per invocationem sancti tui nominis expetita, ab omnibus sit impugnationibus defensa. Per Dominum, amen.
English translation:
I exorcise thee, creature of water, in the name of God the Father almighty, in the name of Jesus Christ, his Son, our Lord, and in the power of the Holy Spirit, that you may put to flight all the power of the enemy, and that enemy and to root out and, along with his fallen angels through the power of our Lord Jesus Christ, who shall come to judge the living and the dead and the world by fire. O God, who for the salvation of the human race has built Thy greatest mysteries in the substance, in your kindness hear our prayers, and with the element to this, for many kinds of purifications of his well - prepared, the power of Thy blessing, Serve it; the creation of Thy mysteries, serving as an agent of divine grace; is sprinkled with this water in their houses or in the buildings of the faithful, that whatever might be free from all uncleanness, he is freed from every harm. It is not no pestilent spirit, no taint of corruption; let all the wiles of the lurking enemy; or to provide for the safety and peace of the inhabitants of that which is, and if there be any, by the sprinkling of this water, so that health, through the invocation of Thy holy name, made secure against all attacks. Through the end.
Catholic saints have written about the power of holy water as a force that repels evil. Saint Teresa of Avila, a Doctor of the Church who reported visions of Jesus and Mary, was a strong believer in the power of holy water and wrote that she used it with success to repel evil and temptations. She wrote:
"I know by frequent experience that there is nothing which puts the devils to flight like Holy water. ''
In Holy Water and Its Significance for Catholics Henry Theiler states that in addition to being a strong force in repelling evil, holy water has the twofold benefit of providing grace for both body and soul.
The new Rituale Romanum excludes the exorcism prayer on the water. Exorcized salt used to be added to the holy Water as well. Priests can now use the older form if they wish according to Summorum Pontificum, an apostolic letter by Pope Benedict XVI.
Among the Eastern Orthodox and the Byzantine Rite Catholics holy water is used frequently in rites of blessing and exorcism, and the water for baptism is always sanctified with a special blessing.
There are two rites for blessing holy water: the "Great Blessing of Waters '' which is held on the Feast of Theophany and at baptisms, and the "Lesser Blessing of Waters '' which is conducted according to need and local custom during the rest of the year, certain feast days calling for the Lesser Blessing of Waters as part of their liturgical observance. Both forms are based upon the Rite of Baptism. After the blessing of holy water the faithful are sprinkled with it and each drinks some of it.
Holy water is drunk by the faithful after it is blessed and it is a common custom for the pious to drink holy water every morning. In the monasteries of Mount Athos holy water is always drunk in conjunction with consuming antidoron. Eastern Orthodox do not typically bless themselves with holy water upon entering a church as Western Catholics do, but a quantity of holy water is often kept in a font placed in the narthex (entrance) of the church, available for anyone who would like to partake of it or to take some of it home.
After the annual Great Blessing of Waters at Theophany (also known as Epiphany), the priest goes to the homes of the faithful within his parish and, in predominantly Orthodox lands, to the buildings throughout town, and blesses them with holy water.
When blessing objects such as the palms on Palm Sunday, Paschal eggs and other foods for Easter, candles, or liturgical instruments and sacred vessels (icons and crosses are not blessed, however, as they are considered intrinsically holy and redeemed). The blessing is completed by a triple sprinkling with holy water using the words, "This (name of item) is blessed by the sprinkling of this holy water, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. ''
Throughout the centuries, there have been many springs of water that have been believed by members of the Orthodox Church to be miraculous. Some still flow, such as the one at Pochaev Lavra in Ukraine, and the Life - Giving Spring of the Theotokos in Constantinople (commemorated on Bright Friday).
Holy water is not a term used in Church of England rites, although font water is sanctified in the Church of England baptism rite. In contrast, the Episcopal Church (United States) does expressly mention the optional use of holy water in some recent liturgies of blessing. More generally, the use of water within High Church Anglicanism or Anglo - Catholicism adheres closely to Roman Catholic practice. In many such Anglican churches baptismal water is used for the asperges. Stoups with sanctified water are sometimes found near the doors of High Church Anglican churches for the faithful to use in making the sign of the cross upon entering the church.
The use of holy water in some synods of Lutheranism is for the baptism of infants and new members of the church. The water is believed to be blessed by God, as it is used in a sacrament. The water is applied to the forehead of the laity being baptised and the minister performs the sign of the cross. Lutherans tend to have holy water fonts at the entrance of the church.
Other synods do not use holy water, however they do typically treat the water used for baptisms in a more respectful manner.
In the Methodist tradition, Holy Baptism is often administered by sprinkling or pouring holy water over the candidate. The official Baptismal Liturgy, as well as the liturgy for Reaffirmation of Baptism commonly done through asperges, has a prayer for the blessing of this water:
Pour out your Holy Spirit, to bless this gift of water and those who receive it, to wash away their sin and clothe them in righteousness throughout their lives, that, dying and being raised with Christ, they may share in his final victory. All praise to you, Eternal Father, through your Son Jesus Christ, who with you and the Holy Spirit lives and reigns for ever. Amen.
In Ancient Greek religion, holy water called chernips (Greek: χέρνιψ) was created when a torch from a religious shrine was extinguished in it. In Greek religion, purifying people and locations with water was part of the process of distinguishing the sacred from the profane.
The Book of Numbers mentions using water in a test for the purity of a wife accused of marital infidelity. Known as the Ordeal of the Bitter Water, the accused woman (sotah) would first be asked to confess to her crime before the court. If she refused to confess, she would then undergo the ritual. She would be stripped naked and then drink a mixture of water and dust. If she was guilty, she would be supposedly cursed to miscarry any pregnancy, though the text is unclear on the exact punishment. If she was innocent, there would be no effect.
Sikhs use the Punjabi term amrita (ਅੰਮ੍ਰਿਤ) for the holy water used in the baptism ceremony known as Amrit Sanskar or Amrit Chhakhna.
In Hinduism, water represents God in a spiritual sense which is the central theme in Mantra Pushpam from Taithreeya Aranyakam of Yajur Veda. Bathing in holy water is, thus, a key element in Hinduism, and the Ganges is considered the holiest Hindu river.
The idea of "blessed water '' is used in virtually all Buddhist traditions. In the Theravada tradition, water is put into a new pot and kept near a Paritrana ceremony, a blessing for protection. This "lustral water '' can be created in a ceremony in which the burning and extinction of a candle above the water represents the elements of earth, fire, and air. This water is later given to the people to be kept in their home. Not only water but also oil and strings are blessed in this ceremony. Most Mahayana Buddhists typically recite sutras or various mantras (typically that of the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara for example) numerous times over the water, which is then either consumed or is used to bless homes afterwards. In Vajrayana Buddhism, a Bumpa, a ritual object, is one of the Ashtamangala, used for storing sacred water sometimes, symbolizing wisdom and long life.
The Sunni Muslim variety of holy water is the Zamzam water that comes from a spring by The Kaaba.
The drinking of "healing water '' (āb - i shifā) is a practice in various denominations of Shia Islam. In the tradition of the Twelver Shi'a, many dissolve the dust of sacred locations such as Karbala (khāk - i shifa) and Najaf and drink the water (āb - i shifā) as a cure for illness, both spiritual and physical. The Ismaili tradition involves the practice of drinking water blessed by the Imam of the time. This water is taken in the name of the Imam and has a deep spiritual significance. This is evident from the names used to designate the water, including light (nūr) and ambrosia (amṛt, amī, amīras, amījal). This practice is recorded from the 13th and 14th centuries and continues to the present day. The ceremony is known as ghat - pat in South Asia.
In Wicca and other ceremonial magic traditions, a bowl of salt is blessed and a small amount is stirred into a bowl of water that has been ritually purified. In some traditions of Wicca, this mixture of water and salt symbolizes the brine of the sea, which is regarded as the womb of the Goddess, and the source of all life on Earth. The mixture is consecrated and used in many religious ceremonies and magical rituals.
Holy water has also been believed to ward off or act as a weapon against mythical evil creatures, such as vampires. In eastern Europe, one might sprinkle holy water onto the corpse of a suspected vampire in order to destroy it or render it inert. Thereafter, the concept proliferated into fiction about such creatures.
Basilica of Notre - Dame de Fourvière, Lyon, France
Florence Cathedral
Church of Santa Maria a Cintoia, Florence, Italy.
Church of Saints Saint Cajetan and Maximillian, Salzburg, Austria
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what is the st louis blues ahl team | 2017 -- 18 AHL season - wikipedia
The 2017 -- 18 AHL season is the 82nd season of the American Hockey League. The regular season began October 6, 2017 and ends April 15, 2018. The 2018 Calder Cup playoffs follow the conclusion of the regular season.
The AHL 's only alignment change was moving the Charlotte Checkers from the Central Division of the Western Conference to the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference, significantly decreasing their interdivisional travel and balancing the two conferences ' members. Similar to the season scheduling in the previous season, the six California and Arizona based teams continued to have a 68 - game season while the rest of the AHL teams play a 76 - game season.
The National Hockey League added the Vegas Golden Knights for the 2017 -- 18 season. The Las Vegas management confirmed that the organization would also have an AHL affiliate in their first season, although it was not stated whether the AHL team would be an expansion or relocation. The organization looked into adding an affiliate on the West Coast with the leading candidates being Salt Lake City, Reno, or Fresno. However, as the season went on, they looked into co-affiliations with a pre-existing AHL team since the new NHL team would likely not have a large amount of drafted talent to fully stock an AHL roster. In February 2017, AHL commissioner David Andrews later stated that it was "50 - 50 chance '' of a 31st team for the 2017 -- 18 season.
Other than the Golden Knights adding a team, there were also reports of the St. Louis Blues adding an expansion team in Kansas City in November 2016. This would later be denied by the announced potential owner in Kansas City, Lamar Hunt Jr., in a press release from his ECHL team in the area, the Missouri Mavericks, and further denied by AHL commissioner, David Andrews, after the January 2017 Board of Governors meeting. In May 2017, the 30 team alignment was confirmed and there would be no expansion for 2017 -- 18. The Golden Knights signed a multi-year affiliation with the Chicago Wolves, replacing the Blues as their primary affiliate. The Blues also announced that they would continue to send players to the Wolves for that season, as well as to the San Antonio Rampage, the AHL team that they would affiliate with for 2018 -- 19.
The league confirmed after the 2017 Board of Governors meeting that it had made a commitment to an expansion applicant for a 31st team for the 2018 -- 19 season later revealed to be the Colorado Eagles. The Eagles had been a member of the ECHL prior to the promotion and the affiliate of the Colorado Avalanche. The Eagles join other recent ECHL markets in the AHL such as Bakersfield, Charlotte, Ontario, and Stockton.
y -- indicates team has clinched division and a playoff spot x -- indicates team has clinched a playoff spot e -- indicates team has been eliminated from playoff contention
Updated to games played April 8, 2018
Updated to games played April 8, 2018
The following players are sorted by points, then goals. Updated as of April 8, 2018.
GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; + / -- = Plus - minus; PIM = Penalty minutes
The following goaltenders with a minimum 1380 minutes played lead the league in goals against average. Updated as of April 8, 2018.
GP = Games played; TOI = Time on ice (in minutes); SA = Shots against; GA = Goals against; SO = Shutouts; GAA = Goals against average; SV % = Save percentage; W = Wins; L = Losses; OT = Overtime / shootout loss
The 2018 Calder Cup playoffs format was retained from the divisional format of the 2017 Calder Cup playoffs. The playoff format was finalized at the Annual Board of Governors meeting that took place July 2017. During the regular season, teams receive two points for a win and one point for an overtime or shootout loss. The top four teams in each division ranked by points percentage (points earned divided by points available) qualify for the 2017 Calder Cup playoffs.
The 2018 Calder Cup playoffs features a divisional playoff format, leading to conference finals and ultimately the Calder Cup finals. The division semifinals are best - of - five series; all subsequent rounds are best - of - seven.
First All - Star Team
Second All - Star Team
All - Rookie Team
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describe the function of pacemaker in mammalian heart | Cardiac pacemaker - wikipedia
The contraction of cardiac muscle (heart muscle) in all animals is initiated by electrical impulses known as action potentials. The rate at which these impulses fire controls the rate of cardiac contraction, that is, the heart rate. The cells that create these rhythmic impulses, setting the pace for blood pumping, are called pacemaker cells, and they directly control the heart rate. They make up the cardiac pacemaker, that is, the natural pacemaker of the heart. In most humans, the concentration of pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial (SA) node is the natural pacemaker, and the resultant rhythm is a sinus rhythm.
Sometimes an ectopic pacemaker sets the pace, if the SA node is damaged or if the electrical conduction system of the heart has problems. Cardiac arrhythmias can cause heart block, in which the contractions lose any useful rhythm. In humans, and occasionally in animals, a mechanical device called an artificial pacemaker (or simply "pacemaker '') may be used after damage to the body 's intrinsic conduction system to produce these impulses synthetically.
One percent of the cardiomyocytes in the myocardium possess the ability to generate electrical impulses (or action potentials) spontaneously. A specialized portion of the heart, called the sinoatrial node (SA node), is responsible for atrial propagation of this potential.
The sinoatrial node (SA node) is a group of cells positioned on the wall of the right atrium, near the entrance of the superior vena cava. These cells are modified cardiomyocytes. They possess rudimentary contractile filaments, but contract relatively weakly compared to the cardiac contractile cells.
The pacemaker cells are connected to neighboring contractile cells via gap junctions, which enable them to locally depolarize adjacent cells. Gap junctions allow the passage of positive cations from the depolarization of the pacemaker cell to adjacent contractile cells. This starts the depolarization and eventual action potential in contractile cells. Having cardiomyocytes connected via gap junctions allow all contractile cells of the heart to act in a coordinated fashion and contract as a unit. All the while being in sync with the pacemaker cells; this is the property that allows the pacemaker cells to control contraction in all other cardiomyocytes.
Cells in the SA node spontaneously depolarize, ultimately resulting in contraction, approximately 100 times per minute. This native rate is constantly modified by the activity of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers via the autonomic nervous system, so that the average resting cardiac rate in adult humans is about 70 beats per minute. Because the sinoatrial node is responsible for the rest of the heart 's electrical activity, it is sometimes called the primary pacemaker.
If the SA node does not function properly and is unable to control the heart rate, a group of cells further down the heart will become the ectopic pacemaker of the heart. These cells form the Atrioventricular node (or AV node), which is an area between the left atrium and the right ventricle within the atrial septum, will take over the pacemaker responsibility.
The cells of the AV node normally discharge at about 40 - 60 beats per minute, and are called the secondary pacemaker.
Further down the electrical conducting system of the heart is the Bundle of His. The left and right branches of this bundle, and the Purkinje fibres, will also produce a spontaneous action potential at a rate of 30 - 40 beats per minute, so if the SA and AV node both fail to function, these cells can become pacemakers. It is important to realize that these cells will be initiating action potentials and contraction at a much lower rate than the primary or secondary pacemaker cells.
The SA node controls the rate of contraction for the entire heart muscle because its cells have the quickest rate of spontaneous depolarization, thus they initiate action potentials the quickest. The action potential generated by the SA node passes down the electrical conduction system of the heart, and depolarizes the other potential pacemaker cells (AV node) to initiate action potentials before these other cells have had a chance to generate their own spontaneous action potential, thus they contract and propagate electrical impulses to the pace set by the cells of the SA node. This is the normal conduction of electrical activity in the heart.
There are 3 main stages in the generation of an action potential in a pacemaker cell. Since the stages are analogous to contraction of cardiac muscle cells, they have the same naming system. This can lead to some confusion. There is no phase 1 or 2, just phases 0, 3, and 4.
The key to the rhythmic firing of pacemaker cells is that, unlike other neurons in the body, these cells will slowly depolarize by themselves and do not need any outside innervation from the autonomic nervous system to fire action potentials.
As in all other cells, the resting potential of a pacemaker cell (- 60mV to - 70mV) is caused by a continuous outflow or "leak '' of potassium ions through ion channel proteins in the membrane that surrounds the cells. However, in pacemaker cells, this potassium permeability (efflux) decreases as time goes on, causing a slow depolarization. In addition, there is a slow, continuous inward flow of sodium, called the funny current. These two relative ion concentration changes slowly depolarize (make more positive) the inside membrane potential (voltage) of the cell, giving these cells their pacemaker potential. When the membrane potential gets depolarized to about - 40mV it has reached threshold (cells enter phase 0), allowing an action potential to be generated.
Though much faster than the depolarization of phase 4, the upstroke in a pacemaker cell is slow compared to that in an axon.
The SA and AV node do not have fast sodium channels like neurons, and the depolarization is mainly caused by a slow influx of calcium ions. (The funny current also increases). Calcium enters the cell via voltage - sensitive calcium channels that open when the threshold is reached. This calcium influx produces the rising phase of the action potential, which results in the reversal of membrane potential to a peak of about + 10mV. It is important to note that intracellular calcium causes muscular contraction in contractile cells, and is the effector ion. In heart pacemaker cells, phase 0 depends on the activation of L - type calcium channels instead of the activation of voltage - gated fast sodium channels, which are responsible for initiating action potentials in contractile (non-pacemaker) cells. For this reason, the pacemaker action potential rising phase slope is more gradual than that of the contractile cell (image 2). (7)
The reversal of membrane potential triggers the opening of potassium leak channels, resulting in the rapid loss of potassium ions from the inside of the cell, causing repolarization (V gets more negative). The calcium channels are also inactivated soon after they open. In addition, as sodium channels become inactivated, sodium permeability into the cell is decreased. These ion concentration changes slowly repolarize the cell to resting membrane potential (- 60mV). Another important note at this phase is that ionic pumps restore ion concentrations to pre-action potential status. The sodium - calcium exchanger ionic pump works to pump calcium out of the intracellular space, thus effectively relaxing the cell. The sodium / potassium pump restores ion concentrations of sodium and potassium ions by pumping sodium out of the cell and pumping (exchanging) potassium into the cell. Restoring these ion concentrations is vital because it enables the cell to reset itself and enables it to repeat the process of spontaneous depolarization leading to activation of an action potential.
If the SA node does not function, or the impulse generated in the SA node is blocked before it travels down the electrical conduction system, a group of cells further down the heart will become its pacemaker. This center is typically represented by cells inside the atrioventricular node (AV node), which is an area between the atria and ventricles, within the atrial septum. If the AV node also fails, Purkinje fibers are occasionally capable of acting as the default or "escape '' pacemaker. The reason Purkinje cells do not normally control the heart rate is that they generate action potentials at a lower frequency than the AV or SA nodes.
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who is ranked #1 in mens tennis | List of ATP number 1 ranked Singles Tennis players - wikipedia
The ATP Rankings are the Association of Tennis Professionals ' (ATP) merit - based method for determining the rankings in men 's tennis. The top - ranked player is the player who, over the previous 52 weeks, has garnered the most ATP ranking points. Points are awarded based on how far a player advances in tournaments and the category of those tournaments. The ATP has used a computerized system for determining the rankings since 23 August 1973. Starting in 1979, an updated rankings list is released at the beginning of each week.
Since 1973, 26 men have been ranked number 1 by the ATP, of which 17 have been year - end number 1. The current world number one is Rafael Nadal.
Since the introduction of the ATP rankings the method used to calculate a player 's ranking points has changed several times. As of 2011, the rankings are calculated by totaling the points a player wins in his best eighteen tournaments, subject to certain restrictions. For top players the counting tournaments are the four Grand Slam tournaments, the eight mandatory ATP World Tour Masters 1000 tournaments, the player 's best four eligible ATP World Tour 500 series tournaments (the non-mandatory ATP Masters 1000 event in Monte Carlo may be substituted for one of these), and his best two results from ATP World Tour 250 series. Lower - ranked players who are not eligible for some or all of the top tournaments may include additional ATP 500 and ATP 250 events, and also ATP Challenger Series, and Futures Series tournaments. The ranking points of players who qualify for the year - end ATP World Tour Finals also include any points gained at that tournament, increasing their counting tournament total to nineteen.
Roger Federer holds the records for both the most total weeks at No. 1 (302) and most consecutive weeks at No. 1 (237). Pete Sampras holds the record for the most year - end No. 1 (six, all consecutive). Patrick Rafter spent the fewest weeks at No. 1 (one week).
Lleyton Hewitt is both the youngest world No. 1 (20 years, 268 days) and youngest year - end No. 1, while Ivan Lendl is the oldest year - end No. 1 (29 years, 299 days). Andre Agassi is the oldest No. 1 (33 years, 131 days).
Only four players have regained the year end No. 1 ranking after having lost it - Lendl in 1989, Federer in 2009, Nadal in 2010, and Djokovic in 2014. Only one player regained the year end No. 1 ranking a second time, Nadal in 2013.
Rafael Nadal became the ATP player with the longest time span between first and most recent dates at world No. 1 in the history of the ATP Tour. He did so on August 21, 2017 9 years after first becoming No. 1 on August 18, 2008.
Two players, Ivan Lendl and Marcelo Ríos, have reached No. 1 without previously having won a Grand Slam tournament. Lendl reached No. 1 on February 21, 1983, but did not win his first Grand Slam title until the 1984 French Open. Rios reached No. 1 on March 30, 1998 and is the only No. 1 player who never won a Grand Slam singles title.
Since 1973 when the ATP ranking started, there have been twelve years when one player held the top spot for the entire year. In contrast, 1999 had the most No. 1 players of any year since the rankings started. There were five players who were No. 1 sometime during that year - Sampras, Carlos Moya, Yevgeny Kafelnikov, Agassi and Rafter. John McEnroe held the No. 1 ranking on a record 14 different occasions and Pete Sampras was the only other player to hold it on 10 or more occasions with 11 different stints.
The table on the left shows the total number of weeks that each player has been ranked No. 1 in their career by the ATP.
The table on the right shows the number of consecutive weeks that each indicated player has been ranked No. 1 by the ATP.
as of September 18, 2017
The ATP year - end No. 1 ranked player is determined as the player at the head of the ATP rankings following the completion of the final tournament of the calendar year, usually in November or December. Pete Sampras holds the record of six year - end No. 1 rankings, which were in consecutive years from 1993 through 1998.
Only 4 players, Ivan Lendl, Roger Federer, Novak Djokovic, and Rafael Nadal, have ever held, lost, and regained the year - end No. 1 ranking. Lendl held it in 1987, lost it in 1988, and regained it in 1989, while Federer held it in 2007, lost it in 2008, and regained it in 2009, and Djokovic held it in 2012, lost it in 2013, and regained it in 2014. Only Nadal has done it twice, he held it in 2008, lost it in 2009, regained it in 2010, lost it in 2011, and regained it again in 2013.
Six players have stayed at ATP No. 1 in the rankings every week of a calendar year. Federer is the only player to have been ranked No. 1 every week for three consecutive calendar years.
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under a fractional reserve banking system the amount of money loaned out | Fractional - reserve banking - wikipedia
Fractional - reserve banking is the practice whereby a bank accepts deposits, makes loans or investments, but is required to hold reserves equal to only a fraction of its deposit liabilities. Reserves are held as currency in the bank, or as balances in the bank 's accounts at the central bank. Fractional - reserve banking is the current form of banking practiced in most countries worldwide.
Fractional - reserve banking allows banks to act as financial intermediaries between borrowers and savers, and to provide longer - term loans to borrowers while providing immediate liquidity to depositors (providing the function of maturity transformation). However, a bank can experience a bank run if depositors wish to withdraw more funds than the reserves that are held by the bank. To mitigate the risks of bank runs and systemic crises (when problems are extreme and widespread), governments of most countries regulate and oversee commercial banks, provide deposit insurance and act as lender of last resort to commercial banks.
Because banks hold reserves in amounts that are less than the amounts of their deposit liabilities, and because the deposit liabilities are considered money in their own right, fractional - reserve banking permits the money supply to grow beyond the amount of the underlying base money originally created by the central bank. In most countries, the central bank (or other monetary authority) regulates bank credit creation, imposing reserve requirements and capital adequacy ratios. This can slow down the process of money creation that occurs in the commercial banking system, and helps to ensure that banks are solvent and have enough funds to meet demand for withdrawals. However, rather than directly controlling the money supply, central banks usually pursue an interest rate target to adjust the rate of inflation and bank issuance of credit.
Fractional - reserve banking predates the existence of governmental monetary authorities and originated many centuries ago in bankers ' realization that generally not all depositors demand payment at the same time.
In the past, savers looking to keep their coins and valuables in safekeeping depositories deposited gold and silver at goldsmiths, receiving in exchange a note for their deposit (see Bank of Amsterdam). These notes gained acceptance as a medium of exchange for commercial transactions and thus became an early form of circulating paper money. As the notes were used directly in trade, the goldsmiths observed that people would not usually redeem all their notes at the same time, and they saw the opportunity to invest their coin reserves in interest - bearing loans and bills. This generated income for the goldsmiths but left them with more notes on issue than reserves with which to pay them. A process was started that altered the role of the goldsmiths from passive guardians of bullion, charging fees for safe storage, to interest - paying and interest - earning banks. Thus fractional - reserve banking was born.
If creditors (note holders of gold originally deposited) lost faith in the ability of a bank to pay their notes, however, many would try to redeem their notes at the same time. If, in response, a bank could not raise enough funds by calling in loans or selling bills, the bank would either go into insolvency or default on its notes. Such a situation is called a bank run and caused the demise of many early banks.
The Swedish Riksbank was the world 's first central bank, created in 1668. Many nations followed suit in the late 1600s to establish central banks which were given the legal power to set the reserve requirement, and to specify the form in which such assets (called the monetary base) are required to be held. In order to mitigate the impact of bank failures and financial crises, central banks were also granted the authority to centralize banks ' storage of precious metal reserves, thereby facilitating transfer of gold in the event of bank runs, to regulate commercial banks, impose reserve requirements, and to act as lender - of - last - resort if any bank faced a bank run. The emergence of central banks reduced the risk of bank runs which is inherent in fractional - reserve banking, and it allowed the practice to continue as it does today.
During the twentieth century, the role of the central bank grew to include influencing or managing various macroeconomic policy variables, including measures of inflation, unemployment, and the international balance of payments. In the course of enacting such policy, central banks have from time to time attempted to manage interest rates, reserve requirements, and various measures of the money supply and monetary base.
In most legal systems, a bank deposit is not a bailment. In other words, the funds deposited are no longer the property of the customer. The funds become the property of the bank, and the customer in turn receives an asset called a deposit account (a checking or savings account). That deposit account is a liability on the balance sheet of the bank. Each bank is legally authorized to issue credit up to a specified multiple of its reserves, so reserves available to satisfy payment of deposit liabilities are less than the total amount which the bank is obligated to pay in satisfaction of demand deposits.
Fractional - reserve banking ordinarily functions smoothly. Relatively few depositors demand payment at any given time, and banks maintain a buffer of reserves to cover depositors ' cash withdrawals and other demands for funds. However, during a bank run or a generalized financial crisis, demands for withdrawal can exceed the bank 's funding buffer, and the bank will be forced to raise additional reserves to avoid defaulting on its obligations. A bank can raise funds from additional borrowings (e.g., by borrowing in the interbank lending market or from the central bank), by selling assets, or by calling in short - term loans. If creditors are afraid that the bank is running out of reserves or is insolvent, they have an incentive to redeem their deposits as soon as possible before other depositors access the remaining reserves. Thus the fear of a bank run can actually precipitate the crisis.
Many of the practices of contemporary bank regulation and central banking, including centralized clearing of payments, central bank lending to member banks, regulatory auditing, and government - administered deposit insurance, are designed to prevent the occurrence of such bank runs.
Fractional - reserve banking allows banks to create credit in the form of bank deposits, which represent immediate liquidity to depositors. The banks also provide longer - term loans to borrowers, and act as financial intermediaries for those funds. Less liquid forms of deposit (such as time deposits) or riskier classes of financial assets (such as equities or long - term bonds) may lock up a depositor 's wealth for a period of time, making it unavailable for use on demand. This "borrowing short, lending long, '' or maturity transformation function of fractional - reserve banking is a role that many economists consider to be an important function of the commercial banking system.
Additionally, according to macroeconomic theory, a well - regulated fractional - reserve bank system also benefits the economy by providing regulators with powerful tools for influencing the money supply and interest rates. Many economists believe that these should be adjusted by the government to promote macroeconomic stability.
The process of fractional - reserve banking expands the money supply of the economy but also increases the risk that a bank can not meet its depositor withdrawals. Modern central banking allows banks to practice fractional - reserve banking with inter-bank business transactions with a reduced risk of bankruptcy.
There are two types of money in a fractional - reserve banking system operating with a central bank:
When a deposit of central bank money is made at a commercial bank, the central bank money is removed from circulation and added to the commercial banks ' reserves (it is no longer counted as part of M1 money supply). Simultaneously, an equal amount of new commercial bank money is created in the form of bank deposits.
At least one textbook states that when a loan is made by the commercial bank, the bank is keeping only a fraction of central bank money as reserves and the money supply expands by the size of the loan. This process is called "deposit multiplication ''. However, as explained below, bank loans are only rarely made in this way.
The proceeds of most bank loans are not in the form of currency. Banks typically make loans by accepting promissory notes in exchange for credits they make to the borrowers ' deposit accounts. Deposits created in this way are sometimes called derivative deposits and are part of the process of creation of money by commercial banks. Issuing loan proceeds in the form of paper currency and current coins is considered to be a weakness in internal control.
The money creation process is also affected by the currency drain ratio (the propensity of the public to hold banknotes rather than deposit them with a commercial bank), and the safety reserve ratio (excess reserves beyond the legal requirement that commercial banks voluntarily hold -- usually a small amount). Data for "excess '' reserves and vault cash are published regularly by the Federal Reserve in the United States.
The money multiplier is a heuristic used to demonstrate the maximum amount of broad money that could be created by commercial banks for a given fixed amount of base money and reserve ratio. This theoretical maximum is never reached, because some eligible reserves are held as cash outside of banks. Rather than holding the quantity of base money fixed, central banks have recently pursued an interest rate target to control bank issuance of credit indirectly so the ceiling implied by the money multiplier does not impose a limit on money creation in practice.
The money multiplier, m, is the inverse of the reserve requirement, R:
For example, with the reserve ratio of 20 percent, this reserve ratio, R, can also be expressed as a fraction:
So then the money multiplier, m, will be calculated as:
In countries where fractional - reserve banking is prevalent, commercial bank money usually forms the majority of the money supply. The acceptance and value of commercial bank money is based on the fact that it can be exchanged freely at a commercial bank for central bank money.
The actual increase in the money supply through this process may be lower, as (at each step) banks may choose to hold reserves in excess of the statutory minimum, borrowers may let some funds sit idle, and some members of the public may choose to hold cash, and there also may be delays or frictions in the lending process. Government regulations may also be used to limit the money creation process by preventing banks from giving out loans even though the reserve requirements have been fulfilled.
Because the nature of fractional - reserve banking involves the possibility of bank runs, central banks have been created throughout the world to address these problems.
Government controls and bank regulations related to fractional - reserve banking have generally been used to impose restrictive requirements on note issue and deposit taking on the one hand, and to provide relief from bankruptcy and creditor claims, and / or protect creditors with government funds, when banks defaulted on the other hand. Such measures have included:
The currently prevailing view of reserve requirements is that they are intended to prevent banks from:
In some jurisdictions, (such as the United States and the European Union), the central bank does not require reserves to be held during the day. Reserve requirements are intended to ensure that the banks have sufficient supplies of highly liquid assets, so that the system operates in an orderly fashion and maintains public confidence.
In addition to reserve requirements, there are other required financial ratios that affect the amount of loans that a bank can fund. The capital requirement ratio is perhaps the most important of these other required ratios. When there are no mandatory reserve requirements, which are considered by some economists to restrict lending, the capital requirement ratio acts to prevent an infinite amount of bank lending.
To avoid defaulting on its obligations, the bank must maintain a minimal reserve ratio that it fixes in accordance with, notably, regulations and its liabilities. In practice this means that the bank sets a reserve ratio target and responds when the actual ratio falls below the target. Such response can be, for instance:
Because different funding options have different costs, and differ in reliability, banks maintain a stock of low cost and reliable sources of liquidity such as:
As with reserves, other sources of liquidity are managed with targets.
The ability of the bank to borrow money reliably and economically is crucial, which is why confidence in the bank 's creditworthiness is important to its liquidity. This means that the bank needs to maintain adequate capitalisation and to effectively control its exposures to risk in order to continue its operations. If creditors doubt the bank 's assets are worth more than its liabilities, all demand creditors have an incentive to demand payment immediately, causing a bank run to occur.
Contemporary bank management methods for liquidity are based on maturity analysis of all the bank 's assets and liabilities (off balance sheet exposures may also be included). Assets and liabilities are put into residual contractual maturity buckets such as ' on demand ', ' less than 1 month ', ' 2 -- 3 months ' etc. These residual contractual maturities may be adjusted to account for expected counter party behaviour such as early loan repayments due to borrowers refinancing and expected renewals of term deposits to give forecast cash flows. This analysis highlights any large future net outflows of cash and enables the bank to respond before they occur. Scenario analysis may also be conducted, depicting scenarios including stress scenarios such as a bank - specific crisis.
An example of fractional - reserve banking, and the calculation of the "reserve ratio '' is shown in the balance sheet below:
In this example the cash reserves held by the bank is NZ $3,010 m (NZ $201 m Cash + NZ $2,809 m Balance at Central Bank) and the Demand Deposits (liabilities) of the bank are NZ $25,482 m, for a cash reserve ratio of 11.81 %.
The key financial ratio used to analyze fractional - reserve banks is the cash reserve ratio, which is the ratio of cash reserves to demand deposits. However, other important financial ratios are also used to analyze the bank 's liquidity, financial strength, profitability etc.
For example, the ANZ National Bank Limited balance sheet above gives the following financial ratios:
It is important how the term ' reserves ' is defined for calculating the reserve ratio, as different definitions give different results. Other important financial ratios may require analysis of disclosures in other parts of the bank 's financial statements. In particular, for liquidity risk, disclosures are incorporated into a note to the financial statements that provides maturity analysis of the bank 's assets and liabilities and an explanation of how the bank manages its liquidity.
Sir Mervyn King, former Governor of the Bank of England said "Textbooks assume that money is exogenous ''... "In the United Kingdom, money is endogenous ''.
Glenn Stevens, governor of the Reserve Bank of Australia, said of the "money multiplier '', "most practitioners find it to be a pretty unsatisfactory description of how the monetary and credit system actually works. ''
Lord Adair Turner, formerly the UK 's chief financial regulator, said "Banks do not, as too many textbooks still suggest, take deposits of existing money from savers and lend it out to borrowers: they create credit and money ex nihilo -- extending a loan to the borrower and simultaneously crediting the borrower 's money account ''.
Former Deputy Governor of the Bank of Canada William White said "Some decades ago, the academic literature would have emphasised the importance of the reserves supplied by the central bank to the banking system, and the implications (via the money multiplier) for the growth of money and credit. Today, it is more broadly understood that no industrial country conducts policy in this way under normal circumstances. ''
In 1935, economist Irving Fisher proposed a system of 100 % reserve banking as a means of reversing the deflation of the Great Depression. He wrote: "100 per cent banking... would give the Federal Reserve absolute control over the money supply. Recall that under the present fractional - reserve system of depository institutions, the money supply is determined in the short run by such non-policy variables as the currency / deposit ratio of the public and the excess reserve ratio of depository institutions. ''
Austrian School economists such as Jesús Huerta de Soto and Murray Rothbard have also strongly criticized fractional - reserve banking, calling for it to be outlawed and criminalized. According to them, not only does money creation cause macroeconomic instability (based on the Austrian Business Cycle Theory), but it is a form of embezzlement or financial fraud, legalized only due to the influence of powerful rich bankers on corrupt governments around the world. Politician Ron Paul has also criticized fractional reserve banking based on Austrian School arguments.
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when did andres iniesta start playing for barcelona | Andrés Iniesta - wikipedia
Andrés Iniesta Luján (Spanish pronunciation: (anˈdɾes iˈnjesta luˈxan); born 11 May 1984) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays as a central midfielder for Japanese club Vissel Kobe. He spent most of his career at Barcelona, where he served as the captain for three seasons.
Iniesta came through La Masia, the Barcelona youth academy, after an early migration from his birthplace, and impressed from an early age. He made his first - team debut aged 18 in 2002. He began playing regularly during the 2004 -- 05 season and has remained in the team ever since. Iniesta was an integral part of the Barcelona sides that won two historic trebles in 2009 and 2015, and his 33 trophies make him the most decorated Spanish footballer of all time.
Iniesta played for Spain at the Under - 16, Under - 19 and Under - 21 levels before making his international debut in 2006. He helped Spain win Euro 2008, playing every game and being selected in the Team of the Tournament. Iniesta was also a key member of the victorious Spanish team at the 2010 World Cup; he scored the winning goal in the final against the Netherlands, for which he was named the Man of the Match, and was selected to the tournament 's All - Star Team. At Euro 2012, Iniesta led Spain to their second consecutive continental crown, again being chosen as the Man of the Match of the final against Italy, and was named the Player of the Tournament.
Iniesta is widely considered to be one of the best players of his generation and one of the greatest midfielders of all time. Since 2009, he has been chosen in the UEFA Team of the Year six times and has been voted into the FIFA World XI on nine occasions. Iniesta won the UEFA Best Player in Europe Award in 2012 and was named the IFFHS World 's Best Playmaker in 2012 and 2013. He was runner - up to Lionel Messi for the 2010 FIFA Ballon d'Or and achieved third place in 2012.
Iniesta comes from Fuentealbilla, a small village in the province of Albacete, Castile -- La Mancha, Spain. At the age of 12, while playing for Albacete Balompié in a junior seven - a-side tournament in Albacete, he attracted the attention of scouts from clubs around Spain. His parents knew Barcelona 's youth team coach, Enrique Orizaola, and he persuaded them to consider sending Iniesta to the Barcelona youth academy. Iniesta traveled there with his parents and visited La Masia, the farmhouse where the club houses its young players; the trip convinced them to enroll Iniesta in the Barcelona youth ranks.
-- Iniesta on La Masia education of ball retention, passing and using space
Iniesta says he "cried rivers '' the day he left for La Masia and struggled being separated from his parents; he was very shy and kept to himself while there. He captained the Barcelona Under - 15 team to victory in the Nike Premier Cup of 1999, scoring the winning goal in the last minute of the final, and was named player of the tournament. Just after Iniesta arrived at the club, then - captain Pep Guardiola famously told fellow midfielder Xavi: "You 're going to retire me. This lad (Iniesta) is going to retire us all. ''
In the 2004 -- 05 season, Iniesta featured in 37 out of 38 league games -- more than any other player -- although 25 of these were substitute appearances. He scored twice as Barcelona won La Liga. An injury to Xavi at the start of the 2005 -- 06 season allowed Iniesta more regular starts in the centre of midfield, and he continued to improve and develop. He played in 11 UEFA Champions League games, including a half - time appearance in the 2006 final, to replace Edmílson. His contribution to the team was praised by manager Frank Rijkaard as Barcelona won a league and Champions League double.
The 2006 -- 07 season saw Iniesta 's profile continue to rise and he earned plaudits for his willingness to play in any position for his team. In the pre-season, he lifted the Joan Gamper Trophy as the captain of the team after a 4 -- 0 victory over German side Bayern Munich. Iniesta played for the first time as a left wing - forward for Barça in two Champions League matches against Levski Sofia, finding the net twice. In the first knockout stage of the same competition, he played in central midfield against Liverpool. Despite being moved around the pitch by manager Rijkaard, the 2006 -- 07 season remains Iniesta 's highest scoring thus far.
With the departure of Ludovic Giuly ahead of the 2007 -- 08 campaign, Iniesta was able to switch his number 24 shirt for his preferred number 8. Despite rumours of a possible transfer before the season, he extended his contract to 2014 on 25 January 2008, with his buy - out clause being raised to € 150 million. Don Balón, a member of European Sports Magazines, named Iniesta one of the most consistent performers in the previous two seasons of La Liga; he placed fifth in 2006 -- 07 and fourth in 2007 -- 08. He also placed ninth in the 2008 FIFA World Player of the Year voting, gaining 37 total points.
At the start of the 2008 -- 09 season, in September 2008, Iniesta was elected the fourth - choice captain behind, in order of preference, Carles Puyol, Xavi and Víctor Valdés; all four were products of the Barcelona youth system. His performances throughout the season were highly lauded, and he received standing ovations both in Barcelona at the Camp Nou, as well as from rival supporters in away matches. A leg injury sustained in mid-November 2008 left Iniesta sidelined until 3 January; initially expected to return to action in six weeks, he did not want to come back until he was 100 percent. Upon his return to action, as a 65th - minute substitute against Mallorca, he scored a crucial goal after just ten minutes on the pitch and completed a Barcelona comeback in front of the Camp Nou.
Iniesta sustained another injury during a home match against Málaga, but returned to action for the first leg Champions League quarter - final against Bayern Munich, which Barcelona won 4 -- 0. He scored a vital equaliser in the final minute of stoppage time during the second leg of the Champions League semi-final against Chelsea, with a curling strike with the outside of his right foot 25 yards from goal, securing the tie on away goals as the match finished 1 -- 1. In the season review, Un Any Al Paradis, Iniesta wrote, "I connected with that shot with the outside, not the inside or the tip of my boot, but right from my heart, with all my might. ''
-- Iniesta on the victorious 2009 UEFA Champions League Final
Iniesta 's goal against Chelsea sent Barcelona through to the final in Rome against defending champions Manchester United. Prior to the final, United manager Alex Ferguson identified Iniesta as Barça 's biggest threat: "He 's fantastic. He makes the team work. The way he finds passes, his movement and ability to create space is incredible. He 's so important for Barcelona. '' Despite a thigh injury, Iniesta played and was influential in the game, providing the assist for the first goal scored by Samuel Eto'o as his team went on to win 2 -- 0. In his analysis, David Pleat wrote, "In the end the midfield artistry of Iniesta and Xavi, helped by (Lionel) Messi, was the critical factor. '' After the game, United striker Wayne Rooney described Iniesta as the best player in the world.
Iniesta received plaudits for his performances that season; Don Balón rated him as the league 's most consistent performer. Later that year, he placed fifth for the 2009 FIFA World Player of the Year award, with 134 votes, and fourth for the Ballon d'Or, receiving 149 points. Barcelona extended his contract by one year, until 2015, and raised his buy - out clause to € 200 million.
Barcelona won a second successive league title in the 2009 -- 10 season, securing a record 99 points. Individually, however, Iniesta endured a campaign largely disrupted by recurring injuries. He missed pre-season fitness training due to the thigh tear suffered in the 2009 Champions League final. Despite featuring in almost as many matches as the previous season, he did so mostly as a substitute, starting only 20 games throughout. His season came to a premature end in April after he aggravated a previous calf injury during training.
A contributing factor of Iniesta 's fractured season were the episodes of psychological instability he suffered privately following the death of his close friend Daniel Jarque, a fellow footballer, in August 2009. Even when physically fit, he was often unable to complete training sessions or exert himself. After seeking psychological help, he experienced catharsis when he scored Spain 's match - winning goal in the 2010 FIFA World Cup final, which he dedicated to Jarque by revealing the message "Dani Jarque, always with us '' written on his undershirt. "I did it because I felt it deeply, '' Iniesta said at the time. "It showed that what is more important than rivalry, your team or your colours is to be human and a good person. I am delighted because it was the most important moment in my career. '' Regarding the recurrent injuries that plagued his season, he said, "It was hard, but I will start with more desire than ever. ''
Iniesta scored his first goal of the 2010 -- 11 season during the opening league fixture against Racing de Santander, lobbing the ball into the net from a distance of 30 yards. Throughout the campaign, he received standing ovations from opposition fans, including at El Sardinero and the Vicente Calderón Stadium, in appreciation of his World Cup - winning goal. Another standing ovation came on the home pitch of Espanyol in the Derbi barceloní, with the crowd acknowledging his friendship with Daniel Jarque, Espanyol 's captain at the time of his death. Iniesta was one of the three finalists for the 2010 FIFA Ballon d'Or alongside Xavi and Messi, placing as runner - up behind the Argentine.
Iniesta started the 2011 -- 12 season by scoring the opening goal in the second leg of the Supercopa de España against rivals Real Madrid. Barcelona went on to win the match 3 -- 2 and the cup 5 -- 4 on aggregate. One of his best goals followed in October against Viktoria Plzeň in the Champions League group stage after an interchange of passes with Messi. Iniesta played a record 51 matches unbeaten in La Liga, concluding with Barcelona 's 2 -- 0 defeat of Mallorca on 24 March. In the Champions League, he ended a goal drought by scoring a vital goal against Milan in the quarter - finals. From there, he went on to score in the semi-final against Chelsea to make the scoreline 2 -- 0, but the match ended 2 -- 2, eliminating his team 3 -- 2 on aggregate. Towards the end of the year, on 25 November, Iniesta was named man of the match after scoring one goal and providing three assists in a 4 -- 0 win over Levante. His performances earned him third place in the voting of the 2012 FIFA Ballon d'Or.
Iniesta signed a new contract with Barcelona in December 2013, keeping him at the club until 2018. As vice-captain, he regularly captained Barça throughout the club 's second treble - winning campaign of the 2014 -- 15 season, and became captain after Carles Puyol 's retirement and Xavi 's departure. Iniesta scored three times during the team 's Copa del Rey campaign, and was man of the match in the 2015 UEFA Champions League Final, having assisted Ivan Rakitić 's opening goal in the 3 -- 1 defeat of Italian champions Juventus at Berlin 's Olympiastadion. Their European victory made Barcelona the first club in history to win the treble of domestic league, domestic cup and European Cup twice; Iniesta was among the seven players to have been a part of both treble - winning teams.
During the first Clásico of the 2015 -- 16 season, on 21 November, Iniesta became only the third Barcelona player, after Diego Maradona in 1983 and Ronaldinho in 2005, to receive applause from Real Madrid fans at the Santiago Bernabéu. His man - of - the - match performance included a goal and an assist, contributing to a resounding 4 -- 0 victory.
He signed a lifetime contract with Barcelona on 6 October 2017, effectively keeping him with the club for the remainder of his career. He played the 650th game of his career for Barcelona against Levante on 7 January 2018, he was replaced by André Gomes after 76 minutes as the game ended 3 -- 0 in favour of Barcelona.
Despite signing a lifetime contract, on 27 April 2018, Iniesta announced he would be leaving Barcelona by the end of the season. He made his 674th and final appearance for Barcelona on 20 May, in the final league match of the season, a 1 -- 0 home victory over Real Sociedad, as Barcelona celebrated the victory of their 25th league and 30th Copa del Rey title; he came off in the 81st minute for Paco Alcácer.
On 24 May 2018, Japanese club Vissel Kobe announced the signing of Iniesta on a three - year deal. He made his debut on 22 July, coming on as a second - half substitute for Kazuma Watanabe in a 0 -- 3 defeat against Shonan Bellmare.
Iniesta burst on to the international scene in 2001, helping Spain win the UEFA European Under - 16 Championship. After representing his country at the 2001 FIFA U-17 World Championship held in Trinidad and Tobago, he was in the squad that claimed the UEFA European Under - 19 Championship the following year. From then, he became a regular choice for youth coach Juan Santisteban. In 2003, he was part of the side that reached the FIFA World Youth Championship final in the United Arab Emirates, and was named in the FIFA all - star team. During his spell with the Spain U21 side, Iniesta was named captain on several occasions.
Iniesta was called up to represent the senior Spain squad at the 2006 FIFA World Cup on 15 May 2006, much to the surprise of many. He won his first cap for La Furia Roja when he was brought on at half - time in a friendly against Russia on 27 May. His first goal followed in a friendly against England on 7 February 2007. His long - range effort, hitting the underside of the crossbar on the way in, gave Spain the lead on 63 minutes. Iniesta played a pivotal part in Spain 's qualification for UEFA Euro 2008 by scoring goals against Sweden and by assisting the strikers.
Iniesta was selected in Spain 's squad for UEFA Euro 2008 in Austria and Switzerland. Though a stomach ailment somewhat hampered his performances in the group stages, he still played an integral part in the midfield. He played in the first two of Spain 's group stage matches and proved an important part of the team, providing a pass for David Villa 's second goal against Russia. He was not rested, unlike most of Spain 's regulars, for the final group game against Greece, which Spain won 2 -- 1 thanks to a volley from Rubén de la Red and a late winner from Daniel Güiza. Iniesta returned for the quarter - final as Spain beat Italy on penalties; he was substituted before the penalty shootout itself. In the semi-final against Russia, he played the entire 90 minutes and produced a cross that Xavi converted to open the scoring; he was subsequently named the Man of the Match. He played the duration of the final in Spain 's 1 -- 0 win over Germany. Iniesta was named in the Team of the Tournament alongside fellow Spain midfielders Xavi, Marcos Senna and six other teammates. Iniesta did not participate in the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup in South Africa due to a thigh muscle injury; Spain was eliminated from the tournament at the semi-final stage.
Iniesta was selected for Spain in the 2010 World Cup and scored the second goal in a 2 -- 1 group stage win against Chile. He was also named man of the match. For his excellent performances in helping Spain reach the final of the tournament, Iniesta was shortlisted for the Golden Ball award. During the final, he scored the winning goal in the 116th minute of a 1 -- 0 win against Netherlands. He earned a yellow card for removing his jersey during his celebration to reveal his message to his late friend Dani Jarque. He won the man of the match award for his performance in the final, which gave Spain its first - ever World Cup.
At UEFA Euro 2012, Iniesta was awarded the man of the match award for his performances in three different matches. He was also selected as man of the match in the final against Italy, which Spain won 4 -- 0. In winning the award, Iniesta became the only Spanish player to win the award at least once in each of Spain 's three consecutive successful tournaments. Iniesta was also chosen as the UEFA Euro 2012 Player of the Tournament.
At the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, Iniesta was named in the Team of the Tournament and awarded the Silver Ball for the second best player in the competition, as Spain finished runner - up to host nation Brazil. Iniesta started all three matches for Spain at the 2014 World Cup, winning his 100th cap in the team 's final group match against Australia. At the UEFA Euro 2016, he assisted the only goal of the match against Czech Republic and put in a man of the match display to give Spain a winning start in the tournament. He started in all four Spain 's matches and were later knocked out by Italy in the Round of 16.
In May 2018, Iniesta was named in Spain 's squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. He started in all three matches of the group stage, making an assist for Isco in the 2 -- 2 draw against Morocco on 25 June 2018. He came off the bench in the 67th minute in Spain 's last match at the tournament against Russia on 1 July 2018 for the round of 16. After the loss in the penalty shoot - outs, Iniesta announced his retirement from international duty.
Like fellow La Masia graduate Cesc Fàbregas, Iniesta originally started as a defensive midfielder, but his balance, ball control and agility allied with his skill on the ball saw him make progress as an attacking midfielder. Beyond his raw talent that was spotted at a young age by Barcelona 's scouts, it was his great versatility, work ethic and inventiveness that allowed him to stake a claim on a first - team place at the age of 18. Vicente del Bosque described him as "the complete footballer. He can attack and defend, he creates and scores, '' and Frank Rijkaard said, "I played him as a false winger, central midfielder, deep midfielder and just behind the striker and he was always excellent. '' He was used initially as a wide - forward in the absence of Juan Román Riquelme and Ronaldinho by Louis van Gaal and Rijkaard respectively, but made his name as a world - class player in central midfield alongside or in lieu of Xavi, at both club and international level. As FIFA.com says, "It is in this position that his direct style and quick feet can be used to full effect, with the ball seeming glued to his toes as he races into threatening positions. Iniesta is a player known for his passing, dribbling, vision and movement. '' His signature move is La Croqueta -- a move pioneered by Michael Laudrup and popularised by Iniesta -- where he quickly pushes the ball from his right foot to his left which takes the ball away from an opponent, allowing him to get out of a tight situation.
Former Argentina playmaker Juan Román Riquelme on Iniesta
Much like other Barcelona youth products such as Pep Guardiola, Xavi and Iván de la Peña, Iniesta is a playmaker who relies on exceptional creative passing, intuition and inventiveness to control the midfield and dictate the ebb and flow of play. Iniesta has been praised for his understanding and interplay with Xavi; former Barcelona teammate Giovanni van Bronckhorst said of the pair, "They have a special relationship, they always have, they just seem to know where the other one is. '' During his maturation as a player, he has gained a reputation for playing a part in important goals for club and country, specifically playing a leading role in the 2006, 2009, 2011 and 2015 UEFA Champions League finals, as well as the 2010 World Cup Final, Euro 2012 final and Euro 2008 semi-final.
His willingness to play anywhere on the pitch has earned him the sobriquet El Ilusionista (The Illusionist), El Cerebro (The Brain), El Anti-Galáctico (a pun on Real Madrid players ' nickname Los Galácticos), El Caballero Pálido (The Pale Knight) and most recently Don Andrés from the Spanish press. Zinedine Zidane also praised Iniesta, stating on the Spanish radio station Cadena COPE, "Iniesta really impresses me. He 's got so much influence in Spain 's game. He reminds me of myself. '' Fernando Torres, Spain 's striker, said, "We 've been playing together since we were 15 and I have never, ever seen him play badly. '' He is widely regarded as one of the most respected and best midfielders of all time.
Iniesta has a sponsorship deal with American sportswear and equipment supplier, Nike, and has appeared in Nike commercials alongside Cristiano Ronaldo, Neymar, Zlatan Ibrahimović and Wayne Rooney. Iniesta features in EA Sports ' FIFA video game series, and was the sixth - highest rated player in FIFA 15. In March 2015, Iniesta had the ninth highest social media rank in the world among sportspeople, with 24 million Facebook fans.
Iniesta is married to Anna Ortiz; the couple began dating in 2008 and wed on 8 July 2012. They have two daughters, Valeria (born April 2011) and Siena (born May 2017), and a son, Paolo Andrea (born May 2015). They lost an unborn child, son Andrés Jr., due to miscarriage in March 2014. Iniesta is a Catholic.
In 2011, Iniesta invested € 420,000 in his boyhood club, Albacete, thus becoming its major shareholder. Two years later, with the club facing administrative relegation to the fourth tier of Spanish football, he loaned them a further € 240,000 to cover unpaid wages.
On May 2018 Iniesta revealed to Risto Mejide he suffered a depression before the 2010 FIFA World Cup due to his lesions and the death of Daniel Jarque.
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salt satyagraha the civil disobedience movement begins with the dandi march | Salt march - wikipedia
The Salt March, also known as the Dandi March and the Dandi Satyagraha, was an act of nonviolent civil disobedience in colonial India led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to produce salt from the seawater in the coastal village of Dandi (now in Gujarat), as was the practice of the local populace until British officials introduced taxation on salt production, deemed their sea - salt reclamation activities illegal, and then repeatedly used force to stop it. The 26 - day march lasted from 12 March 1930 to 6 April 1930 as a direct action campaign of tax resistance and nonviolent protest against the British salt monopoly. It gained worldwide attention which gave impetus to the Indian independence movement and started the nationwide Civil Disobedience Movement. Mahatma Gandhi started this march with 78 of his trusted volunteers. The march was over 240 miles. They walked for 24 days 10 miles a day.
The march was the most significant organised challenge to British authority since the Non-cooperation movement of 1920 -- 22, and directly followed the Purna Swaraj declaration of sovereignty and self - rule by the Indian National Congress on 26 January 1930.
Gandhi led the Dandi March from his base, Sabarmati Ashram, 240 miles (390 km) to the coastal village of Dandi, which was at a small town called Navsari (now in the state of Gujarat) to produce salt without paying the tax, growing numbers of Indians joined them along the way. When Gandhi broke the salt laws at 6: 30 am on 6 April 1930, it sparked large scale acts of civil disobedience against the British Raj salt laws by millions of Indians. The campaign had a significant effect on changing world and British attitudes towards Indian sovereignty and self - rule and caused large numbers of Indians to join the fight for the first time. After making salt at Dandi, Gandhi continued southward along the coast, making salt and addressing meetings on the way. The Congress Party planned to stage a satyagraha at the Dharasana Salt Works, 25 miles south of Dandi. However, Gandhi was arrested on the midnight of 4 -- 5 May 1930, just days before the planned action at Dharasana. The Dandi March and the ensuing Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide attention to the Indian independence movement through extensive newspaper and newsreel coverage. The satyagraha against the salt tax continued for almost a year, ending with Gandhi 's release from jail and negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin at the Second Round Table Conference. Over 60,000 Indians were jailed as a result of the Salt Satyagraha. However, it failed to result in major concessions from the British.
The Salt Satyagraha campaign was based upon Gandhi 's principles of non-violent protest called satyagraha, which he loosely translated as "truth - force ''. '' Literally, it is formed from the Sanskrit words satya, "truth '', and agraha, "insistence ''. In early 1930 the Indian National Congress chose satyagraha as their main tactic for winning Indian sovereignty and self - rule from British rule and appointed Gandhi to organise the campaign. Gandhi chose the 1882 British Salt Act as the first target of satyagraha. The Salt March to Dandi, and the beating by British police of hundreds of nonviolent protesters in Dharasana, which received worldwide news coverage, demonstrated the effective use of civil disobedience as a technique for fighting social and political injustice. The satyagraha teachings of Gandhi and the March to Dandi had a significant influence on American activists Martin Luther King Jr., James Bevel, and others during the Civil Rights Movement for civil rights for African Americans and other minority groups in the 1960s.
At midnight on 31 December 1929, the Indian National Congress raised the tricolour flag of India on the banks of the Ravi at Lahore. The Indian National Congress, led by Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, publicly issued the Declaration of sovereignty and self - rule, or Purna Swaraj, on 26 January 1930. (Literally in Sanskrit, purna, "complete, '' swa, "self, '' raj, "rule, '' so therefore "complete self - rule ''.) The declaration included the readiness to withhold taxes, and the statement:
We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life, so that they may have full opportunities of growth. We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them the people have a further right to alter it or abolish it. The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally and spiritually. We believe therefore, that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraji or complete sovereignty and self - rule.
The Congress Working Committee gave Gandhi the responsibility for organising the first act of civil disobedience, with Congress itself ready to take charge after Gandhi 's expected arrest. Gandhi 's plan was to begin civil disobedience with a satyagraha aimed at the British salt tax. The 1882 Salt Act gave the British a monopoly on the collection and manufacture of salt, limiting its handling to government salt depots and levying a salt tax. Violation of the Salt Act was a criminal offence. Even though salt was freely available to those living on the coast (by evaporation of sea water), Indians were forced to buy it from the colonial government.
Initially, Gandhi 's choice of the salt tax was met with incredulity by the Working Committee of the Congress, Jawaharlal Nehru and Dibyalochan Sahoo were ambivalent; Sardar Patel suggested a land revenue boycott instead. The Statesman, a prominent newspaper, wrote about the choice: "It is difficult not to laugh, and we imagine that will be the mood of most thinking Indians. ''
The British establishment too was not disturbed by these plans of resistance against the salt tax. The Viceroy himself, Lord Irwin, did not take the threat of a salt protest seriously, writing to London, "At present the prospect of a salt campaign does not keep me awake at night. ''
However, Gandhi had sound reasons for his decision. The salt tax was a deeply symbolic choice, since salt was used by nearly everyone in India, to replace the salt lost by sweating in India 's tropical climate. An item of daily use could resonate more with all classes of citizens than an abstract demand for greater political rights. The salt tax represented 8.2 % of the British Raj tax revenue, and hurt the poorest Indians the most significantly. Explaining his choice, Gandhi said, "Next to air and water, salt is perhaps the greatest necessity of life. '' In contrast to the other leaders, the prominent Congress statesman and future Governor - General of India, C. Rajagopalachari, understood Gandhi 's viewpoint. In a public meeting at Tuticorin, he said:
Suppose, a people rise in revolt. They can not attack the abstract constitution or lead an army against proclamations and statutes... Civil disobedience has to be directed against the salt tax or the land tax or some other particular point -- not that; that is our final end, but for the time being it is our aim, and we must shoot straight.
Gandhi felt that this protest would dramatise Purna Swaraj in a way that was meaningful to every Indian. He also reasoned that it would build unity between Hindus and Muslims by fighting a wrong that touched them equally.
After the protest gathered steam, the leaders realised the power of salt as a symbol. Nehru remarked about the unprecedented popular response, "it seemed as though a spring had been suddenly released. ''
Gandhi had a long - standing commitment to nonviolent civil disobedience, which he termed satyagraha, as the basis for achieving Indian sovereignty and self - rule. Referring to the relationship between satyagraha and Purna Swaraj, Gandhi saw "an inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree. '' He wrote, "If the means employed are impure, the change will not be in the direction of progress but very likely in the opposite. Only a change brought about in our political condition by pure means can lead to real progress. ''
Satyagraha is a synthesis of the Sanskrit words Satya (truth) and Agraha (insistence on). For Gandhi, satyagraha went far beyond mere "passive resistance '' and became strength in practising nonviolent methods. In his words:
Truth (satya) implies love, and firmness (agraha) engenders and therefore serves as a synonym for force. I thus began to call the Indian movement Satyagraha, that is to say, the Force which is born of Truth and Love or nonviolence, and gave up the use of the phrase "passive resistance '', in connection with it, so much so that even in English writing we often avoided it and used instead the word "satyagraha ''...
His first significant attempt in India at leading mass satyagraha was the non-cooperation movement from 1920 -- 1922. Even though it succeeded in raising millions of Indians in protest against the British created Rowlatt Acts, violence broke out at Chauri Chaura, where a mob killed 22 unarmed policemen. Gandhi suspended the protest, against the opposition of other Congress members. He decided that Indians were not yet ready for successful nonviolent resistance. The Bardoli Satyagraha in 1928 was much more successful. It succeeded in paralysing the British government and winning significant concessions. More importantly, due to extensive press coverage, it scored a propaganda victory out of all proportion to its size. Gandhi later claimed that success at Bardoli confirmed his belief in Satyagraha and Swaraj: "It is only gradually that we shall come to know the importance of the victory gained at Bardoli... Bardoli has shown the way and cleared it. Swaraj lies on that route, and that alone is the cure... '' Gandhi recruited heavily from the Bardoli Satyagraha participants for the Dandi march, which passed through many of the same villages that took part in the Bardoli protests.
On 5 February, newspapers reported that Gandhi would begin civil disobedience by defying the salt laws. The salt satyagraha would begin on 12 March and end in Dandi with Gandhi breaking the Salt Act on 6 April. Gandhi chose 6 April to launch the mass breaking of the salt laws for a symbolic reason -- it was the first day of "National Week '', begun in 1919 when Gandhi conceived of the national hartal (strike) against the Rowlatt Act.
Gandhi prepared the worldwide media for the march by issuing regular statements from Sabarmati, at his regular prayer meetings and through direct contact with the press. Expectations were heightened by his repeated statements anticipating arrest, and his increasingly dramatic language as the hour approached: "We are entering upon a life and death struggle, a holy war; we are performing an all - embracing sacrifice in which we wish to offer ourselves as oblation. '' Correspondents from dozens of Indian, European, and American newspapers, along with film companies, responded to the drama and began covering the event.
For the march itself, Gandhi wanted the strictest discipline and adherence to satyagraha and ahimsa. For that reason, he recruited the marchers not from Congress Party members, but from the residents of his own ashram, who were trained in Gandhi 's strict standards of discipline. The 24 - day march would pass through 4 districts and 48 villages. The route of the march, along with each evening 's stopping place, was planned based on recruitment potential, past contacts, and timing. Gandhi sent scouts to each village ahead of the march so he could plan his talks at each resting place, based on the needs of the local residents. Events at each village were scheduled and publicised in Indian and foreign press.
On 2 March 1930 Gandhi wrote to the Viceroy, Lord Irwin, offering to stop the march if Irwin met eleven demands, including reduction of land revenue assessments, cutting military spending, imposing a tariff on foreign cloth, and abolishing the salt tax. His strongest appeal to Irwin regarded the salt tax:
If my letter makes no appeal to your heart, on the eleventh day of this month I shall proceed with such co-workers of the Ashram as I can take, to disregard the provisions of the Salt Laws. I regard this tax to be the most iniquitous of all from the poor man 's standpoint. As the sovereignty and self - rule movement is essentially for the poorest in the land, the beginning will be made with this evil.
As mentioned earlier, the Viceroy held any prospect of a ' salt protest ' in disdain. After he ignored the letter and refused to meet with Gandhi, the march was set in motion. Gandhi remarked, "On bended knees I asked for bread and I have received stone instead. '' The eve of the march brought thousands of Indians to Sabarmati to hear Gandhi speak at the regular evening prayer. An American academic writing for The Nation reported that "60,000 persons gathered on the bank of the river to hear Gandhi 's call to arms. This call to arms was perhaps the most remarkable call to war that has ever been made. ''
On 12 March 1930, Gandhi and 80 satyagrahis, many of whom were from scheduled castes, set out on foot for the coastal village of Dandi, Gujarat, over 390 kilometres (240 mi) from their starting point at Sabarmati Ashram. The Salt March was also called the White Flowing River because all the people were joining the procession wearing white khadi.
According to The Statesman, the official government newspaper which usually played down the size of crowds at Gandhi 's functions, 100,000 people crowded the road that separated Sabarmati from Ahmadabad. The first day 's march of 21 kilometres (13 mi) ended in the village of Aslali, where Gandhi spoke to a crowd of about 4,000. At Aslali, and the other villages that the march passed through, volunteers collected donations, registered new satyagrahis, and received resignations from village officials who chose to end co-operation with British rule.
As they entered each village, crowds greeted the marchers, beating drums and cymbals. Gandhi gave speeches attacking the salt tax as inhuman, and the salt satyagraha as a "poor man 's struggle ''. Each night they slept in the open. The only thing that was asked of the villagers was food and water to wash with. Gandhi felt that this would bring the poor into the struggle for sovereignty and self - rule, necessary for eventual victory.
Thousands of satyagrahis and leaders like Sarojini Naidu joined him. Every day, more and more people joined the march, until the procession of marchers became at least two miles long. To keep up their spirits, the marchers used to sing the Hindu bhajan Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram while walking. At Surat, they were greeted by 30,000 people. When they reached the railhead at Dandi, more than 50,000 were gathered. Gandhi gave interviews and wrote articles along the way. Foreign journalists and three Bombay cinema companies shooting newsreel footage turned Gandhi into a household name in Europe and America (at the end of 1930, Time magazine made him "Man of the Year ''). The New York Times wrote almost daily about the Salt March, including two front - page articles on 6 and 7 April. Near the end of the march, Gandhi declared, "I want world sympathy in this battle of right against might. ''
Upon arriving at the seashore on 5 April, Gandhi was interviewed by an Associated Press reporter. He stated:
I can not withhold my compliments from the government for the policy of complete non interference adopted by them throughout the march... I wish I could believe this non-interference was due to any real change of heart or policy. The wanton disregard shown by them to popular feeling in the Legislative Assembly and their high - handed action leave no room for doubt that the policy of heartless exploitation of India is to be persisted in at any cost, and so the only interpretation I can put upon this non-interference is that the British Government, powerful though it is, is sensitive to world opinion which will not tolerate repression of extreme political agitation which civil disobedience undoubtedly is, so long as disobedience remains civil and therefore necessarily non-violent... It remains to be seen whether the Government will tolerate as they have tolerated the march, the actual breach of the salt laws by countless people from tomorrow.
The following morning, after a prayer, Gandhi raised a lump of salty mud and declared, "With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire. '' He then boiled it in seawater, producing illegal salt. He implored his thousands of followers to likewise begin making salt along the seashore, "wherever it is convenient '' and to instruct villagers in making illegal, but necessary, salt.
79 Marchers accompanied Gandhi on his march. Most of them were between the ages of 20 and 30. These men hailed from almost all parts of the country. The march gathered more people as it gained momentum, but the following list of names were the first 79 marchers who were with Gandhi from the beginning of the Dandi March until the end. Most of them simply dispersed after the march was over.
A memorial has been created inside the campus of IIT Bombay honouring these Satyagrahis.
Mass civil disobedience spread throughout India as millions broke the salt laws by making salt or buying illegal salt. Salt was sold illegally all over the coast of India. A pinch of salt made by Gandhi himself sold for 1,600 rupees (equivalent to $750 at the time). In reaction, the British government arrested over sixty thousand people by the end of the month.
What had begun as a Salt Satyagraha quickly grew into a mass Satyagraha. British cloth and goods were boycotted. Unpopular forest laws were defied in the Maharashtra, Karnataka and Central Provinces. Gujarati peasants refused to pay tax, under threat of losing their crops and land. In Midnapore, Bengalis took part by refusing to pay the chowkidar tax. The British responded with more laws, including censorship of correspondence and declaring the Congress and its associate organisations illegal. None of those measures slowed the civil disobedience movement.
There were outbreaks of violence in Calcutta (now Kolkata), Karachi, and Gujarat. Unlike his suspension of satyagraha after violence broke out during the Non-co - operation movement, this time Gandhi was "unmoved ''. Appealing for violence to end, at the same time Gandhi honoured those killed in Chittagong and congratulated their parents "for the finished sacrifices of their sons... A warrior 's death is never a matter for sorrow. ''
In Peshawar, satyagraha was led by a Muslim Pashto disciple of Gandhi, Ghaffar Khan, who had trained 50,000 nonviolent activists called Khudai Khidmatgar. On 23 April 1930, Ghaffar Khan was arrested. A crowd of Khudai Khidmatgar gathered in Peshawar 's Kissa Khani (Storytellers) Bazaar. The British ordered troops of 2 / 18 battalion of Royal Garhwal Rifles to open fire with machine guns on the unarmed crowd, killing an estimated 200 -- 250. The Pashtun satyagrahis acted in accord with their training in nonviolence, willingly facing bullets as the troops fired on them. One British Indian Army Soldier Chandra Singh Garwali and troops of the renowned Royal Garhwal Rifles, refused to fire at the crowds. The entire platoon was arrested and many received heavy penalties, including life imprisonment.
While Gandhi marched along India 's west coast, his close associate C. Rajagopalachari, who would later become sovereign India 's first Governor - General, organized the Vedaranyam salt march in parallel on the east coast. His group started from Tiruchirappalli, in Madras Presidency (now part of Tamil Nadu), to the coastal village of Vedaranyam. After making illegal salt there, he too was arrested by the British.
The civil disobedience in 1930 marked the first time women became mass participants in the struggle for freedom. Thousands of women, from large cities to small villages, became active participants in satyagraha. Gandhi had asked that only men take part in the salt march, but eventually women began manufacturing and selling salt throughout India. It was clear that though only men were allowed within the march, that both men and women were expected to forward work that would help dissolve the salt laws. Usha Mehta, an early Gandhian activist, remarked that "Even our old aunts and great - aunts and grandmothers used to bring pitchers of salt water to their houses and manufacture illegal salt. And then they would shout at the top of their voices: ' We have broken the salt law! ' '' The growing number of women in the fight for sovereignty and self - rule was a "new and serious feature '' according to Lord Irwin. A government report on the involvement of women stated "thousands of them emerged... from the seclusion of their homes... in order to join Congress demonstrations and assist in picketing: and their presence on these occasions made the work the police was required to perform particularly unpleasant. '' Though women did become involved in the march, it was clear that Gandhi saw women as still playing a secondary role within the movement, but created the beginning of a push for women to be more involved in the future.
"Sarojini Naidu was among the most visible leaders (male or female) of pre-independent India. As president of the Indian National Congress and the first woman governor of free India, she was a fervent advocate for India, avidly mobilizing support for the Indian independence movement. She was also the first woman to be arrested in the salt march. ''
British documents show that the British government was shaken by satyagraha. Nonviolent protest left the British confused about whether or not to jail Gandhi. John Court Curry, a British police officer stationed in India, wrote in his memoirs that he felt nausea every time he dealt with Congress demonstrations in 1930. Curry and others in British government, including Wedgwood Benn, Secretary of State for India, preferred fighting violent rather than nonviolent opponents.
Gandhi himself avoided further active involvement after the march, though he stayed in close contact with the developments throughout India. He created a temporary ashram near Dandi. From there, he urged women followers in Bombay (now Mumbai) to picket liquor shops and foreign cloth. He said that "a bonfire should be made of foreign cloth. Schools and colleges should become empty. ''
For his next major action, Gandhi decided on a raid of the Dharasana Salt Works in Gujarat, 25 miles south of Dandi. He wrote to Lord Irwin, again telling him of his plans. Around midnight of 4 May, as Gandhi was sleeping on a cot in a mango grove, the District Magistrate of Surat drove up with two Indian officers and thirty heavily armed constables. He was arrested under an 1827 regulation calling for the jailing of people engaged in unlawful activities, and held without trial near Poona (now Pune).
The Dharasana Satyagraha went ahead as planned, with Abbas Tyabji, a seventy - six - year - old retired judge, leading the march with Gandhi 's wife Kasturba at his side. Both were arrested before reaching Dharasana and sentenced to three months in prison. After their arrests, the march continued under the leadership of Sarojini Naidu, a woman poet and freedom fighter, who warned the satyagrahis, "You must not use any violence under any circumstances. You will be beaten, but you must not resist: you must not even raise a hand to ward off blows. '' Soldiers began clubbing the satyagrahis with steel tipped lathis in an incident that attracted international attention. United Press correspondent Webb Miller reported that:
Not one of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off the blows. They went down like ten - pins. From where I stood I heard the sickening whacks of the clubs on unprotected skulls. The waiting crowd of watchers groaned and sucked in their breaths in sympathetic pain at every blow. Those struck down fell sprawling, unconscious or writhing in pain with fractured skulls or broken shoulders. In two or three minutes the ground was quilted with bodies. Great patches of blood widened on their white clothes. The survivors without breaking ranks silently and doggedly marched on until struck down... Finally the police became enraged by the non-resistance... They commenced savagely kicking the seated men in the abdomen and testicles. The injured men writhed and squealed in agony, which seemed to inflame the fury of the police... The police then began dragging the sitting men by the arms or feet, sometimes for a hundred yards, and throwing them into ditches.
Vithalbhai Patel, former Speaker of the Assembly, watched the beatings and remarked, "All hope of reconciling India with the British Empire is lost forever. '' Miller 's first attempts at telegraphing the story to his publisher in England were censored by the British telegraph operators in India. Only after threatening to expose British censorship was his story allowed to pass. The story appeared in 1,350 newspapers throughout the world and was read into the official record of the United States Senate by Senator John J. Blaine.
Salt Satyagraha succeeded in drawing the attention of the world. Millions saw the newsreels showing the march. Time magazine declared Gandhi its 1930 Man of the Year, comparing Gandhi 's march to the sea "to defy Britain 's salt tax as some New Englanders once defied a British tea tax. '' Civil disobedience continued until early 1931, when Gandhi was finally released from prison to hold talks with Irwin. It was the first time the two held talks on equal terms, and resulted in the Gandhi -- Irwin Pact. The talks would lead to the Second Round Table Conference at the end of 1931.
Salt Satyagraha produced scant progress toward dominion status or self - rule for India, and did not win any major concessions from the British. It also failed to attract Muslim support. Congress leaders decided to end satyagraha as official policy in 1934. Nehru and other Congress members drifted further apart from Gandhi, who withdrew from Congress to concentrate on his Constructive Programme, which included his efforts to end untouchability in the Harijan movement. Even though British authorities were again in control by the mid-1930s, Indian, British, and world opinion increasingly began to recognise the legitimacy of claims by Gandhi and the Congress Party for sovereignty and self - rule. The Satyagraha campaign of the 1930s also forced the British to recognise that their control of India depended entirely on the consent of the Indians -- Salt Satyagraha was a significant step in the British losing that consent.
Nehru considered the Salt Satyagraha the high - water mark of his association with Gandhi, and felt that its lasting importance was in changing the attitudes of Indians:
Of course these movements exercised tremendous pressure on the British Government and shook the government machinery. But the real importance, to my mind, lay in the effect they had on our own people, and especially the village masses... Non-cooperation dragged them out of the mire and gave them self - respect and self - reliance... They acted courageously and did not submit so easily to unjust oppression; their outlook widened and they began to think a little in terms of India as a whole... It was a remarkable transformation and the Congress, under Gandhi 's leadership, must have the credit for it.
More than thirty years later, Satyagraha and the March to Dandi exercised a strong influence on American civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., and his fight for civil rights for blacks in the 1960s:
Like most people, I had heard of Gandhi, but I had never studied him seriously. As I read I became deeply fascinated by his campaigns of nonviolent resistance. I was particularly moved by his Salt March to the Sea and his numerous fasts. The whole concept of Satyagraha (Satya is truth which equals love, and agraha is force; Satyagraha, therefore, means truth force or love force) was profoundly significant to me. As I delved deeper into the philosophy of Gandhi, my skepticism concerning the power of love gradually diminished, and I came to see for the first time its potency in the area of social reform.
To commemorate the Great Salt March, the Mahatma Gandhi Foundation re-enacted the Salt March on its 75th anniversary, in its exact historical schedule and route followed by the Mahatma and his band of 80 marchers. The event was known as the "International Walk for Justice and Freedom ''. What started as a personal pilgrimage for Mahatma Gandhi 's great - grandson Tushar Gandhi turned into an international event with 900 registered participants from 9 nations and on a daily basis the numbers swelled to a couple of thousands. There was extensive reportage in the international media.
The start of the march on 12 March 2005 in Ahmedabad was attended by Sonia Gandhi, Chairperson of the United Progressive Alliance, as well as several Indian Cabinet Ministers, many of whom joined the march at different locations along the route and walked part of the way.
The participants halted at Dandi on the night of 5 April, with the commemoration ending on 7 April. At the finale in Dandi, the prime minister of India, Dr Manmohan Singh, greeted the marchers and promised to build an appropriate monument at Dandi to commemorate the marchers and the historical event. The route from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi has now been christened as the Dandi Path and has been declared a historical heritage route.
A series of commemorative stamps were issued on the 75th anniversary of the Dandi March -- denomination INR 5, Date of Issue: 5 April 2005.
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when did the dairy queen blizzard come out | Dairy Queen - wikipedia
Dairy Queen, often abbreviated DQ, is a chain of soft serve ice cream and fast - food restaurants owned by International Dairy Queen, Inc., a subsidiary of Berkshire Hathaway. International Dairy Queen, Inc., also owns Orange Julius and Karmelkorn.
The first DQ restaurant was located in Joliet, Illinois. It was operated by Sherb Noble and opened for business on June 22, 1940. It served a variety of frozen products, such as soft serve ice cream.
The company 's corporate offices are located in the Edina suburb of Minneapolis, Minnesota.
The soft - serve formula was first developed in 1938 by Douds, Iowa - born John Fremont "J.F. '' "Grandpa '' McCullough (1871 ‒ 1963) and his son Alex. They convinced friend and loyal customer Sherb Noble to offer the product in his ice cream store in Kankakee, Illinois. On the first day of sales, Noble dished out more than 1,600 servings of the new dessert within two hours. Noble and the McCulloughs went on to open the first Dairy Queen store in 1940 in Joliet, Illinois. While this Dairy Queen has not been in operation since the 1950s, the building still stands at 501 N Chicago St. as a city - designated landmark.
Since 1940, the chain has used a franchise system to expand its operations globally. In the US, the state with the most Dairy Queen restaurants is Texas.
International Dairy Queen, Inc. (IDQ) is the parent company of Dairy Queen. In the United States, it operates under American Dairy Queen Corp. IDQ is a wholly owned subsidiary of Berkshire Hathaway.
At the end of fiscal year 2014, Dairy Queen reported over 6,400 stores in more than 25 countries; about 4,500 of its stores (approximately 70 %) were located in the United States.
DQ was an early pioneer of food franchising, expanding its 10 stores in 1941 to 100 by 1947, 1,446 in 1950, and 2,600 in 1955. The first store in Canada opened in Melville, Saskatchewan, in 1953.
The red Dairy Queen symbol was introduced in 1958.
The company became International Dairy Queen, Inc. (IDQ) in 1962.
In 1987, IDQ bought the Orange Julius chain. IDQ was acquired by Berkshire Hathaway in 1998.
Dairy Queens were a fixture of social life in small towns of the Midwestern and Southern United States during the 1950s and 1960s. In that role, they have often come to be referenced as a symbol of life in small - town America, as in Walter Benjamin at the Dairy Queen: Reflections at Sixty and Beyond by Larry McMurtry, Dairy Queen Days by Robert Inman, and Chevrolet Summers, Dairy Queen Nights by Bob Greene.
The company 's stores are operated under several brands, all bearing the distinctive Dairy Queen logo and carrying the company 's signature soft - serve ice cream (along with the trademark "curl ''). In the 1970s, most restaurants were "Brazier '' locations with a second floor for storage, recognizable for their red mansard roofs.
As of the end of 2014, Dairy Queen had more than 6,400 stores in 27 countries, including more than 1,400 locations outside the United States and Canada.
The largest Dairy Queen in the United States is located in Bloomington, Illinois. The busiest store in the United States is in Rosedale, Maryland. The largest store in the world was built in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The busiest store in the world is located in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada.
While some stores serve a very abbreviated menu primarily featuring DQ frozen treats and may be open only during spring and summer, the majority of DQ restaurants also serve hot food and are open all year.
So - called "Limited Brazier '' locations may additionally offer hot dogs, barbecue beef (or pork) sandwiches, and in some cases french fries and chicken, but not hamburgers. Dairy Queen Full Brazier restaurants serve a normal fast - food menu featuring burgers, french fries, and grilled and crispy chicken in addition to frozen treats and hot dogs.
Also known as the "Treat Center '' concept, an enhanced version of the original stores also serves drinks and foods from the Orange Julius menu. This was the company 's preferred concept for new, small - scale locations, primarily in shopping mall food courts. Some early Treat Centers also included Karmelkorn. Since 2012, all Dairy Queen locations feature Orange Julius drinks.
The name "Brazier '' originated in 1957 when one of the company 's franchisees, Jim Cruikshank, set out to develop the standardized food system. When he witnessed flames rising from an open charcoal grill (a brazier) in a New York eatery, he knew he had found the Brazier concept.
The "Brazier '' name has been slowly phased out of signage and advertising since 1993, although it has not been removed from all existing signage, especially in many smaller towns and rural locations. Since the early 2000s, new or renovated locations which are similar to Brazier restaurants in terms of size and menu selection, but have been updated with the current logo and / or exterior, usually carry the name "DQ Restaurant '', although the website 's store locator still lists the stores that do not carry the "Grill & Chill '' name as "Dairy Queen Brazier '' and the smaller stores "Dairy Queen Ltd Brazier '' and "Dairy Queen Stores ''.
However, the company website still considers their burger and hot dog lines as "Brazier Foods '', according to the history section and some FAQ listed topics in the website.
DQ Grill & Chill locations feature hot food, treats, table delivery and self - serve soft drinks. It is the new concept for new and renovated full - service restaurants. Stores are larger than older - style locations and feature a completely new store design. In most cases, they offer an expanded menu including breakfast, GrillBurgers, and grilled sandwiches, as well as limited table service (customers still place orders at the counter). They also contain self - serve soft drink fountains allowing free refills. Some of the older stores have upgraded to the new format. However, there are still older stores and stores that have not upgraded to the new format. In December 2001, Chattanooga, Tennessee was the site of the first two Dairy Queen Grill and Chill restaurants in the United States. The nation 's largest DQ Grill & Chill is located in Bloomington, Illinois.
Most locations in Texas, including those which otherwise resemble the Brazier or DQ Grill & Chill formats, use a separate hot food menu branded as Texas Country Foods. Among other differences, "Hungr - Buster '' burgers are available in place of the Brazier and GrillBurger offerings. Other food offerings not found outside Texas include the "Dude '' chicken - fried steak sandwich, steak finger country baskets, T - Brand tacos, and a one - half pound double meat hamburger, the "BeltBuster. ''.
Texas is home to the largest number of Dairy Queens in the U.S. All Texas Dairy Queen restaurants are owned and operated by franchisees. The Texas Dairy Queen Operators ' Council (TDQOC) runs a separate marketing website from the national website. Bob Phillips, host of the popular Texas syndicated television series Texas Country Reporter, was for many years the DQ spokesman in Texas, as the restaurant was a co-sponsor of the program at the time.
The company 's products expanded to include malts and milkshakes in 1949, banana splits in 1951, Dilly Bars in 1955, Mr. Misty slush treats in 1961 (later renamed Misty Slush, then again to Arctic Rush; as of 2017, DQ again calls them Misty Slush, as seen on dairyqueen.com), Jets, Curly Tops, Freezes in 1964, and a range of hamburgers and other cooked foods under the Brazier banner in 1958. In 1971, the Peanut Buster Parfait, consisting of peanuts, hot fudge, and vanilla soft serve, was introduced. In 1995, the Chicken Strip Basket was introduced, consisting of chicken strips, Texas toast (only in the US), fries, and cream gravy (gravy in Canada). Other items include sundaes and the blended coffee drink, the MooLatte.
The majority of Dairy Queen locations serve Pepsi - Cola products, but unlike most other restaurants such contracts are not mandated onto the franchisee, and as a result, some locations serve Coca - Cola products instead. Wendy 's (until 1998), Subway (until 2003), Arby 's (until 2006), IHOP (until 2012), and Applebee 's (until 2012) also allowed such leniency on beverage choice before signing exclusive soft drink deals with Coca - Cola and Pepsi - Cola, making Dairy Queen the last major restaurant chain without an exclusive soft drink contract.
A popular Dairy Queen item is the Blizzard, which is soft - serve mechanically blended with mix - in ingredients such as sundae toppings and / or pieces of cookies, brownies, or candy. It has been a staple on the menu since its introduction in 1988, a year in which Dairy Queen sold more than 100 million Blizzards. Popular flavors include Oreo Cookies, mint Oreo, chocolate chip cookie dough, M&M 's, Reese 's Peanut Butter Cups, Heath Bar (Skor in Canada), and Butterfinger (Crispy Crunch in Canada). Seasonal flavors are also available such as October 's pumpkin pie and June 's cotton candy. It has been argued that Dairy Queen drew its inspiration from the concrete served by the St. Louis - based Ted Drewes. On July 26, 2010, Dairy Queen introduced a new "mini '' size Blizzard, served in 6 oz. cups. During the 25th anniversary of the Blizzard, two special flavors were released: Strawberry Golden Oreo Blizzard and Buster Bar Blizzard. Salted Caramel Truffle was released in 2015 during the Blizzard 's 27th anniversary and Dairy Queen 's 75th anniversary, and is still on the menu today.
Blizzards get their name from the fact that they are so cold that they can be held upside - down and nothing will come out. Employees will demonstrate this to customers. There is a company policy that one Blizzard per order is to be flipped upside - down by the employee. If they do not, then the customer may request a coupon for a free Blizzard to use on their next visit, though this is at the owner 's discretion.
Prior to the introduction of the Blizzard in 1985, Dairy Queen served conventional "thick '' milkshakes, in traditional flavors such as vanilla, chocolate, and strawberry, with or without added malt on request.
In addition, Dairy Queen offers a Blizzard Cake in flavors such as Oreo and Reese 's. Much like the restaurant 's conventional ice cream cake, this variation is aimed toward celebrations and birthdays.
In 1990, Dairy Queen began offering frozen yogurt as a lower - calorie alternative to its soft serve ice cream. According to a company representative, Dairy Queen 's regular soft serve has 35 calories per ounce and is 95 % fat - free, whereas the frozen yogurt was 25 calories per ounce. However, in 2001, the company phased out the frozen yogurt option in all its stores, citing a lack of demand.
In 2010, International Dairy Queen Inc filed a request for a preliminary injunction to stop Yogubliz Inc, a small California - based frozen yogurt chain, from selling "Blizzberry '' and "Blizz Frozen Yogurt '', alleging that the names could confuse consumers due to their similarity to Dairy Queen 's Blizzard. U.S. District Judge R. Gary Klausner denied Dairy Queen 's request.
For many years, the franchise 's slogan was "We treat you right. '' During the early and mid-1990s, the slogan "Hot Eats, Cool Treats '' came into use and preceded the aforementioned line in the Dairy Queen jingle. In recent years, it has been changed to "DQ: Something Different. '' A recent tagline, featured in early 2011, was "So Good It 's RiDQulous, '' with Dairy Queen 's current logo infused in the word "ridiculous ''. Their newest tagline reads, "Fan Food, not Fast Food ''.
In Texas, at the end of advertisements, there is frequently a Texas flag waving, and the new DQ logo and slogan below saying, "The Texas Stop Sign '', though the jingle uses "This is where we stop in Texas. '' Previous slogans included "That 's what I like about Texas '', "For Hot Eats & Cool Treats, Think DQ '', "Nobody beats DQ Treats & Eats '', "DQ is Value Country '', and "This is DQ Country ''. These advertisements featured Texas Country Reporter host Bob Phillips as spokesperson since his program was mainly sponsored by Dairy Queen.
Dennis the Menace and other characters from the comic strip appeared in Dairy Queen marketing as a spokestoon from 1971 until December 2002, when he was dropped because Dairy Queen felt children could no longer relate to him.
The advertising focused on a mouth with a tongue licking its large lips, which morphs into the present Dairy Queen logo (2001 logo in 2006) was removed in 2011.
In 2011, Grey New York produced outlandish spots featuring a dapper man, played by John Behlmann, sporting a moustache, performing crazy feats for Dairy Queen. After announcing tasty menu offers, he would do something outrageous, like blow bubbles with kittens in them, water ski while boxing, or break a piñata, out of which tumbles Olympic gymnastics great Mary Lou Retton. Later, the same firm made additional commercials based around odd situation titles with the DQ logo placed somewhere in them, like "Gary DQlones Himself '', "Now That 's A Lunchtime DQuandary! '' and "After The DQonquest ''. All were narrated by a man with an English accent.
In 2015, Dairy Queen and model railroad company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Wm. K. Walthers came out with a Walthers Cornerstone HO 1: 87 Scale models of a restaurant -- one from the 1950s with the original logo and one from 2007 -- present with the current logo. The models are both officially licensed replicas.
The original Dairy Queen logo was simply a stylized text sign with a soft serve cone at one end. In the late 1950s, the widely recognized red ellipse design was adopted. The initial shape was asymmetrical, with one of the side points having a greater extension than the other, especially when matched with the Brazier sign -- a similarly sized yellow ovoid, tucked diagonally below its companion. By the 1970s, both sides were more closely matched, becoming symmetrical with the 2006 update (see online images for comparison). Some of the new 1950s signs continued to display a soft serve cone jutting from the right side.
"Little Miss Dairy Queen '' began appearing in Pennsylvania signage in 1961. She had a Dutch bonnet, resembling the ellipse logo, with a pinafore apron over her dress and wooden shoes.
A yellow trapezoid Brazier sign, placed below the red Dairy Queen logo, was developed in the late 1960s. It matched the roofline of the new store design of the era.
Although it had been used interchangeably with the Dairy Queen name for many decades, "DQ '' became the company 's official name in 2001. The font remained the same as in the original signage introduced 60 years prior. Throughout this period, the company placed the registered mark symbol immediately to the right, on the bottom side of the logo. When the company modernized its signage and logos in late 2006, it modified the font and italicized the letters, as well as adding arced lines, an orange one to represent its hot foods above and a blue one below to represent its ice cream products. In the new design, the registered mark symbol was moved to be adjacent to the letter "Q ''. The first overhaul of its logo in almost 70 years, the company claimed that the new logo would show brand growth and reflect the "fun and enjoyment '' associated with its products. Advertising industry observers have noted that the new logo was an unneeded update of a known and trusted industry brand and that its new features were distracting.
The original signage is still in use in older locations or in locations that use a "retro '' design motif in the property 's design. One example was the sign used at the Dairy Queen in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, which was destroyed and replaced in 2013.
Prototype Dairy Queen logo from 1940 to 1958, still in use at a small number of locations
1958 - 2001, still in use on some signs, including Brazier locations
2001 - 2007, secondary logo from 1960 - 2007 on packaging, still in use on some signs
2007 -- present
Countries currently with Dairy Queen locations:
Countries formerly with Dairy Queen locations:
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when does the new grey's anatomy come on | Grey 's Anatomy (season 14) - wikipedia
The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special two - hour premiere. The season will consist of 24 episodes, with the season 's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Krista Vernoff and William Harper.
This season is the first not to feature Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards since her introduction in the ninth season, following her departure at the conclusion of the previous season. The season also marked the last appearance for Martin Henderson as a series regular.
The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington.
The season picks up right where it left off after the fire in the previous season finale. Grey - Sloan takes on a new, improved appearance after it is repaired of the damages from the fire. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) finds herself in another love triangle with Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson) and his long - lost fiancée, Megan Hunt (Abigail Spencer), though she encourages Riggs to resume his relationship with Megan over her. Meredith performs a ground - breaking surgery on Megan, landing her a Harper Avery Award. Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) and Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) fiddle with the idea of a relationship after Jackson and April Kepner (Sarah Drew) decide to live apart.
Teddy Altman (Kim Raver) returns to Seattle to assist with Megan 's reappearance and notices the tension in Owen and Amelia 's relationship. With the help of DeLuca 's sister, visiting doctor Carina DeLuca (Stefania Spampinato), Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone) discovers she has a brain tumor that has been impairing her judgment for the last 10 years. After it is removed by her former professor Tom Koracick (Greg Germann), Amelia and Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) decide to end their marriage. Meanwhile, after Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) reveals to Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) that he tracked down her husband, Alex and Jo reconcile their relationship, with Jo declaring that she will divorce Paul (Matthew Morrison).
A new class of interns is introduced, one of which has a history with Andrew DeLuca (Giacomo Gianniotti). Ben Warren (Jason George) joins the Fire Academy but has trouble telling his wife, Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson). Harper Avery (Chelcie Ross) threatens to pull funding from Grey - Sloan and fires Bailey as Chief, but he soon after passes away, reinstating Bailey in the position. After Eliza Minnick (Marika Domińczyk) is fired from Grey - Sloan, she ghosts Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), who subsequently begins dating Carina. Their relationship is short - lived, however, as Arizona inadvertently ends it while preparing for Sofia to return home from New York. Carina begins a sexual relationship with the newly single Owen.
Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the 9th season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here and Now. Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast, but ABC passed on the project. Renewing her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw will return for the 14th season. On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver is set to reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest arc. In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. On September 13, 2017, another guest star was announced in Greg Germann (Ally McBeal), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia 's neurosurgery mentor.
On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ai n't That a Kick in the Head '' was announced to include Jeanine Mason (So You Think You Can Dance) as Sam, Alex Blue Davis as Casey, Rushi Kota as Vik, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn, Sophia Ali as Dahlia, and Jake Borelli as Levi. On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled "Danger Zone '' would be his last.
On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground breaking surgery. On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season.
It was released on April 4, 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback 's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan, not as a nurse but as mom of a patient. Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released.
Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a two - hour premiere. Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. On January 11, 2018, ABC released a six - episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series regular Sarah Drew.
The number in the "No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient 's life, and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer - savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as "a proud trans man ''. After Paul 's fiancée, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith has to pretend to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit - and - run.
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merchant of venice by william shakespeare whole story | The Merchant of Venice - wikipedia
The Merchant of Venice is a 16th - century play by William Shakespeare in which a merchant in Venice must default on a large loan provided by a Jewish moneylender. It is believed to have been written between 1596 and 1599. Though classified as a comedy in the First Folio and sharing certain aspects with Shakespeare 's other romantic comedies, the play is most remembered for its dramatic scenes, and it is best known for Shylock and the famous "Hath not a Jew eyes? '' speech on humanity. Also notable is Portia 's speech about "the quality of mercy ''. Critic Harold Bloom listed it among Shakespeare 's great comedies.
Bassanio, a young Venetian of noble rank, wishes to woo the beautiful and wealthy heiress Portia of Belmont. Having squandered his estate, he needs 3,000 ducats to subsidise his expenditures as a suitor. Bassanio approaches his friend Antonio, a wealthy merchant of Venice who has previously and repeatedly bailed him out. Antonio agrees, but since he is cash - poor -- his ships and merchandise are busy at sea to Tripolis, the Indies, Mexico and England -- he promises to cover a bond if Bassanio can find a lender, so Bassanio turns to the Jewish moneylender Shylock and names Antonio as the loan 's guarantor.
Antonio has already antagonized Shylock through his outspoken antisemitism, and because Antonio 's habit of lending money without interest forces Shylock to charge lower rates. Shylock is at first reluctant to grant the loan, citing abuse he has suffered at Antonio 's hand. He finally agrees to lend the sum to Bassanio without interest upon one condition: if Antonio is unable to repay it at the specified date, Shylock may take a pound of Antonio 's flesh. Bassanio does not want Antonio to accept such a risky condition; Antonio is surprised by what he sees as the moneylender 's generosity (no "usance '' -- interest -- is asked for), and he signs the contract. With money at hand, Bassanio leaves for Belmont with his friend Gratiano, who has asked to accompany him. Gratiano is a likeable young man, but is often flippant, overly talkative, and tactless. Bassanio warns his companion to exercise self - control, and the two leave for Belmont.
Meanwhile, in Belmont, Portia is awash with suitors. Her father left a will stipulating each of her suitors must choose correctly from one of three caskets -- one each of gold, silver and lead. If he picks the right casket, he gets Portia. The first suitor, the Prince of Morocco, chooses the gold casket, interpreting its slogan, "Who chooseth me shall gain what many men desire '', as referring to Portia. The second suitor, the conceited Prince of Arragon, chooses the silver casket, which proclaims, "Who chooseth me shall get as much as he deserves '', as he believes he is full of merit. Both suitors leave empty - handed, having rejected the lead casket because of the baseness of its material and the uninviting nature of its slogan, "Who chooseth me must give and hazard all he hath ''. The last suitor is Bassanio, whom Portia wishes to succeed, having met him before. As Bassanio ponders his choice, members of Portia 's household sing a song which says that "fancy '' (not true love) is "engend'red in the eyes, / With gazing fed ''; Bassanio chooses the lead casket and wins Portia 's hand.
At Venice, Antonio 's ships are reported lost at sea so the merchant can not repay the bond. Shylock has become more determined to exact revenge from Christians because his daughter Jessica eloped with the Christian Lorenzo and converted. She took a substantial amount of Shylock 's wealth with her, as well as a turquoise ring which Shylock had been given by his late wife, Leah. Shylock has Antonio brought before court.
At Belmont, Bassanio receives a letter telling him that Antonio has been unable to repay the loan from Shylock. Portia and Bassanio marry, as do Gratiano and Portia 's handmaid Nerissa. Bassanio and Gratiano leave for Venice, with money from Portia, to save Antonio 's life by offering the money to Shylock. Unknown to Bassanio and Gratiano, Portia sent her servant, Balthazar, to seek the counsel of Portia 's cousin, Bellario, a lawyer, at Padua.
The climax of the play takes place in the court of the Duke of Venice. Shylock refuses Bassanio 's offer of 6,000 ducats, twice the amount of the loan. He demands his pound of flesh from Antonio. The Duke, wishing to save Antonio but unable to nullify a contract, refers the case to a visitor. He identifies himself as Balthazar, a young male "doctor of the law '', bearing a letter of recommendation to the Duke from the learned lawyer Bellario. The doctor is Portia in disguise, and the law clerk who accompanies her is Nerissa, also disguised as a man. As Balthazar, Portia repeatedly asks Shylock to show mercy in a famous speech, advising him that mercy "is twice blest: It blesseth him that gives and him that takes '' (IV, i, 185). However, Shylock adamantly refuses any compensations and insists on the pound of flesh.
As the court grants Shylock his bond and Antonio prepares for Shylock 's knife, Portia deftly appropriates Shylock 's argument for "specific performance ''. She says that the contract allows Shylock only to remove the flesh, not the "blood '', of Antonio (see quibble). Thus, if Shylock were to shed any drop of Antonio 's blood, his "lands and goods '' would be forfeited under Venetian laws. She tells him that he must cut precisely one pound of flesh, no more, no less; she advises him that "if the scale do turn, But in the estimation of a hair, Thou diest and all thy goods are confiscate. ''
Defeated, Shylock concedes to accepting Bassanio 's offer of money for the defaulted bond, first his offer to pay "the bond thrice '', which Portia rebuffs, telling him to take his bond, and then merely the principal, which Portia also prevents him from doing on the ground that he has already refused it "in the open court ''. She cites a law under which Shylock, as a Jew and therefore an "alien '', having attempted to take the life of a citizen, has forfeited his property, half to the government and half to Antonio, leaving his life at the mercy of the Duke. The Duke pardons Shylock 's life. Antonio asks for his share "in use '' until Shylock 's death, when the principal will be given to Lorenzo and Jessica. At Antonio 's request, the Duke grants remission of the state 's half of forfeiture, but on the condition that Shylock convert to Christianity and bequeath his entire estate to Lorenzo and Jessica (IV, i).
Bassanio does not recognise his disguised wife, but offers to give a present to the supposed lawyer. First she declines, but after he insists, Portia requests his ring and Antonio 's gloves. Antonio parts with his gloves without a second thought, but Bassanio gives the ring only after much persuasion from Antonio, as earlier in the play he promised his wife never to lose, sell or give it. Nerissa, as the lawyer 's clerk, succeeds in likewise retrieving her ring from Gratiano, who does not see through her disguise.
At Belmont, Portia and Nerissa taunt and pretend to accuse their husbands before revealing they were really the lawyer and his clerk in disguise (V). After all the other characters make amends, Antonio learns from Portia that three of his ships were not stranded and have returned safely after all.
The forfeit of a merchant 's deadly bond after standing surety for a friend 's loan was a common tale in England in the late 16th century. In addition, the test of the suitors at Belmont, the merchant 's rescue from the "pound of flesh '' penalty by his friend 's new wife disguised as a lawyer, and her demand for the betrothal ring in payment are all elements present in the 14th - century tale Il Pecorone by Giovanni Fiorentino, which was published in Milan in 1558. Elements of the trial scene are also found in The Orator by Alexandre Sylvane, published in translation in 1596. The story of the three caskets can be found in Gesta Romanorum, a collection of tales probably compiled at the end of the 13th century.
The date of composition for The Merchant of Venice is believed to be between 1596 and 1598. The play was mentioned by Francis Meres in 1598, so it must have been familiar on the stage by that date. The title page of the first edition in 1600 states that it had been performed "divers times '' by that date. Salerino 's reference to his ship the Andrew (I, i, 27) is thought to be an allusion to the Spanish ship St. Andrew, captured by the English at Cádiz in 1596. A date of 1596 -- 97 is considered consistent with the play 's style.
The play was entered in the Register of the Stationers Company, the method at that time of obtaining copyright for a new play, by James Roberts on 22 July 1598 under the title The Merchant of Venice, otherwise called The Jew of Venice. On 28 October 1600 Roberts transferred his right to the play to the stationer Thomas Heyes; Heyes published the first quarto before the end of the year. It was printed again in a pirated edition in 1619, as part of William Jaggard 's so - called False Folio. (Afterward, Thomas Heyes ' son and heir Laurence Heyes asked for and was granted a confirmation of his right to the play, on 8 July 1619.) The 1600 edition is generally regarded as being accurate and reliable. It is the basis of the text published in the 1623 First Folio, which adds a number of stage directions, mainly musical cues.
The play is frequently staged today, but is potentially troubling to modern audiences due to its central themes, which can easily appear antisemitic. Critics today still continue to argue over the play 's stance on the Jews and Judaism.
English society in the Elizabethan era has been described as "judeophobic ''. English Jews had been expelled under Edward I in 1290 and were not permitted to return until 1656 under the rule of Oliver Cromwell. In Venice and in some other places, Jews were required to wear a red hat at all times in public to make sure that they were easily identified, and had to live in a ghetto protected by Christian guards.
Shakespeare 's play may be seen as a continuation of this tradition. The title page of the Quarto indicates that the play was sometimes known as The Jew of Venice in its day, which suggests that it was seen as similar to Marlowe 's The Jew of Malta. One interpretation of the play 's structure is that Shakespeare meant to contrast the mercy of the main Christian characters with the vengefulness of a Jew, who lacks the religious grace to comprehend mercy. Similarly, it is possible that Shakespeare meant Shylock 's forced conversion to Christianity to be a "happy ending '' for the character, as, to a Christian audience, it saves his soul and allows him to enter Heaven.
Regardless of what Shakespeare 's authorial intent may have been, the play has been made use of by antisemites throughout the play 's history. The Nazis used the usurious Shylock for their propaganda. Shortly after Kristallnacht in 1938, The Merchant of Venice was broadcast for propagandistic ends over the German airwaves. Productions of the play followed in Lübeck (1938), Berlin (1940), and elsewhere within the Nazi territory.
In a series of articles called Observer, first published in 1785, British playwright Richard Cumberland created a character named Abraham Abrahams who is quoted as saying, "I verily believe the odious character of Shylock has brought little less persecution upon us, poor scattered sons of Abraham, than the Inquisition itself. '' Cumberland later wrote a successful play, The Jew (1794), in which his title character, Sheva, is portrayed sympathetically, as both a kindhearted and generous man. This was the first known attempt by a dramatist to reverse the negative stereotype that Shylock personified.
The depiction of Jews in literature throughout the centuries bears the close imprint of Shylock. With slight variations much of English literature up until the 20th century depicts the Jew as "a monied, cruel, lecherous, avaricious outsider tolerated only because of his golden hoard ''.
Many modern readers and theatregoers have read the play as a plea for tolerance, noting that Shylock is a sympathetic character. They cite as evidence that Shylock 's "trial '' at the end of the play is a mockery of justice, with Portia acting as a judge when she has no right to do so. The characters who berated Shylock for dishonesty resort to trickery in order to win. In addition, Shakespeare gives Shylock one of his most eloquent speeches:
Salerio. Why, I am sure, if he forfeit, thou wilt not take his flesh. What 's that good for? Shylock. To bait fish withal; if it will feed nothing else, it will feed my revenge. He hath disgraced me and hindered me half a million, laughed at my losses, mocked at my gains, scorned my nation, thwarted my bargains, cooled my friends, heated mine enemies -- and what 's his reason? I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions; fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same diseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same winter and summer as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like you in the rest, we will resemble you in that. If a Jew wrong a Christian, what is his humility? Revenge. If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me, I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction.
It is difficult to know whether the sympathetic reading of Shylock is entirely due to changing sensibilities among readers, or whether Shakespeare, a writer who created complex, multi-faceted characters, deliberately intended this reading.
One of the reasons for this interpretation is that Shylock 's painful status in Venetian society is emphasised. To some critics, Shylock 's celebrated "Hath not a Jew eyes? '' speech redeems him and even makes him into something of a tragic figure; in the speech, Shylock argues that he is no different from the Christian characters. Detractors note that Shylock ends the speech with a tone of revenge: "if you wrong us, shall we not revenge? '' Those who see the speech as sympathetic point out that Shylock says he learned the desire for revenge from the Christian characters: "If a Christian wrong a Jew, what should his sufferance be by Christian example? Why, revenge. The villainy you teach me, I will execute, and it shall go hard but I will better the instruction. ''
Even if Shakespeare did not intend the play to be read this way, the fact that it retains its power on stage for audiences who may perceive its central conflicts in radically different terms is an illustration of the subtlety of Shakespeare 's characterisations. In the trial Shylock represents what Elizabethan Christians believed to be the Jewish desire for "justice '', contrasted with their obviously superior Christian value of mercy. The Christians in the courtroom urge Shylock to love his enemies, although they themselves have failed in the past. Jewish critic Harold Bloom suggests that, although the play gives merit to both cases, the portraits are not even - handed: "Shylock 's shrewd indictment of Christian hypocrisy delights us, but... Shakespeare 's intimations do not alleviate the savagery of his portrait of the Jew... ''
Antonio 's unexplained depression -- "In sooth I know not why I am so sad '' -- and utter devotion to Bassanio has led some critics to theorise that he is suffering from unrequited love for Bassanio and is depressed because Bassanio is coming to an age where he will marry a woman. In his plays and poetry Shakespeare often depicted strong male bonds of varying homosociality, which has led some critics to infer that Bassanio returns Antonio 's affections despite his obligation to marry:
ANTONIO: Commend me to your honourable wife: Tell her the process of Antonio 's end, Say how I lov 'd you, speak me fair in death; And, when the tale is told, bid her be judge Whether Bassanio had not once a love. BASSANIO: But life itself, my wife, and all the world Are not with me esteemed above thy life; I would lose all, ay, sacrifice them all Here to this devil, to deliver you. (IV, i)
In his essay "Brothers and Others '', published in The Dyer 's Hand, W.H. Auden describes Antonio as "a man whose emotional life, though his conduct may be chaste, is concentrated upon a member of his own sex. '' Antonio 's feelings for Bassanio are likened to a couplet from Shakespeare 's Sonnets: "But since she pricked thee out for women 's pleasure, / Mine be thy love, and my love 's use their treasure. '' Antonio, says Auden, embodies the words on Portia 's leaden casket: "Who chooseth me, must give and hazard all he hath. '' Antonio has taken this potentially fatal turn because he despairs, not only over the loss of Bassanio in marriage, but also because Bassanio can not requite what Antonio feels for him. Antonio 's frustrated devotion is a form of idolatry: the right to live is yielded for the sake of the loved one. There is one other such idolator in the play: Shylock himself. "Shylock, however unintentionally, did, in fact, hazard all for the sake of destroying the enemy he hated; and Antonio, however unthinkingly he signed the bond, hazarded all to secure the happiness of the man he loved. '' Both Antonio and Shylock, agreeing to put Antonio 's life at a forfeit, stand outside the normal bounds of society. There was, states Auden, a traditional "association of sodomy with usury '', reaching back at least as far as Dante, with which Shakespeare was likely familiar. (Auden sees the theme of usury in the play as a comment on human relations in a mercantile society.)
Other interpreters of the play regard Auden 's conception of Antonio 's sexual desire for Bassanio as questionable. Michael Radford, director of the 2004 film version starring Al Pacino, explained that although the film contains a scene where Antonio and Bassanio actually kiss, the friendship between the two is platonic, in line with the prevailing view of male friendship at the time. Jeremy Irons, in an interview, concurs with the director 's view and states that he did not "play Antonio as gay ''. Joseph Fiennes, however, who plays Bassanio, encouraged a homoerotic interpretation and, in fact, surprised Irons with the kiss on set, which was filmed in one take. Fiennes defended his choice, saying "I would never invent something before doing my detective work in the text. If you look at the choice of language... you 'll read very sensuous language. That 's the key for me in the relationship. The great thing about Shakespeare and why he 's so difficult to pin down is his ambiguity. He 's not saying they 're gay or they 're straight, he 's leaving it up to his actors. I feel there has to be a great love between the two characters... there 's great attraction. I do n't think they have slept together but that 's for the audience to decide. ''
The earliest performance of which a record has survived was held at the court of King James in the spring of 1605, followed by a second performance a few days later, but there is no record of any further performances in the 17th century. In 1701, George Granville staged a successful adaptation, titled The Jew of Venice, with Thomas Betterton as Bassanio. This version (which featured a masque) was popular, and was acted for the next forty years. Granville cut the clownish Gobbos in line with neoclassical decorum; he added a jail scene between Shylock and Antonio, and a more extended scene of toasting at a banquet scene. Thomas Doggett was Shylock, playing the role comically, perhaps even farcically. Rowe expressed doubts about this interpretation as early as 1709; Doggett 's success in the role meant that later productions would feature the troupe clown as Shylock.
In 1741, Charles Macklin returned to the original text in a very successful production at Drury Lane, paving the way for Edmund Kean seventy years later (see below).
Arthur Sullivan wrote incidental music for the play in 1871.
Jewish actor Jacob Adler and others report that the tradition of playing Shylock sympathetically began in the first half of the 19th century with Edmund Kean, and that previously the role had been played "by a comedian as a repulsive clown or, alternatively, as a monster of unrelieved evil. '' Kean 's Shylock established his reputation as an actor.
From Kean 's time forward, all of the actors who have famously played the role, with the exception of Edwin Booth, who played Shylock as a simple villain, have chosen a sympathetic approach to the character; even Booth 's father, Junius Brutus Booth, played the role sympathetically. Henry Irving 's portrayal of an aristocratic, proud Shylock (first seen at the Lyceum in 1879, with Portia played by Ellen Terry) has been called "the summit of his career ''. Jacob Adler was the most notable of the early 20th century: Adler played the role in Yiddish - language translation, first in Manhattan 's Yiddish Theater District in the Lower East Side, and later on Broadway, where, to great acclaim, he performed the role in Yiddish in an otherwise English - language production.
Kean and Irving presented a Shylock justified in wanting his revenge; Adler 's Shylock evolved over the years he played the role, first as a stock Shakespearean villain, then as a man whose better nature was overcome by a desire for revenge, and finally as a man who operated not from revenge but from pride. In a 1902 interview with Theater magazine, Adler pointed out that Shylock is a wealthy man, "rich enough to forgo the interest on three thousand ducats '' and that Antonio is "far from the chivalrous gentleman he is made to appear. He has insulted the Jew and spat on him, yet he comes with hypocritical politeness to borrow money of him. '' Shylock 's fatal flaw is to depend on the law, but "would he not walk out of that courtroom head erect, the very apotheosis of defiant hatred and scorn? ''
Some modern productions take further pains to show the sources of Shylock 's thirst for vengeance. For instance, in the 2004 film adaptation directed by Michael Radford and starring Al Pacino as Shylock, the film begins with text and a montage of how Venetian Jews are cruelly abused by bigoted Christians. One of the last shots of the film also brings attention to the fact that, as a convert, Shylock would have been cast out of the Jewish community in Venice, no longer allowed to live in the ghetto. Another interpretation of Shylock and a vision of how "must he be acted '' appears at the conclusion of the autobiography of Alexander Granach, a noted Jewish stage and film actor in Weimar Germany (and later in Hollywood and on Broadway).
The Shakespeare play has inspired several films.
The play contains the earliest known use of the phrase "with bated breath '' (by Shylock, in Act I, Scene 3, "Shall I bend low and, in a bondman 's key, / With bated breath and whisp'ring humbleness, / Say this... ''), which has come into common use to convey the idea of restraining one 's breathing in anticipation or supplicance (in which the archaic "bated '' is often misidentified as "baited '' in modern usage).
Arnold Wesker 's play The Merchant tells the same story from Shylock 's point of view. In this retelling, Shylock and Antonio are fast friends bound by a mutual love of books and culture and a disdain for the crass anti-Semitism of the Christian community 's laws. They make the bond in defiant mockery of the Christian establishment, never anticipating that the bond might become forfeit. When it does, the play argues, Shylock must carry through on the letter of the law or jeopardise the scant legal security of the entire Jewish community. He is, therefore, quite as grateful as Antonio when Portia, as in Shakespeare 's play, shows the legal way out. The play received its American premiere on 16 November 1977 at New York 's Plymouth Theatre, with Joseph Leon as Shylock and Marian Seldes as Shylock 's sister Rivka. This production had a challenging history in previews on the road, culminating (after the first night out of town in Philadelphia on 8 September 1977) with the death of the larger - than - life Broadway star Zero Mostel, who was initially cast as Shylock. The play 's author, Arnold Wesker, wrote a book chronicling the out - of - town tribulations that beset the play and Zero 's death called The Birth of Shylock and the Death of Zero Mostel.
David Henry Wilson 's play Shylock 's Revenge, which was first performed by The University Players at the Audimax (University of Hamburg) on 9 June 1989, can be seen as a full - length sequel to Shakespeare 's drama.
The title of the film Seven Pounds is a reference to the "pound of flesh '' from the play.
Edmond Haraucourt, the French playwright and poet, was commissioned in the 1880s by the actor and theatrical director Paul Porel to make a French - verse adaptation of The Merchant of Venice. His play Shylock, first performed at the Théâtre de l'Odéon in December 1889, had incidental music by the French composer Gabriel Fauré, later incorporated into an orchestral suite of the same name.
One of the four short stories comprising Alan Isler 's Op Non Cit is also told from Shylock 's point of view. In this story, Antonio was a boy of Jewish origin kidnapped at an early age by priests.
Ralph Vaughan Williams ' choral work Serenade to Music draws its text from the discussion about music and the music of the spheres in Act V, scene 1.
In both versions of the comic film To Be or Not to Be the character "Greenberg '', specified as a Jew only in the later version, gives a recitation of the "Hath Not a Jew eyes? '' speech to Nazi soldiers.
In The Pianist, Henryk Szpilman quotes a passage from Shylock 's "Hath Not a Jew eyes? '' speech to his brother Władysław Szpilman in a Jewish ghetto in Warsaw, Poland, during the Nazi occupation in World War II. Given the questioning of Antisemitism in the speech and also the Nazi use of the play for antisemitic propaganda purposes, the quote is seen as particularly poignant and symbolic.
Steven Spielberg 's Schindler 's List depicts SS Lieutenant Amon Göth quoting Shylock 's "Hath Not a Jew eyes? '' speech when deciding whether or not to rape his Jewish maid.
The rock musical Fire Angel was based on the story of the play, with the scene changed to the Little Italy district of New York. It was performed in Edinburgh in 1974 and in a revised form at Her Majesty 's Theatre, London, in 1977.
Christopher Moore combines The Merchant of Venice and Othello in his 2014 comic novel The Serpent of Venice, in which he makes Portia (from The Merchant of Venice) and Desdemona (from Othello) sisters. All of the characters come from those two plays with the exception of Pocket, the Fool, who comes from Moore 's earlier novel based on King Lear.
Jane Lindskold 's book Changer contains a scene in which the protagonists consider "using Portia 's gambit from The Merchant of Venice '' to escape from a situation and binding contract analogous to Antonio 's.
In its article "Unconventional Director Sets Shakespeare Play In Time, Place Shakespeare Intended '', the online satirical news site The Onion satirized the contemporary fashion of altering the play 's setting.
The play has been quoted and paraphrased several times in the Star Trek Universe:
In the film OSS 117: Lost in Rio, the final speech of Von Zimmel parodies Shylock 's tirade.
In the Brazilian film A Dog 's Will, the marriage bargain involving a lump - sum payment or the skin off Chicó 's back is foiled by reference to the legal contrivance familiar from the play -- that is, the skin may be owing but not a drop of blood must be taken with it.
In Hey Arnold! episode, "Eating Contest / Rhonda 's Glasses, '' Rhonda, becoming fed up with the treatment toward the geeks, yells "If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh?, '' a direct quote from Shylock 's famous speech.
In David Fincher 's 1995 film, Seven, John Doe coerces the lawyer, Eli Gould, to remove a pound of flesh and place it on a scale (symbolizing the scales of justice) prior to murdering him.
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what characteristics make chicago illinois a global city | Chicago - wikipedia
Chicago (/ ʃɪˈkɑːɡoʊ / (listen) or / ʃɪˈkɔːɡoʊ /), officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is also the most populous city in both the state of Illinois and the Midwestern United States. It is the county seat of Cook County. The Chicago metropolitan area, often referred to as Chicagoland, has nearly 10 million people and is the third - largest in the U.S. Chicago has often been called a global architecture capital. Chicago is considered one of the most important business centers in the world.
Chicago was incorporated as a city in 1837, near a portage between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River watershed, and grew rapidly in the mid-nineteenth century. After the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, which razed several square miles and left more than 100,000 homeless, the city made a concerted effort to rebuild on the damage. The construction boom accelerated population growth throughout the following decades, leading Chicago to become among the five largest cities in the world by 1900. During this period Chicago made noted contributions to urban planning and zoning standards, new construction styles (including the Chicago School of architecture), the development of the City Beautiful Movement, and the eventual creation of the steel - framed skyscraper.
Positioned along Lake Michigan, the city is an international hub for finance, commerce, industry, technology, telecommunications, and transportation: O'Hare International Airport is the second - busiest airport in the world when measured by aircraft traffic; the region also has the largest number of U.S. highways and rail road freight. In 2012, Chicago was listed as an alpha global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, and ranked seventh in the world in the 2016 Global Cities Index. Chicago has the third - largest gross metropolitan product in the United States -- about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates. The city has one of the world 's largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14 % of the workforce.
In 2016, Chicago hosted a record 54 million domestic and international visitors, making it one of the most visited cities in the United States. Landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis (Sears) Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicago 's culture includes the visual arts, novels, film, theater (especially improvisational comedy), and music, particularly jazz, blues, soul, hip - hop, gospel, and house music. There are many colleges and universities in the Chicago area; of which Northwestern University, the University of Chicago, and the University of Illinois at Chicago are classified as "highest research '' doctoral universities.
Chicago has professional sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best - known being the Windy City and Chi - Town.
The name "Chicago '' is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word Shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami - Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as "Checagou '' was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir. Henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called "Chicagoua '', grew abundantly in the area. According to his diary of late September 1687:
when we arrived at the said place called "Chicagou '' which, according to what we were able to learn of it, has taken this name because of the quantity of garlic which grows in the forests in this region.
In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, who had taken the place of the Miami and Sauk and Fox peoples. The first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s. He is commonly known as the "Founder of Chicago ''.
In 1795, following the Northwest Indian War, an area that was to be part of Chicago was turned over to the United States for a military post by native tribes in accordance with the Treaty of Greenville. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn and later rebuilt. The Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833.
On August 12, 1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people. On June 15, 1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U.S. Receiver of Public Monies. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4, 1837 and for several decades was the world 's fastest growing city.
As the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicago 's first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois and Michigan Canal opened in 1848. The canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River.
A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad. Manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade (established 1848) listed the first ever standardized ' exchange traded ' forward contracts, which were called futures contracts.
In the 1850s, Chicago gained national political prominence as the home of Senator Stephen Douglas, the champion of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act and the "popular sovereignty '' approach to the issue of the spread of slavery. These issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage. Lincoln was nominated in Chicago for US President at the 1860 Republican National Convention. He defeated Douglas in the general election, and this set the stage for the American Civil War.
To accommodate rapid population growth and demand for better sanitation, the city improved its infrastructure. In February 1856, Chicago 's Common Council approved Chesbrough 's plan to build the United States ' first comprehensive sewerage system. The project raised much of central Chicago to a new grade. While elevating Chicago, and at first improving the city 's health, the untreated sewage and industrial waste now flowed into the Chicago River, then into Lake Michigan, polluting the city 's primary freshwater source.
The city responded by tunneling two miles (3 km) out into Lake Michigan to newly - built water cribs. In 1900, the problem of sewage contamination was largely resolved when the city completed a major engineering feat. It reversed the flow of the Chicago River so the water flowed away from Lake Michigan rather than into it. This project began with the construction and improvement of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, and was completed with the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal that connects to the Illinois River, which flows into the Mississippi River.
In 1871, the Great Chicago Fire destroyed an area of about 4 miles long and 1 mile wide, a large section of the city at the time. Much of the city, including railroads and stockyards, survived intact, and from the ruins of the previous wooden structures arose more modern constructions of steel and stone. These set a precedent for worldwide construction. During its rebuilding period, Chicago constructed the world 's first skyscraper in 1885, using steel - skeleton construction.
The city grew significantly in size and population by incorporating many neighboring townships between 1851 and 1920, with the largest annexation happening in 1889, with five townships joining the city, including the Hyde Park Township, which now comprises most of the South Side of Chicago and the far southeast of Chicago, and the Jefferson Township, which now makes up most of Chicago 's Northwest Side. The desire to join the city was driven by municipal services the city could provide its residents.
Chicago 's flourishing economy attracted huge numbers of new immigrants from Europe and migrants from the Eastern United States. Of the total population in 1900, more than 77 % were either foreign - born or born in the United States of foreign parentage. Germans, Irish, Poles, Swedes and Czechs made up nearly two - thirds of the foreign - born population (by 1900, whites were 98.1 % of the city 's population).
Labor conflicts followed the industrial boom and the rapid expansion of the labor pool, including the Haymarket affair on May 4, 1886. Concern for social problems among Chicago 's immigrant poor led Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr to found Hull House in 1889. Programs developed there became a model for the new field of social work.
During the 1870s and 1880s, Chicago attained national stature as the leader in the movement to improve public health. City, and later state laws, that upgraded standards for the medical profession and fought urban epidemics of cholera, smallpox, and yellow fever were both passed and enforced. These laws became templates for public health reform in other cities and states.
The city established many large, well - landscaped municipal parks, which also included public sanitation facilities. The chief advocate for improving public health in Chicago was Dr. John H. Rauch, M.D.. Rauch established a plan for Chicago 's park system in 1866. He created Lincoln Park by closing a cemetery filled with shallow graves, and in 1867, in response to an outbreak of cholera he helped establish a new Chicago Board of Health. Ten years later, he became the secretary and then the president of the first Illinois State Board of Health, which carried out most of its activities in Chicago.
In the 19th century, Chicago became the nation 's railroad center, and by 1910 over 20 railroads operated passenger service out of six different downtown terminals. In 1883, Chicago 's railway managers needed a general time convention, so they developed the standardized system of North American time zones. This system for telling time spread throughout the continent.
In 1893, Chicago hosted the World 's Columbian Exposition on former marshland at the present location of Jackson Park. The Exposition drew 27.5 million visitors, and is considered the most influential world 's fair in history. The University of Chicago, formerly at another location, moved to the same South Side location in 1892. The term "midway '' for a fair or carnival referred originally to the Midway Plaisance, a strip of park land that still runs through the University of Chicago campus and connects the Washington and Jackson Parks.
During World War I and the 1920s there was a major expansion in industry. The availability of jobs attracted African - Americans from the Southern United States. Between 1910 and 1930, the African - American population of Chicago increased dramatically, from 44,103 to 233,903. This Great Migration had an immense cultural impact, called the Chicago Black Renaissance, part of the New Negro Movement, in art, literature, and music. Continuing racial tensions and violence, such as the Chicago Race Riot of 1919, also occurred.
The ratification of the 18th amendment to the Constitution in 1919 made the production and sale (including exportation) of alcoholic beverages illegal in the United States. This ushered in the beginning of what is known as the Gangster Era, a time that roughly spans from 1919 until 1933 when Prohibition was repealed. The 1920s saw gangsters, including Al Capone, Dion O'Banion, Bugs Moran and Tony Accardo battle law enforcement and each other on the streets of Chicago during the Prohibition era. Chicago was the location of the infamous St. Valentine 's Day Massacre in 1929, when Al Capone sent men to gun down members of his rival gang, North Side, led by Bugs Moran.
In 1924, Chicago was the first American city to have a homosexual - rights organization, the Society for Human Rights. This organization produced the first American publication for homosexuals, Friendship and Freedom. Police and political pressure caused the organization to disband.
In 1933, Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak was fatally wounded in Miami, Florida during a failed assassination attempt on President - elect Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1933 and 1934, the city celebrated its centennial by hosting the Century of Progress International Exposition Worlds Fair. The theme of the fair was technological innovation over the century since Chicago 's founding.
In March 1937, there was a violent strike by about 3,500 drivers for Checker and Yellow Cab Companies which included rioting that went on for weeks. The cab companies hired strike breakers, and the cab drivers union hired "sluggers '' who raged through the downtown Chicago area looking for cabs and drivers not participating in the strike.
On December 2, 1942, physicist Enrico Fermi conducted the world 's first controlled nuclear reaction at the University of Chicago as part of the top - secret Manhattan Project. This led to the creation of the atomic bomb by the United States, which it used in World War II in 1945.
Mayor Richard J. Daley, a Democrat, was elected in 1955, in the era of machine politics.
By the early 1960s, white residents in several neighborhoods left the city for the suburban areas -- in many Northern American cities, a process known as white flight -- as African Americans continued to move beyond the Black Belt. While home loan discriminatory redlining against blacks continued, the real estate industry practiced what became known as blockbusting, completely changing the racial composition of whole neighborhoods. Structural changes in industry, such as globalization and job outsourcing, caused heavy job losses for lower skilled workers. In 1966, Martin Luther King, Jr. and Albert Raby led the Chicago Freedom Movement, which culminated in agreements between Mayor Richard J. Daley and the movement leaders.
Two years later, the city hosted the tumultuous 1968 Democratic National Convention, which featured physical confrontations both inside and outside the convention hall, with anti-war protesters, journalists and bystanders being beaten by police. Major construction projects, including the Sears Tower (now known as the Willis Tower, which in 1974 became the world 's tallest building), University of Illinois at Chicago, McCormick Place, and O'Hare International Airport, were undertaken during Richard J. Daley 's tenure. In 1979, Jane Byrne, the city 's first female mayor, was elected. She helped reduce crime in the Cabrini - Green housing project and led Chicago 's school system out of a financial crisis.
In 1983, Harold Washington became the first black mayor of the city of Chicago. Washington 's first term in office directed attention to poor and previously neglected minority neighborhoods. He was re ‐ elected in 1987 but died of a heart attack soon after. Washington was succeeded by 6th ward Alderman Eugene Sawyer, who was elected by the Chicago City Council and served until a special election.
Richard M. Daley, son of Richard J. Daley, was elected in 1989. His accomplishments included improvements to parks and creating incentives for sustainable development, as well as closing Miegs Field in the middle of the night and destroying the runways. After successfully standing for re-election five times, and becoming Chicago 's longest serving mayor, Richard M. Daley declined to run for a seventh term.
In 1992, a construction accident near the Kinzie Street Bridge produced a breach connecting the Chicago River to a tunnel below, which was part of an abandoned freight tunnel system extending throughout the downtown Loop district. The tunnels filled with 250 million US gallons (1,000,000 m) of water, affecting buildings throughout the district and forcing a shutdown of electrical power. The area was shut down for three days and some buildings did not reopen for weeks; losses were estimated at $1.95 billion.
On February 23, 2011, former Illinois Congressman and White House Chief of Staff, Rahm Emanuel, won the mayoral election, after defeating challenges that he was not a Chicago resident and beating five rivals with 55 percent of the vote, and was sworn in as Mayor on May 16, 2011.
Chicago is located in northeastern Illinois on the southwestern shores of Lake Michigan. It is the principal city in the Chicago Metropolitan Area, situated in the Midwestern United States and the Great Lakes region. Chicago rests on a continental divide at the site of the Chicago Portage, connecting the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes watersheds. The city lies beside huge freshwater Lake Michigan, and two rivers -- the Chicago River in downtown and the Calumet River in the industrial far South Side -- flow entirely or partially through Chicago. Chicago 's history and economy are closely tied to its proximity to Lake Michigan. While the Chicago River historically handled much of the region 's waterborne cargo, today 's huge lake freighters use the city 's Lake Calumet Harbor on the South Side. The lake also provides another positive effect, moderating Chicago 's climate; making waterfront neighborhoods slightly warmer in winter and cooler in summer.
When Chicago was founded in 1837, most of the early building was around the mouth of the Chicago River, as can be seen on a map of the city 's original 58 blocks. The overall grade of the city 's central, built - up areas, is relatively consistent with the natural flatness of its overall natural geography, generally exhibiting only slight differentiation otherwise. The average land elevation is 579 ft (176.5 m) above sea level. The lowest points are along the lake shore at 578 ft (176.2 m), while the highest point, at 672 ft (205 m), is the morainal ridge of Blue Island in the city 's far south side.
The Chicago Loop is the central business district, but Chicago is also a city of neighborhoods. Lake Shore Drive runs adjacent to a large portion of Chicago 's lakefront. Some of the parks along the waterfront include Lincoln Park, Grant Park, Burnham Park and Jackson Park. There are twenty - four public beaches across 26 miles (42 km) of the waterfront. Landfill extends into portions of the lake providing space for Navy Pier, Northerly Island, the Museum Campus, and large portions of the McCormick Place Convention Center. Most of the city 's high - rise commercial and residential buildings are close to the waterfront.
An informal name for the entire Chicago metropolitan area is "Chicagoland ''. There is no precise definition for the term "Chicagoland '', but it generally means the entire conurbation. The Chicago Tribune, which coined the term, includes the city of Chicago, the rest of Cook County, eight nearby Illinois counties: Lake, McHenry, DuPage, Kane, Kendall, Grundy, Will and Kankakee, and three counties in Indiana: Lake, Porter and LaPorte. The Illinois Department of Tourism defines Chicagoland as Cook County without the city of Chicago, and only Lake, DuPage, Kane and Will counties. The Chicagoland Chamber of Commerce defines it as all of Cook and DuPage, Kane, Lake, McHenry and Will counties.
Major sections of the city include the central business district, called The Loop, and the North, the South, and West Sides. The three sides of the city are represented on the Flag of Chicago by three horizontal white stripes. The North Side is the most densely populated residential section of the city, and many high - rises are located on this side of the city along the lakefront. The South Side is the largest section of the city, encompassing roughly 60 % of the city 's land area. The South Side contains the University of Chicago and most of the facilities of the Port of Chicago.
In the late 1920s, sociologists at the University of Chicago subdivided the city into 77 distinct community areas, which can further be subdivided into over 200 informally defined neighborhoods.
Chicago 's streets were laid out in a street grid that grew from the city 's original townsite plat, which was bounded by Lake Michigan on the east, North Avenue on the north, Wood Street on the west, and 22nd Street on the south. Streets following the Public Land Survey System section lines later became arterial streets in outlying sections. As new additions to the city were platted, city ordinance required them to be laid out with eight streets to the mile in one direction and sixteen in the other direction (about one street per 201 meters by two in the other direction). The grid 's regularity provided an efficient means of developing new real estate property. A scattering of diagonal streets, many of them originally Native American trails, also cross the city (Elston, Milwaukee, Ogden, Lincoln, etc.). Many additional diagonal streets were recommended in the Plan of Chicago, but only the extension of Ogden Avenue was ever constructed.
In 2016, Chicago was ranked the sixth-most walkable large city in the United States. Many of the city 's residential streets have a wide patch of grass and / or trees between the street and the sidewalk itself. This helps to keep pedestrians on the sidewalk further away from the street traffic. Chicago 's Western Avenue is the longest continuous urban street in the world. Other famous streets include Michigan Avenue, State Street, Clark Street, and Belmont Avenue. The City Beautiful movement inspired Chicago 's boulevards and parkways.
The destruction caused by the Great Chicago Fire led to the largest building boom in the history of the nation. In 1885, the first steel - framed high - rise building, the Home Insurance Building, rose in the city as Chicago ushered in the skyscraper era, which would then be followed by many other cities around the world. Today, Chicago 's skyline is among the world 's tallest and most dense.
Some of the United States ' tallest towers are located in Chicago; Willis Tower (formerly Sears Tower) is the second tallest building in the Western Hemisphere after One World Trade Center, and Trump International Hotel and Tower is the third tallest in the country. The Loop 's historic buildings include the Chicago Board of Trade Building, the Fine Arts Building, 35 East Wacker, and the Chicago Building, 860 - 880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments by Mies van der Rohe. Many other architects have left their impression on the Chicago skyline such as Daniel Burnham, Louis Sullivan, Charles B. Atwood, John Root, and Helmut Jahn.
The Merchandise Mart, once first on the list of largest buildings in the world, currently listed as 44th - largest (as of September 9, 2013), had its own zip code until 2008, and stands near the junction of the North and South branches of the Chicago River. Presently, the four tallest buildings in the city are Willis Tower (formerly the Sears Tower, also a building with its own zip code), Trump International Hotel and Tower, the Aon Center (previously the Standard Oil Building), and the John Hancock Center. Industrial districts, such as some areas on the South Side, the areas along the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, and the Northwest Indiana area are clustered.
Chicago gave its name to the Chicago School and was home to the Prairie School, two movements in architecture. Multiple kinds and scales of houses, townhouses, condominiums, and apartment buildings can be found throughout Chicago. Large swaths of the city 's residential areas away from the lake are characterized by brick bungalows built from the early 20th century through the end of World War II. Chicago is also a prominent center of the Polish Cathedral style of church architecture. The Chicago suburb of Oak Park was home to famous architect Frank Lloyd Wright, who had designed The Robie House located near the University of Chicago.
Chicago is famous for its outdoor public art with donors establishing funding for such art as far back as Benjamin Ferguson 's 1905 trust. A number of Chicago 's public art works are by modern figurative artists. Among these are Chagall 's Four Seasons; the Chicago Picasso; Miro 's Chicago; Calder 's Flamingo; Oldenburg 's Batcolumn; Moore 's Large Interior Form, 1953 - 54, Man Enters the Cosmos and Nuclear Energy; Dubuffet 's Monument with Standing Beast, Abakanowicz 's Agora; and, Anish Kapoor 's Cloud Gate which has become an icon of the city. Some events which shaped the city 's history have also been memorialized by art works, including the Great Northern Migration (Saar) and the centennial of statehood for Illinois. Finally, two fountains near the Loop also function as monumental works of art: Plensa 's Crown Fountain as well as Burnham and Bennett 's Buckingham Fountain.
More representational and portrait statuary includes a number of works by Lorado Taft (Fountain of Time, The Crusader, Eternal Silence, and the Heald Square Monument completed by Crunelle), French 's Statue of the Republic, Edward Kemys 's Lions, Saint - Gaudens 's Abraham Lincoln: The Man (a.k.a. Standing Lincoln) and Abraham Lincoln: The Head of State (a.k.a. Seated Lincoln), Brioschi 's Christopher Columbus, Meštrović 's The Bowman and The Spearman, Dallin 's Signal of Peace, Fairbanks 's The Chicago Lincoln, Boyle 's The Alarm, Polasek 's memorial to Masaryk, memorials along Solidarity Promenade to Kościuszko, Havliček and Copernicus by Chodzinski, Strachovský, and Thorvaldsen, a memorial to General Logan by Saint - Gaudens, and Kearney 's Moose (W - 02 - 03). A number of statues also honor recent local heroes such as Michael Jordan (by Amrany and Rotblatt - Amrany), Stan Mikita, and Bobby Hull outside of the United Center; Harry Caray (by Amrany and Cella) outside Wrigley field, Jack Brickhouse (by McKenna) next to the WGN studios, and Irv Kupcinet at the Wabash Avenue Bridge.
There are preliminary plans to erect a 1: 1 ‐ scale replica of Wacław Szymanowski 's Art Nouveau statue of Frédéric Chopin found in Warsaw 's Royal Baths along Chicago 's lakefront in addition to a different sculpture commemorating the artist in Chopin Park for the 200th anniversary of Frédéric Chopin 's birth.
The city lies within the humid continental climate zone (Köppen: Dfa), and experiences four distinct seasons. Summers are warm to hot and often humid, with a July daily average of 75.8 ° F (24.3 ° C). In a normal summer, temperatures can exceed 90 ° F (32 ° C) as many as 21 days. Winters are cold and snowy with few sunny days, and the normal January high is just below freezing. Spring and autumn are mild seasons with low humidity. Dewpoint temperatures in the summer range from 55.7 ° F (13.2 ° C) in June to 61.7 ° F (16.5 ° C) in July. The city is part of the USDA Plant Hardiness zone 6a, transitioning to 5b in the suburbs.
According to the National Weather Service, Chicago 's highest official temperature reading of 105 ° F (41 ° C) was recorded on July 24, 1934, although Midway Airport reached 109 ° F (43 ° C) one day prior and recorded a heat index of 125 ° F (52 ° C) during the 1995 heatwave. The lowest official temperature of − 27 ° F (− 33 ° C) was recorded on January 20, 1985, at O'Hare Airport. The city can experience extreme winter cold waves and summer heat waves that may last for several consecutive days. Thunderstorms are common during the spring and summer months which may sometimes produce hail, high winds, and tornadoes. Like other major cities, Chicago also experiences urban heat island, making the city and its suburbs milder than surrounding rural areas, especially at night and in winter. Also, the proximity to Lake Michigan keeps lakefront Chicago cooler in early summer and milder in winter than areas to the west.
During its first hundred years, Chicago was one of the fastest - growing cities in the world. When founded in 1833, fewer than 200 people had settled on what was then the American frontier. By the time of its first census, seven years later, the population had reached over 4,000. In the forty years from 1850 to 1890, the city 's population grew from slightly under 30,000 to over 1 million. At the end of the 19th century, Chicago was the fifth - largest city in the world, and the largest of the cities that did not exist at the dawn of the century. Within sixty years of the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, the population went from about 300,000 to over 3 million, and reached its highest ever recorded population of 3.6 million for the 1950 census.
From the last two decades of the 19th century, Chicago was the destination of waves of immigrants from Ireland, Southern, Central and Eastern Europe, including Italians, Jews, Poles, Lithuanians, Albanians, Croatians, Serbs, Bosnians, Montenegrins and Czechs. To these ethnic groups, the basis of the city 's industrial working class, were added an additional influx of African - Americans from the American South -- with Chicago 's black population doubling between 1910 and 1920 and doubling again between 1920 and 1930.
In the 1920s and 1930s, the great majority of African Americans moving to Chicago were clustered in a so ‐ called "Black Belt '' on the city 's South Side. By 1930, two - thirds of Chicago 's African - American population lived in sections of the city which were 90 % black in racial composition. Chicago 's South Side emerged as America 's second - largest urban black concentration, following New York 's Harlem.
Chicago 's population declined sharply in the latter half of the 20th century, from over 3.6 million in 1950 down to under 2.7 million by 2010. In 1984, it was overtaken by Los Angeles as America 's second largest city.
Since 2010, Chicago 's population has rebounded adding nearly 25,000 people in the most recent 2015 population estimates.
Per U.S. Census estimates as of July 2016, Chicago 's largest racial or ethnic group is now non-Hispanic White at 32.6 % of the population with the Hispanic population increasing to 29.7 % of the population and Blacks declining to 29.3 % of the population from 32.9 % in 2010. The city 's previous largest ethnic group, non-Hispanic white, declined from 59 % in 1970 to 31.7 % in 2010.
As of the 2010 census, there were 2,695,598 people with 1,045,560 households living in Chicago. More than half the population of the state of Illinois lives in the Chicago metropolitan area. Chicago is one of the United States ' most densely populated major cities, and the largest city in the Great Lakes Megalopolis. The racial composition of the city was:
Chicago has a Hispanic or Latino population of 28.9 %. (Its members may belong to any race; 21.4 % Mexican, 3.8 % Puerto Rican, 0.7 % Guatemalan, 0.6 % Ecuadorian, 0.3 % Cuban, 0.3 % Colombian, 0.2 % Honduran, 0.2 % Salvadoran, 0.2 % Peruvian)
Chicago has the third - largest LGBT population in the United States. In 2015, roughly 4 % of the population identified as LGBT. Since the 2013 legalization of same - sex marriage in Illinois, over 10,000 same - sex couples have wed in Cook County, a majority in Chicago.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau 's American Community Survey data estimates for 2008 -- 2012, the median income for a household in the city was $47,408, and the median income for a family was $54,188. Male full - time workers had a median income of $47,074 versus $42,063 for females. About 18.3 % of families and 22.1 % of the population lived below the poverty line.
According to the 2008 -- 2012 American Community Survey, the ancestral groups having 10,000 or more persons in Chicago were:
Persons identifying themselves as "Other groups '' were classified at 1.72 million, and unclassified or not reported were approximately 153,000.
71 % of Chicagoans identify as Christians, 7 % identity with other faiths, and 22 % have no religious affiliation. Chicago also has many Jews, Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, and others. Chicago is the headquarters of several religious denominations, including the Evangelical Covenant Church and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. It is the seat of several diocese. The Fourth Presbyterian Church is one of the largest Presbyterian congregations in the United States based on memberships.
The first two Parliament of the World 's Religions in 1893 and 1993 were held in Chicago. Many international religious leaders have visited Chicago, including Mother Teresa, the Dalai Lama, and Pope John Paul II in 1979.
Chicago has the third - largest gross metropolitan product in the United States -- about $658.6 billion according to 2014 -- 2016 estimates. The city has also been rated as having the most balanced economy in the United States, due to its high level of diversification. In 2007, Chicago was named the fourth-most important business center in the world in the MasterCard Worldwide Centers of Commerce Index. Additionally, the Chicago metropolitan area recorded the greatest number of new or expanded corporate facilities in the United States for calendar year 2014. The Chicago metropolitan area has the third - largest science and engineering work force of any metropolitan area in the nation. In 2009 Chicago placed 9th on the UBS list of the world 's richest cities. Chicago was the base of commercial operations for industrialists John Crerar, John Whitfield Bunn, Richard Teller Crane, Marshall Field, John Farwell, Julius Rosenwald and many other commercial visionaries who laid the foundation for Midwestern and global industry.
Chicago is a major world financial center, with the second - largest central business district in the United States. The city is the headquarters of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago (the Seventh District of the Federal Reserve). The city has major financial and futures exchanges, including the Chicago Stock Exchange, the Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE), and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (the "Merc ''), which is owned, along with the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) by Chicago 's CME Group. The CME Group, in addition, owns the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX), the Commodities Exchange Inc. (COMEX) and the Dow Jones Indexes. Perhaps due to the influence of the Chicago school of economics, the city also has markets trading unusual contracts such as emissions (on the Chicago Climate Exchange) and equity style indices (on the U.S. Futures Exchange). Chase Bank has its commercial and retail banking headquarters in Chicago 's Chase Tower.
The city and its surrounding metropolitan area contain the third - largest labor pool in the United States with about 4.48 million workers, as of 2014. In addition, the state of Illinois is home to 66 Fortune 1000 companies, including those in Chicago. The city of Chicago also hosts 12 Fortune Global 500 companies and 17 Financial Times 500 companies. The city claims two Dow 30 company: aerospace giant Boeing, which moved its headquarters from Seattle to the Chicago Loop in 2001, and Kraft Heinz. According to Site Selection magazine, the Chicago area has seen the most corporate headquarters relocation or expansion projects in the US for each of four consecutive years form 2013 to 2016. Caterpillar Inc. will be moving its global headquarters, with about 300 executives and staff and support personnel, to the Chicago suburb of Deerfield, Illinois, while its high - technology center is in Chicago, by the end of 2018. The headquarters of United Continental Holdings, are and its operations center and its United Airlines subsidiary are in the Willis Tower in Chicago. In June 2016, McDonald 's confirmed plans to move its global headquarters to Chicago 's West Loop neighborhood by early 2018, Chicago was the company 's headquarters between 1955 and 1971.
Manufacturing, printing, publishing and food processing also play major roles in the city 's economy. Several medical products and services companies are headquartered in the Chicago area, including Baxter International, Boeing, Abbott Laboratories, and the Healthcare division of General Electric. In addition to Boeing, which located its headquarters in Chicago in 2001, and United Airlines in 2011, GE Transportation moved its offices to the city in 2013 and GE Healthcare moved its HQ to the city in 2016, as did ThyssenKrupp North America, and agriculture giant Archer Daniels Midland. Moreover, the construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, which helped move goods from the Great Lakes south on the Mississippi River, and of the railroads in the 19th century made the city a major transportation center in the United States. In the 1840s, Chicago became a major grain port, and in the 1850s and 1860s Chicago 's pork and beef industry expanded. As the major meat companies grew in Chicago many, such as Armour and Company, created global enterprises. Though the meatpacking industry currently plays a lesser role in the city 's economy, Chicago continues to be a major transportation and distribution center. Lured by a combination of large business customers, federal research dollars, and a large hiring pool fed by the area 's universities, Chicago is also the site of a growing number of web startup companies like CareerBuilder, Orbitz, 37signals, Groupon, Feedburner, and NowSecure.
Chicago has been a hub of the Retail sector since its early development, with Montgomery Ward, Sears, and Marshall Field 's. Today the Chicago metropolitan area is the headquarters of several retailers, including Walgreens, Sears, Ace Hardware, Claire 's, ULTA Beauty and Crate & Barrel.
Late in the 19th century, Chicago was part of the bicycle craze, with the Western Wheel Company, which introduced stamping to the production process and significantly reduced costs, while early in the 20th century, the city was part of the automobile revolution, hosting the Brass Era car builder Bugmobile, which was founded there in 1907. Chicago was also the site of the Schwinn Bicycle Company.
Chicago is a major world convention destination. The city 's main convention center is McCormick Place. With its four interconnected buildings, it is the largest convention center in the nation and third - largest in the world. Chicago also ranks third in the U.S. (behind Las Vegas and Orlando) in number of conventions hosted annually.
Chicago 's minimum wage for non-tipped employees is one of the highest in the nation and will incrementally reach $13 per hour by 2019.
The city 's waterfront location and nightlife has attracted residents and tourists alike. Over a third of the city population is concentrated in the lakefront neighborhoods from Rogers Park in the north to South Shore in the south. The city has many upscale dining establishments as well as many ethnic restaurant districts. These districts include the Mexican American neighborhoods, such as Pilsen along 18th street, and La Villita along 26th Street; the Puerto Rican enclave of Paseo Boricua in the Humboldt Park neighborhood; Greektown, along South Halsted Street, immediately west of downtown; Little Italy, along Taylor Street; Chinatown in Armour Square; Polish Patches in West Town; Little Seoul in Albany Park around Lawrence Avenue; Little Vietnam near Broadway in Uptown; and the Desi area, along Devon Avenue in West Ridge.
Downtown is the center of Chicago 's financial, cultural, governmental and commercial institutions and the site of Grant Park and many of the city 's skyscrapers. Many of the city 's financial institutions, such as the CBOT and the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, are located within a section of downtown called "The Loop '', which is an eight - block by five - block area of city streets that is encircled by elevated rail tracks. The term "The Loop '' is largely used by locals to refer to the entire downtown area as well. The central area includes the Near North Side, the Near South Side, and the Near West Side, as well as the Loop. These areas contribute famous skyscrapers, abundant restaurants, shopping, museums, a stadium for the Chicago Bears, convention facilities, parkland, and beaches.
Lincoln Park contains the Lincoln Park Zoo and the Lincoln Park Conservatory. The River North Gallery District features the nation 's largest concentration of contemporary art galleries outside of New York City.
Lakeview is home to Boystown (pronounced boys town), which, along with Andersonville, are some of the best - known LGBT neighborhoods in the nation. Each year in June, Boystown hosts the Chicago Pride Parade, one of the world 's largest with over 1,000,000 people in attendance.
The South Side neighborhood of Hyde Park is the home of former US President Barack Obama. It also contains the University of Chicago (U of C), ranked one of the world 's top ten universities; and the Museum of Science and Industry. The 6 - mile (9.7 km) long Burnham Park stretches along the waterfront of the South Side. Two of the city 's largest parks are also located on this side of the city: Jackson Park, bordering the waterfront, hosted the World 's Columbian Exposition in 1893, and is the site of the aforementioned museum; and slightly west sits Washington Park. The two parks themselves are connected by a wide strip of parkland called the Midway Plaisance, running adjacent to the University of Chicago. The South Side hosts one of the city 's largest parades, the annual African American Bud Billiken Parade and Picnic, which travels through Bronzeville to Washington Park. Ford Motor Company has an automobile assembly plant on the South Side in Hegewisch, and most of the facilities of the Port of Chicago are also on the South Side.
The West Side holds the Garfield Park Conservatory, one of the largest collections of tropical plants in any U.S. city. Prominent Latino cultural attractions found here include Humboldt Park 's Institute of Puerto Rican Arts and Culture and the annual Puerto Rican People 's Parade, as well as the National Museum of Mexican Art and St. Adalbert 's Church in Pilsen. The Near West Side holds the University of Illinois at Chicago and was once home to Oprah Winfrey 's Harpo Studios.
The city 's distinctive accent, made famous by its use in classic films like The Blues Brothers and television programs like the Saturday Night Live skit "Bill Swerski 's Superfans '', is an advanced form of Inland Northern American English. This dialect can also be found in other cities bordering the Great Lakes such as Cleveland, Milwaukee, Detroit, and Rochester, New York, and most prominently features a rearrangement of certain vowel sounds, such as the short ' a ' sound as in "cat '', which can sound more like "kyet '' to outsiders. The accent remains well associated with the city.
Renowned Chicago theater companies include the Goodman Theatre in the Loop; the Steppenwolf Theatre Company and Victory Gardens Theater in Lincoln Park; and the Chicago Shakespeare Theater at Navy Pier. Broadway In Chicago offers Broadway - style entertainment at five theaters: the Ford Center for the Performing Arts Oriental Theatre, Bank of America Theatre, Cadillac Palace Theatre, Auditorium Building of Roosevelt University, and Broadway Playhouse at Water Tower Place. Polish language productions for Chicago 's large Polish speaking population can be seen at the historic Gateway Theatre in Jefferson Park. Since 1968, the Joseph Jefferson Awards are given annually to acknowledge excellence in theater in the Chicago area. Chicago 's theater community spawned modern improvisational theater, and includes the prominent groups The Second City and I.O. (formerly ImprovOlympic).
The Chicago Symphony Orchestra (CSO) performs at Symphony Center, and is recognized as one of the best orchestras in the world. Also performing regularly at Symphony Center is the Chicago Sinfonietta, a more diverse and multicultural counterpart to the CSO. In the summer, many outdoor concerts are given in Grant Park and Millennium Park. Ravinia Festival, located 25 miles (40 km) north of Chicago, is the summer home of the CSO, and is a favorite destination for many Chicagoans. The Civic Opera House is home to the Lyric Opera of Chicago. The Lithuanian Opera Company of Chicago was founded by Lithuanian Chicagoans in 1956, and presents operas in Lithuanian.
The Joffrey Ballet and Chicago Festival Ballet perform in various venues, including the Harris Theater in Millennium Park. Chicago has several other contemporary and jazz dance troupes, such as the Hubbard Street Dance Chicago and Chicago Dance Crash.
Other live - music genre which are part of the city 's cultural heritage include Chicago blues, Chicago soul, jazz, and gospel. The city is the birthplace of house music, a very popular form of Electronic Dance Music, and industrial music and is the site of an influential hip - hop scene. In the 1980s and 90s, the city was the global center for house and industrial music, two forms of music created in Chicago, as well as being popular for alternative rock, punk, and new wave. The city has been an epicenter for rave culture, since the 1980s. A flourishing independent rock music culture brought forth Chicago indie. Annual festivals feature various acts, such as Lollapalooza and the Pitchfork Music Festival. A 2007 report on the Chicago music industry by the University of Chicago Cultural Policy Center ranked Chicago third among metropolitan U.S. areas in "size of music industry '' and fourth among all U.S. cities in "number of concerts and performances ''.
Chicago has a distinctive fine art tradition. For much of the twentieth century, it nurtured a strong style of figurative surrealism, as in the works of Ivan Albright and Ed Paschke. In 1968 and 1969, members of the Chicago Imagists, such as Roger Brown, Leon Golub, Robert Lostutter, Jim Nutt, and Barbara Rossi produced bizarre representational paintings.
Chicago contains a number of large, outdoor works by well - known artists. These include the Chicago Picasso, Miró 's Chicago, Flamingo and Flying Dragon by Alexander Calder, Agora by Magdalena Abakanowicz, Monument with Standing Beast by Jean Dubuffet, Batcolumn by Claes Oldenburg, Cloud Gate by Anish Kapoor, Crown Fountain by Jaume Plensa, and the Four Seasons mosaic by Marc Chagall.
Chicago also has a nationally televised Thanksgiving parade that occurs annually. The McDonald 's Thanksgiving Parade is seen across the nation on WGN - TV and WGN America, featuring a variety of diverse acts from the community, marching bands from across the country, and is the only parade in the city to feature inflatable balloons every year.
In 2014, Chicago attracted 50.17 million domestic leisure travelers, 11.09 million domestic business travelers and 1.308 million overseas visitors. These visitors contributed more than US $13.7 billion to Chicago 's economy. Upscale shopping along the Magnificent Mile and State Street, thousands of restaurants, as well as Chicago 's eminent architecture, continue to draw tourists. The city is the United States ' third - largest convention destination. A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Chicago the fourth-most walkable of fifty largest cities in the United States. Most conventions are held at McCormick Place, just south of Soldier Field. The historic Chicago Cultural Center (1897), originally serving as the Chicago Public Library, now houses the city 's Visitor Information Center, galleries and exhibit halls. The ceiling of its Preston Bradley Hall includes a 38 - foot (12 m) Tiffany glass dome. Grant Park holds Millennium Park, Buckingham Fountain (1927), and the Art Institute of Chicago. The park also hosts the annual Taste of Chicago festival. In Millennium Park, there is the reflective Cloud Gate sculpture. Cloud Gate, a public sculpture by Indian - born British artist Anish Kapoor, is the centerpiece of the AT&T Plaza in Millennium Park. Also, an outdoor restaurant transforms into an ice rink in the winter season. Two tall glass sculptures make up the Crown Fountain. The fountain 's two towers display visual effects from LED images of Chicagoans ' faces, along with water spouting from their lips. Frank Gehry 's detailed, stainless steel band shell, the Jay Pritzker Pavilion, hosts the classical Grant Park Music Festival concert series. Behind the pavilion 's stage is the Harris Theater for Music and Dance, an indoor venue for mid-sized performing arts companies, including the Chicago Opera Theater and Music of the Baroque.
Navy Pier, located just east of Streeterville, is 3,000 ft (910 m) long and houses retail stores, restaurants, museums, exhibition halls and auditoriums. In the summer of 2016, Navy Pier will have constructed their new DW60 Ferris wheel. Dutch Wheels, a world renowned company that manufactures ferris wheels, was selected to design the new wheel. It will feature 42 navy blue gondolas that can hold up to eight adults and two kids. It will also have entertainment systems inside the gondolas as well as a climate controlled environment. The DW60 will stand at approximately 196 ft (60 m), which is 46 ft taller than the previous wheel. The new DW60 will be the first in the United States and will be the sixth tallest in the U.S. Chicago was the first city in the world to ever erect a ferris wheel.
On June 4, 1998, the city officially opened the Museum Campus, a 10 - acre (4.0 ha) lakefront park, surrounding three of the city 's main museums, each of which is of national importance: the Adler Planetarium & Astronomy Museum, the Field Museum of Natural History, and the Shedd Aquarium. The Museum Campus joins the southern section of Grant Park, which includes the renowned Art Institute of Chicago. Buckingham Fountain anchors the downtown park along the lakefront. The University of Chicago Oriental Institute has an extensive collection of ancient Egyptian and Near Eastern archaeological artifacts. Other museums and galleries in Chicago include the Chicago History Museum, the Driehaus Museum, the DuSable Museum of African American History, the Museum of Contemporary Art, the Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum, the Polish Museum of America, the Museum of Broadcast Communications, the Pritzker Military Library, the Chicago Architecture Foundation, and the Museum of Science and Industry.
With an estimated completion date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the University of Chicago in Hyde Park and include both the Obama presidential library and offices of the Obama Foundation.
The Willis Tower (formerly named Sears Tower) is a popular destination for tourists. The Willis Tower has an observation deck open to tourists year round with high up views overlooking Chicago and Lake Michigan. The observation deck includes an enclosed glass balcony that extends 10 feet out on the side of the building. Tourists are able to look straight down.
In 2013, Chicago was chosen as one of the "Top Ten Cities in the United States '' to visit for its restaurants, skyscrapers, museums, and waterfront, by the readers of Condé Nast Traveler.
Chicago lays claim to a large number of regional specialties that reflect the city 's ethnic and working - class roots. Included among these are its nationally renowned deep - dish pizza; this style is said to have originated at Pizzeria Uno. The Chicago - style thin crust is also popular in the city.
The Chicago - style hot dog, typically an all - beef hot dog, is loaded with an array of toppings that often includes pickle relish, yellow mustard, pickled sport peppers, tomato wedges, dill pickle spear and topped off with celery salt on a poppy seed bun. Enthusiasts of the Chicago - style dog frown upon the use of ketchup as a garnish, but may prefer to add giardiniera.
There are several distinctly Chicago sandwiches, among them the Italian beef sandwich, which is thinly sliced beef simmered in au jus and served on an Italian roll with sweet peppers or spicy giardiniera. A popular modification is the Combo -- an Italian beef sandwich with the addition of an Italian sausage. Another is the Maxwell Street Polish, a grilled or deep - fried kielbasa -- on a hot dog roll, topped with grilled onions, yellow mustard, and hot sport peppers.
Ethnically originated creations include chicken Vesuvio, with roasted bone - in chicken cooked in oil and garlic next to garlicky oven - roasted potato wedges and a sprinkling of green peas. Another is the Puerto Rican - influenced jibarito, a sandwich made with flattened, fried green plantains instead of bread. There is also the mother - in - law, a tamale topped with chili and served on a hot dog bun. The tradition of serving the Greek dish, saganaki while aflame, has its origins in Chicago 's Greek community. The appetizer, which consists of a square of fried cheese, is doused with Metaxa and flambéed table - side.
Two of the world 's most decorated restaurants and also receiving the Michelin Guide 3 Star Award, Alinea and Grace are both located in Chicago. In addition, a number of well - known chefs have had restaurants in Chicago, including Charlie Trotter, Rick Tramonto, Grant Achatz, and Rick Bayless. In 2003, Robb Report named Chicago the country 's "most exceptional dining destination ''.
Chicago literature finds its roots in the city 's tradition of lucid, direct journalism, lending to a strong tradition of social realism. In the Encyclopedia of Chicago, Northwestern University Professor Bill Savage describes Chicago fiction as prose which tries to "capture the essence of the city, its spaces and its people ''. The challenge for early writers was that Chicago was a frontier outpost that transformed into a global metropolis in the span of two generations. Narrative fiction of that time, much of it in the style of "high - flown romance '' and "genteel realism '', needed a new approach to describe the urban social, political, and economic conditions of Chicago. Nonetheless, Chicagoans worked hard to create a literary tradition that would stand the test of time, and create a "city of feeling '' out of concrete, steel, vast lake, and open prairie. Much notable Chicago fiction focuses on the city itself, with social criticism keeping exultation in check.
At least, three short periods in the history of Chicago have had a lasting influence on American Literature. These include from the time of the Great Chicago Fire to about 1900, what became known as the Chicago Literary Renaissance in the 1910s and early 1920s, and the period of the Great Depression through the 1940s.
What would become the influential Poetry magazine was founded in 1912 by Harriet Monroe, who was working as an art critic for the Chicago Tribune. The magazine discovered such poets as Gwendolyn Brooks, James Merrill, and John Ashbery. T. S. Eliot 's first professionally published poem, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock '', was first published by Poetry. Contributors have included Ezra Pound, William Butler Yeats, William Carlos Williams, Langston Hughes, and Carl Sandburg, among others. The magazine was instrumental in launching the Imagist and Objectivist poetic movements.
Sporting News named Chicago the "Best Sports City '' in the United States in 1993, 2006, and 2010. Along with Boston, Chicago is the only city to continuously host major professional sports since 1871, having only taken 1872 and 1873 off due to the Great Chicago Fire. Additionally, Chicago is one of the six cities in the United States to have won championships in the four major professional leagues and, along with New York and Los Angeles, is one of three cities to have won soccer championships as well. Several major franchises have won championships within recent years -- the Bears (1985), the Bulls (91, ' 92, ' 93, ' 96, ' 97, and ' 98), the White Sox (2005), the Cubs (2016), the Blackhawks (2010, 2013, 2015), and the Fire (1998).
The city has two Major League Baseball (MLB) teams: the Chicago Cubs of the National League play in Wrigley Field on the North Side; and the Chicago White Sox of the American League play in Guaranteed Rate Field on the South Side. Chicago is the only city that has had more than one MLB franchise every year since the AL began in 1901 (New York hosted only one between 1958 and early 1962). The Cubs are the oldest Major League Baseball team to have never changed their city; they have played in Chicago since 1871, and continuously so since 1874 due to the Great Chicago Fire. They have played more games and have more wins than any other team in Major League baseball since 1876. They have won three World Series titles, including the 2016 World Series, but had the dubious honor of having the two longest droughts in American professional sports: They had not won their sport 's title since 1908, and had not participated in a World Series since 1945, both records, until they beat the Cleveland Indians in the 2016 World Series.
The White Sox have played on the South Side continuously since 1901, with all three of their home fields throughout the years being within blocks of one another. They have won three World Series titles (1906, 1917, 2005) and six American League pennants, including the first in 1901. The Sox are fifth in the American League in all - time wins, and sixth in pennants.
The Chicago Bears, one of the last two remaining charter members of the National Football League (NFL), have won nine NFL Championships, including the 1985 Super Bowl XX. The other remaining charter franchise, the Chicago Cardinals, also started out in the city, but is now known as the Arizona Cardinals. The Bears have won more games in the history of the NFL than any other team, and only the Green Bay Packers, their longtime rivals, have won more championships. The Bears play their home games at Soldier Field. Soldier Field re-opened in 2003 after an extensive renovation.
The Chicago Bulls of the National Basketball Association (NBA) is one of the most recognized basketball teams in the world. During the 1990s, with Michael Jordan leading them, the Bulls won six NBA championships in eight seasons. They also boast the youngest player to win the NBA Most Valuable Player Award, Derrick Rose, who won it for the 2010 -- 11 season.
The Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL) began play in 1926, and are one of the "Original Six '' teams of the NHL. The Blackhawks have won six Stanley Cups, including in 2010, 2013, and 2015. Both the Bulls and the Blackhawks play at the United Center.
The Chicago Fire Soccer Club is a member of Major League Soccer (MLS) and plays at Toyota Park in suburban Bridgeview, after playing its first eight seasons at Soldier Field. The Fire have won one league title and four U.S. Open Cups, since their founding in 1997. In 1994, the United States hosted a successful FIFA World Cup with games played at Soldier Field. The Chicago Sky is a professional basketball team based in Rosemont, Illinois, playing in the Women 's National Basketball Association (WNBA). They play home games at the Allstate Arena. The team was founded before the 2006 WNBA season began.
The Chicago Marathon has been held each year since 1977 except for 1987, when a half marathon was run in its place. The Chicago Marathon is one of six World Marathon Majors.
Five area colleges play in Division I conferences: two from major conferences -- the DePaul Blue Demons (Big East Conference) and the Northwestern Wildcats (Big Ten Conference) -- and three from other D1 conferences -- the Chicago State Cougars (Western Athletic Conference); the Loyola Ramblers (Missouri Valley Conference); and the UIC Flames (Horizon League).
When Chicago was incorporated in 1837, it chose the motto Urbs in Horto, a Latin phrase which means "City in a Garden ''. Today, the Chicago Park District consists of more than 570 parks with over 8,000 acres (3,200 ha) of municipal parkland. There are 31 sand beaches, a plethora of museums, two world - class conservatories, and 50 nature areas. Lincoln Park, the largest of the city 's parks, covers 1,200 acres (490 ha) and has over 20 million visitors each year, making it third in the number of visitors after Central Park in New York City, and the National Mall and Memorial Parks in Washington, D.C.
There is a historic boulevard system, a network of wide, tree - lined boulevards which connect a number of Chicago parks. The boulevards and the parks were authorized by the Illinois legislature in 1869. A number of Chicago neighborhoods emerged along these roadways in the 19th century. The building of the boulevard system continued intermittently until 1942. It includes nineteen boulevards, eight parks, and six squares, along twenty - six miles of interconnected streets. Part of the system in the Logan Square Boulevards Historic District was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.
With berths for more than 6,000 boats, the Chicago Park District operates the nation 's largest municipal harbor system. In addition to ongoing beautification and renewal projects for the existing parks, a number of new parks have been added in recent years, such as the Ping Tom Memorial Park in Chinatown, DuSable Park on the Near North Side, and most notably, Millennium Park, which is in the northwestern corner of one of Chicago 's oldest parks, Grant Park in the Chicago Loop.
The wealth of greenspace afforded by Chicago 's parks is further augmented by the Cook County Forest Preserves, a network of open spaces containing forest, prairie, wetland, streams, and lakes that are set aside as natural areas which lie along the city 's outskirts, including both the Chicago Botanic Garden in Glencoe and the Brookfield Zoo in Brookfield. Washington Park is also one of the city 's biggest parks; covering nearly 400 acres (160 ha). The park is listed on the National Register of Historic Places listings in South Side Chicago.
The government of the City of Chicago is divided into executive and legislative branches. The Mayor of Chicago is the chief executive, elected by general election for a term of four years, with no term limits. The current mayor is Rahm Emanuel. The mayor appoints commissioners and other officials who oversee the various departments. As well as the mayor, Chicago 's clerk and treasurer are also elected citywide. The City Council is the legislative branch and is made up of 50 aldermen, one elected from each ward in the city. The council takes official action through the passage of ordinances and resolutions and approves the city budget.
The Chicago Police Department provides law enforcement and the Chicago Fire Department provides fire suppression and emergency medical services for the city and its residents. Civil and criminal law cases are heard in the Cook County Circuit Court of the State of Illinois court system, or in the Northern District of Illinois, in the federal system. In the state court, the public prosecutor is the Illinois State 's Attorney; in the Federal court it is the United States Attorney.
During much of the last half of the 19th century, Chicago 's politics were dominated by a growing Democratic Party organization. During the 1880s and 1890s, Chicago had a powerful radical tradition with large and highly organized socialist, anarchist and labor organizations. For much of the 20th century, Chicago has been among the largest and most reliable Democratic strongholds in the United States; with Chicago 's Democratic vote the state of Illinois has been "solid blue '' in presidential elections since 1992. Even before then, it was not unheard of for Republican presidential candidates to win handily in downstate Illinois, only to lose statewide due to large Democratic margins in Chicago. The citizens of Chicago have not elected a Republican mayor since 1927, when William Thompson was voted into office. The strength of the party in the city is partly a consequence of Illinois state politics, where the Republicans have come to represent rural and farm concerns while the Democrats support urban issues such as Chicago 's public school funding. Chicago contains less than 25 % of the state 's population, but 8 of Illinois ' 19 U.S. Representatives have part of Chicago in their districts.
Machine politics persisted in Chicago after the decline of similar machines in other large U.S. cities. During much of that time, the city administration found opposition mainly from a liberal "independent '' faction of the Democratic Party. The independents finally gained control of city government in 1983 with the election of Harold Washington (in office 1983 -- 1987). From 1989 until May 16, 2011, Chicago was under the leadership of its longest serving mayor, Richard M. Daley, the son of Richard J. Daley. On May 16, 2011, Rahm Emanuel was sworn in as the 55th mayor of Chicago. Because of the dominance of the Democratic Party in Chicago, the Democratic primary vote held in the spring is generally more significant than the general elections in November for U.S. House and Illinois State seats. The aldermanic, mayoral, and other city offices are filled through nonpartisan elections with runoffs as needed.
Formerly a state legislator representing Chicago and later a US Senator, the city is home of former United States President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama. The Obama 's residence is located near the University of Chicago in Kenwood on the city 's south side.
Chicago had a murder rate of 18.5 per 100,000 residents in 2012, ranking 16th among cities with 100,000 people or more. This was higher than in New York City and Los Angeles, the two largest cities in the United States, which have lower murder rates and lower total homicides. However, it was less than in many smaller American cities, including New Orleans, Newark, and Detroit, which had 53 murders per 100,000 residents in 2012. The 2015 year - end crime statistics showed there were 468 murders in Chicago in 2015 compared with 416 the year before, a 12.5 % increase, as well as 2,900 shootings -- 13 % more than the year prior, and up 29 % since 2013. Chicago had more homicides than any other city in 2015 in total but not on per capita basis, according to the Chicago Tribune. In its annual crime statistics for 2016, the Chicago Police Department reported that the city experienced a dramatic rise in gun violence, with 4,331 shooting victims. The department also reported 762 murders in Chicago for the year 2016, a total that marked a 62.8 % increase in homicides from 2015. In June 2017, the Chicago Police Department and the Federal ATF announced a new task force, similar to past task forces, to address the flow of illegal guns and repeat offenses with guns.
According to reports in 2013, "most of Chicago 's violent crime comes from gangs trying to maintain control of drug - selling territories '', and is specifically related to the activities of the Sinaloa Cartel, which by 2006 had decided to seek to control illicit drug distribution, against local street gangs. Violent crime rates vary significantly by area of the city, with more economically developed areas having low rates, but other sections have much higher rates of crime. In 2013, the violent crime rate was 910 per 100,000 people; the murder rate was 10.4 -- while high crime districts saw 38.9, low crime districts saw 2.5 murders per 100,000.
The number of murders in Chicago peaked at 970 in 1974, when the city 's population was over 3 million people (a murder rate of about 29 per 100,000), and it reached 943 murders in 1992, (a murder rate of 34 per 100,000). However, Chicago, like other major U.S. cities, experienced a significant reduction in violent crime rates through the 1990s, falling to 448 homicides in 2004, its lowest total since 1965 and only 15.65 murders per 100,000. Chicago 's homicide tally remained low during 2005 (449), 2006 (452), and 2007 (435) but rose to 510 in 2008, breaking 500 for the first time since 2003. In 2009, the murder count fell to 458 (10 % down). and in 2010 Chicago 's murder rate fell to 435 (16.14 per 100,000), a 5 % decrease from 2009 and lowest levels since 1965. In 2011, Chicago 's murders fell another 1.2 % to 431 (a rate of 15.94 per 100,000). but shot up to 506 in 2012.
In 2012, Chicago ranked 21st in the United States in numbers of homicides per person, but in the first half of 2013 there was a significant drop per - person, in all categories of violent crime, including homicide (down 26 %). Chicago ended 2013 with 415 murders, the lowest number of murders since 1965, and overall crime rates dropped by 16 percent. (In 1965, there were 397 murders.)
Jens Ludwig, director of the University of Chicago Crime Lab, estimated that shootings cost the city of Chicago $2.5 billion in 2012.
In 2014, the Chicago police department reported a total murder count of 390 through December 20, 2014, according to the Chicago Sun - Times. That means that Chicago was able to record their lowest number of murder totals in close to five years for the second continuous calendar year, despite an overall increase in shootings. The Cook County medical examiner 's office had reported a total of 410 homicides with 16 of those including fatal police shootings, all within the same time period.
Chicago Public Schools (CPS) is the governing body of the school district that contains over 600 public elementary and high schools citywide, including several selective - admission magnet schools. There are eleven selective enrollment high schools in the Chicago Public Schools, designed to meet the needs of Chicago 's most academically advanced students. These schools offer a rigorous curriculum with mainly honors and Advanced Placement (AP) courses. Northside College Preparatory High School is ranked number one in the city of Chicago and the state of Illinois. Walter Payton College Prep High School is ranked second, Jones College Prep is third, and the oldest magnet school in the city, Whitney M. Young Magnet High School, which was opened in 1975, is ranked fourth. The magnet school with the largest enrollment is Lane Technical College Prep High School. Lane is one of the oldest schools in Chicago and in 2012 was designated a National Blue Ribbon School by the U.S. Department of Education.
Chicago high school rankings are determined by the average test scores on state achievement tests. The district, with an enrollment exceeding 400,545 students (2013 -- 2014 20th Day Enrollment), is the third - largest in the U.S. On September 10, 2012, teachers for the Chicago Teachers Union went on strike for the first time since 1987 over pay, resources and other issues. According to data compiled in 2014, Chicago 's "choice system '', where students who test or apply and may attend one of a number of public high schools (there are about 130), sorts students of different achievement levels into different schools (high performing, middle performing, and low performing schools).
Chicago has a network of Lutheran schools, and several private schools are run by other denominations and faiths, such as the Ida Crown Jewish Academy in West Ridge. Several private schools are completely secular, such as the Latin School of Chicago in the Near North Side neighborhood, the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools in Hyde Park, the British School of Chicago and the Francis W. Parker School in Lincoln Park, the Lycée Français de Chicago in Uptown, the Feltre School in River North and the Morgan Park Academy. There are also the private Chicago Academy for the Arts, a high school focused on six different categories of the arts and the public Chicago High School for the Arts, a high school focused on five categories (visual arts, theatre, musical theatre, dance, and music) of the arts.
The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago operates Catholic schools, that include Jesuit preparatory schools and others including St. Rita of Cascia High School, De La Salle Institute, Josephinum Academy, DePaul College Prep, Cristo Rey Jesuit High School, Brother Rice High School, St. Ignatius College Preparatory School, Mount Carmel High School, Queen of Peace High School, Mother McAuley Liberal Arts High School, Marist High School, St. Patrick High School and Resurrection High School.
The Chicago Public Library system operates 79 public libraries, including the central library, two regional libraries, and numerous branches distributed throughout the city.
Since the 1850s, Chicago has been a world center of higher education and research with several universities that are in the city proper or in the immediate environs. These institutions consistently rank among the top "National Universities '' in the United States, as determined by U.S. News & World Report. Top universities in Chicago are: the University of Chicago; Illinois Institute of Technology; Northwestern University; Loyola University Chicago; DePaul University; Columbia College Chicago and University of Illinois at Chicago. Other notable schools include: Chicago State University; the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, the Illinois Institute of Art -- Chicago; East -- West University; National Louis University; North Park University; Northeastern Illinois University; Robert Morris University Illinois; Roosevelt University; Saint Xavier University; Rush University; and Shimer College.
William Rainey Harper, the first president of the University of Chicago, was instrumental in the creation of the junior college concept, establishing nearby Joliet Junior College as the first in the nation in 1901. His legacy continues with the multiple community colleges in the Chicago proper, including the seven City Colleges of Chicago: Richard J. Daley College, Kennedy -- King College, Malcolm X College, Olive -- Harvey College, Truman College, Harold Washington College and Wilbur Wright College, in addition to the privately held MacCormac College.
Chicago also has a high concentration of post-baccalaureate institutions, graduate schools, seminaries, and theological schools, such as the Adler School of Professional Psychology, The Chicago School of Professional Psychology, the Erikson Institute, The Institute for Clinical Social Work, the Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago, the Catholic Theological Union, the Moody Bible Institute, the John Marshall Law School and the University of Chicago Divinity School.
The Chicago metropolitan area is the third - largest media market in North America, after New York City and Los Angeles. Each of the big four U.S. television networks, CBS, ABC, NBC and Fox, directly owns and operates a high - definition television station in Chicago (WBBM 2, WLS 7, WMAQ 5 and WFLD 32, respectively). Former CW affiliate WGN - TV 9, which is owned by the Tribune Media, is carried with some programming differences, as "WGN America '' on cable and satellite TV nationwide and in parts of the Caribbean. The city has also been the base of several talk shows, including, formerly, The Oprah Winfrey Show. Chicago Public Radio produces programs such as PRI 's This American Life and NPR 's Wait Wait... Do n't Tell Me! The city also has two PBS member stations: WTTW 11, producer of shows such as Sneak Previews, The Frugal Gourmet, Lamb Chop 's Play - Along and The McLaughlin Group, just to name a few, and WYCC 20.
Two major daily newspapers are published in Chicago: the Chicago Tribune and the Chicago Sun - Times, with the Tribune having the larger circulation. There are also several regional and special - interest newspapers and magazines, such as Chicago, the Dziennik Związkowy (Polish Daily News), Draugas (the Lithuanian daily newspaper), the Chicago Reader, the SouthtownStar, the Chicago Defender, the Daily Herald, Newcity, StreetWise and the Windy City Times. The entertainment and cultural magazine Time Out Chicago and GRAB magazine are also published in the city, as well as local music magazine Chicago Innerview. In addition, Chicago is the recent home of satirical national news outlet, The Onion, as well as its sister pop - culture publication, The A.V. Club.
Since the 1980s, many motion pictures have been filmed and / or set in the city such as The Blues Brothers, Brewster 's Millions, Ferris Bueller 's Day Off, Sixteen Candles, Home Alone, The Fugitive, I, Robot, Mean Girls, Wanted, Batman Begins, The Dark Knight, Transformers: Dark of the Moon, Transformers: Age of Extinction, Transformers: The Last Knight, Divergent, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, Sinister 2 and Suicide Squad.
Chicago has also been the setting for many popular television shows, including the situation comedies Perfect Strangers and its spinoff Family Matters, Punky Brewster, Married... with Children, Kenan & Kel, Still Standing, The League, The Bob Newhart Show, and Shake It Up. The city served as the venue for the medical dramas ER and Chicago Hope, as well as the fantasy drama series Early Edition and the 2005 -- 2009 drama Prison Break. Discovery Channel films two shows in Chicago: Cook County Jail and the Chicago version of Cash Cab. Chicago is currently the setting for CBS 's The Good Wife and Mike and Molly, Showtime 's Shameless, and NBC 's Chicago Fire, Chicago P.D. and Chicago Med.
Chicago has five 50,000 watt AM radio stations: the CBS Radio - owned WBBM and WSCR; the Tribune Broadcasting - owned WGN; the Cumulus Media - owned WLS; and the ESPN Radio - owned WMVP. Chicago is also home to a number of national radio shows, including Beyond the Beltway with Bruce DuMont on Sunday evenings.
Chicago is also featured in a few video games, including Watch Dogs and Midtown Madness, a real - life, car - driving simulation game. In 2005, indie rock artist Sufjan Stevens created a concept album about Illinois titled Illinois; many of its songs were about Chicago and its history.
Chicago is a major transportation hub in the United States. It is an important component in global distribution, as it is the third - largest inter-modal port in the world after Hong Kong and Singapore.
Seven mainline and four auxiliary interstate highways (55, 57, 65 (only in Indiana), 80 (also in Indiana), 88, 90 (also in Indiana), 94 (also in Indiana), 190, 290, 294, and 355) run through Chicago and its suburbs. Segments that link to the city center are named after influential politicians, with three of them named after former U.S. Presidents (Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Reagan) and one named after two - time Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson.
The Kennedy and Dan Ryan Expressways are the busiest state maintained routes in the entire state of Illinois.
The Regional Transportation Authority (RTA) coordinates the operation of the three service boards: CTA, Metra, and Pace.
Greyhound Lines provides inter-city bus service to and from the city, and Chicago is also the hub for the Midwest network of Megabus (North America).
Amtrak long distance and commuter rail services originate from Union Station. Chicago is one of the largest hubs of passenger rail service in the nation. The services terminate in San Francisco, Washington, D.C., New York City, Indianapolis, New Orleans, Portland, Seattle, Milwaukee, Quincy, St. Louis, Carbondale, Boston, Grand Rapids, Port Huron, Pontiac, Los Angeles, and San Antonio. An attempt was made in the early 20th century to link Chicago with New York City via the Chicago -- New York Electric Air Line Railroad. Parts of this were built, but it was never completed.
Chicago 's Department of Transportation oversees operation of Divvy, North America 's largest bicycle - sharing system (by geography), allowing residents and visitors the ability to check out public bikes from any of hundreds of automated stations located over a large area of the city, take them for short rides, and return them to any station of their choosing. Divvy was initially launched in 2013 with 750 bikes and 75 docking stations and has since expanded to 5,800 bikes and 580 stations as of December 2016.
Chicago is the largest hub in the railroad industry. Six of the seven Class I railroads meet in Chicago, with the exception being the Kansas City Southern Railway. As of 2002, severe freight train congestion caused trains to take as long to get through the Chicago region as it took to get there from the West Coast of the country (about 2 days). According to U.S. Department of Transportation, the volume of imported and exported goods transported via rail to, from, or through Chicago is forecast to increase nearly 150 percent between 2010 and 2040. CREATE, the Chicago Region Environmental and Transport Efficiency program, comprises about 70 programs, including crossovers, overpasses and underpasses, that intend to significantly improve the speed of freight movements in the Chicago area.
Chicago is served by O'Hare International Airport, the world 's second - busiest airport measured by airline operations, on the far Northwest Side, and Midway International Airport on the Southwest Side. In 2005, O'Hare was the world 's busiest airport by aircraft movements and the second - busiest by total passenger traffic. Both O'Hare and Midway are owned and operated by the City of Chicago. Gary / Chicago International Airport and Chicago Rockford International Airport, located in Gary, Indiana and Rockford, Illinois, respectively, can serve as alternate Chicago area airports, however they do not offer as many commercial flights as O'Hare and Midway. In recent years the state of Illinois has been leaning towards building an entirely new airport in the Illinois suburbs of Chicago. The City of Chicago is the world headquarters for United Airlines, the world 's third - largest airline.
The Port of Chicago consists of several major port facilities within the city of Chicago operated by the Illinois International Port District (formerly known as the Chicago Regional Port District). The central element of the Port District, Calumet Harbor, is maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Electricity for most of northern Illinois is provided by Commonwealth Edison, also known as ComEd. Their service territory borders Iroquois County to the south, the Wisconsin border to the north, the Iowa border to the west and the Indiana border to the east. In northern Illinois, ComEd (a division of Exelon) operates the greatest number of nuclear generating plants in any US state. Because of this, ComEd reports indicate that Chicago receives about 75 % of its electricity from nuclear power. Recently, the city began installing wind turbines on government buildings to promote renewable energy.
Natural gas is provided by Peoples Gas, a subsidiary of Integrys Energy Group, which is headquartered in Chicago.
Domestic and industrial waste was once incinerated but it is now landfilled, mainly in the Calumet area. From 1995 to 2008, the city had a blue bag program to divert recyclable refuse from landfills. Because of low participation in the blue bag programs, the city began a pilot program for blue bin recycling like other cities. This proved successful and blue bins were rolled out across the city.
The Illinois Medical District is on the Near West Side. It includes Rush University Medical Center, ranked as the second best hospital in the Chicago metropolitan area by U.S. News & World Report for 2014 -- 15, the University of Illinois Medical Center at Chicago, Jesse Brown VA Hospital, and John H. Stroger, Jr. Hospital of Cook County, one of the busiest trauma centers in the nation.
Two of the country 's premier academic medical centers reside in Chicago, including Northwestern Memorial Hospital and the University of Chicago Medical Center. The Chicago campus of Northwestern University includes the Feinberg School of Medicine; Northwestern Memorial Hospital, which is ranked as the best hospital in the Chicago metropolitan area by U.S. News & World Report for 2010 -- 11; the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago, which is ranked the best U.S. rehabilitation hospital by U.S. News & World Report; the new Prentice Women 's Hospital; and Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children 's Hospital of Chicago.
The University of Illinois College of Medicine at UIC is the second largest medical school in the United States (2,600 students including those at campuses in Peoria, Rockford and Urbana -- Champaign).
In addition, the Chicago Medical School and Loyola University Chicago 's Stritch School of Medicine are located in the suburbs of North Chicago and Maywood, respectively. The Midwestern University Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine is in Downers Grove.
The American Medical Association, Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education, Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education, American Osteopathic Association, American Dental Association, Academy of General Dentistry, Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, American Association of Nurse Anesthetists, American College of Surgeons, American Society for Clinical Pathology, American College of Healthcare Executives, the American Hospital Association and Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association are all based in Chicago.
Chicago has 28 sister cities around the world. Like Chicago, many of them are or were the second-most populous city or second-most influential city of their country, or they are the main city of a country that has had large amounts of immigrants settle in Chicago. These relationships have sought to promote economic, cultural, educational, and other ties.
To celebrate the sister cities, Chicago hosts a yearly festival in Daley Plaza, which features cultural acts and food tastings from the other cities. In addition, the Chicago Sister Cities program hosts a number of delegation and formal exchanges. In some cases, these exchanges have led to further informal collaborations, such as the academic relationship between the Buehler Center on Aging, Health & Society at the Feinberg School of Medicine of Northwestern University and the Institute of Gerontology of Ukraine (originally of the Soviet Union), that was originally established as part of the Chicago - Kiev sister cities program.
Sister cities
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where did the phrase good morning vietnam come from | Good Morning, Vietnam - wikipedia
Good Morning, Vietnam is a 1987 American comedy - drama war film written by Mitch Markowitz and directed by Barry Levinson.
Set in Saigon in 1965, during the Vietnam War, the film stars Robin Williams as a radio DJ on Armed Forces Radio Service, who proves hugely popular with the troops, but infuriates his superiors with what they call his "irreverent tendency ''. The story is loosely based on the experiences of AFRS radio DJ Adrian Cronauer.
Most of Williams ' radio broadcasts were improvised. The film was a critical and commercial success; for his work in the film, Williams won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor -- Motion Picture Musical or Comedy and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor, a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role. The film is number 100 on the list of the "American Film Institute 's 100 Funniest American Movies ''.
In 1965, Adrian Cronauer arrives in Saigon to work as a DJ for Armed Forces Radio Service. Cronauer is met at the airport by PFC Edward Garlick. Cronauer 's attitude and demeanor contrasts sharply with many staff members. His show consists of irreverent humor segments and rock and roll, which are frowned upon by his superiors, Second Lieutenant Steven Hauk and Sergeant Major Phillip Dickerson. Hauk adheres to strict Army guidelines in terms of humor and music programming, while Dickerson is generally abusive to all enlisted men. However, Brigadier General Taylor and the other DJs quickly grow to like the new man and his brand of comedy.
Cronauer meets Trinh, a Vietnamese girl, and follows her to an English class. Bribing the teacher to let him take over, Cronauer instructs the students in American slang. Once class is dismissed, he tries to talk to Trinh but is stopped by her brother Tuan. Instead, Cronauer takes Tuan to Jimmy Wah 's, a local GI bar, to have drinks with Garlick and the station staff. Two soldiers, angered at Tuan 's presence, initiate a confrontation that escalates into a brawl.
Dickerson reprimands Cronauer for this incident, but his broadcasts continue. While relaxing in Jimmy Wah 's one afternoon, he is pulled outside by Tuan, who says that Trinh wants to see him. Moments later, the building explodes, killing two soldiers and leaving Cronauer shaken. The cause of the explosion is determined to be a bomb; the news is censored, but Cronauer locks himself in the studio and reports it anyway. Dickerson cuts off the broadcast and Cronauer is suspended. Hauk takes over his shows, but his corny humor and the polka music he plays lead to a flood of letters and phone calls demanding that Cronauer be put back on the air.
In the meantime, Cronauer spends his time drinking and pursuing Trinh, only to be repeatedly rebuffed. At the radio station, Taylor intervenes on Cronauer 's behalf, ordering Hauk to reinstate him, but Cronauer refuses to go back to work. Garlick and Cronauer 's vehicle is stopped in a congested street amidst a convoy of soldiers from the 1st Infantry Division, who persuade him to do an impromptu "broadcast '' before they go off to fight. The incident reminds him why his job is important, and he soon returns to the air.
Dickerson seizes an opportunity to get rid of Cronauer by approving his request to interview soldiers in the field, knowing that the highway to An Lộc is controlled by the Viet Cong. Cronauer and Garlick 's Jeep hits a mine and they are forced to hide from VC patrols. In Saigon, Tuan learns of the trip after Cronauer fails to show up for English class. He steals a van and drives off after them. After finding them, the van breaks down and they flag down a Marine helicopter to take them back to the city.
At the station, Dickerson tells Cronauer that he is off the air for good. His friend Tuan is revealed as a VC operative who was responsible for the bombing of Jimmy Wah 's. Dickerson has arranged for an honorable discharge. General Taylor arrives and informs Cronauer that, regrettably, he can not help him since his friendship with Tuan would damage the reputation of the US Army. After Cronauer leaves, Taylor informs Dickerson that he is transferring him to Guam, citing Dickerson 's vindictive attitude as the reason.
Cronauer chases down Tuan, decrying his actions against American soldiers. Emerging from the shadows, Tuan retorts that the US army has devastated his family, and for him that makes the United States the enemy. On his way to the airport with Garlick, under MP escort, Cronauer sets up a quick softball game for the students from his English class, where he says goodbye to Trinh. As he boards the plane, he gives Garlick a taped farewell message; Garlick -- taking Cronauer 's place as DJ -- plays the tape on the air the next morning.
In 1979, Adrian Cronauer pitched a sitcom based on his experiences as an AFRS DJ. TV networks were not interested, however, because they did not see war as comedy material, even though one of the most popular shows at the time was M * A * S * H. Cronauer then revamped his sitcom into a script for a TV movie of the week, which eventually got the attention of Robin Williams. Very little of Cronauer 's original treatment remained after writer Mitch Markowitz was brought in.
Commenting on the accuracy of the film, the real - life Cronauer commented "I 'm very happy with it. Of course, it was never intended to be an accurate point - by - point biography. It was intended as a piece of entertainment, and (Williams) was playing a character named Adrian Cronauer who shared a lot of my experiences. But actually, he was playing Robin Williams. '' Commenting on his portrayal in the film, Cronauer said "Anybody who has been in the military will tell you that if I did half the things in that movie, I 'd still be in Leavenworth right now. A lot of Hollywood imagination went into the movie. I was a disk jockey in Vietnam and I did teach English in my spare time. I was not thrown out of Vietnam; I stayed for my full one - year tour and I was honorably discharged. '' None of the people in the film are based on actual people Cronauer met, although he described them as stereotypes of military personnel who existed at the time. The scenes where Cronauer teaches his class to swear and use "street slang '', his pursuit of a Vietnamese woman, and his Jeep being blown up in the jungle, among others, are constructs for the plot and never happened to Cronauer.
According to Cronauer, he and Williams were forbidden by Levinson to meet each other because the director "was afraid that if Robin and I met, that Robin would somehow start to do an unconscious imitation of me, which would change his characterization. '' Williams and Cronauer eventually did meet at the film 's New York premiere.
Good Morning, Vietnam was one of the most successful films of the year, becoming the fourth highest - grossing film of 1987.
The film received outstanding reviews from film critics. The website Rotten Tomatoes, which compiles critical reviews for movies, gave a rating of 90 % and the consensus: "A well - calibrated blend of manic comedy and poignant drama, Good Morning, Vietnam offers a captivating look at a wide range of Robin Williams ' cinematic gifts. '' Both Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel of the review show Siskel and Ebert awarded the film "Two Thumbs Up '', with Ebert giving the film a four out of four star review in the Chicago Sun - Times. Richard Corliss of Time called the film "the best military comedy since M * A * S * H '', and named it one of the best films of the year. Vincent Canby of the New York Times called the film a cinematic "tour de force '' and described Williams ' performance as "the work of an accomplished actor ''. Much of the acclaim went to Williams ' performance, a role that earned him an Oscar nomination for Best Actor.
The film was not without its detractors, however. Hal Hinson of The Washington Post, for example, notably gave the film a negative review. While praising Williams, he felt the film was "compulsory and condescending '', and that the film was merely "a Robin Williams concert movie welded clumsily onto the plot from an old Danny Kaye picture. ''
The soundtrack album was certified platinum in the US. Louis Armstrong 's "What A Wonderful World '' was released as a single because of the film and reached position 32 on the US Top 40, 20 years after its original release.
Alex North 's score was released by Intrada Records in 2017. As the complete work runs for just 17 minutes, it was paired with David Newman 's Operation Dumbo Drop.
In 1992, Mark Frost wrote a sequel screenplay, Good Morning, Chicago. The film would have featured Williams, reprising his role as Cronauer, as a journalist at the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, Illinois. The project was eventually scrapped, due to disagreements between Williams, Levinson, and The Walt Disney Company, over the film 's direction.
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when will ariana grande's new album be released | Sweetener (album) - wikipedia
Sweetener is the fourth studio album by American singer Ariana Grande. It was released on August 17, 2018, through Republic Records. The album is the follow - up to her 2016 studio album, Dangerous Woman, and features guest appearances from Pharrell Williams, Nicki Minaj and Missy Elliott.
The lead single, "No Tears Left to Cry '', was released on April 20, 2018, and debuted at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100. "The Light Is Coming '', featuring Minaj, was released as a promotional single on June 20, 2018, along with the pre-order of the album. "God Is a Woman '' was released as the second single on July 13, 2018, and peaked at number 8.
The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, becoming her third to reach the top position in the country. It also topped several international album charts, including in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.
On November 13, 2016, Grande stated on Snapchat that she had finished her fourth album. She later clarified by saying, "I did n't mean to make an album, and I do n't know if it 's done at all, but I just have a bunch of songs that I really really like. I 've been working a lot and have been creating and feeling inspired. '' In December 2017, she confirmed that she was still working on the album.
Grande 's manager Scooter Braun told Variety that the album has a more mature sound: "It 's time for (Ariana) to sing the songs that define her... Whitney, Mariah, Adele -- when they sing, that 's their song. Ariana has big vocal moments; it 's time for her song. '' Pharrell Williams told Los Angeles Times: "The things that (Ariana) has to say on this album, it 's pretty next - level. '' Producers Max Martin and Savan Kotecha were later confirmed to have collaborated with Grande in the album. On December 28, 2017, Grande shared several pictures of her in the studio throughout the year. The following week, Grande shared a snippet from the album on her Instagram, which was later revealed to be a track titled "Get Well Soon ''.
On April 16, 2018, it was reported that Grande may move up the lead single release to April 20, 2018, due to labelmate Post Malone 's album being released on April 27. On April 17, 2018, Grande announced that the album 's lead single, "No Tears Left to Cry '', would be released on April 20, 2018.
On The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, Grande announced that her album would be called Sweetener. She said the meaning behind the title is "It 's kind of about like bringing light to a situation, or to someone 's life, or somebody else who brings light to your life, or sweetening the situation. '' A May 2018 cover article in Time magazine by Sam Lansky notes that, for the first time with this album, Grande "took the lead on writing ''. In late May 2018, she announced that the album would feature 15 tracks and three collaborations, which are Missy Elliott, Nicki Minaj and Pharrell Williams.
In early June 2018, Grande announced at Wango Tango that the album would be available for pre-order on June 20, and "The Light Is Coming '' would be released along with it. The second single, "God Is a Woman '', was initially scheduled to be released on July 20, 2018, however, she later moved the release forward a week to July 13. Prior to the album 's release, Spencer Kornhaber of The Atlantic commented that the first three singles from the album "sparked with a sense of defiance and rattled mortality... (a) trifecta of pseudo-spiritualism and sneaky innovation... Grande 's music and videos radiate (intoxicating, unworried confidence) ''.
-- Ariana Grande on the album 's sound.
Sweetener consists mostly of pop, R&B, and trap songs that include elements of house, funk, neo soul and hip hop music on its beats and productions. The melodies and harmonies on the album are diverse and include uptempo songs and many different down tempo sentimental ballads. It explores a diversity of other music genres, including tropical house, EDM, synthpop and minimalist urban influences. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic stated that the album "deepens the R&B inclinations of 2016 's Dangerous Woman. '' In an interview with Zach Sang she said: "Listen, the thing that I love most about this project sonically, is that all I really did was sing in my sweet lower register ''.
The album begins with 38 - second a cappella intro, "Raindrops (An Angel Cried) '', written by Bob Gaudio and performed by The Four Seasons. The song is known to completely show Grande 's vocals. "Blazed '' is a high tempo funk - influenced song. It features vocals and background vocals by Pharrell Williams, who also produced the track. She first admitted the name of the song on her Twitter account. Lyrically, it is about "loving someone and being with them. '' "The Light Is Coming '' merges hip hop and R&B elements. Grande sings the lyrics "The light is coming / to give back everything the darkness stole ''. Which is sung over a "jittery beat '' that is used with quick drums and synths. It samples a CNN archive clip of a man who is shouting at former senator Arlen Specter at a town hall meeting in Pennsylvania in 2009 concerning healthcare ("You would n't let anybody speak for this and instead! ''). Israel Daramola described the song as a "glitchy, thumping '' dance record with a sample that highlights Grande 's "nursery rhyme - style melody '' "R.E.M '' is an R&B song that is built over a smooth doo - wop beat. The song 's title stands for "rapid eye movement '', which is where memorable and vivid dreams occur. In an interview with Jimmy Fallon for the Tonight Show, she admitted that "R.E.M '' was her favourite song. She later confirmed on Twitter that "R.E.M. '' is a song based on Beyoncé 's demo titled "Wake Up '', a leftover from the singer 's 2013 self - titled album.
The track "God Is a Woman '' contains lyrics about female sexual empowerment and spirituality; Time described the song as "an anthemic, sultry banger ''. a trap - pop song, "God Is a Woman '' contains influences of reggae. and is performed in the key of E ♭ minor with a tempo of 72 -- 76 beats per minute. "Sweetener '' (which is the title track) was the first song that Grande recorded for the album, and it features Williams vocals in the background similar to "R.E.M ''. Being a trap - inspired song, the chorus contains the lyrics "When life deals us cards / Make everything taste like it is salt / Then you come through like the sweetener you are. '' which symbolises empowerment. "Successful '' is a 90s - inspired neo soul song, that has elements of gospel and trap. Lyrically, it 's about "girls feeling good about their own individual success. '' "Everytime '' is a "trap - pop '' song that contains a pop - rap chorus. "Breathin '' is a dance - pop song that contains influences of synthpop. It was written by songwriter Peter Svensson. The Independent called the song an "emotional highlight '' and that it is a "mental health bop over a good, solid pop beat. '' Lyrically, it is about Grande 's overcoming growth from anxiety.
"No Tears Left To Cry '' is a dance - pop and disco song with a UK garage beat. and was served as the first official single for the album. Lyrically, it is about the Manchester Arena bombing. "Borderline '' is a 90s contemporary R&B song features American rapper Missy Elliott. It 's one of Grande 's favourites on the album. "Better Off '' is a power ballad that discusses a toxic relationship that Grande was in with former - boyfriend Mac Miller. "Goodnight n Go '' is an EDM song with deep house and tropical influences. It contains a sample of "Goodnight and Go '', written and performed by Grande 's inspiration Imogen Heap. In an interview with Billboard Heap said that "it feels like a gift ''. She went on saying: "When somebody that famous picks up on a song that has had its day and gives it a second life, it 's a real gift. I think she 's done a lovely version of it. '' "Pete Davidson '' is an interlude of the album and has a trap and hip hop production. Lyrically, it is about her then - fiancé, Pete Davidson. "Get Well Soon '' is a soul - ballad that has a laid back R&B melody. At the end of the song, 40 seconds of silence are played as a tribute to the twenty - two victims of the Manchester Arena bombing, which took place after her concert on May 22, 2017.
Grande went silent on all social media after sharing a snippet of a song from the album on December 31, 2017. On April 17, 2018, Grande broke her silence by sharing a teaser of the album 's lead single, "No Tears Left to Cry '', which was released on April 20, 2018, alongside its music video. She first performed the song at Coachella later that night, as a guest during the performance of DJ Kygo. Grande announced the title of the album and several song titles on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on May 1, 2018, shortly before performing "No Tears Left to Cry ''. She also opened the 2018 Billboard Music Awards with a performance of the song on May 20, 2018. On June 2, 2018, Grande performed at Wango Tango in California, closing her set with a performance of "No Tears Left to Cry '' and also sharing a snippet of "The Light Is Coming ''. On August 8, 2018, three dates were announced for a series of promotional concerts in the United States, titled The Sweetener Sessions, in partnership with American Express.
Grande also announced a world tour in support of the album. The tour, titled Sweetener World Tour is scheduled to begin on March 18, 2019.
The album 's lead single, "No Tears Left to Cry '', was released on April 20, 2018 alongside its music video. The track debuted at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100, becoming Grande 's ninth Hot 100 top 10 and sixth to debut in the top 10, tying Grande with Lady Gaga and Rihanna in sixth among acts with the most top 10 debuts on the chart. The single made Grande the first artist in the chart 's 60 - year history to debut in the top 10 with lead single from each of her first four albums.
The second single, "God Is a Woman '', was released on July 13, 2018, with its music video premiering 12 hours after the song 's release. The single debuted at number eleven on the Hot 100 and peaked at number eight, making it Grande 's tenth top ten song on the chart and placing her as the twelfth overall artist and seventh female artist with the most Hot 100 top 10s in the 2010s decade.
"Breathin '' was released to US contemporary hit radio as the third single from the album on September 18, 2018. The song has reached number 22 on the Hot 100.
A promotional single, "The Light Is Coming '', featuring Nicki Minaj, was released on June 20, 2018, along with the pre-order of the album. The song debuted at number 95 on the Billboard Hot 100 and later peaked at number 89, after the release of the album.
At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, Sweetener has an average score of 81 based on 20 reviews.
In The New York Times, Jon Pareles wrote that Grande 's voice "can be silky, breathy or cutting, swooping through long melismas or jabbing out short R&B phrases; it 's always supple and airborne, never forced.... Ms. Grande sails above any fray, past or present. Her aplomb is her triumph. '' Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone called the album "a refreshing, cohesive package.... (The producers ' approach lets) Grande 's easy way with trap phrasing find a home next to her flair for Broadway-esque dramatic runs ''; it combines "the sensual romance of the album 's plentiful love songs and the aching heartbreak of the others. '' Spanos concludes that it is Grande 's "best album yet, and one of 2018 's strongest pop releases to date. Kate Solomon of The Independent commented that with music that is "often unexpected, sometimes in a good way, it is an album by an artist in flux -- trying to move forward while reluctant to fully relinquish old ideas. ''
Writing for NME, Douglas Greenwood deemed the album "(a) confident, accomplished, sometimes left - field collection of pop bangers, proving that she 's not shy of experimentation. '' He also commented that "there are a couple of songs on Sweetener that you 'd happily leave on the shelf. '' Similarly, in The Guardian, Alexis Petridis said that "her collaborations with Pharrell really push the boundaries. But they make the rest of this album seem formulaic. '' He considered the album "uneven '', with its attempts to balance out what Grande called a "weird '' record. Petridis felt that "the world could use more pop music as imaginative as Sweetener 's highlights. ''
Neil McCormick in The Daily Telegraph felt that "the quality of the songs is high, although there are moments when they might be trying too hard to demonstrate that the teen queen is all grown up now, '' and argued, "as modern, branded, blockbuster pop albums go, Sweetener is a delightful confection. '' He commented less favorably about guest rappers Nicki Minaj and Missy Elliott, who "sound like they dialled in clichéd verses for a pay cheque. ''
In the United States, Sweetener opened at number one on the US Billboard 200 with 231,000 album - equivalent units, of which 127,000 were from traditional album sales, thus becoming Grande 's third number - one album in the United States. It also logged the largest streaming week for a non-hip hop album by a female artist; the songs were streamed 126.7 million times in the album 's first week. On the US Billboard Hot 100 chart issue dated September 1, ten songs (nine of which are from Sweetener) appeared simultaneously, placing Grande as the fourth female artist with the most simultaneous entries on the chart by a solo female artist behind Taylor Swift, Beyoncé, and Cardi B. Grande also topped the Artist 100 chart the same week due to album sales and song streams. In its second week, Sweetener dropped to number four moving 75,000 equivalent album units, while in its third week, it fell one position to number five moving an additional 56,000 equivalent album units.
In the United Kingdom, Sweetener debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, moving 45,000 album - equivalent units. It became her second number - one album in the UK, and her fastest selling album to date. Following its release, two album tracks entered the UK Singles Chart as "Breathin '' debuted at number 8, and "Sweetener '' landed at number 22, while the single "God Is a Woman '' ascended six places to number 6.
In Australia, the album became Grande 's third number one on the ARIA Albums Chart, with all 15 of its tracks placing on the ARIA Singles Chart in the same week.
Notes
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Sweetener.
Performers and musicians
Production
Artwork
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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what is uk 4 in european shoe size | Shoe size - wikipedia
A shoe size is an indication of the fitting size of a shoe for a person.
There are a number of different shoe - size systems used worldwide. While all of them use a number to indicate the length of the shoe, they differ in exactly what they measure, what unit of measurement they use, and where the size 0 (or 1) is positioned. Some systems also indicate the shoe width, sometimes also as a number, but in many cases by one or more letters. Some regions use different shoe - size systems for different types of shoes (e.g. men 's, women 's, children 's, sport, and safety shoes). This article sets out several complexities in the definition of shoe sizes. In practice, shoes should be tried on for size and fit before they are purchased.
The length of a foot is commonly defined as (a) the distance between two parallel lines that are perpendicular to the foot and (b) in contact with the most prominent toe and the most prominent part of the heel. Foot length is measured with the subject standing barefoot and the weight of the body equally distributed between both feet.
The sizes of the left and right feet are often slightly different. In this case, both feet are measured, and purchasers of mass - produced shoes are advised to purchase a shoe size based on the larger foot, as most retailers do not sell pairs of shoes in non-matching sizes.
Each size of shoe is considered suitable for a small interval of foot lengths. The inner cavity of a shoe must typically be 15 -- 20 mm longer than the foot, but this varies between different types of shoes.
A shoe - size system can refer to three characteristic lengths:
All these measures differ substantially from one another for the same shoe.
Sizing systems also differ in what units of measurement they use. This also results in different increments between shoe sizes, because usually only "full '' or "half '' sizes are made.
The following length units are commonly used today to define shoe - size systems:
The sizing systems also place size 0 (or 1) at different locations:
Some systems also include the width of a foot, but do so in a variety of ways:
The width for which these sizes are suitable can vary significantly between manufacturers. The A -- E width indicators used by most American, Canadian, and some British shoe manufacturers are typically based on the width of the foot, and common step sizes are ⁄ inch (4.8 mm).
The International Standard is ISO 9407: 1991, "Shoe sizes -- Mondopoint system of sizing and marking '', which recommends a shoe - size system known as Mondopoint.
It is based on the mean foot length and width for which the shoe is suitable, measured in millimetres. A shoe size of 280 / 110 indicates a mean foot length of 280 millimetres (11.0 in) and width of 110 millimetres (4.3 in).
Because Mondopoint also takes the foot width into account, it allows for better fitting than most other systems. It is, therefore, used by NATO and other military services. Mondopoint is also used for ski boots.
Shoe size in the United Kingdom and Ireland is based on the length of the last used to make the shoes, measured in barleycorn (⁄ inch) starting from the smallest size deemed practical, which is called size zero. It is not formally standardised. Note that the last is typically longer than the foot heel to toe length by about 1 / 2 to 2⁄3 inch (13 to 17 mm).
A child 's size zero is equivalent to 4 inches (a hand = 12 barleycorns = 10.16 cm), and the sizes go up to size 13 ⁄ (8 ⁄ in, 25 ⁄ barleycorns or 21.59 cm). Thus, the calculation for a children 's shoe size in the UK is:
equivalent to
An adult size one is then the next size up (8 ⁄ in or 22.01 cm) and each size up continues the progression in barleycorns. The calculation for an adult shoe size in the UK is thus:
equivalent to
Note: some manufacturers choose to use a constant other than 25, so sizes do vary in either direction e.g. A shoe marked as a European size 40 may also be marked as a UK: 6 by Jimmy Choo, Nike; a 6 ⁄ by Adidas, Clarks, Dr Martens, Fred Perry, Karrimor, Monsoon, New Balance, Reebok, and Slazenger; a 7 by Converse, Gap, Pavers, and Timberland; and a 7 ⁄ by Crocs. Some retailers mark a larger size on women 's European compatible which can cause confusion with the UK unisex sizes. A size 8 should be a European 42 in both male and female shoes, but this is often marked as a 9 for women.
For men and children 's footwear the UK system is followed. Women 's footwear has a slightly different sizing that is unique. It is in between the UK and US 's sizings.
In North America, there are different systems that are used concurrently. The size indications are usually similar but not exactly equivalent especially with athletic shoes at extreme sizes. The most common is the customary, described in more detail below, which for men 's shoes is one barleycorn shorter than the UK equivalent. (so a men 's 13 in the US or Canada is the same size as a men 's 12 in the UK)
The traditional system is similar to English sizes but start counting at one rather than zero, so equivalent sizes are one greater. So the calculation for a male shoe size in the USA or Canada is:
Women 's sizes are almost always determined with the "common '' scale, in which women 's sizes are equal to men 's sizes plus 1.5 (for example, a men 's 10.5 is a women 's 12). In other words:
In the less popular scale, known as the "standard '' or "FIA '' (Footwear Industries of America) scale, women 's sizes are men 's sizes plus 1 (so a men 's 10.5 is a women 's 11.5).
Children 's sizes are equal to men 's sizes plus 12 ⁄. Children 's sizes do not differ by gender even though adults ' do.
Children 's shoe stores in the United States and Canada use a sizing scheme which ends at 13, after which the adult range starts at 1:
Alternatively, a scale running from K4 to K13 and then 1 to 7 is in use. K4 to K9 are toddler sizes, K10 to 3 are pre-school and 1 to 7 are grade school sizes.
A slightly different sizing method is based on the Brannock Device, a measuring instrument invented by Charles F. Brannock in 1925 and now found in many shoe stores. The formula used by the Brannock device assumes a foot length 2⁄3 inch (1.7 cm) less than the length of the last; thus, men 's size 1 is equivalent to a foot 's length of 7 2⁄3 inches. Women 's sizes are one size up.
The method also measures the length of the distance of the heel and the widest point of the foot. For that purpose, the device has another, shorter scale at the side of the foot. If this scale indicates a larger size, it is taken in place of the foot 's length.
For children 's sizes, additional wiggle room is added to allow for growth.
The device also measures the width of the foot and assigns it designations of AAA, AA, A, B, C, D, E, EE, or EEE. The widths are 3 / 16 in apart and differ by shoe length.
Some shoe stores use optical devices to precisely measure the length and width of both feet and recommend the appropriate shoe model and size. (1)
The Continental European system is used in Portugal, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and most other continental European countries. It is also used in Middle Eastern countries (such as Iran), Brazil -- which uses the same method but subtracts 2 from the final result -- and, commonly, Hong Kong.
In this system, the shoe size is the length of the last, expressed in Paris points, for both sexes and for adults and children alike. Because a Paris point is 2⁄3 of a centimetre, the formula is as follows:
To compute the size based on actual foot length, one must first add a length of about 1.5 to 2 cm. For instance, for a shoe having an internal length 1.5 cm longer than the foot:
This gives the relationships:
European size = 1.27 × UK size + 31.75
UK size = European size / 1.27 - 25 = 0.7874 × European size - 25
The Asian system is based on metric measurements and standardised as JIS S 5037: 1998, CNS 4800, S 1093, or KS M 6681. Foot length and girth are taken into account.
The foot length is indicated in centimetres; an increment of 5 mm is used. This system was also used in the GDR.
The length is followed by designators for girth (A, B, C, D, E, EE, EEE, EEEE, F, G), which is taken from a table indexed to girth and length. There are different tables for men 's, women 's, and children 's (less than 12 years of age) shoes. The tables also include the width as supplemental indications. Not all designators are used for all genders and in all countries. For example, the largest girth for women in China is EEEE, whereas in Japan, it is F.
Shoes are sized either according to the foot length they are intended to fit, in cm, or alternatively to another variation of the barleycorn system, with sizes calculated approximately as:
Historically the USSR used the European (Paris point) system but an alternative metric system (State Standard 3927 -- 64) was devised, with shoe sizes increasing in 1⁄2 rather than the 2⁄3 cm intervals found in the European scheme. This system has been refined by later standards:
Where used this system is sometimes described as a Pointe (ballet shoe) or Stych size:
Please note that the following tables indicate theoretical sizes calculated from the standards and information given above. Differences between various shoe size tables, makers ' tables or other tables found on the Web are usually due to the following factors:
Further, some tables available on the Web simply contain errors. For example, the wiggle room or different zero point is not taken into account, or tables based on different U.S. systems (traditional and athletic) are simply combined although they are incompatible.
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who did meg's voice first on family guy | Meg Griffin - wikipedia
Megan "Meg '' Griffin is a fictional character in the animated television series Family Guy. Meg is the eldest child of Peter and Lois Griffin and older sister of Stewie and Chris, but is also the family 's scapegoat who receives the least of their attention and bears the brunt of their abuse. She is often bullied, ridiculed, and ignored.
Meg first appeared on television, along with the rest of the Griffin family, in a 15 - minute short on December 20, 1998. She was created and designed by Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane, who was asked to pitch a pilot to the Fox Broadcasting Company, based on The Life of Larry and Larry & Steve, two shorts made by MacFarlane featuring a middle - aged man named Larry and an intellectual dog, Steve. After the pilot was given the greenlight, the Griffin family appeared in the episode "Death Has a Shadow ''.
Originally voiced by Lacey Chabert during the first season, Meg has been voiced by Mila Kunis since season 2.
Meg is a self - conscious and insecure adolescent girl. She is treated unfairly by various people and has numerous insecurities that prompt her to try to be part of the "in - crowd '', which only results in her getting rebuffed by the many bullies of this circle, particularly Connie D'Amico, the head cheerleader of the local high school, James Woods Regional High School. However, a nerdy student named Neil Goldman is attracted to her. She is also usually the butt of Peter 's jokes due to her unpopularity and "ugliness ''. Peter resorts to outrageous stunts and names; Stewie and Brian tend to disdain her kindness, but they typically do it behind Meg 's back; and Lois constantly puts Meg down while boosting her own egotistical image and usually does little to no help when she is abused by others, though she is not as abusive towards her as Peter is.
Whilst having a strong tendency to be a pushover, Meg can get angry if pushed too far, as shown in "Seahorse Seashell Party '', where she strongly insults and defames Peter, Lois, and even Chris for their inconsiderate actions against her, causing them to distance themselves in shame and sending Peter into depression, though she later apologizes; in "Road to Rupert '', she assaults a man who insulted her after a fender - bender. Many of the show 's storylines about Meg involve her trying to improve her typical life, trying to find a boyfriend, and reaching breaking points with her family and other bullies who victimize her.
Out of all the members of the family, her father Peter abuses her the most, however he is shown to actually care about Meg in various episodes, such as in "Meg and Quagmire '' when he goes out of his way to prevent Glenn Quagmire from having sex with her, and in "This Little Piggy '' where he tries to get Meg out of a foot fetishism business objectifying her for men 's sexual amusement. Peter cares about Meg but is not open about it to anyone.
On the season 1 DVD commentary for the Drawn Together episode "Hot Tub '', Cree Summer claims she was offered the role to play Meg but was dismissed by the producers. Meg was voiced by an uncredited Lacey Chabert for the first season, and by Mila Kunis in subsequent seasons after Chabert became busy with school and appearing on Party of Five at the time, although some of her work became second season episodes due to production order. Mila Kunis won the role after auditions and a slight rewrite of the character, in part due to her performance on That ' 70s Show. MacFarlane called Kunis back after her first audition, instructing her to speak more slowly, and then told her to come back another time and enunciate more. Once she claimed that she had it under control, MacFarlane hired her. MacFarlane stated that Kunis "had a very natural quality to Meg '' and she 's "in a lot of ways (...) almost more right for the character ''. Kunis 's voice is first heard as Meg in Episode 3 of season two "Da Boom '', and the voices switch back and forth in the broadcast order until settling on Kunis. Tara Strong provides Meg 's singing voice in "Do n't Make Me Over ''.
Meg is very unpopular in high school due to both her plain appearance and personality. She desperately tries to be part of the cool crowd, but is usually coldly rebuffed. Because of her eagerness for acceptance, she has been recruited "unknowingly '' into a suicidal religious cult, and later recruited again unwittingly into her school 's Lesbian Alliance ("Brian Sings and Swings ''). However, Meg does have a moderate number of friends, the best of whom being a group of girls who are often seen with her during occasions such as her slumber parties and gossiping about boys. In later episodes, these girls, known by the names Beth, Patty, Collette, Esther, and Ruth, are characterized as being highly unpopular and dateless, much like Meg.
Meg is so unpopular at school that one student fires a nail gun into his own stomach twice (in shop class) in order to avoid a date with her, and then in a later episode shoots his own brother as an excuse not to go to a dance with her the following night. In "Do n't Make Me Over '', Lois is looking for new clothes for Meg, but with no luck; a saleswoman ends up pouring gasoline on herself, lighting a match, catching fire, and then jumping out of a window after looking at Meg in a pair of jeans. However, she is sought by nerd Neil Goldman. In "8 Simple Rules for Buying My Teenage Daughter '', Neil starts dating a girl named Cecilia, Meg becomes instantly jealous and pretends to date Jake Tucker to make him jealous. This leads to her signing a contract to become Neil 's girlfriend and (not knowing at first) his slave, but she gets him to tear up the contract after Lois seduces him. Perverted neighbor Glenn Quagmire has shown a repeated interest in her, mostly due to his very low standards, asking if she has reached the age of consent. Quagmire comes close to succeeding in "Meg and Quagmire '' when Lois tells Peter to back off after he was ruining Meg and Quagmire 's ' dates '. Then, they rescue Meg after Glenn takes her to his cabin, Peter and Lois arriving in time before anything happens. In several episodes she is shown dating, including stories with characters Mayor Adam West and nudist Jeff Campbell. She also loses her virginity unknowingly on live television to Saturday Night Live host Jimmy Fallon after having a drastic makeover; but, before all that happens, she goes out with a rebel at her school named Craig Hoffman. In "Jerome is the New Black '', Jerome, an old flame of Lois 's and Peter 's new friend, admits to having sex with Meg, to which Peter replies indifferently.
In the episode "Brian Sings and Swings '', a lesbian student named Sarah invites Meg to join in her Lesbian Alliance Club, with Meg not knowing at first what kind of club it was. Desperate to fit in, she pretends to be a lesbian and also pretends to be attracted to Sarah and even goes so far as to kiss her to prove it. At the end of the episode, Meg goes over to Sarah 's house to admit she lied about being a lesbian (Sarah thought that Meg came over to have sex and even undresses when Meg is telling her that she lied), much to Glenn 's (who was hiding in Sarah 's closet) disappointment. She also used to have a crush on anchorman Tom Tucker, but it ended after she discovered his vanity and selfishness.
In other episodes, she is portrayed as chronically incapable of finding a boyfriend. For her Junior Prom she accepts a pity date from Brian, the family dog and only after threatening suicide.
Earlier in season 2, she dated Joe Swanson 's son Kevin Swanson, but in "Stew - Roids '' it is mentioned that Kevin died in Iraq. In the episode, "Prick Up Your Ears '', she dates a boy named Doug, but he breaks up with her when he sees her naked right before almost having sex. In the episode "Peter 's Daughter '', Meg falls in love with a medical student named Michael Milano after coming out of a short coma (caused by Peter when he asked her to "rescue '' beer and make him a sandwich out of an already flooded kitchen) and they start to date. After he breaks up with Meg (because of Peter being overprotective of her after promising that if she came out of the coma, he would "treat her like a princess ''), she announces that she is pregnant by Michael and the two get engaged. After finding out that she is not actually pregnant, Meg tells Michael the truth hoping that he will stay, however, Michael quickly leaves Meg at the altar. In the episode "Dial Meg for Murder '', she is dating a convict, while in the episode "Go, Stewie, Go! '' she dates an attractive young man named Anthony, who is absolutely normal (much to the surprise of many of the other characters). They were so shocked that they had to do tests just to see if he was completely normal which annoyed Meg. It is presumed that she broke up with him after he and Lois had an affair. Meg also shows extremely possessive behavior when she encounters someone she believes she has a romantic connection with such as kidnapping Brian and detaining Bonnie Swanson at the airport by planting a gun in her purse.
Overall, Meg has shown romantic interest in and dated several men throughout the series. However, there have been several instances in which she has shown hints of being bisexual or a lesbian: examples of this include "Brian Sings and Swings '', "Stew - Roids '', and "Dial Meg for Murder ''.
In November 2016, when asked by Splitsider if the writers will further develop the characters of Chris and Meg in future episodes, showrunner Alec Sulkin confirmed that the series crew members are working on doing so and added that there are plans for an episode where Meg comes out as a lesbian, taking inspiration from previous instances in which she exhibited signs of lesbian characteristics, like when she joins a lesbian alliance group at school in "Brian Sings and Swings '' and is identified as a "transgender man '' named "Ron '' in Stewie Griffin: The Untold Story, the latter which takes place in the future. However, Sulkin also noted that the plotline has not yet been finalized and thus is n't officially set to be used in an episode.
In the first three seasons of the show, the family had inadvertently humiliated Meg due to their bumbling or stupidity, though they cared for her and meant well. In the post-cancellation seasons, this began to change as the inadvertent embarrassment became deliberate bullying and disrespect. Additionally, the show started to flesh out the characters to the point where it appears that most of the population of Quahog who knows her, or even just meets her, picks on or disdains her for no reason other than her simply being "Meg ''. This basically means that she is a victim of circumstance, as Meg is normally docile and well - behaved and never seems to do anything mean or inconsiderate. In an interview, Mila Kunis stated: "Meg gets picked on a lot. But it 's funny. It 's like the middle child. She is constantly in the state of being an awkward 16 - year - old, when you 're kind of going through puberty and what - not. She 's just in perpetual mode of humiliation, and it 's fun. ''
While Meg is, in reality, the least obnoxious or self - involved of the family, she is also the least respected and most misunderstood, often shown by people avoiding her company, disparaging her in person, gathering in her bedroom to read her diary for laughs, etc. Peter reminds Lois, "We agreed that if we could only save two, we 'd leave Meg! '' even randomly shooting her when she simply said "Hi Dad '' ("Peter 's Daughter '') but despite this he also was going to say "I love you '' in "Hell Comes to Quahog '', and in "Road to Rupert '' he stated they were ' secret best friends ' before throwing lemonade in her face, saying he would have to continue to treat her badly in public in order to maintain his reputation due to "peer pressure '', thus giving hope that they may be on good terms. Occasionally, when Meg asks a question to Peter or just speaks when he is in the room, Peter responds by saying "Shut up, Meg '', which is immediately followed by a line from another character.
When the family tries an anger management technique of writing letters and not sending them, Meg finds Peter 's letter to her, which says, "Dear Meg, for the first four years of your life, I thought you were a house cat. '' And in Peter 's short story of her birth, they had to go back to get her once they realized they grabbed the afterbirth. In the episode "Stewie Kills Lois '', Peter tells guests on a cruise ship about how he and Lois had gone to get an abortion but decided against it when they arrived at the clinic and found out the abortionist had one hand. He then says "two and a half months later, our daughter Meg was born '' -- indicating that they had tried to abort her when Lois was already over six months pregnant. Another hint to this is when Meg is in the car with Lois and at an attempt to make civilized conversation, says, "Hey Meg, did you know that if you 're on birth control and you take an antibiotic it makes it not work? ' Cause no one told me! I just thought you should know '' and laughs awkwardly. On Meg 's 17th birthday, her mother and father both try to hide from Meg that they do not remember her age. Peter states that Meg sucks in the episode "PTV '', and Chris says that people think the same thing about her in "Long John Peter ''. In "Not All Dogs Go to Heaven '', Brian says to Meg 's face that she lives in a home "where nobody respects or cares about (her), not even enough to get (her) a damn mumps shot! '' Chris, however, has more of a typical brother - sister relationship with Meg, with Chris telling those who condemn her that it is never her fault. Chris, at one point, threatened to quit his job at the local mini-mart if his boss did n't re-hire Meg (at the insistence of Lois). Like Chris, Meg has an anthropomorphic monkey in her closet, and although she has proved it, her father coldly state that they were talking about Chris ', not hers. Cleveland comments to Peter "Meg is my least favorite of your children. ''
Apparently, a double standard also exists against Meg, further underscoring the mistreatment she suffers from the people around her. In "Big Man on Hippocampus '', an episode wherein Peter loses his memory, as he reacquaints himself with the pleasures of sex, Lois tells him that it is inappropriate to have sex with his own children; in response, Meg attempts an incest joke. She then lambastes her for this and kicks her out of the room. However, in the season finale "Partial Terms of Endearment '', Lois tells a joke that implies that it was Meg that gave birth to Stewie, and apart from a shocked reaction from the latter, Lois receives no such violent reaction. Additionally, in "Model Misbehavior '', when Lois starts a modeling career, Peter states that he will pleasure himself to Lois ' pictures, followed by Chris and Meg both exclaiming "Me too! '' to which Peter shouts "Oh God, Meg, that 's sick! That 's your mother! '', ignoring the fact that Chris said the same thing first. Meg responded by saying "I was only trying to fit in! '' Peter immediately kicked her out of the house. Later, during an unrelated conversation, when she tried to insight Peter on how Lois ' behavior from modeling made a poor example for modeling, he said "Meg, who let you back in the house? ''
Brian 's attention initially softens the lack of respect from Peter and the rest of family; he admits that he cares for Meg when she goes out with Mayor Adam West. While initially seeming to have more common decency for Meg than most people, this appears to almost completely disappear after the tenth season, as Brian 's increasingly shallow and self - centered character begins to take more pleasure and joy in being rotten to Meg and often refuses to give her the time of day, such as desperately trying to avoid having to comfort her, rejecting an offer by Peter to be Meg 's godfather, attempting to pin the blame on (or trying to frame) her for a misdeed, finding humor in her being puked on, and even willing to deliberately urinate on her bed. Before the more recent seasons of the series, Lois has also often shown sympathy for Meg, for example, taking her to Spring Break at the beach, only for her former younger wild side to kick in and completely exclude Meg from the excitement. Lois would very often comfort Meg when she is down; however, she gives up one attempt after 45 minutes and gives her a Sylvia Plath novel and a bottle of Ambien, and with a "Whatever happens, happens '', leaves Meg to her misery. One of the most cruel examples of the family 's lack of humanity or gratitude for Meg comes in the episode "You Ca n't Do That On Television, Peter ''. When Peter is mauled by a puma, Meg uses medical training to save his life. However, no one thanks her afterward and when she tries to point it out, Peter just tells her to get him water.
The family 's treatment of Meg finally reaches her limit in "Dial Meg for Murder '' when Meg emerges from a short stint in a Young Offenders Institution as a hardened criminal, abusing her family and beating up anyone who makes fun of her. It is only after a conversation with Brian that she changes her ways. However, it comes to a head once again in "Seahorse Seashell Party '', when Meg finally grows tired of her mistreatment and lashes out against Lois and Peter, informing them of their own flaws. Lois condescendingly tells Meg that she is simply taking her own problems out on everyone else invoking Meg to bring up her mother 's delinquent past. Meg tells her that she is far from the perfect parent, harshly berates her for constantly and ruthlessly pointing out Meg 's shortcomings. Lois tries to justify that she 's a better person because of her past and she is open that she is n't the perfect parent, but Meg tells her that she 's the farthest thing from and states how she has neglected to guide her through life and navigate her through the hardships and difficulties of being a young woman. Meg also informs Lois that when she turns 18, she may never want to see her again.
This breaks Lois ' heart and she finally admits that she 's been a terrible mother to Meg. Finally, Meg turns on Peter who, unable to comprehend her insults, thinks that his daughter 's argument is amusing, even when she points out Peter 's destructive tendencies and that he would go to jail if someone could witness his negative treatment towards her. It dawns on Peter that he is being insulted when Meg calls him a "waste of a man. '' A disillusioned Peter asks Lois to tell Meg to "knock it off '', but Lois refuses because he did n't stick up for her. Within moments, Peter turns his abusive criticisms and insults on Chris and Lois. Peter finally runs to his room crying, with Lois running after him, leaving behind Meg and Brian, who is now fully recovered from his trip, to discuss what just happened. Brian likes that Meg stood up for herself, but she sadly tells him that even though she meant every word, seeing Peter turn on everyone like wolves has made her think that it is ultimately her non-ideal role to serve as the Griffins ' "lightning rod that absorbs all the dysfunction ''. He commends her on her maturity, and even goes on to say that Meg is the "strongest person '' in the family. She soon apologizes to the others and says that she is actually the one at fault. Since this episode, the abuse that Meg receives begins to fade away as a storyline. She also notices that Peter 's pro wrestler sister Karen treats Peter exactly the way Peter treats her, and they bond over this with a plan to embarrass Karen at a wrestling show -- which goes awry when Meg hits her with a metal folding chair instead of a breakaway one and injures Karen to the point where she ends up in a coma and (as it is implied) possibly will die from her injuries without a blood transfusion.
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who played colonel sanders in the longest yard | The Longest Yard (2005 film) - Wikipedia
The Longest Yard is a 2005 American sports comedy film and a remake of the 1974 film of the same name. Adam Sandler plays the protagonist Paul Crewe, a disgraced former professional quarterback for the Pittsburgh Steelers, who is forced to form a team from the prison inmates to play football against their guards.
Burt Reynolds, who played Sandler 's role in the original, co-stars as Nate Scarborough, the inmates ' coach. Chris Rock plays Crewe 's friend, known as Caretaker. The cast includes James Cromwell, Nelly, William Fichtner and several former and current professional athletes such as Terry Crews, Michael Irvin, Brian Bosworth, Bill Romanowski, Bill Goldberg, Bob Sapp, Kevin Nash, Stone Cold Steve Austin, and Dalip "The Great Khali '' Singh Rana. The film was produced by MTV Films and Happy Madison Productions and distributed by Paramount Pictures and Columbia Pictures, and was released on May 27, 2005.
Paul Crewe (Adam Sandler) is a former NFL player who, one night, gets drunk and goes joyriding in the Bentley of his girlfriend (Courteney Cox in an uncredited role), crashing it. It is revealed that he was arrested for shaving points in a big game, although it was never proven.
In prison, Warden Rudolph Hazen (James Cromwell), wishing to boost his prison 's reputation for future elections as State Governor, uses threats and confinement in a hot box to coerce Crewe into helping the prison guards ' football team, led by the hostile Captain Knauer (William Fichtner). Crewe informs Hazen that what Hazen 's team needs is a tune - up game to boost the guards ' confidence, and is therefore coerced to form an inmate team to play against the guards. He does so with the help of a newfound friend, Caretaker (Chris Rock). They start off with a poorly organized team, before being noticed by another prisoner, former college football star Nate Scarborough (Burt Reynolds), who decides to help coach the team by gathering several intimidating inmates as a boost to the team 's strength.
Caretaker tells Crewe that they need more "brothers '' on the team. When Crewe goes to the basketball court to ask the black inmates to join the team, their leader, Deacon Moss (Michael Irvin) rebuffs him. Crewe challenges Deacon to a one - on - one basketball game, saying that if he wins, the brothers will join the team, and if Deacon wins, Crewe will leave them alone. Deacon accepts, and despite Deacon 's undisguised personal fouls in which he elbows, punches or grabs Crewe, Crewe continues without complaint, because the match is a question of pride and respect. On the game - winning shot, Crewe cleanly steals the ball from Deacon and scores, but Deacon calls a foul. Realizing he would n't be allowed to win, Crewe lets Deacon score the final shot. Although Deacon beats Crewe, one of the brothers, a fast runner named Earl Megget (Nelly), impressed with Crewe 's decision to take the beating, joins the football team as its running back. When the guards learn of this, they confront Earl in an attempt to provoke an assault by him by saying the racial epithet "nigger '', but Earl does not allow himself to be provoked despite intimidation and minor abuse. Having witnessed this, the other "brothers '', including Deacon, decide to join the team too.
Hazen and the guards continue attempts to hinder Crewe 's team by flooding their field, but the team decides to practice in the mud anyway.
Inmate Unger (David Patrick Kelly) spies on the activities of the inmates and after being pressured by the guards, rigs Crewe 's radio with an explosive. Caretaker unknowingly enters the cell to give a photo gift to Crewe, but is killed when he tries to turn the dial on the radio.
On game day, the inmates are revitalized in the wake of Caretaker 's murder when Crewe reveals Caretaker 's last gift to the team, quality gear and uniforms from his cousin at Reebok with the team name "Mean Machine '' on the uniforms. The Mean Machine overcomes a rough start, due to individual inmates ' attempts to retaliate against guards for the abuse they 've suffered. Crewe angrily tells the inmates that winning the game is more important and will damage the guards more than their personal grudges, and gets them to play as a team. The first half ends with the score tied. The angered Hazen informs Crewe in private that if he does not lose he will be charged for Caretaker 's murder. Crewe acquiesces to Hazen 's threat, asking that the guards refrain from using excessive force on the field after getting a comfortable lead, to which Hazen agrees to do so after they obtain a two touchdown lead. After Crewe fakes an injury in order to leave the field, his teammates voice their displeasure over his obvious deserting over the team.
After seeing that Hazen has broken his promise and two members of the Mean Machine are injured, Crewe asks Skitchy if the time spent in jail for punching the warden was worth it. Skitchy replies, "It was worth every goddamn second, '' and inspired Crewe returns to the field. The team initially doubts Crewe 's resolve and allows him to be sacked twice. After running for a first down on 4th and Long, Crewe, realizing that his inmates are still not protecting him due to his prior actions, calls a huddle, and admits to the point shaving that disgraced him, and to the injury that he faked as a result of Hazen 's threat, and sabotage to the other inmates, and asks for their forgiveness, putting his hands in the middle of all of them. Moss puts his hand in, followed by the rest of the team.
The Mean Machine, united again as a team, quickly scores two touchdowns to cut the guards ' lead to 35 - 28. After Megget is injured after a long run, Scarborough comes in for one play as replacement and scores a touchdown off a trick play involving a fumble called a Fumblerooski. Mean Machine decides to go for the two - point conversion and the win. As they get up to the line they seem to be confused, and Crewe and Scarborough start arguing in order to trick the guards. Moss gets the snap and passes it to Crewe, who scores the winning conversion, winning the game. Knauer, with a newfound respect for Crewe, tells him that he showed extraordinary nerve, and lets him know that he will vouch that Crewe had nothing to do with Caretaker 's death.
Hazen admonishes Knauer for losing a fixed game and notices that Crewe is heading towards the exit. Eagerly implying Crewe is trying to escape, Hazen orders that Crewe be shot for attempting to escape. Knauer hesitates and at the last moment realizes (and scornfully tells Hazen) that Crewe is only picking up the game football, losing a lot of respect for Hazen as he 's left with a shocked look on his face. Crewe returns it to Hazen, telling him to "stick it in (his) trophy case. '' Moss (Michael Irvin) and Joey Battle (Bill Goldberg) give Hazen a Gatorade shower, and when he tells them that this has earned them a week in the hot box, Battle defiantly yells "Who gives a shit?! ''
The movie was filmed at the New Mexico State Penitentiary on Route 14, Santa Fe, New Mexico. The football game at the end of the film was filmed at Murdock Stadium at the El Camino College in Torrance, California. The car chase scene was filmed whereabouts in Long Beach, California. Other parts of the film were filmed in Los Angeles and New Mexico. The golf course scene was filmed at Lost Canyons Golf Club in Simi Valley, California.
The film did well at the box office. Its $47.6 million opening weekend was the largest of Sandler 's career and only second to The Day After Tomorrow as the largest opening by a movie that was not # 1. The film would go on to gross $158.1 million in the United States and Canada and $190 million worldwide. It was the highest - grossing film produced by MTV Films, until it was surpassed by Hansel and Gretel: Witch Hunters. Despite the large number of remakes released at the theaters, it 's worth noting that The Longest Yard is the highest grossing comedy remake of the modern box office era (from 1980 on).
The overall critical response was mixed. It received a 31 % Freshness rating on Rotten Tomatoes, though users, who rated it 62 %, generally agreed that it was a play - by - play remake; the greatest complaint from critics was that it replaced the original 's uncompromising violence, dark comedy and grit with juvenile humor and visual gags. Roger Ebert, in the critical minority with this title, gave it a "Thumbs Up '', defending it later in his Chicago Sun - Times review as a film that "... more or less achieves what most of the people attending it will expect. '' In the print review, Ebert beseeches his readers to "... seek out a movie you could have an interesting conversation about '', citing films not in wide release such as Dominion: Prequel to the Exorcist and Kontroll, until finally encouraging his readers to "drop any thought of seeing anything else instead '' if they can see Crash. According to CinemaScore, audiences gave the film a grade of "A − '' on an A+ to F scale.
The film earned Chris Rock a BET Comedy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Theatrical Film.
Burt Reynolds earned a Golden Raspberry Award nomination for Worst Supporting Actor for his performance in the film.
The official soundtrack, which consisted entirely of hip - hop music, was released on May 24, 2005 by Universal Records. It peaked at 11 on the Billboard 200 and 10 on the Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums.
The film itself contains a mixture of hip hop and rock music, featuring music by Creedence Clearwater Revival, Norman Greenbaum and AC / DC among others.
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garden in the rain by the four aces | A Garden in the Rain - wikipedia
"A Garden in the Rain '' is a popular song. The music was composed by Carroll Gibbons, the lyrics by James Dyrenforth. The song was published in 1928.
The song was first recorded by the composer, Carroll Gibbons with the Savoy Hotel Orpheans and vocals by George Metaxa (later spelled: Georges Metaxa), in July 1928.
The song had two periods of great popularity: in 1929 and in 1952.
In 1929, the biggest hit versions were by Gene Austin, by John McCormack, and by George Olsen 's orchestra with a vocal by Fran Frey. All three versions were released by Victor Records.
In 1952 the most popular version was recorded by The Four Aces. Their recording was released by Decca Records. It first reached the Billboard magazine Best Seller chart on December 28, 1951, and lasted 7 weeks on the chart, peaking at number 14. The flip side, "Tell Me Why, '' was an even bigger hit for the Aces, reaching number 2 on the chart. The same recording of "A Garden in the Rain '' / "Tell Me Why '' was also released in the United Kingdom by Brunswick Records in 1952.
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on the banks of which are the capital cities of austria serbia and hungary located | Danube - wikipedia
The Danube or Donau (/ ˈdæn. juːb / DAN - yoob, known by various names in other languages) is Europe 's second longest river, after the Volga. It is located in Central and Eastern Europe.
The Danube was once a long - standing frontier of the Roman Empire, and today flows through 10 countries, more than any other river in the world. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for 2,860 km (1,780 mi), passing through or touching the border of Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova and Ukraine before emptying into the Black Sea. Its drainage basin extends into nine more countries. The Danube river basin is the most biodiverse region in Europe, and is home to hundreds of fish species, such as pike, zander, huchen, wels catfish, burbot and tench. It is also home to a large diversity of carp and sturgeon, as well as salmon and trout. A few species of euryhaline fish, such as European seabass, mullet, and eel, inhabit the Danube delta and the lower portion of the river.
Old European river name derived from a Proto - Indo - European * dānu. Other river names from the same root include the Dunaj, Dzvina / Daugava, Don, Donets, Dnieper, Dniestr, Dysna, Tana and Tuoni. In Rigvedic Sanskrit, dānu means "fluid, drop '', in Avestan, the same word means "river ''. In the Rigveda, Dānu once appears as the mother of Vrtra, "a dragon blocking the course of the rivers. '' The Finnish word for Danube is Tonava, which is most likely derived from the word for the river in Swedish and German, Donau. Up North there is also a river called Tana. Its Sámi name Deatnu means "Great River ''. It is possible that dānu in Scythian as in Avestan was a generic word for "river '': Dnieper and Dniestr, from Danapris and Danastius, are presumed to continue Scythian * dānu apara "far river '' and * dānu nazdya - "near river '', respectively.
Known to the ancient Greeks as the Istros (Ἴστρος) a borrowing from a Daco - Thracian name meaning "strong, swift '' (akin to Sanskrit iṣiras "swift ''). In Latin, the Danube was variously known as Danubius, Danuvius or as Ister. The Dacian / Thracian name was Donaris for the upper Danube and Istros for the lower Danube. The Thraco - Phrygian name was Matoas, "the bringer of luck ''.
The Latin name is masculine, as are all its Slavic names, except Slovenian, (the name of the Rhine is also masculine in Latin, most of the Slavic languages, as well as in German). The German Donau (Early Modern German Donaw, Tonaw, Middle High German Tuonowe) is feminine, as it has been re-interpreted as containing the suffix - ouwe "wetland ''.
The modern languages spoken in the Danube basin all use names related to Dānuvius: German: Donau ((ˈdoːnaʊ̯); (Austro - Bavarian: Doana); Silesian: Důnaj; Upper Sorbian: Dunaj; Slovak: Dunaj ((ˈdunaj); Hungarian: Duna ((ˈdunɒ)); Serbo - Croatian: Dunav / Дунав ((dǔnaʋ) or (dǔnaːʋ) Romanian: Dunărea ((ˈdunəre̯a)); Bulgarian: Дунав, Dunav ((ˈdunɐf)); Ukrainian: Дунай, Dunai ((duˈnɑj)); Czech: Dunaj (Czech pronunciation: (ˈdʊnaj)); Polish: Dunaj (Polish pronunciation: (ˈdũnaj)); Slovene: Donava ((ˈdóːnaʋa)); Turkish: Tuna; Portuguese: Danúbio ((dɐ'nubju)); French: Danube (da'nyb)); Italian: Danubio ((da'nuːbjo)); Spanish: Danubio ((da'nuβjo)); Romansh: Danubi.
Classified as an international waterway, it originates in the town of Donaueschingen, in the Black Forest of Germany, at the confluence of the rivers Brigach and Breg. The Danube then flows southeast for about 2,730 km (1,700 mi), passing through four capital cities before emptying into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta in Romania and Ukraine.
Once a long - standing frontier of the Roman Empire, the river passes through or touches the borders of 10 countries: Romania (29.0 % of basin area), Hungary (11.6 %), Serbia (10.2 %), Austria (10.0 %), Germany (7.0 %), Bulgaria (5.9 %), Slovakia (5.9 %), Croatia (4.4 %), Ukraine (3.8 %), and Moldova (1.6 %). Its drainage basin extends into nine more (ten if Kosovo is included).
In addition to the bordering countries (see above), the drainage basin includes parts of nine more countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina (4.6 %), the Czech Republic (2.9 %), Slovenia (2.0 %), Montenegro (0.9 %), Switzerland (0.2 %), Italy (< 0.1 %), Poland (< 0.1 %), the Republic of Macedonia (< 0.1 %) and Albania (< 0.1 %). Its total drainage basin is 801,463 km (309,447 sq mi). The highest point of the drainage basin is the summit of Piz Bernina at the Italy -- Switzerland border, at 4,049 metres (13,284 ft).
The land drained by the Danube extends into many other countries. Many Danubian tributaries are important rivers in their own right, navigable by barges and other shallow - draught boats. From its source to its outlet into the Black Sea, its main tributaries are (in order that they enter):
18. Tisza 19. Sava (entering at Belgrade) 20. Tamiš (entering at Pančevo) 21. Great Morava 22. Karaş 23. Jiu (entering at Bechet) 24. Iskar (entering near Gigen) 25. Olt (entering at Turnu Măgurele) 26. Osam (entering near Nikopol, Bulgaria) 27. Argeș (entering at Oltenița) 28. Ialomița 29. Siret (entering near Galați) 30. Prut (entering near Galați)
The Danube flows through many cities, including four national capitals (shown below in bold), more than any other river in the world. Ordered from the source to the mouth they are:
The Danube is navigable by ocean ships from the Black Sea to Brăila in Romania and by river ships to Kelheim, Bavaria, Germany; smaller craft can navigate further upstream to Ulm, Württemberg, Germany. About 60 of its tributaries are also navigable.
Since the completion of the German Rhine -- Main -- Danube Canal in 1992, the river has been part of a trans - European waterway from Rotterdam on the North Sea to Sulina on the Black Sea, a distance of 3,500 km (2,200 mi). In 1994 the Danube was declared one of ten Pan-European transport corridors, routes in Central and Eastern Europe that required major investment over the following ten to fifteen years. The amount of goods transported on the Danube increased to about 100 million tons in 1987. In 1999, transport on the river was made difficult by the NATO bombing of three bridges in Serbia during the Kosovo War. Clearance of the resulting debris was completed in 2002, and a temporary pontoon bridge that hampered navigation was removed in 2005.
At the Iron Gate, the Danube flows through a gorge that forms part of the boundary between Serbia and Romania; it contains the Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station dam, followed at about 60 km (37 mi) downstream (outside the gorge) by the Iron Gate II Hydroelectric Power Station. On 13 April 2006, a record peak discharge at Iron Gate Dam reached 15,400 m / s (540,000 cu ft / s).
There are three artificial waterways built on the Danube: the Danube - Tisa - Danube Canal (DTD) in the Banat and Bačka regions (Vojvodina, northern province of Serbia); the 64 km (40 mi) Danube - Black Sea Canal, between Cernavodă and Constanța (Romania) finished in 1984, shortens the distance to the Black Sea by 400 km (250 mi); the Rhine -- Main -- Danube Canal is about 171 km (106 mi), finished in 1992, linking the North Sea to the Black Sea.
In 2010 -- 12, shipping companies (especially from Ukraine) claimed that their vessels suffered from "regular pirate attacks '', on the Serbian and Romanian stretches of the Danube. However, these transgressions may not be considered acts of piracy, as defined according to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, but rather instances of "river robbery ''.
On the other hand, media reports say the crews on transport ships often steal and sell their own cargo and then blame the plundering on "pirates '', and the alleged attacks are not piracy but small - time contraband theft that is taking place along the river.
The Danube Delta (Romanian: Delta Dunării pronounced (ˈdelta ˈdunərij); Ukrainian: Дельта Дунаю, translit. Del'ta Dunaju) is the largest river delta in the European Union. The greater part of the Danube Delta lies in Romania (Tulcea county), while its northern part, on the left bank of the Chilia arm, is situated in Ukraine (Odessa Oblast). The approximate surface is 4,152 km (1,603 sq mi), of which 3,446 km (1,331 sq mi) are in Romania. If one includes the lagoons of Razim - Sinoe (1,015 km (392 sq mi) of which 865 km (334 sq mi) water surface), which are located south of the delta proper, but are related to it geologically and ecologically (their combined territory is part of the World Heritage Site), the total area of the Danube Delta reaches 5,165 km (1,994 sq mi).
The Danube Delta is also the best preserved river Delta in Europe, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 1991) and a Ramsar Site. Its lakes and marshes support 45 freshwater fish species. Its wetlands support vast flocks of migratory birds of over 300 species, including the endangered pygmy cormorant (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus). These are threatened by rival canalization and drainage schemes such as the Bystroye Canal.
The International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR) is an organization consisting of 14 member states (Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Montenegro and Ukraine) and the European Union. The commission, established in 1998, deals with the whole Danube river basin, which includes tributaries and the groundwater resources. Its goal is to implement the Danube River Protection Convention by promoting and coordinating sustainable and equitable water management, including conservation, improvement and rational use of waters and the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive.
The Danube Commission is concerned with the maintenance and improvement of the river 's navigation conditions. It was established in 1948 by seven countries bordering the river. Members include representatives from Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Slovakia, Romania, Russia, Ukraine, and Serbia, It meets regularly twice a year. It also convenes groups of experts to consider items provided for in the commission 's working plans.
The commission dates to the Paris Conferences of 1856 and 1921, which established for the first time an international regime to safeguard free navigation on the Danube. Today the Commission include riparian and non-riparian states.
Although the headwaters of the Danube are relatively small today, geologically, the Danube is much older than the Rhine, with which its catchment area competes in today 's southern Germany. This has a few interesting geological complications. Since the Rhine is the only river rising in the Alps mountains which flows north towards the North Sea, an invisible line beginning at Piz Lunghin divides large parts of southern Germany, which is sometimes referred to as the European Watershed.
Before the last ice age in the Pleistocene, the Rhine started at the southwestern tip of the Black Forest, while the waters from the Alps that today feed the Rhine were carried east by the so - called Urdonau (original Danube). Parts of this ancient river 's bed, which was much larger than today 's Danube, can still be seen in (now waterless) canyons in today 's landscape of the Swabian Alb. After the Upper Rhine valley had been eroded, most waters from the Alps changed their direction and began feeding the Rhine. Today 's upper Danube is but a meek reflection of the ancient one.
Since the Swabian Alb is largely shaped of porous limestone, and since the Rhine 's level is much lower than the Danube 's, today subsurface rivers carry much water from the Danube to the Rhine. On many days in the summer, when the Danube carries little water, it completely oozes away noisily into these underground channels at two locations in the Swabian Alp, which are referred to as the Donauversickerung (Danube Sink). Most of this water resurfaces only 12 kilometres (7 mi) south at the Aachtopf, Germany 's wellspring with the highest flow, an average of 8,500 litres per second (300 cu ft / s), north of Lake Constance -- thus feeding the Rhine. The European Water Divide applies only for those waters that pass beyond this point, and only during the days of the year when the Danube carries enough water to survive the sink holes in the Donauversickerung.
Since such large volumes of underground water erode much of the surrounding limestone, it is estimated that the Danube upper course will one day disappear entirely in favor of the Rhine, an event called stream capturing.
The hydrological parameters of Danube are regularly monitored in Croatia at Batina, Dalj, Vukovar and Ilok.
The Danube basin was the site of some of the earliest human cultures. The Danubian Neolithic cultures include the Linear Pottery cultures of the mid-Danube basin. Many sites of the sixth - to - third millennium BC Vinča culture, (Vinča, Serbia) are sited along the Danube. The third millennium BC Vučedol culture (from the Vučedol site near Vukovar, Croatia) is famous for its ceramics.
Darius the Great, king of Persia, crossed the river in the late 6th century BC in order to invade European Scythia and to subdue the Scythians.
Alexander the Great defeated the Triballian king Syrmus and the northern barbarian Thracian and Illyrian tribes by advancing from Macedonia as far as the Danube in 336 BC.
Under the Romans the Danube formed the border of the Empire with the tribes to the north almost from its source to its mouth. At the same time it was a route for the transport of troops and the supply of settlements downstream. From AD 37 to the reign of the Emperor Valentinian I (364 -- 375) the Danubian Limes was the northeastern border of the Empire, with occasional interruptions such as the fall of the Danubian Limes in 259. The crossing of the Danube into Dacia was achieved by the Imperium Romanum, first in two battles in 102 and then in 106 after the construction of a bridge in 101 near the garrison town of Drobeta at the Iron Gate. This victory over Dacia under Decebalus enabled the Province of Dacia to be created, but in 271 it was lost again.
Avars used the river as their southeastern border in the 6th century.
Part of the rivers Danubius or Istros was also known as (together with the Black Sea) the Okeanos in ancient times, being called the Okeanos Potamos (Okeanos River). The lower Danube was also called the Keras Okeanoio (Gulf or Horn of Okeanos) in the Argonautica by Apollonius Rhodos (Argon. IV. 282).
At the end of the Okeanos Potamos, is the holy island of Alba (Leuke, Pytho Nisi, Isle of Snakes), sacred to the Pelasgian (and later, Greek) Apollo, greeting the sun rising in the east. Hecateus Abderitas refers to Apollo 's island from the region of the Hyperboreans, in the Okeanos. It was on Leuke, in one version of his legend, that the hero Achilles was buried (to this day, one of the mouths of the Danube is called Chilia). Old Romanian folk songs recount a white monastery on a white island with nine priests.
Between the late 14th and late 19th centuries, the Ottoman Empire competed first with the Kingdom of Hungary and later with the Austrian Habsburgs for controlling the Danube (Turks call it Tuna), which formed the northern border of the Ottoman Empire for centuries. Many of the Ottoman -- Hungarian Wars (1366 -- 1526) and Ottoman -- Habsburg wars (1526 -- 1791) were fought along the river.
The most important wars of the Ottoman Empire along the Danube include the Battle of Nicopolis (1396), the Siege of Belgrade (1456), the Battle of Mohács (1526), the first Turkish Siege of Vienna (1529), the Siege of Esztergom (1543), the Long War (1591 -- 1606), the Battle of Vienna (1683), the Great Turkish War (1683 -- 1699), the Crimean War (1853 -- 1856) and the Russo - Turkish War (1877 -- 1878).
Along its course, the Danube is a source of drinking water for about 20 million people. In Baden - Württemberg, Germany, almost 30 percent (as of 2004) of the water for the area between Stuttgart, Bad Mergentheim, Aalen and Alb - Donau (district) comes from purified water of the Danube. Other cities such as Ulm and Passau also use some water from the Danube.
In Austria and Hungary, most water is drawn from ground and spring sources, and only in rare cases is water from the Danube used. Most states also find it too difficult to clean the water because of extensive pollution; only parts of Romania where the water is cleaner still obtain drinking water from the Danube on a regular basis.
In the 19th century, the Danube was an important waterway but was, as The Times of London put it, "annually swept by ice that will lift a large ship out of the water or cut her in two as if she were a carrot. ''
Today, as "Corridor VII '' of the European Union, the Danube is an important transport route. Since the opening of the Rhine -- Main -- Danube Canal, the river connects the Port of Rotterdam and the industrial centres of Western Europe with the Black Sea and, also, through the Danube -- Black Sea Canal, with the Port of Constanța.
The waterway is designed for large - scale inland vessels (110 × 11.45 m) but it can carry much larger vessels on most of its course. The Danube has been partly canalized in Germany (5 locks) and Austria (10 locks). Proposals to build a number of new locks to improve navigation have not progressed, due in part to environmental concerns.
Downstream from the Freudenau locks in Vienna, canalization of the Danube was limited to the Gabčíkovo dam and locks near Bratislava and the two double Iron Gate locks in the border stretch of the Danube between Serbia and Romania. These locks have larger dimensions. Downstream of the Iron Gate, the river is free flowing all the way to the Black Sea, a distance of more than 860 kilometres (530 mi).
The Danube connects with the Rhine -- Main -- Danube Canal at Kelheim, with the Donaukanal in Vienna, and with the Danube -- Black Sea Canal at Cernavodă.
Apart from a couple of secondary navigable branches, the only major navigable rivers linked to the Danube are the Drava, Sava and Tisa. In Serbia, a canal network also connects to the river; the network, known as the Danube -- Tisa -- Danube Canals, links sections downstream.
In the Austrian and German sections of the Danube, a type of flat - bottomed boat called a Zille was developed for use along the river. Zillen are still used today for fishing, ferrying, and other transport of goods and people in this area.
The importance of fishing on the Danube, which was critical in the Middle Ages, has declined dramatically. Some fishermen are still active at certain points on the river, and the Danube Delta still has an important industry.
The Upper Danube ecoregion alone has about 60 fish species and the Lower Danube -- Dniester ecoregion has about twice as many. Among these are an exceptionally high diversity of sturgeon, a total of six species (beluga, Russian sturgeon, bastard sturgeon, sterlet, starry sturgeon and European sea sturgeon), but these are all threatened and have largely -- or entirely in the case of the European sea sturgeon -- disappeared from the river. The huchen, one of the largest species of salmon, is endemic to the Danube basin, but has been introduced elsewhere by humans.
Important tourist and natural spots along the Danube include the Wachau Valley, the Nationalpark Donau - Auen in Austria, Gemenc in Hungary, the Naturpark Obere Donau in Germany, Kopački rit in Croatia, Iron Gate in Serbia and Romania, the Danube Delta in Romania, and the Srebarna Nature Reserve in Bulgaria.
Also, leisure and travel cruises on the river are of significance. Besides the often frequented route between Vienna and Budapest, some ships even go from Passau in Germany to the Danube Delta and back. During the peak season, more than 70 cruise liners are in use on the river, while the traffic - free upper parts can only be discovered with canoes or boats.
The Danube region is not only culturally and historically of importance, but also due to its fascinating landmarks and sights important for the regional tourism industry. With its well established infrastructure regarding cycling, hiking and travel possibilities, the region along the Danube attracts every year an international clientele. In Austria alone, there are more than 14 million overnight stays and about 6.5 million arrivals per year.
The Danube Banks in Budapest are a part of Unesco World Heritage sites, they can be viewed from a number of sightseeing cruises offered in the city.
The Danube Bend is also a popular tourist destination.
The Danube Bike Trail (also called Danube Cycle Path or the Donauradweg) is a bicycle trail along the river. Especially the parts through Germany and Austria are very popular, which makes it one of the 10 most popular bike trails in Germany.
The Danube Bike Trail starts at the origin of the Danube and ends where the river flows into the Black Sea. It is divided into four sections:
The Sultans Trail is a hiking trail that runs along the river between Vienna and Smederevo in Serbia. From there the Sultans Trail leaves the Danube, terminating in Istanbul. Sections along the river are as follows.
In 2010 the Donausteig, a hiking trail from Passau to Grein, was opened. It is 450 kilometres (280 mi) long and it is divided into 23 stages. The route passes five Bavarian and 40 Austrian communities. An impressive landscape and beautiful viewpoints, which are along the river, are the highlights of the Donausteig.
The Route of Emperors and Kings is an international touristic route leading from Regensburg to Budapest, calling in Passau, Linz and Vienna. The international consortium ARGE Die Donau - Straße der Kaiser und Könige, comprising ten tourism organisations, shipping companies, and cities, strives for the conservation and touristic development of the Danube region.
In medieval Regensburg, with its maintained old town, stone bridge and cathedral, the Route of Emperors and Kings begins. It continues to Engelhartszell, with the only Trappist monastery in Austria. Further highlight - stops along the Danube include the "Schlögener Schlinge '', the city of Linz, which was European Capital of Culture in 2009 with its contemporary art richness, the Melk Abbey, the university city of Krems and the cosmopolitan city of Vienna. Before the Route of Emperors and Kings ends, you pass Bratislava and Budapest, the latter which was seen as the twin town of Vienna during the times of the Austro - Hungarian Empire. Since ancient Roman times, famous emperors and their retinue travelled on and along the Danube and used the river for travel and transportation. While travelling on the mainland was quite exhausting, most people preferred to travel by ship on the Danube. So the Route of Emperors and Kings was the setting for many important historical events, which characterize the Danube up until today.
The route got its name from the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I of Barbarossa and the crusaders as well as from Richard I of England who had been jailed in the Dürnstein Castle, which is situated above the Danube. The most imperial journeys throughout time were those of the Habsburg family. Once crowned in Frankfurt, the emperors ruled from Vienna and also held in Regensburg the Perpetual Diet of Regensburg. Many famous castles, palaces, residences and state - run convents where built by the Habsburger along the river. Nowadays they still remind us of the bold architecture of the "Donaubarock ''.
Today, people can not only travel by boat on the Danube, but also by train, by bike on the Danube Bike Trail or walk on the "Donausteig '' and visit the UNESCO World Heritage cities of Regensburg, Wachau and Vienna.
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how does a starfish grow its arms back | Starfish - wikipedia
† Calliasterellidae † Trichasteropsida
Starfish or sea stars are star - shaped echinoderms belonging to the class Asteroidea. Common usage frequently finds these names being also applied to ophiuroids, which are correctly referred to as brittle stars or "basket stars ''. About 1,500 species of starfish occur on the seabed in all the world 's oceans, from the tropics to frigid polar waters. They are found from the intertidal zone down to abyssal depths, 6,000 m (20,000 ft) below the surface.
Starfish are marine invertebrates. They typically have a central disc and five arms, though some species have a larger number of arms. The aboral or upper surface may be smooth, granular or spiny, and is covered with overlapping plates. Many species are brightly coloured in various shades of red or orange, while others are blue, grey or brown. Starfish have tube feet operated by a hydraulic system and a mouth at the centre of the oral or lower surface. They are opportunistic feeders and are mostly predators on benthic invertebrates. Several species have specialized feeding behaviours including eversion of their stomachs and suspension feeding. They have complex life cycles and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most can regenerate damaged parts or lost arms and they can shed arms as a means of defence. The Asteroidea occupy several significant ecological roles. Starfish, such as the ochre sea star (Pisaster ochraceus) and the reef sea star (Stichaster australis), have become widely known as examples of the keystone species concept in ecology. The tropical crown - of - thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) is a voracious predator of coral throughout the Indo - Pacific region, and the northern Pacific sea star is considered to be one of the world 's 100 worst invasive species.
The fossil record for starfish is ancient, dating back to the Ordovician around 450 million years ago, but it is rather sparse, as starfish tend to disintegrate after death. Only the ossicles and spines of the animal are likely to be preserved, making remains hard to locate. With their appealing symmetrical shape, starfish have played a part in literature, legend, design and popular culture. They are sometimes collected as curios, used in design or as logos, and in some cultures, despite possible toxicity, they are eaten.
Most starfish have five arms that radiate from a central disc, but the number varies with the group. Some species have six or seven arms and others have 10 -- 15 arms. The Antarctic Labidiaster annulatus can have over fifty. Having descended from bilateral organisms, starfish move in a bilateral fashion, with certain arms acting like the front of the animal.
The body wall consists of a thin cuticle, an epidermis consisting of a single layer of cells, a thick dermis formed of connective tissue and a thin coelomic myoepithelial layer, which provides the longitudinal and circular musculature. The dermis contains an endoskeleton of calcium carbonate components known as ossicles. These are honeycombed structures composed of calcite microcrystals arranged in a lattice. They vary in form, with some bearing external granules, tubercles and spines, but most are tabular plates that fit neatly together in a tessellated manner and form the main covering of the aboral surface. Some are specialised structures such as the madreporite (the entrance to the water vascular system), pedicellariae and paxillae. Pedicellariae are compound ossicles with forceps - like jaws. They remove debris from the body surface and wave around on flexible stalks in response to physical or chemical stimuli while continually making biting movements. They often form clusters surrounding spines. Paxillae are umbrella - like structures found on starfish that live buried in sediment. The edges of adjacent paxillae meet to form a false cuticle with a water cavity beneath in which the madreporite and delicate gill structures are protected. All the ossicles, including those projecting externally, are covered by the epidermal layer.
Several groups of starfish, including Valvatida and Forcipulatida, possess pedicellariae. In Forcipulatida, such as Asterias and Pisaster, they occur in pompom - like tufts at the base of each spine, whereas in the Goniasteridae, such as Hippasteria phrygiana, the pedicellariae are scattered over the body surface. Some are thought to assist in defence, while others aid in feeding or in the removal of organisms attempting to settle on the starfish 's surface. Some species like Labidiaster annulatus, Rathbunaster californicus and Novodinia antillensis use their large pedicellariae to capture small fish and crustaceans.
There may also be papulae, thin - walled protrusions of the body cavity that reach through the body wall and extend into the surrounding water. These serve a respiratory function. The structures are supported by collagen fibres set at right angles to each other and arranged in a three - dimensional web with the ossicles and papulae in the interstices. This arrangement enables both easy flexion of the arms by the starfish and the rapid onset of stiffness and rigidity required for actions performed under stress.
The water vascular system of the starfish is a hydraulic system made up of a network of fluid - filled canals and is concerned with locomotion, adhesion, food manipulation and gas exchange. Water enters the system through the madreporite, a porous, often conspicuous, sieve - like ossicle on the aboral surface. It is linked through a stone canal, often lined with calcareous material, to a ring canal around the mouth opening. A set of radial canals leads off this; one radial canal runs along the ambulacral groove in each arm. There are short lateral canals branching off alternately to either side of the radial canal, each ending in an ampulla. These bulb - shaped organs are joined to tube feet (podia) on the exterior of the animal by short linking canals that pass through ossicles in the ambulacral groove. There are usually two rows of tube feet but in some species, the lateral canals are alternately long and short and there appear to be four rows. The interior of the whole canal system is lined with cilia.
When longitudinal muscles in the ampullae contract, valves in the lateral canals close and water is forced into the tube feet. These extend to contact the substrate. Although the tube feet resemble suction cups in appearance, the gripping action is a function of adhesive chemicals rather than suction. Other chemicals and relaxation of the ampullae allow for release from the substrate. The tube feet latch on to surfaces and move in a wave, with one arm section attaching to the surface as another releases. Some starfish turn up the tips of their arms while moving which gives maximum exposure of the sensory tube feet and the eyespot to external stimuli.
In some situations, particularly when hunting or in danger, starfish may move in a bilateral fashion. When crawling, some arms act as the leading arms, while others trail behind. Most starfish can not move quickly, a typical speed being that of the leather star (Dermasterias imbricata), which can manage just 15 cm (6 in) in a minute. Some burrowing species from the genera Astropecten and Luidia have points rather than suckers on their long tube feet and are capable of much more rapid motion, "gliding '' across the ocean floor. The sand star (Luidia foliolata) can travel at a speed of 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) per minute. When a starfish finds itself upside down, two adjacent arms are bent backwards to provide support, the opposite arm is used to stamp the ground while the two remaining arms are raised on either side; finally the stamping arm is released as the starfish turns itself over and recovers its normal stance.
Apart from their function in locomotion, the tube feet act as accessory gills. The water vascular system serves to transport oxygen from, and carbon dioxide to, the tube feet and also nutrients from the gut to the muscles involved in locomotion. Fluid movement is bidirectional and initiated by cilia. Gas exchange also takes place through other gills known as papulae, which are thin - walled bulges on the aboral surface of the disc and arms. Oxygen is transferred from these to the coelomic fluid, which acts as the transport medium for gasses. Oxygen dissolved in the water is distributed through the body mainly by the fluid in the main body cavity; the circulatory system may also play a minor role.
The gut of a starfish occupies most of the disc and extends into the arms. The mouth is located in the centre of the oral surface, where it is surrounded by a tough peristomial membrane and closed with a sphincter. The mouth opens through a short oesophagus into a stomach divided by a constriction into a larger, eversible cardiac portion and a smaller pyloric portion. The cardiac stomach is glandular and pouched, and is supported by ligaments attached to ossicles in the arms so it can be pulled back into position after it has been everted. The pyloric stomach has two extensions into each arm: the pyloric caeca. These are elongated, branched hollow tubes that are lined by a series of glands, which secrete digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients from the food. A short intestine and rectum run from the pyloric stomach to open at a small anus at the apex of the aboral surface of the disc.
Primitive starfish, such as Astropecten and Luidia, swallow their prey whole, and start to digest it in their cardiac stomachs. Shell valves and other inedible materials are ejected through their mouths. The semi-digested fluid is passed into their pyloric stomachs and caeca where digestion continues and absorption ensues. In more advanced species of starfish, the cardiac stomach can be everted from the organism 's body to engulf and digest food. When the prey is a clam or other bivalve, the starfish pulls with its tube feet to separate the two valves slightly, and inserts a small section of its stomach, which releases enzymes to digest the prey. The stomach and the partially digested prey are later retracted into the disc. Here the food is passed on to the pyloric stomach, which always remains inside the disc. The retraction and contraction of the cardiac stomach is activated by a neuropeptide known as NGFFYamide.
Because of this ability to digest food outside the body, starfish can hunt prey much larger than their mouths. Their diets include clams and oysters, arthropods, small fish and gastropod molluscs. Some starfish are not pure carnivores, supplementing their diets with algae or organic detritus. Some of these species are grazers, but others trap food particles from the water in sticky mucus strands that are swept towards the mouth along ciliated grooves.
The main nitrogenous waste product is ammonia. Starfish have no distinct excretory organs; waste ammonia is removed by diffusion through the tube feet and papulae. The body fluid contains phagocytic cells, coelomocytes, which are also found within the hemal and water vascular systems. These cells engulf waste material, and eventually migrate to the tips of the papulae, where a portion of body wall is nipped off and ejected into the surrounding water. Some waste may also be excreted by the pyloric glands and voided with the faeces.
Starfish do not appear to have any mechanisms for osmoregulation, and keep their body fluids at the same salt concentration as the surrounding water. Although some species can tolerate relatively low salinity, the lack of an osmoregulation system probably explains why starfish are not found in fresh water or even in many estuarine environments.
Although starfish do not have many well - defined sense organs, they are sensitive to touch, light, temperature, orientation and the status of the water around them. The tube feet, spines and pedicellariae are sensitive to touch. The tube feet, especially those at the tips of the rays, are also sensitive to chemicals, enabling the starfish to detect odour sources such as food. There are eyespots at the ends of the arms, each one made of 80 -- 200 simple ocelli. These are composed of pigmented epithelial cells that respond to light and are covered by a thick, transparent cuticle that both protects the ocelli and acts to focus light. Many starfish also possess individual photoreceptor cells in other parts of their bodies and respond to light even when their eyespots are covered. Whether they advance or retreat depends on the species.
While a starfish lacks a centralized brain, it has a complex nervous system with a nerve ring around the mouth and a radial nerve running along the ambulacral region of each arm parallel to the radial canal. The peripheral nerve system consists of two nerve nets: a sensory system in the epidermis and a motor system in the lining of the coelomic cavity. Neurons passing through the dermis connect the two. The ring nerves and radial nerves have sensory and motor components and coordinate the starfish 's balance and directional systems. The sensory component receives input from the sensory organs while the motor nerves control the tube feet and musculature. The starfish does not have the capacity to plan its actions. If one arm detects an attractive odour, it becomes dominant and temporarily over-rides the other arms to initiate movement towards the prey. The mechanism for this is not fully understood.
The body cavity contains the circulatory or haemal system. The vessels form three rings: one around the mouth (the hyponeural haemal ring), another around the digestive system (the gastric ring) and the third near the aboral surface (the genital ring). The heart beats about six times a minute and is at the apex of a vertical channel (the axial vessel) that connects the three rings. At the base of each arm are paired gonads; a lateral vessel extends from the genital ring past the gonads to the tip of the arm. This vessel has a blind end and there is no continuous circulation of the fluid within it. This liquid does not contain a pigment and has little or no respiratory function but is probably used to transport nutrients around the body.
Starfish produce a large number of secondary metabolites in the form of lipids, including steroidal derivatives of cholesterol, and fatty acid amides of sphingosine. The steroids are mostly saponins, known as asterosaponins, and their sulphated derivatives. They vary between species and are typically formed from up to six sugar molecules (usually glucose and galactose) connected by up to three glycosidic chains. Long - chain fatty acid amides of sphingosine occur frequently and some of them have known pharmacological activity. Various ceramides are also known from starfish and a small number of alkaloids have also been identified. The functions of these chemicals in the starfish have not been fully investigated but most have roles in defence and communication. Some are feeding deterrents used by the starfish to discourage predation. Others are antifoulants and supplement the pedicellariae to prevent other organisms from settling on the starfish 's aboral surface. Some are alarm pheromones and escape - eliciting chemicals, the release of which trigger responses in conspecific starfish but often produce escape responses in potential prey. Research into the efficacy of these compounds for possible pharmacological or industrial use occurs worldwide.
Most species of starfish are gonochorous, there being separate male and female individuals. These are usually not distinguishable externally as the gonads can not be seen, but their sex is apparent when they spawn. Some species are simultaneous hermaphrodites, producing eggs and sperm at the same time and in a few of these, the same gonad, called an ovotestis, produces both eggs and sperm. Other starfish are sequential hermaphrodites. Protandrous individuals of species like Asterina gibbosa start life as males before changing sex into females as they grow older. In some species such as Nepanthia belcheri, a large female can split in half and the resulting offspring are males. When these grow large enough they change back into females.
Each starfish arm contains two gonads that release gametes through openings called gonoducts, located on the central disc between the arms. Fertilization is generally external but in a few species, internal fertilization takes place. In most species, the buoyant eggs and sperm are simply released into the water (free spawning) and the resulting embryos and larvae live as part of the plankton. In others, the eggs may be stuck to the undersides of rocks. In certain species of starfish, the females brood their eggs -- either by simply enveloping them or by holding them in specialised structures. Brooding may be done in pockets on the starfish 's aboral surface, inside the pyloric stomach (Leptasterias tenera) or even in the interior of the gonads themselves. Those starfish that brood their eggs by "sitting '' on them usually assume a humped posture with their discs raised off the substrate. Pteraster militaris broods a few of its young and disperses the remaining eggs, that are too numerous to fit into its pouch. In these brooding species, the eggs are relatively large, and supplied with yolk, and they generally develop directly into miniature starfish without an intervening larval stage. The developing young are called lecithotrophic because they obtain their nutrition from the yolk as opposed to "planktotrophic '' larvae that feed in the water column. In Parvulastra parvivipara, an intragonadal brooder, the young starfish obtain nutrients by eating other eggs and embryos in the brood pouch. Brooding is especially common in polar and deep - sea species that live in environments unfavourable for larval development and in smaller species that produce just a few eggs.
In the tropics, a plentiful supply of phytoplankton is continuously available for starfish larvae to feed on. Spawning takes place at any time of year, each species having its own characteristic breeding season. In temperate regions, the spring and summer brings an increase in food supplies. The first individual of a species to spawn may release a pheromone that serves to attract other starfish to aggregate and to release their gametes synchronously. In other species, a male and female may come together and form a pair. This behaviour is called pseudocopulation and the male climbs on top, placing his arms between those of the female. When she releases eggs into the water, he is induced to spawn. Starfish may use environmental signals to coordinate the time of spawning (day length to indicate the correct time of the year, dawn or dusk to indicate the correct time of day), and chemical signals to indicate their readiness to breed. In some species, mature females produce chemicals to attract sperm in the sea water.
Most starfish embryos hatch at the blastula stage. The original ball of cells develops a lateral pouch, the archenteron. The entrance to this is known as the blastopore and it will later develop into the anus. Another invagination of the surface will fuse with the tip of the archenteron as the mouth while the interior section will become the gut. At the same time, a band of cilia develops on the exterior. This enlarges and extends around the surface and eventually onto two developing arm - like outgrowths. At this stage the larva is known as a bipinnaria. The cilia are used for locomotion and feeding, their rhythmic beat wafting phytoplankton towards the mouth.
The next stage in development is a brachiolaria larva and involves the growth of three short, additional arms. These are at the anterior end, surround a sucker and have adhesive cells at their tips. Both bipinnaria and brachiolaria larvae are bilaterally symmetrical. When fully developed, the brachiolaria settles on the seabed and attaches itself with a short stalk formed from the ventral arms and sucker. Metamorphosis now takes place with a radical rearrangement of tissues. The left side of the larval body becomes the oral surface of the juvenile and the right side the aboral surface. Part of the gut is retained but the mouth and anus move to new positions. Some of the body cavities degenerate but others become the water vascular system and the visceral coelom. The starfish is now pentaradially symmetrical. It casts off its stalk and becomes a free - living juvenile starfish about 1 mm (0.04 in) in diameter. Starfish of the order Paxillosida have no brachiolaria stage, with the bipinnaria larvae settling on the seabed and developing directly into juveniles.
Some species of starfish are able to reproduce asexually as adults either by fission of their central discs or by autotomy of one or more of their arms. Which of these processes occurs depends on the genus. Among starfish that are able to regenerate their whole body from a single arm, some can do so even from fragments just 1 cm (0.4 in) long. Single arms that regenerate a whole individual are called comet forms. The division of the starfish, either across its disc or at the base of the arm, is usually accompanied by a weakness in the structure that provides a fracture zone.
The larvae of several species of starfish can reproduce asexually before they reach maturity. They do this by autotomising some parts of their bodies or by budding. When such a larva senses that food is plentiful, it takes the path of asexual reproduction rather than normal development. Though this costs it time and energy and delays maturity, it allows a single larva to give rise to multiple adults when the conditions are appropriate.
Some species of starfish have the ability to regenerate lost arms and can regrow an entire new limb given time. A few can regrow a complete new disc from a single arm, while others need at least part of the central disc to be attached to the detached part. Regrowth can take several months or years, and starfish are vulnerable to infections during the early stages after the loss of an arm. A separated limb lives off stored nutrients until it regrows a disc and mouth and is able to feed again. Other than fragmentation carried out for the purpose of reproduction, the division of the body may happen inadvertently due to part being detached by a predator, or part may be actively shed by the starfish in an escape response. The loss of parts of the body is achieved by the rapid softening of a special type of connective tissue in response to nervous signals. This type of tissue is called catch connective tissue and is found in most echinoderms. An autotomy - promoting factor has been identified which, when injected into another starfish, causes rapid shedding of arms.
The lifespan of a starfish varies considerably between species, generally being longer in larger forms and in those with planktonic larvae. For example, Leptasterias hexactis broods a small number of large - yolked eggs. It has an adult weight of 20 g (0.7 oz), reaches sexual maturity in two years and lives for about ten years. Pisaster ochraceus releases a large number of eggs into the sea each year and has an adult weight of up to 800 g (28 oz). It reaches maturity in five years and has a maximum recorded lifespan of 34 years.
Echinoderms, including starfish, maintain a delicate internal electrolyte balance that is in equilibrium with sea water. This means that it is only possible for them to live in a marine environment and they are not found in any freshwater habitats. Starfish species inhabit all of the world 's oceans. Habitats range from tropical coral reefs, rocky shores, tidal pools, mud, and sand to kelp forests, seagrass meadows and the deep - sea floor down to at least 6,000 m (20,000 ft). The greatest diversity of species occurs in coastal areas.
Most species are generalist predators, eating microalgae, sponges, bivalves, snails and other small animals. The crown - of - thorns starfish consumes coral polyps, while other species are detritivores, feeding on decomposing organic material and faecal matter. A few are suspension feeders, gathering in phytoplankton; Henricia and Echinaster often occur in association with sponges, benefiting from the water current they produce. Various species have been shown to be able to absorb organic nutrients from the surrounding water, and this may form a significant portion of their diet.
The processes of feeding and capture may be aided by special parts; Pisaster brevispinus, the short - spined pisaster from the West Coast of America, can use a set of specialized tube feet to dig itself deep into the soft substrate to extract prey (usually clams). Grasping the shellfish, the starfish slowly pries open the prey 's shell by wearing out its adductor muscle, and then inserts its everted stomach into the crack to digest the soft tissues. The gap between the valves need only be a fraction of a millimetre wide for the stomach to gain entry.
Starfish are keystone species in their respective marine communities. Their relatively large sizes, diverse diets and ability to adapt to different environments makes them ecologically important. The term "keystone species '' was in fact first used by Robert Paine in 1966 to describe a starfish, Pisaster ochraceus. When studying the low intertidal coasts of Washington state, Paine found that predation by P. ochraceus was a major factor in the diversity of species. Experimental removals of this top predator from a stretch of shoreline resulted in lower species diversity and the eventual domination of Mytilus mussels, which were able to outcompete other organisms for space and resources. Similar results were found in a 1971 study of Stichaster australis on the intertidal coast of the South Island of New Zealand. S. australis was found to have removed most of a batch of transplanted mussels within two or three months of their placement, while in an area from which S. australis had been removed, the mussels increased in number dramatically, overwhelming the area and threatening biodiversity.
The feeding activity of the omnivorous starfish Oreaster reticulatus on sandy and seagrass bottoms in the Virgin Islands appears to regulate the diversity, distribution and abundance of microorganisms. These starfish engulf piles of sediment removing the surface films and algae adhering to the particles. Organisms that dislike this disturbance are replaced by others better able to rapidly recolonise "clean '' sediment. In addition, foraging by these migratory starfish creates diverse patches of organic matter, which may play a role in the distribution and abundance of organisms such as fish, crabs and sea urchins that feed on the sediment.
Starfish sometimes have negative effects on ecosystems. Outbreaks of crown - of - thorns starfish have caused damage to coral reefs in Northeast Australia and French Polynesia. A study in Polynesia found that coral cover declined drastically with the arrival of migratory starfish in 2006, dropping from 50 % to under 5 % in three years. This had an unintended effect on reef - feeding fish and the whole benthic community. Asterias amurensis is one of a few echinoderm invasive species. Its larvae likely arrived in Tasmania from central Japan via water discharged from ships in the 1980s. The species has since grown in numbers to the point where they threaten commercially important bivalve populations. As such, they are considered pests, and are on the Invasive Species Specialist Group 's list of the world 's 100 worst invasive species.
Starfish may be preyed on by conspecifics, other starfish species, tritons, crabs, fish, gulls and sea otters. Their first lines of defence are the saponins present in their body walls, which have unpleasant flavours. Some starfish such as Astropecten polyacanthus also include powerful toxins such as tetrodotoxin among their chemical armoury, and the slime star can ooze out large quantities of repellent mucus. They also have body armour in the form of hard plates and spines. The crown - of - thorns starfish is particularly unattractive to potential predators, being heavily defended by sharp spines, laced with toxins and sometimes with bright warning colours. Other species protect their vulnerable tube feet and arm tips by lining their ambulacral grooves with spines and heavily plating their extremities.
Several species sometimes suffer from a wasting condition caused by bacteria in the genus Vibrio; however, a more widespread wasting disease, causing mass mortalities among starfish, appears sporadically. A paper published in November 2014 revealed the most likely cause of this disease to be a densovirus the authors named sea star - associated densovirus (SSaDV). The protozoan Orchitophrya stellarum is known to infect the gonads of starfish and damage tissue. Starfish are vulnerable to high temperatures. Experiments have shown that the feeding and growth rates of P. ochraceus reduce greatly when their body temperatures rise above 23 ° C (73 ° F) and that they die when their temperature rises to 30 ° C (86 ° F). This species has a unique ability to absorb seawater to keep itself cool when it is exposed to sunlight by a receding tide. It also appears to rely on its arms to absorb heat, so as to protect the central disc and vital organs like the stomach.
Starfish and other echinoderms are sensitive to marine pollution. The common starfish is considered to be a bioindicator for marine ecosystems. A 2009 study found that P. ochraceus is unlikely to be affected by ocean acidification as severely as other marine animals with calcareous skeletons. In other groups, structures made of calcium carbonate are vulnerable to dissolution when the pH is lowered. Researchers found that when P. ochraceus were exposed to 21 ° C (70 ° F) and 770 ppm carbon dioxide (beyond rises expected in the next century), they were relatively unaffected. Their survival is likely due to the nodular nature of their skeletons, which are able to compensate for a shortage of carbonate by growing more fleshy tissue.
Echinoderms first appeared in the fossil record in the Cambrian. The first known asterozoans were the Somasteroidea, which exhibit characteristics of both groups. Starfish are infrequently found as fossils, possibly because their hard skeletal components separate as the animal decays. Despite this, there are a few places where accumulations of complete skeletal structures occur, fossilized in place in Lagerstätten -- so - called "starfish beds ''.
By the late Paleozoic, the crinoids and blastoids were the predominant echinoderms, and some limestones from this period are made almost entirely from fragments from these groups. In the two major extinction events that occurred during the late Devonian and late Permian, the blastoids were wiped out and only a few species of crinoids survived. Many starfish species also became extinct in these events, but afterwards the surviving few species diversified rapidly within about sixty million years during the Early Jurassic and the beginning of the Middle Jurassic. A 2012 study found that speciation in starfish can occur rapidly. During the last 6,000 years, divergence in the larval development of Cryptasterina hystera and Cryptasterina pentagona has taken place, the former adopting internal fertilization and brooding and the latter remaining a broadcast spawner.
The scientific name Asteroidea was given to starfish by the French zoologist de Blainville in 1830. It is derived from the Greek aster, ἀστήρ (a star) and the Greek eidos, εἶδος (form, likeness, appearance). The class Asteroidea belongs to the phylum Echinodermata. As well as the starfish, the echinoderms include sea urchins, sand dollars, brittle and basket stars, sea cucumbers and crinoids. The larvae of echinoderms have bilateral symmetry, but during metamorphosis this is replaced with radial symmetry, typically pentameric. Adult echinoderms are characterized by having a water vascular system with external tube feet and a calcareous endoskeleton consisting of ossicles connected by a mesh of collagen fibres. Starfish are included in the subphylum Asterozoa, the characteristics of which include a flattened, star - shaped body as adults consisting of a central disc and multiple radiating arms. The subphylum includes the two classes of Asteroidea, the starfish, and Ophiuroidea, the brittle stars and basket stars. Asteroids have broad - based arms with skeletal support provided by calcareous plates in the body wall while ophiuroids have clearly demarcated slender arms strengthened by paired fused ossicles forming jointed "vertebrae ''.
The starfish are a large and diverse class with about 1,500 living species. There are seven extant orders, Brisingida, Forcipulatida, Notomyotida, Paxillosida, Spinulosida, Valvatida and Velatida and two extinct ones, Calliasterellidae and Trichasteropsida. Living asteroids, the Neoasteroidea, are morphologically distinct from their forerunners in the Paleozoic. The taxonomy of the group is relatively stable but there is ongoing debate about the status of the Paxillosida, and the deep - water sea daisies, though clearly Asteroidea and currently included in Velatida, do not fit easily in any accepted lineage. Phylogenetic data suggests that they may be a sister group, the Concentricycloidea, to the Neoasteroidea, or that the Velatida themselves may be a sister group.
Extinct groups within the Asteroidea include:
Starfish are deuterostome animals, like the chordates. A 2014 analysis of 219 genes from all classes of echinoderms gives the following phylogenetic tree. The times at which the clades diverged is shown under the labels in millions of years ago (mya).
Xenacoelomorpha
Chordata and allies
Holothuroidea
Echinoidea
Ophiuroidea
Asteroidea
Crinoidea
Ecdysozoa
Spiralia
The phylogeny of the Asteroidea has been difficult to resolve, with visible (morphological) features proving inadequate, and the question of whether traditional taxa are clades in doubt. The phylogeny proposed by Gale in 1987 is:
† Palaeozoic Asteroids
Paxillosida
Valvatida, including Velatida, Spinulosida (not a clade)
Forcipulatida, including Brisingida
The phylogeny proposed by Blake in 1987 is:
† Palaeozoic Asteroids
† Calliasterellidae
† Compasteridae
† Trichasteropsida
Brisingida
Forcipulatida
Spinulosida
Velatida
Notomyotida
Valvatida
Paxillosida
Later work making use of molecular evidence, with or without the use of morphological evidence, had by 2000 failed to resolve the argument. In 2011, on further molecular evidence, Janies and colleagues noted that the phylogeny of the echinoderms "has proven difficult '', and that "the overall phylogeny of extant echinoderms remains sensitive to the choice of analytical methods ''. They presented a phylogenetic tree for the living Asteroidea only; using the traditional names of starfish orders where possible, and indicating "part of '' otherwise, the phylogeny is shown below. The Solasteridae are split from the Velatida, and the old Spinulosida is broken up.
Solasteridae and part of Spinulosida, e.g. Stegnaster and part of Valvatida, e.g. Asterina
Odontasteridae, which was a part of Valvatida
Paxillosida
part of Spinulosida, e.g. Echinaster, part of Valvatida, e.g. Archaster
Forcipulatida
Brisingida with part of Velatida, e.g. Caymanostella and part of Forcipulatida, e.g. Stichaster
Velatida except for Solasteridae
Notomyotida (not analysed)
Starfish are deuterostomes, closely related, together with all other echinoderms, to chordates, and are used in reproductive and developmental studies. Female starfishs produce large numbers of oocytes that are easily isolated; these can be stored in a pre-meiosis phase and stimulated to complete division by the use of 1 - methyladenine. Starfish oocytes are well suited for this research as they are large and easy to handle, transparent, simple to maintain in sea water at room temperature, and they develop rapidly. Asterina pectinifera, used as a model organism for this purpose, is resilient and easy to breed and maintain in the laboratory.
Another area of research is the ability of starfish to regenerate lost body parts. The stem cells of adult humans are incapable of much differentiation and understanding the regrowth, repair and cloning processes in starfish may have implications for human medicine.
Starfish also have an unusual ability to expel foreign objects from their bodies, which makes them difficult to tag for research tracking purposes.
An aboriginal Australian fable retold by the Welsh school headmaster William Jenkyn Thomas (1870 -- 1959) tells how some animals needed a canoe to cross the ocean. Whale had one but refused to lend it, so Starfish kept him busy, telling him stories and grooming him to remove parasites, while the others stole the canoe. When Whale realized the trick he beat Starfish ragged, which is how Starfish still is today.
In 1900, the scholar Edward Tregear documented The Creation Song, which he describes as "an ancient prayer for the dedication of a high chief '' of Hawaii. Among the "uncreated gods '' described early in the song are the male Kumilipo ("Creation '') and the female Poele, both born in the night, a coral insect, the earthworm, and the starfish.
Georg Eberhard Rumpf 's 1705 The Ambonese Curiosity Cabinet describes the tropical varieties of Stella Marina or Bintang Laut, "Sea Star '', in Latin and Malay respectively, known in the waters around Ambon. He writes that the Histoire des Antilles reports that when the sea stars "see thunder storms approaching, (they) grab hold of many small stones with their little legs, looking to... hold themselves down as if with anchors ''.
Starfish is the title of novels by Peter Watts and Jennie Orbell, and in 2012, Alice Addison wrote a non-fiction book subtitled "A year in the life of bereavement and depression ''. The Starfish and the Spider is a 2006 business management book by Ori Brafman and Rod Beckstrom; its title alludes to the ability of the starfish to regenerate itself because of its decentralized nervous system, and the book suggests ways that a decentralized organisation may flourish.
In his 2002 book The Divine Mystery Fort, Sri Sai Kaleshwar Swami wrote, "An eighth type of supernatural power object is a starfish. Sometimes at the full moon time, when the moon is really dazzling and hitting on the ocean, a starfish jumps out of the water and falls down. If you can get that you can suck unbelievable cosmic energy. You can use it as your own power object. It has to be only on the full moon day when it comes up. ''
In the Nickelodeon animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants, the eponymous character 's best friend is a dim - witted starfish, Patrick Star.
Starfish are widespread in the oceans, but are only occasionally used as food. There may be good reason for this: the bodies of numerous species are dominated by bony ossicles, and the body wall of many species contains saponins, which have an unpleasant taste, and others contain tetrodotoxins which are poisonous. Some species that prey on bivalve molluscs can transmit paralytic shellfish poisoning. Georg Eberhard Rumpf found few starfish being used for food in the Indonesian archipelago, other than as bait in fish traps, but on the island of "Huamobel '' (sic) the people cut them up, squeeze out the "black blood '' and cook them with sour tamarind leaves; after resting the pieces for a day or two, they remove the outer skin and cook them in coconut milk. Starfish are sometimes eaten in China, Japan and in Micronesia.
Starfish are in some cases taken from their habitat and sold to tourists as souvenirs, ornaments, curios or for display in aquariums. In particular, Oreaster reticulatus, with its easily accessed habitat and conspicuous coloration, is widely collected in the Caribbean. In the early to mid 20th century, this species was common along the coasts of the West Indies, but collection and trade have severely reduced its numbers. In the State of Florida, O. reticulatus is listed as endangered and its collection is illegal. Nevertheless, it is still sold throughout its range and beyond. A similar phenomenon exists in the Indo - Pacific for species such as Protoreaster nodosus.
With its multiple arms, the starfish provides a popular metaphor for computer networks, companies and software tools. It is also the name of a seabed imaging system and company.
Starfish has repeatedly been chosen as a name in military history. Three ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Starfish: an A-class destroyer launched in 1894; an R - class destroyer launched in 1916; and an S - class submarine launched in 1933 and lost in 1940. In the World War II, Starfish sites were large - scale night - time decoys created during The Blitz to simulate burning British cities. Starfish Prime was a high - altitude nuclear test conducted by the United States on 9 July 1962.
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who is the new elected president of mexico | Mexican general election, 2018 - Wikipedia
Enrique Peña Nieto PRI
Andrés Manuel López Obrador MORENA
General elections were held in Mexico on 1 July 2018. Voters elected a new President of Mexico to serve a term of five years and ten months (reduced by two months from the constitutional mandate due to a change in the inauguration date as of 2014), 128 members of the Senate for a period of six years and 500 members of the Chamber of Deputies for a period of three years. It was one of the largest election days in Mexican history, with most of the nation 's states holding state and local elections on the same day, including nine governorships, with over 3,400 positions subject to elections at all levels of government. It has been the most violent campaign Mexico has experienced in recent history, with 130 political figures killed since September 2017.
The incumbent president Enrique Peña Nieto was not constitutionally eligible for a second term. Incumbent members of the legislature are term - limited, thus all members of Congress will be newly elected. As a consequence of the political reform of 2014, the members of the legislature elected in this election will be the first allowed to run for reelection in subsequent elections. The National Electoral Institute (INE) officially declared the new process underway on 8 September 2017.
The presidential election was won by Andrés Manuel López Obrador of the National Regeneration Movement (MORENA), running as the candidate of the Juntos Haremos Historia alliance. This is the first time a candidate won an outright majority (according to official vote counts) since 1988, and the first time that a candidate not from the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) or its predecessors has done so since the Mexican Revolution. This election also marked both the worst electoral defeat suffered by the PRI and the worst electoral defeat for a sitting Mexican government since universal suffrage was adopted in the country.
The country 's president is elected by plurality in a single round of voting.
The 500 members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected to three - year terms by two methods; 300 are elected in single - member constituencies by first - past - the - post voting, with the remaining 200 elected from five regional constituencies by proportional representation, with seats allocated using the simple quotient and largest remainder method. No party is allowed to hold more than 300 seats. Members may hold office for up to four consecutive terms.
The 128 members of the Senate are elected to six - year terms, concurrent with the president, and also elected by two methods, with 96 elected in 32 three - member constituencies based on the states and 32 elected in a single nationwide constituency by proportional representation. In the three - member constituencies, two winning candidates shall be allocated to the party receiving the highest number of votes and one seat to the party receiving the second - highest number of votes. Members may hold office for up to two terms.
(English: "For Mexico to the Front '')
The center - right National Action Party and the center - left Party of the Democratic Revolution and Citizens ' Movement -- which both nominated Andrés Manuel López Obrador in the elections of 2006 and 2012 -- formed an alliance for the election, in an effort to defeat both the ruling party, the PRI, and the front - runner Andrés Manuel López Obrador of the National Regeneration Movement.
On 5 September, the electoral alliance was officially registered with the INE as Frente Ciudadano por México (Citizen Front for Mexico). On 8 December the coalition changed its name to Por México al Frente (Mexico to the Front). The next day, Ricardo Anaya Cortés, president of the PAN, resigned from his position and expressed his intent to be the alliance 's candidate.
The former first lady Margarita Zavala submitted her resignation from the PAN on 6 October, after having been a member for 33 years, and registered as an independent candidate six days later. She sought the presidency through an independent bid, but withdrew on 16 May 2018.
(English: "Everyone for Mexico '')
The coalition is composed of the Institutional Revolutionary Party, the Ecologist Green Party of Mexico, and the PANAL. On 9 August 2017, the PRI revised its requirements for presidential candidates, eliminating the requirement that candidates must have 10 years of party membership, and allowing non-party members to lead the party.
This move benefited finance secretary José Antonio Meade Kuribreña, who is not a member of the PRI, as well as education secretary Aurelio Nuño Mayer, whose length of membership had been questioned. Meade was considered the favorite, because while the PRI had been dogged by scandal and controversy, Meade had been personally unaffected.
On 27 November, Meade resigned from cabinet and announced his intention to be the PRI 's candidate in the upcoming election. He quickly received the support of President Peña Nieto and PRI - linked institutions such as the CTM union. With no challengers, Meade became the presumptive nominee. On 18 February 2018, the PRI held its convention of delegates, where Meade was formally selected as the party 's presidential candidate. Meade is the PRI 's first presidential candidate in its almost 90 - year history not to be a member of the party.
Due to the circumstances of Meade 's candidacy, critics compared his selection to the PRI 's historical practice of dedazo ("tap of the finger ''), where presidents hand - picked their successor.
The coalition was initially named Meade Ciudadano por México (English: Citizen Meade for Mexico), until the INE deemed it unconstitutional to include a candidate 's name within the coalition 's name, on the grounds that the presidential candidate would receive advertising from every piece of campaign advertising of the coalition used for local candidates. The coalition subsequently changed its name to Todos por México (Everyone for Mexico).
(English: "Together We Will Make History '')
The coalition is composed of the National Regeneration Movement (MORENA), the Labor Party, and the Social Encounter Party.
On 12 December Andrés Manuel López Obrador registered as the presumptive nominee for MORENA and submitted his resignation as party president. This is López Obrador 's third presidential bid; the previous two attempts were with the PRD. After the 2012 presidential election, López Obrador left the PRD to found MORENA. This is MORENA 's first presidential election. Joining MORENA in the Juntos Haremos Historia coalition is the left - wing Labor Party and the right - wing Social Encounter Party.
For the first time in Mexico 's modern democratic history, candidates were allowed to run for the presidency as independents. Several people announced their intention to contest the election as an independent candidate.
Margarita Zavala, a lawyer, former deputy and wife of former president Felipe Calderón, had originally intended to run as the PAN nominee; however, on 6 October, she left the party and launched an independent bid. Explaining her decision, she said that the formation of Por México al Frente meant there would be no internal PAN selection, denying her a chance to be a candidate. Jaime Rodríguez Calderón, the independent governor of Nuevo León, also announced his candidacy, as did Senator Armando Ríos Piter.
The National Indigenous Congress announced on 28 May 2017 the election of María de Jesús Patricio Martínez as their spokeswoman and indigenous representative for the 2018 general election, aiming to obtain an independent candidacy. Only Zavala gathered enough signatures to appear on the ballot; however, on 10 April the Electoral Court accepted an appeal from Rodríguez and ordered the National Electoral Institute to register him as candidate.
On 16 May Zavala announced she was withdrawing her candidacy.
As in the 2006 and 2012 federal elections, the 2018 campaign featured numerous accusations and attack advertisements directed at the leftist frontrunner candidate Andrés Manuel López Obrador, who contested the elections with the support of his party MORENA. A Red Scare - like campaign was used by the PRI and PAN candidates to convince voters that a López Obrador victory would turn Mexico into "another Venezuela ''.
In a speech, PRI president Enrique Ochoa Reza (es) said that "if the people from MORENA like Venezuela so much, they should just go and live there ''. The PRI was believed to have hired Venezuelan right - wing political strategist JJ Rendón to work in their campaign, as he stated in January that he would do "everything within the law to prevent López Obrador from becoming President ''; Rendón had previously worked for the PRI during Peña Nieto 's 2012 presidential campaign.
In January, former president Felipe Calderón shared a video on via social media, in which a Venezuelan citizen living in Mexico warned voters not to vote for López Obrador, as he would put Mexico in the "path to ruin '' like Chavismo had done in her country. It later surfaced that the woman, whose name is Carmen Martilez, is an actress who previously had uploaded a video in which she asked for street vendors to be "exterminated ''.
That same month, the PRI began to claim that López Obrador 's campaign was supported by "Venezuelan and Russian interests ''. López Obrador dismissed the accusations and later joked about them, calling himself "Andrés Manuelovich ''.
Later in January, citizens across the country received phone calls originating in the city of Puebla, in which a recorded message warned them not to vote for López Obrador because he supposedly agreed to sell Mexico 's oil to "the Russians ''. The MORENA representative in Puebla asked for an investigation into the phone calls. In March, telephone company Axtel traced the number that made the calls, revealing it was a number that the government of Puebla (whose governor is from the PAN) controlled. Puebla 's government denied the accusations. Also in January, López Obrador uploaded a video via social media asking president Peña Nieto and PRI president Ochoa Reza to "calm down '', and advised them to take some "López Obradordipine ''.
A jingle entitled Movimiento Naranja, which was recorded for the political party Movimiento Ciudadano (which is part of the Por México al Frente coalition, along with the PAN and the PRD) and performed by an indigenous child called Yuawi, became viral and Yuawi turned into a celebrity overnight. Drawing on its success, the pre-candidate for the Frente, Ricardo Anaya recorded a video in which he performed the song with Yuawi.
PRI candidate José Antonio Meade was accused of plagiarism when it was noted that one of his ads, in which he criticized a "populist '' speech on TV, was identical to an ad that had been used by Justin Trudeau when he became leader of the Liberal Party of Canada in 2013.
Later in February, the PRI 's Enrique Ochoa Reza tweeted that PRI politicians who defected to MORENA as Prietos que no aprietan (Dark - skinned people who ca n't get a hold) while trying to make a pun on the word PRI - etos (because morena is a synonym for prieto). The expression was criticized, and Ochoa Reza quickly deleted the tweet as it was interpreted to be racist.
Aristegui Noticias published that Ochoa Reza apologized, and also criticized the insensitive expression, additionally commenting that the part que ya no aprietan (who can not hold) could also be interpreted as misogynistic due to being a double entendre referring to women in relation to the number of sexual relations they have had in their lifetime. Ochoa Reza 's tweet apologized to dark - skinned people but not to women. Later Sinembargo.mx revealed that José Antonio Meade justified Enrique Ochoa 's usage of the expression, by saying: uno se excede y es natural (English: one gets - ahead - of - themselves and it is natural) and saying that his quick apology talked positively about him.
In March, the Attorney General of the Republic (PGR) started an official investigation into money - laundering allegations against Ricardo Anaya. During the investigation, Santiago Nieto, the ex-chief of FEPADE (the government branch focused on political crimes). Nieto the previous October had been controversially removed from his job as chief of FEPADE, coincidentally right after starting an investigation regarding illicit campaign money from the 2012 presidential campaign that allegedly was received by Peña Nieto and by the future president of Pemex, Emilio Lozoya, from the Brazilian conglomerate Odebrecht. The ex-chief of FEPADE said that the accusations against Anaya were minor in comparison to Odebretch and Peña Nieto scandal, adding also the same opinion about the money lost by Secretariat of Social Development, to corrupt governors from the PRI such as Javier Duarte, all while José Antonio Meade was the man in charge of the Secretariat of Social Development. The scandal is known as La Estafa Maestra (The Master Robbery), and about 435 million pesos were lost. The same week the PRI legislators were criticized for voting for stopping the investigation of Odebretch against the wishes of Mexican people and organizations campaigning against corruption such as Mexicanos contra la corrupción (Mexicans against corruption). The investigation about Odebretch against the Pemex leader at the time, Lozoya, was legally stopped after a judge controversially ordered it days after.
Santiago Nieto said that the PGR was being used by Peña Nieto 's government to tamper with elections and benefit Meade by removing Anaya from the race, complaining that it was a politically motivated use of law - enforcement agencies, which had made more efforts to investigate Anaya in a month than towards investigating Peña Nieto 's Odebretch money and Meade 's lost Secretariat of Social Development funds over the last six years. Santiago Nieto said the PGR and FEPADE were only attacking the rivals of the PRI, and the investigating organizations were not being neutral.
In an interview with The Wall Street Journal, Santiago Nieto would later reveal that Peña Nieto 's government tried to bribe him to keep him silent, which he refused saying, "Sorry, but I ca n't receive any money from Peña Nieto. '' He received menacing phone messages stating: "Death follows you '' and "Words of advice: stay out of Trouble '', and as a consequence, he feared for the safety of his, and his family 's lives. Additionally as of 2018, it should be noted, that many of the politicians of the PRI political party who supported Peña Nieto during his presidential campaign would be later declared criminals by the Mexican government (some already elected, while others were campaigning concurrently with Peña Nieto, and would be elected), near the end of Peña Nieto 's time as president.
A total of 22 state ex-governors, all members from the PRI, had been accused of misuse of public funds and misdirection of money (with some money speculated to have been directed to the PRI); only five were sent to jail, with PGR receiving criticism for not investigating further. Among the most prominent criminals were: Tomás Yarrington from Tamaulipas (along his predecessor Eugenio Hernández Flores), Javier Duarte from Veracruz, César Duarte Jáquez from Chihuahua (no family relation between the two Duartes), and Roberto Borge from Quintana Roo, along their unknown multiple allies who enabled their corruption. While, although Peña Nieto has not been found to be an ally of them, by being part of the same political party, there were severely negative consequences to Peña Nieto 's image as president, as well as of the PRI. Also, while not a member of the PRI at the time, Meade 's image also received damage, because much of the money was lost while he was in charge of the Secretariat of Social Development, the government ministry that supervises the resources received by each state.
Despite the overwhelming evidence against César Duarte, in March 2018 the PGR found him innocent of any crime. The successor governor Javier Corral from the PAN, who previously fought against the Televisa law, gave a similar opinion to Santiago Nieto, saying the PGR was being used to protect the allies of Peña Nieto and the PRI, and attack their rivals. López Obrador said that failure to take action against Duarte was one of the main reasons why Mexicans had lost their faith in the PRI, saying the few ex-governors that were declared criminals were only to a pretense of concern.
After, Meade decided to change his strategy; and due to his poor reception, Ochoa Reza left his position as president of the PRI on 2 May.
On 16 May, Margarita Zavala suspended her presidential campaign.
Santiago Nieto decided to join AMLO 's campaign, with both promising to continue the investigation into the alleged scandal involving Peña Nieto, the PRI and Odebretch. Meanwhile, César Duarte disappeared before being incarcerated, and was subsequently declared a fugitive from justice by the PGR.
More than 130 political figures were been killed from when the campaign began in September 2017 until July 2018.
López Obrador promised to end many of the benefits received by ex-presidents, particularly the lifelong pension they receive. He added that he would redirect the money saved to be used to help senior citizens. Zavala said she would also attempt to end the practice, though she had not decided how to use the money saved, while Meade and Anaya said they would keep the practice going.
Anaya promised to implement a basic income for Mexican citizens, Anaya said Nobel prize - winning economist Milton Friedman supported the idea. While well received, El Economista criticized how Anaya announced it, and called the idea populist.
Meade proposed to create an office that would track the unique needs of each individual citizen, in what he would call Registro Único de Necesidades de Cada Persona (Unique Register of the Necessities of Each Person). Citizens on social media mocked the idea as absurd and impossible to develop, comparing it to writing letters to Santa Claus or just plainly asking for miracles. Meade has supported Peña Nieto 's energy reforms, saying that "everyone wins with the gasolinazo '', and announcing that if he won he intended to continue it. López Obrador promised to end the gasolinazos by building two new fuel refineries, which would allow more petroleum to be processed into gasoline domestically, thus lowering the price by not outsourcing the refining to other countries.
Anaya promised to investigate and do everything to make sure President Peña Nieto is sent to jail for his aforementioned multiple presidential scandals, with López Obrador agreeing and suggesting to up the ante by also investigating every living former president.
On 26 January, López Obrador accused the International Monetary Fund of being an accomplice to corruption in Mexican politics and claimed that its policies are in part responsible for poverty, unemployment, and violence in the country. López Obrador promised that if he won the presidency, Mexico will follow "its own agenda ''.
López Obrador called for a change in security strategy and offered the controversial proposal of giving amnesty for drug dealers as a way to combat the drug cartels.
During a debate in April, Rodríguez Calderón said "We have to cut off the hands of those who rob (in public service). It 's that simple. '' He later explained that it was intended to be applied to both criminals and government functionaries involved in acts of corruption citing the application of this measure in Saudi Arabia as an example to reduce corruption and violence. Rodríguez Calderón was trending ahead of the other candidates on Twitter during the debate.
Rodríguez Calderón later proposed to bring back the death penalty (currently constitutionally abolished in Mexico and enforced for the last time in 1961) for drug traffickers, hijackers, infanticides and serial killers.
The candidate put forward by the National Indigenous Congress and the Zapatista Army of National Liberation, María de Jesús Patricio Martínez (Marichuy), alleged that the process for collecting signatures to attain ballot access unfairly benefits the rich. Marichuy said, "the INE made a list of telephone makes and models so that you must have at a minimum an Android 5.0 operating system or higher and so many hours to begin with the download of the applications in the devices, we find that the list is not true; we find brands that are not included in the list and of those that are included they do n't all work. The download is tedious and can take hours. '' The INE declared each signature registration would take 4.3 minutes, but each actual signature registration has taken up to 16 hours, or more. ' With these "classist, racist and excluding measures, '' Marichuy said, you realize "that this electoral system is not made for those peoples below that govern ourselves and that the laws and institutions of the State are made for those above, for the capitalists and their corrupt political class, resulting in a big simulation. '' Ultimately she was not able to obtain ballot access.
After the Facebook -- Cambridge Analytica data scandal, in April 2018, Forbes published information from the British news program Channel 4 News that had mentioned the existence of proof revealing ties between the PRI and Cambridge Analytica, suggesting a modus operandi similar to the one in the United States. The info said they worked together at least until January. An investigation was requested. The New York Times obtained the 57 page proposal of Cambridge Analytica 's proposed collaboration strategy to benefit the PRI by hurting MORENA 's candidate Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador; the political party rejected the offer but still paid Cambridge Analytica to not help the other candidates.
In April 2017, the US Secretary of Homeland Security, John F. Kelly, stated that the election of a left - wing president in Mexico "would not be good for America or Mexico ''. The statement was widely believed to be a reference to López Obrador, the leftist, frontrunner candidate, and created controversy in Mexico, as it seemed to be an attempt to influence the election against him.
In December 2017, US National Security Advisor H.R. McMaster claimed that Russia had launched a campaign to "influence Mexico 's 2018 presidential election and stir up division '', without defining the methods of the supposed meddling, or indicating which would be the candidate favored by the Kremlin. The Russian government has denied the claims. PRI president Enrique Ochoa Reza claimed that "Russian and Venezuelan interests '' are supporting López Obrador 's campaign.
López Obrador responded that Ochoa 's declarations are part of a smear campaign against him, and later posted a video via social media, where he joked about the claims and called himself "Andres Manuelovich ''.
Guatemalan right - wing commentator Gloria Álvarez embarked on a tour through Mexico, calling López Obrador a "dangerous populist '' and urging citizens not to vote for him. She was invited to a PAN legislators assembly on 31 January, where she criticized the alliance with the PRD, which she called "a party just like MORENA ''.
US Senators Bob Menendez and Marco Rubio asked US Secretary of State Rex Tillerson to "fight Russian meddling '' in the Mexican elections. On 2 February during a summit in Mexico, Tillerson stated that Mexico should "beware the Russian interference ''. Dr. Tony Payan, director of the Mexico Center at Rice University noted that there has been no evidence of actual Russian tampering in the Mexican electoral process, and considered the accusations "absurd '' given that the Trump administration "will not admit Russia interfered in the US election ''.
Bloomberg warned about the possibility of the PRI committing electoral fraud, with Tony Payan, director of the Mexico Center at Rice University 's Baker Institute in Houston, United States, suggesting that both vote buyout and computer hackings were possible and citing irregularities in the 1988 electoral process. Bloomberg 's article also suggested Meade could be receiving unfair help from the over-budget amounts of money spent on publicity by incumbent president Enrique Peña Nieto.
Additionally, Meade spent more money on pre-campaign efforts than López Obrador and Anaya together, while failing to report where his funds came from; in contrast, López Obrador has attended the most events while spending the least money and successfully reported better than his rivals where he obtained the resources to pay for those events.
During 2017, the PRI had faced allegations of electoral fraud concerning the election of Peña Nieto 's cousin Alfredo del Mazo Maza as Governor of the state of Mexico. Despite the official vote results given by the INE (Electoral National Institute) giving the win to del Mazo, the election was marred by irregularities including reports of vote - buying, spending beyond legal campaign finance limits, and electoral counts that gave del Mazo extra votes that awarded the election to him. In November 2017, left - wing magazine Proceso published an article accusing the PRI of breaking at least 16 state laws during the elections, which were denounced 619 times. They said that all of them were broken in order to favor del Mazo during the election.
López Obrador won the election on 1 July 2018 with over 50 % of the popular vote. In terms of states won, López Obrador won in a landslide, carrying 31 out of 32 of the country 's states, the most states won by a candidate since Ernesto Zedillo won every state in the 1994 election.
Around 30 minutes after polls closed in the country 's north - west, José Antonio Meade, speaking at a news conference from PRI headquarters, conceded defeat and wished López Obrador "every success ''.
Ricardo Anaya also conceded defeat within an hour of the polls closing, and independent candidate Jaime Rodríguez Calderón recognized López Obrador 's victory shortly afterward.
The results of the INE 's official quick count were announced around midnight Mexico City time. It reported a turnout of around 63 %, with the following approximate results for the candidates: López Obrador, 53 %; Anaya, 22 %; Meade, 16 %; and Rodríguez Calderón, 5 %. This is the first time since the (controversial) 1988 election that a presidential candidate has been elected with an absolute majority (50 % + 1) of the votes cast.
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with which of these countries does germany share the largest border | Geography of Germany - wikipedia
3,714 km (2,307 mi) Border lengths included
Coordinates: 51 ° 00 ′ N 10 ° 00 ′ E / 51.00 ° N 10.00 ° E / 51.00; 10.00
Germany is a country in west - central Europe, that stretches from the Alps, across the North European Plain to the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. Germany has the second largest population in Europe (after the European part of Russia) and is seventh largest in area. The territory of Germany covers 357,021 km (137,847 sq mi), consisting of 349,223 km (134,836 sq mi) of land and 7,798 km (3,011 sq mi) of waters.
Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps (highest point: the Zugspitze at 2,962 metres (9,718 ft)) in the south to the shores of the North Sea (Nordsee) in the northwest and the Baltic Sea (Ostsee) in the northeast. Between lie the forested uplands of central Germany and the low - lying lands of northern Germany (lowest point: Neuendorf - Sachsenbande at 3.54 metres (11.6 ft) below sea level), traversed by some of Europe 's major rivers such as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe.
Germany shares borders with nine European countries, second only to Russia: Denmark in the north, Poland and the Czech Republic in the east, Switzerland (its only non-EU neighbor) and Austria in the south, France in the southwest and Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands in the west.
Germany is in Western and Central Europe, bordering Denmark in the north, Poland and the Czech Republic in the east, Austria and Switzerland in the south, France and Luxembourg in the south - west, and Belgium and the Netherlands in the north - west. It lies mostly between latitudes 47 ° and 55 ° N (the tip of Sylt is just north of 55 °), and longitudes 5 ° and 16 ° E. The territory covers 357,021 km (137,847 sq mi), consisting of 349,223 km (134,836 sq mi) of land and 7,798 km (3,011 sq mi) of water. It is the seventh largest country by area in Europe and the 63rd largest in the world.
The northern third of the country lies in the North European Plain, with flat terrain crossed by northward - flowing watercourses (Elbe, Ems, Weser, Oder). Wetlands and marshy conditions are found close to the Dutch border and along the Frisian coast. Sandy Mecklenburg in the northeast has many glacier - formed lakes dating to the last glacial period.
Moving south, central Germany features rough and somewhat patternless hilly and mountainous countryside, some of it formed by ancient volcanic activity. The Rhine valley cuts through the western part of this region. The central uplands continue east and north as far as the Saale and merge with the Ore Mountains on the border with the Czech Republic. Upland regions include the Eifel, Hunsrück and Palatine Forest west of the Rhine, the Taunus hills north of Frankfurt, the Vogelsberg massif, the Rhön, and the Thüringer Wald. South of Berlin, the east - central part of the country is more like the low northern areas, with sandy soil and river wetlands such as the Spreewald region.
Southern Germany 's landforms are defined by various linear hill and mountain ranges like the two adjacent ranges of the Swabian and Franconian Alb (reaching approximately from the source of the Danube in the southwest of Baden - Württemberg, south of Stuttgart, across Swabia into Central Franconia and to the valley of the river Main) and the Bavarian Forest along the border between Bavaria and the Czech Republic. The Alps on the southern border are the highest mountains, but relatively little Alpine terrain lies within Germany (in southeastern Swabia and Upper Bavaria) compared to Switzerland and Austria. The Black Forest, on the southwestern border with France, separates the Rhine from the headwaters of the Danube on its eastern slopes.
The North - South difference in Germany, between N 55: 03 (at List on Sylt) and N 47: 16 (around Oberstdorf, Bavaria) equals almost eight Latitudes (or 889 km), but this ca n't largely be seen in different average temperatures. There is sooner a stronger West - East temperature factor instead. This is explained by the North 's flat and open landscapes and its closeness to the sea, and South 's higher terrain, larger distance from the sea, and the Alps. These mountains prevents much of the usually warmer Mediterranean air to blow up into southern Germany. And north of the Alps and the Carpathians, the farther away from the Atlantic Ocean with for its Latitudes warm current, known as the Gulfstream - and the closer to Russia 's and Siberia 's extremely cold winter winds, one gets, the local climate becomes colder, even at the same Latitude and altitude. Even if Siberian winter winds are not dominating, when they do hit Germany, temperatures can in extreme cases fall to - 30 C and below during the nights, and this has an effect on the average temperatures of November to March. Although rare, when such cold air reaches Germany, the Eastern parts becomes more affected compared to the Western parts. These factors results in, that Hamburg in the North has the same annual average temperature as Munich in the South has. The annual average temperature in Hamburg is + 9.5 C and + 9.7 in Munich Whilst Berlin has an annual average temperature + 9, 9 C
The warmest area in Germany is the area bordering to France and west of the Schwartzwald hills. Roughly between Karlsruhe in the north, and down to the Swiss border. Whilst the coldest area (except for mountain peaks) is found in the southeastern parts of eastern Germany, around Dresden and Görlitz; roughly just two Latitudes higher. But the difference at annual average base, is n't extreme. Freiburg im Breisgau (located a little south of Karlsruhe) has an averare annual temperature of + 11.4 C, Görlitz has an equal value of + 8.8 C. A difference of 2.6 degree C. Colder meteorological stations in Germany can be found, but mainly at notably higher altitudes.
Germany 's climate is temperate and marine, with cold, cloudy, wet winters and moderate warm summers and in the south occasional warm föhn wind. The greater part of Germany lies in the cool / temperate climatic zone in which humid westerly winds predominate. In the northwest and the north, the climate is oceanic and rain falls all the year round. Winters there are relatively mild and summers comparatively cool. In the east, the climate shows clear continental features; winters can be very cold for long periods, and summers can become very warm. Dry periods are often recorded.
In the centre and the south, there is a transitional climate which may be predominantly oceanic or continental, according to the general weather situation. Winters are mild and summers tend to be cool, though maximum temperatures can exceed 30 ° C (86 ° F) for several days in a row during heat waves. The warmest regions of Germany can be found in the south - west (see rhine rift, German Wine Route and Palatinate). Here summers can be hot with many days exceeding 30 ° C (86 ° F). Sometimes, minimum temperatures do not drop below 20 ° C (68 ° F), which is relatively rare in other regions.
Germany covers a total of 357,021 km (137,847 sq mi), of which 5,157 km (1,991 sq mi) is irrigated land and 8,350 km (3,220 sq mi) is covered by water, the largest lakes being Lake Constance (total area of 536 km (207 sq mi), with 62 % of the shore being German; international borders are not defined on the lake itself), Müritz (117 km or 45 sq mi) and Chiemsee (80 km or 31 sq mi). The majority of Germany is covered by either arable land (33.95 %); permanent crops cover 0.57 % of the land.
Germany has a total of 2,389 km (1,484 mi) of coastline, and borders totaling 3,714 km (2,308 mi) (clockwise from north: Denmark 140 km (87 mi), Poland 467 km (290 mi), Czech Republic 704 km (437 mi), Austria 801 km (498 mi), Switzerland 348 km (216 mi), France 418 km (260 mi), Luxembourg 128 km (80 mi), Belgium 133 km (83 mi), Netherlands 575 km (357 mi)). The German - Austrian border crosses itself near Jungholz. The border with Belgium includes 5 German exclaves because the Vennbahn railway is on Belgian territory crossing in and out of Germany.
The main rivers in Germany are:
Further important rivers include the Saale and the Main in central Germany, the Neckar in the southwest, the Weser in the North and the Oder at the eastern border.
Throughout the Karst rocks many caves were formed especially in the valley of the Hönne. The biggest culture cave of Europe is located in Balve.
Phytogeographically, Germany is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. The territory of Germany can be subdivided into two ecoregions: European - Mediterranean montane mixed forests and Northeast - Atlantic shelf marine. The majority of Germany is covered by either arable land (33 %) or forestry and woodland (31 %). Only 15 % is covered by permanent pastures.
Plants and animals are those generally common to middle Europe. Beeches, oaks, and other deciduous trees constitute one - third of the forests; conifers are increasing as a result of reforestation. Spruce and fir trees predominate in the upper mountains, while pine and larch are found in sandy soil. There are many species of ferns, flowers, fungi, and mosses. Fish abound in the rivers and the North Sea. Wild animals include deer, wild boar, mouflon, fox, badger, hare, and small numbers of beaver. Various migratory birds cross Germany in the spring and autumn.
The national parks in Germany include the Wadden Sea National Parks, the Jasmund National Park, the Vorpommern Lagoon Area National Park, the Müritz National Park, the Lower Oder Valley National Park, the Harz National Park, the Saxon Switzerland National Park and the Bavarian Forest National Park.
Germany is known for its many zoological gardens, wildlife parks, aquaria, and bird parks. More than 400 registered zoos and animal parks operate in Germany, which is believed to be the largest number in any single country of the world. The Zoologischer Garten Berlin is the oldest zoo in Germany and presents the most comprehensive collection of species in the world.
With an estimated 81.8 million inhabitants in January 2010, Germany is the most populous country in the European Union and ranks as the 15th largest country in the world in terms of population. Its population density stands at 229.4 inhabitants per square kilometre (594 / sq mi). The United Nations Population Fund lists Germany as host to the third - highest number of international migrants worldwide, around 20 % of Germany _́ s population do not hold a German passport or are descendants of immigrants.
Germany comprises sixteen states that are collectively referred to as Länder. Each state has its own state constitution and is largely autonomous in regard to its internal organisation. Due to differences in size and population the subdivision of these states varies, especially between city states (Stadtstaaten) and states with larger territories (Flächenländer). For regional administrative purposes five states, namely Baden - Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse, North Rhine - Westphalia and Saxony, consist of a total of 22 Government Districts (Regierungsbezirke). As of 2009 Germany is divided into 403 districts (Kreise) on municipal level, these consist of 301 rural districts and 102 urban districts.
Germany has a number of large cities; the most populous are: Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, and Stuttgart. The largest conurbation is the Rhine - Ruhr region (12 million), including Düsseldorf (the capital of North Rhine - Westphalia), Cologne, Essen, Dortmund, Duisburg, and Bochum.
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how do plants continuously recycle the earth's inorganic nutrients | Nutrient cycle - wikipedia
A nutrient cycle (or ecological recycling) is the movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter back into the production of matter. Energy flow is an unidirectional and noncyclic pathway, whereas the movement of mineral nutrients is cyclic. Mineral cycles include carbon cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle, phosphorus cycle, oxygen cycle, among others that continually recycle along with other mineral nutrients into productive ecological nutrition.
The nutrient cycle is nature 's recycling system. All forms of recycling have feedback loops that uses energy in the process of putting material resources back into use. Recycling in ecology is regulated to a large extent during the process of decomposition. Ecosystems employ biodiversity in the food webs that recycle natural materials, such as mineral nutrients, which includes water. Recycling in natural systems is one of the many ecosystem services that sustain and contribute to the well - being of human societies.
There is much overlap between the terms for biogeochemical cycle and nutrient cycle. Most textbooks integrate the two and seem to treat them as synonymous terms. However, the terms often appear independently. Nutrient cycle is more often used in direct reference to the idea of an intra-system cycle, where an ecosystem functions as a unit. From a practical point it does not make sense to assess a terrestrial ecosystem by considering the full column of air above it as well as the great depths of Earth below it. While an ecosystem often has no clear boundary, as a working model it is practical to consider the functional community where the bulk of matter and energy transfer occurs. Nutrient cycling occurs in ecosystems that participate in the "larger biogeochemical cycles of the earth through a system of inputs and outputs. ''
Ecosystems are capable of complete recycling. Complete recycling means that 100 % of the waste material can be reconstituted indefinitely. This idea was captured by Howard T. Odum when he penned that "it is thoroughly demonstrated by ecological systems and geological systems that all the chemical elements and many organic substances can be accumulated by living systems from background crustal or oceanic concentrations without limit as to concentration so long as there is available solar or other source of potential energy '' In 1979 Nicholas Georgescu - Roegen proposed a fourth law of entropy stating that complete recycling is impossible. Despite Georgescu - Roegen 's extensive intellectual contributions to the science of ecological economics, the fourth law has been rejected in line with observations of ecological recycling. However, some authors state that complete recycling is impossible for technological waste.
Ecosystems execute closed loop recycling where demand for the nutrients that adds to the growth of biomass exceeds supply within that system. There are regional and spatial differences in the rates of growth and exchange of materials, where some ecosystems may be in nutrient debt (sinks) where others will have extra supply (sources). These differences relate to climate, topography, and geological history leaving behind different sources of parent material. In terms of a food web, a cycle or loop is defined as "a directed sequence of one or more links starting from, and ending at, the same species. '' An example of this is the microbial food web in the ocean, where "bacteria are exploited, and controlled, by protozoa, including heterotrophic microflagellates which are in turn exploited by ciliates. This grazing activity is accompanied by excretion of substances which are in turn used by the bacteria, so that the system more or less operates in a closed circuit. ''
An example of ecological recycling occurs in the enzymatic digestion of cellulose. "Cellulose, one of the most abundant organic compounds on Earth, is the major polysaccharide in plants where it is part of the cell walls. Cellulose - degrading enzymes participate in the natural, ecological recycling of plant material. '' Different ecosystems can vary in their recycling rates of litter, which creates a complex feedback on factors such as the competitive dominance of certain plant species. Different rates and patterns of ecological recycling leaves a legacy of environmental effects with implications for the future evolution of ecosystems.
Ecological recycling is common in organic farming, where nutrient management is fundamentally different compared to agri - business styles of soil management. Organic farms that employ ecosystem recycling to a greater extent support more species (increased levels of biodiversity) and have a different food web structure. Organic agricultural ecosystems rely on the services of biodiversity for the recycling of nutrients through soils instead of relying on the supplementation of synthetic fertilizers. The model for ecological recycling agriculture adheres to the following principals:
The persistent legacy of environmental feedback that is left behind by or as an extension of the ecological actions of organisms is known as niche construction or ecosystem engineering. Many species leave an effect even after their death, such as coral skeletons or the extensive habitat modifications to a wetland by a beaver, whose components are recycled and re-used by descendants and other species living under a different selective regime through the feedback and agency of these legacy effects. Ecosystem engineers can influence nutrient cycling efficiency rates through their actions.
Earthworms, for example, passively and mechanically alter the nature of soil environments. Bodies of dead worms passively contribute mineral nutrients to the soil. The worms also mechanically modify the physical structure of the soil as they crawl about (bioturbation), digest on the moulds of organic matter they pull from the soil litter. These activities transport nutrients into the mineral layers of soil. Worms discard wastes that create worm castings containing undigested materials where bacteria and other decomposers gain access to the nutrients. The earthworm is employed in this process and the production of the ecosystem depends on their capability to create feedback loops in the recycling process.
Shellfish are also ecosystem engineers because they: 1) Filter suspended particles from the water column; 2) Remove excess nutrients from coastal bays through denitrification; 3) Serve as natural coastal buffers, absorbing wave energy and reducing erosion from boat wakes, sea level rise and storms; 4) Provide nursery habitat for fish that are valuable to coastal economies.
Fungi contribute to nutrient cycling and nutritionally rearrange patches of ecosystem creating niches for other organisms. In that way fungi in growing dead wood allow xylophages to grow and develop and xylophages in turn affect dead wood, contributing to wood decomposition and nutrient cycling in the forest floor.
Nutrient cycling has a historical foothold in the writings of Charles Darwin in reference to the decomposition actions of earthworms. Darwin wrote about "the continued Following the Greeks, the idea of a hydrological cycle (water is considered a nutrient) was validated and quantified by Halley in 1687.
In 1926 Vernadsky coined the term biogeochemistry as a sub-discipline of geochemistry. However, the term nutrient cycle pre-dates biogeochemistry in a pamphlet on silviculture in 1899: "These demands by no means pass over the fact that at places where sufficient quantities of humus are available and where, in case of continuous decomposition of litter, a stable, nutrient humus is present, considerable quantities of nutrients are also available from the biogenic nutrient cycle for the standing timber. In 1898 there is a reference to the nitrogen cycle in relation to nitrogen fixing microorganisms. Other uses and variations on the terminology relating to the process of nutrient cycling appear throughout history:
Water is also a nutrient. In this context, some authors also refer to precipitation recycling, which "is the contribution of evaporation within a region to precipitation in that same region. '' These variations on the theme of nutrient cycling continue to be used and all refer to processes that are part of the global biogeochemical cycles. However, authors tend to refer to natural, organic, ecological, or bio-recycling in reference to the work of nature, such as it is used in organic farming or ecological agricultural systems.
An endless stream of technological waste accumulates in different spatial configurations across the planet and turns into a predator in our soils, our streams, and our oceans. This idea was similarly expressed in 1954 by ecologist Paul Sears: "We do not know whether to cherish the forest as a source of essential raw materials and other benefits or to remove it for the space it occupies. We expect a river to serve as both vein and artery carrying away waste but bringing usable material in the same channel. Nature long ago discarded the nonsense of carrying poisonous wastes and nutrients in the same vessels. '' Ecologists use population ecology to model contaminants as competitors or predators. Rachel Carson was an ecological pioneer in this area as her book Silent Spring inspired research into biomagification and brought to the worlds attention the unseen pollutants moving into the food chains of the planet.
In contrast to the planets natural ecosystems, technology (or technoecosystems) is not reducing its impact on planetary resources. Only 7 % of total plastic waste (adding up to millions upon millions of tons) is being recycled by industrial systems; the 93 % that never makes it into the industrial recycling stream is presumably absorbed by natural recycling systems In contrast and over extensive lengths of time (billions of years) ecosystems have maintained a consistent balance with production roughly equaling respiratory consumption rates. The balanced recycling efficiency of nature means that production of decaying waste material has exceeded rates of recyclable consumption into food chains equal to the global stocks of fossilized fuels that escaped the chain of decomposition.
Microplastics and nanosilver materials flowing and cycling through ecosystems from pollution and discarded technology are among a growing list of emerging ecological concerns. For example, unique assemblages of marine microbes have been found to digest plastic accumulating in the worlds oceans. Discarded technology is absorbed into soils and creates a new class of soils called technosols. Human wastes in the Anthropocene are creating new systems of ecological recycling, novel ecosystems that have to contend with the mercury cycle and other synthetic materials that are streaming into the biodegradation chain. Microorganisms have a significant role in the removal of synthetic organic compounds from the environment empowered by recycling mechanisms that have complex biodegradation pathways. The effect of synthetic materials, such as nanoparticles and microplastics, on ecological recycling systems is listed as one of the major concerns for ecosystem in this century.
Recycling in human industrial systems (or technoecosystems) differs from ecological recycling in scale, complexity, and organization. Industrial recycling systems do not focus on the employment of ecological food webs to recycle waste back into different kinds of marketable goods, but primarily employ people and technodiversity instead. Some researchers have questioned the premise behind these and other kinds of technological solutions under the banner of ' eco-efficiency ' are limited in their capability, harmful to ecological processes, and dangerous in their hyped capabilities. Many technoecosystems are competitive and parasitic toward natural ecosystems. Food web or biologically based "recycling includes metabolic recycling (nutrient recovery, storage, etc.) and ecosystem recycling (leaching and in situ organic matter mineralization, either in the water column, in the sediment surface, or within the sediment. ''
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how long should the rescuer blow into the victims mouth for | Mouth - to - mouth resuscitation - wikipedia
artificial ventilation using exhaled air from the rescuer
Mouth - to - mouth resuscitation, a form of artificial ventilation, is the act of assisting or stimulating respiration, a metabolic process referring to the overall exchange of gases in the body, where a rescuer presses his or her mouth against that of the victim and blows air into the person 's lungs. Assistance takes many forms, but generally entails providing air for a person who is not breathing or is not making sufficient respiratory effort on his / her own. It is used on a patient with a beating heart or as part of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) to achieve the internal respiration).
Pulmonary anton ventilation (and hence external parts of respiration) is achieved through manual insufflation of the lungs either by the rescuer blowing into the patient 's lungs, or by using a mechanical device to do so. This method of insufflation has been proved more effective than methods which involve mechanical manipulation of the patient 's chest or arms, such as the Silvester method. It is also known as expired air resuscitation (EAR), expired air ventilation (EAV), rescue breathing or colloquially the kiss of life. It was introduced as a life saving measure in 1950.
Mouth - to - mouth resuscitation is a part of most protocols for performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) making it an essential skill for first aid. In some situations, mouth - to - mouth resuscitation is also performed separately, for instance in near - drowning and opiate overdoses. The performance of mouth - to - mouth resuscitation on its own is now limited in most protocols to health professionals, whereas lay first aiders are advised to undertake full CPR in any case where the patient is not breathing sufficiently.
In 1773, English physician William Hawes (1736 -- 1808) began publicising the power of artificial respiration to resuscitate people who superficially appeared to have drowned. For a year he paid a reward out of his own pocket to any one bringing him a body rescued from the water within a reasonable time of immersion. Thomas Cogan, another English physician, who had become interested in the same subject during a stay at Amsterdam, where was instituted in 1767 a society for preservation of life from accidents in water, joined Hawes in his crusade. In the summer of 1774 Hawes and Cogan each brought fifteen friends to a meeting at the Chapter Coffee - house, St Paul 's Churchyard, where they founded the Royal Humane Society as a campaigning group for first aid and resuscitation.
Gradually, branches of the Royal Humane Society were set up in other parts of the country, mainly in ports and coastal towns where the risk of drowning was high and by the end of the 19th century the society had upwards of 280 depots throughout the UK, supplied with life - saving apparatus. The earliest of these depots was the Receiving House in Hyde Park, on the north bank of the Serpentine, which was built in 1794 on a site granted by George III. Hyde Park was chosen because tens of thousands of people swam in the Serpentine in the summer and ice - skated in the winter. Boats and boatmen were kept to render aid to bathers, and in the winter ice - men were sent round to the different skating grounds in and around London. The society distributed money - rewards, medals, clasps and testimonials, to those who saved or attempted to save drowning people. It further recognized "all cases of exceptional bravery in rescuing or attempting to rescue persons from asphyxia in mines, wells, blasting furnaces, or in sewers where foul gas may endanger life. ''
Insufflation, also known as ' rescue breaths ' or ' ventilations ', is the act of mechanically forcing air into a patient 's respiratory system. This can be achieved via a number of methods, which will depend on the situation and equipment available. All methods require good airway management to perform, which ensures that the method is effective. These methods include:
Most training organisations recommend that in any of the methods involving mouth - to - patient, that a protective barrier is used, to minimise the possibility of cross infection (in either direction).
Barriers available include pocket masks and keyring - sized face shields. These barriers are an example of Personal Protective Equipment to guard the face against splashing, spraying or splattering of blood or other potentially infectious materials.
These barriers should provide a one - way filter valve which lets the air from the rescuer deliver to the patient while any substances from the patient (e.g. vomit, blood) can not reach the rescuer. Many adjuncts are single use, though if they are multi use, after use of the adjunct, the mask must be cleaned and autoclaved and the filter replaced. It is very important for the mask to be replaced or cleaned because it can act as a transporter of various diseases.
The CPR mask is the preferred method of ventilating a patient when only one rescuer is available. Many feature 18mm inlets to support supplemental oxygen, which increases the oxygen being delivered from the approximate 17 % available in the expired air of the rescuer to around 40 - 50 %.
Normal atmospheric air contains approximately 21 % oxygen when inhaled in. After gaseous exchange has taken place in the lungs, with waste products (notably carbon dioxide) moved from the bloodstream to the lungs, the air being exhaled by humans normally contains around 17 % oxygen. This means that the human body utilises only around 19 % of the oxygen inhaled, leaving over 80 % of the oxygen available in the exhalatory breath.
This means that there is more than enough residual oxygen to be used in the lungs of the patient, which then enters the blood.
The efficiency of artificial respiration can be greatly increased by the simultaneous use of oxygen therapy. The amount of oxygen available to the patient in mouth - to - mouth is around 16 %. If this is done through a pocket mask with an oxygen flow, this increases to 40 % oxygen. If either a bag valve mask or a mechanical ventilator is used with an oxygen supply, this rises to 99 % oxygen. The greater the oxygen concentration, the more efficient the gaseous exchange will be in the lungs.
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high school for recording arts st paul mn | High school for recording Arts - wikipedia
High School for Recording Arts (HSRA) is a public charter high school located in the Midway neighborhood of Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States. The school pioneered the concept of connecting with at - risk students through a hip - hop music program, hence the nickname "Hip - Hop High. '' There are no tuition fees.
The school opened in 1996 as a pilot program for at - risk students with interest in a music career. It is located in a 20,000 - square - foot (1,900 m) former factory and operates within and around two professional recording studios, providing students opportunities for individualized hands - on learning.
The school 's academic structure combines daily mandatory courses in Language Arts and Mathematics with innovative, interdisciplinary courses and projects that connect traditional academics with dynamic, real - world learning. HSRA features both project - based learning and classroom learning. A personal learning plan is developed for each student. HSRA graduates must meet all state requirements for graduation, create and present a portfolio comprising summaries of learning in twelve core areas, prepare a college acceptance letter, document their post-school plans, and submit samples of their work.
Coordinates: 44 ° 57 ′ 15 '' N 93 ° 8 ′ 58 '' W / 44.95417 ° N 93.14944 ° W / 44.95417; - 93.14944
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the british and the french very nearly came to war over which territory | France -- United Kingdom relations - wikipedia
France -- United Kingdom relations are the relations between the governments of the French Republic and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK). The historical ties between the two countries are long and complex, including conquest, wars, and alliances at various points in history. The Roman era saw both areas, except Scotland and Northern Ireland, conquered by Rome, whose fortifications exist in both countries to this day, and whose writing system introduced a common alphabet to both areas; however, the language barrier remained. The Norman conquest of England in 1066 decisively shaped English history, as well as the English language. In the medieval period, the countries were often bitter enemies, with both nations ' monarchs claiming control over France. The Hundred Years ' War stretched from 1337 to 1453 resulting in French victory. Britain and France fought a series of five major wars, culminating in the Coalition victory over Napoleon in 1815. After that there were some tensions, but peace generally prevailed and as the 19th century progressed, the relationship became better. Closer ties between the two began with the 1904 Entente cordiale, particularly via the alliances in World War I and World War II, wherein both countries fought against Germany, and in the latter conflict British armies helped to liberate occupied France from the Nazis. Both nations opposed the Soviet Union during the Cold War and were founding members of NATO. In recent years the two countries have experienced a quite close relationship, especially on defence and foreign policy issues; the two countries tend, however, to disagree on a range of other matters, most notably the European Union. The British press relishes the chance to refer to France and Britain as "historic rivals '' or emphasize the perceived ever - lasting competition that still opposes the two countries.
French author José - Alain Fralon characterised the relationship between the countries by describing the British as "our most dear enemies ''. Today, both countries are members of the European Union, which the United Kingdom voted to leave in a referendum held on 23 June 2016. It is estimated that about 350,000 French people live in the UK, with approximately 400,000 Britons living in France.
When Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, he encountered allies of the Gauls and Belgae from southeastern Britain offering assistance, some of whom even acknowledged the king of the Belgae as their sovereign.
Although all peoples concerned were Celts (and the Germanic Angles and Franks had not yet invaded either country that would later bear their names), this could arguably be seen as the first major example of Anglo - French cooperation in recorded history. As a consequence, Caesar felt compelled to invade in an attempt to subdue Britain. Rome was reasonably successful at conquering Gaul and Britain and Belgica all; and all three areas became provinces of the Roman Empire.
For the next five hundred years, there was much interaction between the two regions, as both Britain and France were under Roman rule. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, this was followed by another five hundred years with very little interaction between the two, as both were invaded by different Germanic tribes. Anglo - Saxonism rose from a mixture of Brythonism and Scandinavian immigration in Britain to conquer the Picts and Gaels. France saw intermixture with and partial conquest by Germanic tribes such as the Salian Franks to create the Frankish kingdoms. Christianity as a religion spread through all areas involved during this period, replacing the Germanic, Celtic and pre-Celtic forms of worship. The deeds of chieftains in this period would produce the legendaria around King Arthur and Camelot - now believed to be a legend based on the deeds of many early medieval British chieftains - and the more historically verifiable Charlemagne, the Frankish chieftain who founded the Holy Roman Empire throughout much of Western Europe. At the turn of the second millennium, the British Isles were primarily involved with the Scandinavian world, while France 's main foreign relationship was with the Holy Roman Empire.
Prior to the Norman Conquest of 1066, there were no armed conflicts between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France. France and England were subject to repeated Viking invasions, and their foreign preoccupations were primarily directed toward Scandinavia.
Such cross-Channel relations as England had were directed toward Normandy, a quasi-independent fief owing homage to the French king; Emma, daughter of Normandy 's Duke Richard, became queen to two English kings in succession; two of her sons, Harthacnut and Edward the Confessor later became kings of England. Edward spent much of his early life (1013 -- 1041) in Normandy and, as king, favored certain Normans with high office, such as Robert of Jumièges, who became Archbishop of Canterbury.
This gradual Normanization of the realm set the stage for the Norman Conquest, in which Emma 's brother 's grandson, William, Duke of Normandy, gained the kingdom in the first successful cross-Channel invasion since Roman times. Together with its new ruler, England acquired the foreign policy of the Norman dukes, which was based on protecting and expanding Norman interests at the expense of the French Kings. Although William 's rule over Normandy had initially had the backing of King Henry I of France, William 's success had soon created hostility, and in 1054 and 1057 King Henry had twice attacked Normandy.
However, in the mid-eleventh century there was a dispute over the English throne, and the French - speaking Normans, who were of Viking stock, invaded England under their duke William the Conqueror and took over following the Battle of Hastings in 1066, and crowned themselves Kings of England. The Normans took control of the land and the political system. feudal culture took root in England, and for the next 150 years England was generally considered of secondary importance to the dynasty 's Continental territories, notably in Normandy and other western French provinces. The language of the aristocracy was French for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest. Many French words were adopted into the English language as a result. About one third of the English language is derived from or through various forms of French. The first Norman kings were also the Dukes of Normandy, so relations were somewhat complicated between the countries. Though they were dukes ostensibly under the king of France, their higher level of organisation in Normandy gave them more de facto power. In addition, they were kings of England in their own right; England was not officially a province of France, nor a province of Normandy.
This war was fought between the years 1076 to 1077.
In 1087, following the monastic retirement of its last count, William and Philip partitioned between themselves the Vexin, a small but strategically important county on the middle Seine that controlled the traffic between Paris and Rouen, the French and Norman capitals. With this buffer state eliminated, Normandy and the king 's royal demesne (the Île - de-France) now directly bordered on each other, and the region would be the flashpoint for several future wars. In 1087, William responded to border raids conducted by Philip 's soldiers by attacking the town of Mantes, during the sack of which he received an accidental injury that turned fatal.
With William 's death, his realms were parted between his two sons (England to William Rufus, Normandy to Robert Curthose) and the Norman - French border war concluded. Factional strains between the Norman barons, faced with a double loyalty to William 's two sons, created a brief civil war in which an attempt was made to force Rufus off the English throne. With the failure of the rebellion, England and Normandy were clearly divided for the first time since 1066.
Robert Curthose left on crusade in 1096, and for the duration of his absence Rufus took over the administration of Normandy. Soon afterwards (1097) he attacked the Vexin and the next year the County of Maine. Rufus succeeded in defeating Maine, but the war in the Vexin ended inconclusively with a truce in 1098.
In August 1100, William Rufus was killed by an arrow shot while hunting. His younger brother, Henry Beauclerc immediately took the throne. It had been expected to go to Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy, but Robert was away on a crusade and did not return until a month after Rufus ' death, by which time Henry was firmly in control of England, and his accession had been recognized by France 's King Philip. Robert was, however, able to reassert his control over Normandy, though only after giving up the County of Maine.
England and Normandy were now in the hands of the two brothers, Henry and Robert. In July 1101, Robert launched an attack on England from Normandy. He landed successfully at Portsmouth, and advanced inland to Alton in Hampshire. There he and Henry came to an agreement to accept the status quo of the territorial division. Henry was freed from his homage to Robert, and agreed to pay the Duke an annual sum (which, however, he only paid until 1103).
Following increasing tensions between the brothers, and evidence of the weakness of Robert 's rule, Henry I invaded Normandy in the spring of 1105, landing at Barfleur. The ensuing Anglo - Norman war was longer and more destructive, involving sieges of Bayeux and Caen; but Henry had to return to England in the late summer, and it was not until the following summer that he was able to resume the conquest of Normandy. In the interim, Duke Robert took the opportunity to appeal to his liege lord, King Philip, but could obtain no aid from him. The fate of Robert and the duchy was sealed at the Battle of Tinchebray on 28 or 29 September 1106: Robert was captured and imprisoned for the rest of his life. Henry was now, like his father, both King of England and Duke of Normandy, and the stage was set for a new round of conflict between England and France.
In 1108, Philip I, who had been king of France since before the Norman Conquest, died and was succeeded by his son Louis VI, who had already been conducting the administration of the realm in his father 's name for several years.
Louis had initially been hostile to Robert Curthose, and friendly to Henry I; but with Henry 's acquisition of Normandy, the old Norman - French rivalries re-emerged. From 1109 to 1113, clashes erupted in the Vexin; and in 1117 Louis made a pact with Baldwin VII of Flanders, Fulk V of Anjou, and various rebellious Norman barons to overthrow Henry 's rule in Normandy and replace him with William Clito, Curthose 's son. By luck and diplomacy, however, Henry eliminated the Flemings and Angevins from the war, and on 20 August 1119 at the Battle of Bremule he defeated the French. Louis was obliged to accept Henry 's rule in Normandy, and accepted his son William Adelin 's homage for the fief in 1120.
During the reign of the closely related Plantagenet dynasty, which was based in its Angevin Empire, half of France was under Angevin control as well as all of England. However, almost all of the Angevin empire was lost to Philip II of France under Richard the Lionheart, John and Henry III of England. This finally gave the English a separate identity as an Anglo - Saxon people under a Francophone, but not French, crown.
While the English and French had been frequently acrimonious, they had always had a common culture and little fundamental difference in identity. Nationalism had been minimal in days when most wars took place between rival feudal lords on a sub-national scale. The last attempt to unite the two cultures under such lines was probably a failed French - supported rebellion to depose Edward II. It was also during the Middle Ages that a Franco - Scottish alliance, known as the Auld Alliance was signed by King John of Scotland and Philip IV of France.
The English monarchy increasingly integrated with its subjects and turned to the English language wholeheartedly during the Hundred Years ' War between 1337 and 1453. Though the war was in principle a mere dispute over territory, it drastically changed societies on both sides of the Channel. The English, although already politically united, for the first time found pride in their language and identity, while the French united politically.
Several of the most famous Anglo - French battles took place during the Hundred Years ' War: Crécy, Poitiers, Agincourt, Orléans, Patay, Formigny and Castillon. Major sources of French pride stemmed from their leadership during the war. Bertrand du Guesclin was a brilliant tactician who forced the English out of the lands they had procured at the Treaty of Brétigny, a compromising treaty that most Frenchmen saw as a humiliation. Joan of Arc was another unifying figure who to this day represents a combination of religious fervour and French patriotism to all France. After her inspirational victory at Orléans and what many saw as Joan 's martyrdom at the hands of Burgundians and Englishmen, Jean de Dunois eventually forced the English out of all of France except Calais, which was only lost in 1558. Apart from setting national identities, the Hundred Years ' War is often cited as the root of the traditional rivalry and at times hatred between the two countries. During this era, the English lost their last territories in France, except Calais, which would remain in English hands for another 105 years, though the English monarchs continued to style themselves as Kings of France until 1800.
France and Scotland agreed to defend each other in the event of an attack on either from England in several treaties, the most notable of which were in 1327 and 1490. There had always been intermarriage between the Scottish and French royal households, but this solidified the bond between the royals even further.
The English and French were engaged in numerous wars in the following centuries. They took opposite sides in all of the Italian Wars between 1494 and 1559.
An even deeper division set in during the English Reformation, when most of England converted to Protestantism and France remained Roman Catholic. This enabled each side to see the other as not only a foreign evil but also a heretical one. In both countries there was intense civil religious conflict. Because of the oppression by Roman Catholic King Louis XIII of France, many Protestant Huguenots fled to England. Similarly, many Catholics fled from England to France.
Henry VIII of England had initially sought an alliance with France, and the Field of the Cloth of Gold saw a face to face meeting between him and King Francis I of France.
While Spain had been the dominant world power in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the English had often sided with France as a counterweight against them. This design was intended to keep a European balance of power, and prevent one country gaining overwhelming supremacy. Key to English strategy was the fear that a universal monarchy of Europe would be able to overwhelm the British Isles.
Following the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, as Spain 's power weakened, France began to take on a more assertive role under King Louis XIV of France with an expansionist policy both in Europe and across the globe. English foreign policy was now directed towards preventing France gaining supremacy on the continent and creating a universal monarchy. To the French, England was an isolated and piratical nation heavily reliant on naval power, and particularly privateers, which they referred to as Perfidious Albion.
There was a sharp diversion in political philosophies in the two states. In England King Charles I had been executed during the English Civil War for exceeding his powers, and later King James II had been overthrown in the Glorious Revolution. In France the power of the monarchs and their advisors went largely unchecked.
England and France fought each other in the War of the League of Augsburg from 1688 to 1697 which set the pattern for relations between France and Great Britain during the eighteenth century. Wars were fought intermittently, with each nation part of a constantly shifting pattern of alliances known as the stately quadrille.
Partly out of fear of a continental intervention, an Act of Union was passed in 1707 creating the Kingdom of Great Britain, and formally merging the kingdoms of Scotland and England (the latter kingdom included Wales). While the new Britain grew increasingly parliamentarian, France continued its system of absolute monarchy.
The newly united Britain fought France in the War of the Spanish Succession from 1702 to 1713, and the War of the Austrian Succession from 1740 to 1748, attempting to maintain the balance of power in Europe. The British had a massive navy but maintained a small land army, so Britain always acted on the continent in alliance with other states such as Prussia and Austria as they were unable to fight France alone. Equally France, lacking a superior navy, was unable to launch a successful invasion of Britain.
France lent support to the Jacobite pretenders who claimed the British throne, hoping that a restored Jacobite monarchy would be inclined to be more pro-French. Despite this support the Jacobites failed to overthrow the Hanoverian monarchs.
As the century wore on, there was a distinct passage of power to Britain and France, at the expense of traditional major powers such as Portugal, Spain and the Dutch Republic. Some observers saw the frequent conflicts between the two states during the 18th century as a battle for control of Europe, though most of these wars ended without a conclusive victory for either side. France largely had greater influence on the continent while Britain were dominant at sea and trade, threatening French colonies abroad.
From the 1650s, the New World increasingly became a battleground between the two powers. The Western Design of Oliver Cromwell intended to build up an increasing British presence in North America, beginning with the acquisition of Jamaica from the Spanish Empire in 1652. The first British settlement on continental North America was founded in 1607, and by the 1730s these had grown into thirteen separate colonies.
The French had settled the province of Canada to the North, and controlled Saint - Domingue in the Caribbean, the wealthiest colony in the world. Both countries, recognizing the potential of India, established trading posts there. Wars between the two states increasingly took place in these other continents, as well as Europe.
The French and British fought each other and made treaties with Native American tribes to gain control of North America. Both nations coveted the Ohio Territory and in 1753 a British expedition there led by George Washington clashed with a French force. Shortly afterwards the French and Indian War broke out, initially taking place only in North America but in 1756 becoming part of the wider Seven Years ' War in which Britain and France were part of opposing coalitions.
The war has been called the first "world war '', because fighting took place on several different continents. In 1759 the British enjoyed victories over the French in Europe, Canada and India, severely weakening the French position around the world. In 1762 the British captured the cities of Manila and Havana from Spain, France 's strongest ally, which led ultimately to a peace settlement the following year that saw a large number of territories come under British control.
The Seven Years ' War is regarded as a critical moment in the history of Anglo - French relations, which laid the foundations for the dominance of the British Empire during the next two and a half centuries.
As American Patriot dissatisfaction with British policies grew to rebellion in 1774 - 75, the French saw an opportunity to undermine British power. When the American War of Independence broke out in 1775, the French began sending covert supplies and intelligence to the American rebels.
In 1778, France, hoping to capitalise on the British defeat at Saratoga, recognized the United States of America. Negotiating with Benjamin Franklin in Paris, they formed a military alliance. France in 1779 persuaded its Spanish allies to declare war on Britain. France despatched troops to fight alongside the Americans, and besieged Gibraltar with Spain. Plans were drawn up, but never put into action, to launch an invasion of England. The threat forced Britain to keep many troops in Britain that were needed in America. The British were further required to withdraw forces from the American mainland to protect their more valuable possessions in the West Indies. While the French were initially unable to break the string of British victories, the combined actions of American and French forces, and a key victory by a French fleet over a British rescue fleet, forced the British into a decisive surrender at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781.
In 1783 the Treaty of Paris gave the new nation control over most of the region east of the Mississippi River; Spain gained Florida from Britain; France received little except a huge debt. For a brief period after the war, Britain 's naval power was subdued by an alliance between France and Spain.
The crippling debts incurred by France during the war, and the cost of rebuilding the French navy during the 1780s caused a financial crisis, leading directly to the French Revolution of 1789.
During the French Revolution, the anti-monarchical ideals of France were regarded with alarm throughout Europe. While France was plunged into chaos, Britain took advantage of its temporary weakness to stir up the civil war occurring in France and build up its naval forces. The Revolution was initially popular with many Britons, both because it appeared to weaken France and was perceived to be based on British liberal ideals. This began to change as the Jacobin faction took over, and began the Reign of Terror (or simply the Terror, for short).
The French were intent on spreading their revolutionary republicanism to other European states, including Britain. The British initially stayed out of the alliances of European states which unsuccessfully attacked France trying to restore the monarchy. In France a new, strong nationalism took hold enabling them to mobilise large and motivated forces. Following the execution of King Louis XVI of France in 1793, France declared war on Britain. This period of the French Revolutionary Wars was known as the War of the First Coalition. Except for a brief pause in 1802 -- 03, the wars lasted continuously for twenty one years. During this time Britain raised several coalitions against the French, continually subsidising other European states with the Golden Cavalry of St George, enabling them to put large armies in the field. In spite of this, the French armies were very successful on land, creating several client states such as the Batavian Republic, and the British devoted much of their own forces to campaigns against the French in the Caribbean, with mixed results.
In 1798 French forces invaded Ireland to assist the United Irishmen who had launched a rebellion, where they were joined by thousands of rebels but defeated by British and Irish loyalist forces. The fear of further attempts to create a French satellite in Ireland led to the Act of Union, merging the Kingdom of Great Britain and Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom in 1801. Ireland now lost its last vestiges of independence.
Following the execution of King Louis XVI of France in 1793, France declared war on Britain. This period of the French Revolutionary Wars was known as the War of the First Coalition, which lasted from 1792 to 1797.
The British policy was to give financial and diplomatic support continental allies, who did nearly all of the actual fighting on land. France meanwhile set up the conscription system that built up a much larger army than anyone else. After the king was executed, nearly all the senior officers went into exile, and a very young new generation of officers, typified by Napoleon, took over the French military. Britain relied heavily on the Royal Navy, which sank the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile in 1798, trapping the French army in Egypt. In 1799, Napoleon came to power in France, and created a dictatorship. Britain led the Second Coalition from 1798 to 1802 against Napoleon, but he generally prevailed. The Treaty of Amiens of 1802 was favorable to France. That treaty amounted to a year - long truce in the war, which was reopened by Britain in May 1803.
Britain ended the uneasy truce created by the Treaty of Amiens when it declared war on France in May 1803, thus starting the War of the Third Coalition, lasting from 1803 to 1805. The British were increasingly angered by Napoleon 's reordering of the international system in Western Europe, especially in Switzerland, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands. Kagan argues that Britain was insulted and alarmed especially by Napoleon 's assertion of control over Switzerland. Britons felt insulted when Napoleon said it deserved no voice in European affairs (even though King George was an elector of the Holy Roman Empire), and ought to shut down the London newspapers that were vilifying Napoleon. Russia, furthermore, decided that the Switzerland intervention indicated that Napoleon was not looking toward a peaceful resolution. Britain had a sense of loss of control, as well as loss of markets, and was worried by Napoleon 's possible threat to its overseas colonies. McLynn argues that Britain went to war in 1803 out of a "mixture of economic motives and national neuroses -- an irrational anxiety about Napoleon 's motives and intentions. '' However, in the end it proved to be the right choice for Britain, because in the long run Napoleon 's intentions were hostile to British national interest. Furthermore, Napoleon was not ready for war and this was the best time for Britain to stop them. Britain therefore seized upon the Malta issue (by refusing to follow the terms of the Treaty of Amiens and evacuate the island).
The deeper British grievances were that Napoleon was taking personal control of Europe, making the international system unstable, and forcing Britain to the sidelines.
After he had triumphed on the European continent against the other major European powers, Napoleon contemplated an invasion of the British mainland. That plan collapsed after the annihilation of the Franco - Spanish fleet at Trafalgar, coinciding with an Austrian attack over its Bavarian allies.
In response Napoleon established a continental system by which no nation was permitted to trade with the British. Napoleon hoped the embargo would isolate the British Isles severely weakening them, but a number of countries continued to trade with them in defiance of the policy. In spite of this, the Napoleonic influence stretched across much of Europe.
In 1808 French forces invaded Portugal trying to attempt to halt trade with the United Kingdom, turning Spain into a satellite state in the process. The British responded by dispatching a force under Sir Arthur Wellesley which captured Lisbon. Napoleon dispatched increasing forces into the Iberian Peninsula, which became the key battleground between the two nations. Allied with Spanish and Portuguese forces, the British inflicted a number of defeats on the French, confronted with a new kind of warfare called "guerrilla '' which led Napoleon to brand it the "Spanish Ulcer ''.
In 1812, Napoleon 's invasion of Russia caused a new coalition to form against him, in what became the War of the Sixth Coalition.In 1813, British forces defeated French forces in Spain and caused them to retreat into France. Allied to an increasingly resurgent European coalition, the British invaded southern France in October 1813, forcing Napoleon to abdicate and go into exile on Elba in 1814.
After escaping and briefly threatening to restore the French Empire, Napoleon was defeated by combined British, Prussian and Dutch forces at Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. With strong British support, the Bourbon monarchy was restored and Louis XVIII was crowned King of France. The Napoleonic era was the last occasion on which Britain and France went to war with each other, but by no means marked the end of the rivalry between the two nations. Despite his final defeat, Napoleon continues to be regarded as a national hero figure in France for his numerous victories over coalised monarchies.
Britain and France never went to war after 1815, although there were a few "war scares. '' They were allied together against Russia in the Crimean War of the 1850s.
Despite having entered the Napoleonic era regarded by many as a spent force, Britain had emerged from the 1815 Congress of Vienna as the ultimate leading financial, military and cultural power of the world, going on to enjoy a century of global dominance in the Pax Britannica. France also recovered from the defeats to retake its position on the world stage.
Despite their historic enmity, the British and French eventually became strained political allies, as both began to turn their attentions to acquiring new territories beyond Europe. The British developed India and Canada and settled Australia, spreading their powers to several different continents as the Second British Empire.
They frequently made stereotypical jokes about each other, and even side by side in war were critical of each other 's tactics. As a Royal Navy officer said to the French corsair Robert Surcouf "You French fight for money, while we British fight for honour. '', Surcouf replied "Sir, a man fights for what he lacks the most. '' According to one story, a French diplomat once said to Lord Palmerston "If I were not a Frenchman, I should wish to be an Englishman ''; to which Palmerston replied: "If I were not an Englishman, I should wish to be an Englishman. '' According to another, upon seeing the disastrous British Charge of the Light Brigade in the Crimean War against Russia, French marshal Pierre Bosquet said ' C'est magnifique, mais ce n'est pas la guerre. ' (' It 's magnificent, but it 's not war. ') Eventually, relations settled down as the two empires tried to consolidate themselves rather than extend themselves.
In 1830, France underwent the July Revolution, and the Orléanist Louis - Phillipe subsequently ascended to the throne; by contrast, the reign of Queen Victoria began in 1837 in a much more peaceful fashion. The major European powers -- Russia, Austria, the UK, and to some extent Prussia -- were determined to keep France in check, and so France generally pursued a cautious foreign policy. Louis - Phillipe allied with Britain, the country with which France shared the most similar form of government, and its combative Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston. In Louis - Philippe 's first year in power, he refused to annex Belgium during its revolution, instead following the British line of supporting independence. Despite posturings from leading French minister Adolphe Thiers in 1839 -- 1840 that France would protect the increasingly powerful Muhammad Ali of Egypt (a viceroy of the Ottoman Empire), any reinforcements were not forthcoming, and in 1840, much to France 's embarrassment, Ali was forced to sign the Convention of London by the powers. Relations cooled again under the governments of François Guizot and Robert Peel. They soured once more in 1846 though when, with Palmerston back as Foreign Secretary, the French government hastily agreed to have Isabella II of Spain and her sister marry members of the Bourbon and Orléanist dynasties, respectively. Palmerston had hoped to arrange a marriage, and "The Affair of the Spanish Marriages '' has generally been viewed unfavourably by British historians ("By the dispassionate judgment of history it has been universally condemned ''), although a more sympathetic view has been taken in recent years.
Lord Aberdeen (foreign secretary 1841 -- 46) brokered an entente cordiale with François Guizot and France in the early 1840s. However Louis - Napoléon Bonaparte was elected president of France in 1848 and made himself Emperor Napoleon III in 1851. Napoleon III had an expansionist foreign policy, which saw the French deepen the colonisation of Africa and establish new colonies, in particular Indochina. The British were initially alarmed, and commissioned a series of forts in southern England designed to resist a French invasion. Lord Palmerston as foreign minister and prime minister had close personal ties with leading French statesmen, notably Napoleon III himself. Palmerston 's goal was to arrange peaceful relations with France in order to free Britain 's diplomatic hand elsewhere in the world. Napoleon at first had a pro-British foreign policy, and was eager not to displease the British government whose friendship he saw as important to France. After a brief threat of an invasion of Britain in 1851, France and Britain cooperated in the 1850s, with an alliance in the Crimean War, and a major trade treaty in 1860. However Britain viewed the Second Empire with increasing distrust, especially as the emperor built up his navy, expanded his empire and took up a more active foreign policy.
The two nations were military allies during the Crimean War (1853 -- 56) to curb Russia 's expansion westwards and its threats to the Ottoman Empire. However, when London discovered that Napoleon III was secretly negotiating with Russia to form a postwar alliance to dominate Europe, it hastily abandoned its plan to end the war by attacking St. Petersburg. Instead Britain concluded an armistice with Russia that achieved none of its war aims.
The two nations also co-operated during the Second Opium War with China, dispatching a joint force to the Chinese capital Peking to force a treaty on the Chinese Qing Dynasty. In 1859 Napoleon, bypassing the Corps législatif which he feared would not approve of free trade, met with influential reformer Richard Cobden, and in 1860 the Cobden - Chevalier Treaty was signed between the two countries, reducing tariffs on goods sold between Britain and France.
During the American Civil War both nations remained neutral. France came close to entering on the side of the Confederate States of America. The cutoff of cotton shipments caused economic depression in the textile industry, resulting in widespread unemployment and suffering among workers, and support for an intervention that would reopen the trade. In the end Britain refused to go to war and France followed suit.
Napoleon III attempted to gain British support for a scheme to put an Austrian Prince, Maximilian I, on the throne of Mexico, but the British were not willing to support any action other than the collection of debts owed by the Mexicans. This forced the French to act alone in the French Intervention in Mexico. The U.S. helped the Juarez regime and France pulled out its troops. Its puppet Emperor Maximilian was executed by the Mexicans.
When Napoleon III was overthrown in 1870, he fled to England where he and his family lived in exile. The new French Third Republic continued a policy of the warm relations with Britain, especially following the creation of the German Empire.
In the 1875 - 1898 era, tensions were high, especially over African issues. At several points, these issues brought the two nations to the brink of war; but the situation was always defused diplomatically.
One brief but dangerous dispute occurred during the Fashoda Incident when French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to be acting in the interests of the Khedive of Egypt arrived. Under heavy pressure the French withdrew and Britain took control over the area. France had failed in its main goals. P.M.H. Bell says:
Fashoda was a diplomatic victory for the British because the French realized that in the long run they needed friendship with Britain in case of a war between France and Germany.
During the Scramble for Africa in the 1870s and 1880s, the British and French generally recognised each other 's spheres of influence. The Suez Canal, initially built by the French, became a joint British - French project in 1875, as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt (see Urabi Revolt) prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. France 's expansionist Prime Minister Jules Ferry was out of office, and the government was unwilling to send more than an intimidating fleet to the region. Britain established a protectorate, as France had a year earlier in Tunisia, and popular opinion in France later put this action down to duplicity. It was about this time that the two nations established co-ownership of Vanuatu. The Anglo - French Convention of 1882 was also signed to resolve territory disagreements in western Africa.
From about 1900, Francophiles in Britain and Anglophiles in France began to spread a study and mutual respect and love of the culture of the country on the other side of the English Channel. Francophile and Anglophile societies developed, further introducing Britain to French food and wine, and France to English sports like rugby. French and English were already the second languages of choice in Britain and France respectively. Eventually this developed into a political policy as the new united Germany was seen as a potential threat. Louis Blériot, for example, crossed the Channel in an aeroplane in 1909. Many saw this as symbolic of the connection between the two countries.
This period in the first decade of the 20th century became known as the Entente cordiale, and continued in spirit until the 1940s. The signing of the Entente Cordiale also marked the end of almost a millennium of intermittent conflict between the two nations and their predecessor states, and the formalisation of the peaceful co-existence that had existed since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. Up to 1940, relations between Britain and France were closer than those between Britain and the US. This also started the beginning of the French and British Special Relationship. After 1907 the British fleet was built up to stay far ahead of Germany. However Britain nor France committed itself to entering a war if Germany attacked the other.
Britain tried to stay neutral as the First World War opened in summer 1914, as France joined in to help its ally Russia according to its treaty obligations. Britain had no relevant treaty obligations except one to keep Belgium neutral, and was not in close touch with the French leaders. Britain entered when the German army invaded neutral Belgium (on its way to attack Paris); that was intolerable. It joined France, sending a large army to fight on the Western Front.
There was close co-operation between the British and French forces. French Commander - in - Chief Joseph Joffre worked to coordinate Allied military operations and to mount a combined Anglo - French offensive on the Western Front. The result was the great Battle of the Somme in 1916 with massive casualties on both sides and no gains. Unable to advance against the combined primary alliance powers of the British, French, and later American forces as well as the blockade preventing shipping reaching German controlled North Sea seaports, the Germans eventually surrendered after four years of heavy fighting.
Following the war, at the Treaty of Versailles the British and French worked closely with the Americans to dominate the main decisions. Both were also keen to protect and expand their empires, in the face of calls for self - determination. On a visit to London, French leader Georges Clemenceau was hailed by the British crowds. Lloyd George was given a similar reception in Paris.
Lloyd George worked hard to moderate French demands for revenge. He was partly successful, but Britain soon had to moderate French policy toward Germany, as in the Locarno Treaties. Under Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald in 1923 - 24 Britain took the lead in getting France to accept the American solution through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan, whereby Germany paid its reparations using money borrowed from New York banks.
Both states joined the League of Nations, and both signed agreements of defence of several countries, most significantly Poland. The Treaty of Sèvres split the Middle East between the two states, in the form of mandates. However the outlook of the nations were different during the inter-war years; while France saw itself inherently as a European power, Britain enjoyed close relationships with Australia, Canada and New Zealand and supported the idea of imperial free trade, a form of protectionism that would have seen large tariffs placed on goods from France.
Premier and Finance Minister Raymond Poincaré made it a policy to stabilise the franc to protect against political currency manipulation by Germany and Britain in the early 1920s. He stabilised the franc in 1926 and turned the tables, using short - term financial advantage as leverage against Britain in major policy matters.
Britain thought disarmament was the key to peace. France, with its profound fear of German militarism, strenuously opposed the idea. London thought it really sought military dominance of Europe. Before 1933, most Britons saw France, not Germany, as the chief threat to peace and harmony in Europe. France did not suffer as severe an economic recession, and was the strongest military power, but still it refused British overtures for disarmament.
In the 1930s Britain and France coordinated their policies toward the aggressive dictatorships of Mussolini 's Italy and Hitler 's Germany. However public opinion did not support going to war again, so the diplomats sought diplomatic solutions, but none worked. Efforts to use the League of Nations to apply sanctions against Italy for its invasion of Ethiopia failed. France supported the "Little Entente '' of Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. It proved much too weak to deter Hitler.
The Anglo - German Naval Agreement was signed between the Britain and Nazi Germany in 1935, allowing Hitler to reinforce his Kriegsmarine. It was regarded by the French as the ruining of the anti-Hitlerian Stresa front.
In the years leading up to World War II, both countries followed a similar diplomatic path of appeasement of Germany. As Nazi intentions became clear, France pushed for a harder line but the British demurred, believing diplomacy could solve the disputes. The result was the Munich Agreement of 1938 that gave Germany control of parts of Czechoslovakia settled by Germans. In early 1939 Germany took over all of Czechoslovakia and began threatening Poland. Appeasement had failed, and both Britain and France raced to catch up with Germany in weaponry.
After guaranteeing the independence of Poland, both declared war on Germany on the same day, 3 September 1939, after the Germans ignored an ultimatum to withdraw from the country. When Germany began its attack on France in 1940, British troops and French troops again fought side by side. Eventually, after the Germans came through the Ardennes, it became clear that France would not be able to fend off the German attack, and Winston Churchill pledged that the United Kingdom would continue to fight for France 's freedom, even if it must do so alone. The final bond between the two nations was so strong that members of the British cabinet had proposed a temporary union of the two countries for the sake of morale: the plan was drawn up by Jean Monnet, who later created the Common Market. The idea was not popular with a majority on either side, and the French government felt that, in the circumstances, the plan for union would reduce France to the level of a British Dominion. The proposal was turned down, shortly before France fell to the Germans. The Free French resistance, led by Charles de Gaulle, were formed in London, after de Gaulle gave his famous ' Appeal of the 18th of June ', widely broadcast by the BBC. De Gaulle declared himself to be the head of the one and only true government of France, and gathered the Free French Forces around him. One by one he took control of the French colonies and gained recognition from Britain but not the United States. Washington maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy (until October 1942) and avoided recognition of de Gaulle. Churchill, caught between the U.S. and de Gaulle, tried to find a compromise.
In southern France a collaborative government known as Vichy France was set up. It was officially neutral, but metropolitan France was economically under German control. After the Attack on Mers - el - Kébir in 1940, where the British fleet destroyed a large part of the Vichy France navy, there was nationwide indignation and a feeling of betrayal in France leading to the events of the Battle of Dakar. Eventually, several important French ships joined the Free French Forces. The United States maintained diplomatic relations with Vichy and avoided recognition of de Gaulle 's claim to be the one and only government of France. Churchill, caught between the U.S. and de Gaulle, tried to find a compromise. The pre-emptive destruction of the French fleet by the British at Mers - el - Kebir, on the grounds that it might decide to support the Vichy government, as well as a similar attack on French ships in Oran, proved to be a long - lasting fuel for anti-British sentiment in France.
Following D - Day, relations between the two peoples were at a high, as the British were greeted as liberators. Following the surrender of Germany in 1945, the UK and France became close as both feared the Americans would withdraw from Europe leaving them vulnerable to the Soviet Union 's expanding communist bloc. The UK strongly advocated that France be given a zone of occupied Germany. Both states were amongst the five Permanent Members of the new UN Security Council, where they commonly collaborated.
In 1956 the Suez Canal, previously owned by an Anglo - French company, was nationalised by the Egyptian government. The British and the French were both strongly committed to taking the canal back by force. Both the British and French governments saw the actions of the Egypt president Gamal Abdel Nasser as potentially dangerous to their interests in trade, and within the framework of the Cold War and the tensions of the newly independent.
The Americans, while opposed to Nasser, refused to become involved with what many regarded as European colonialism, putting severe strain on the Anglo - American special relationship. The relations between Britain and France were not entirely harmonious, as the French did not inform the British about the involvement of Israel until very close to the commencement of military operations.
Immediately after the Suez crisis Anglo - French relations started to sour again, and only since the last decades of the 20th century have they improved towards the peak they achieved between 1900 and 1940.
Shortly after 1956, France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg formed what would become the European Economic Community and later the European Union, but rejected British requests for membership. In particular, President Charles de Gaulle 's attempts to exclude the British from European affairs during France 's early Fifth Republic are now seen by many in Britain as a betrayal of the strong bond between the countries, and Anthony Eden 's exclusion of France from the Commonwealth is seen in a similar light in France. The French partly feared that were the British to join the EEC they would attempt to dominate it.
Over the years, the UK and France have often taken diverging courses within the European Community. British policy has favoured an expansion of the Community and free trade while France has advocated a closer political union and restricting membership of the Community to a core of Western European states.
In 1958 with France mired in a seemingly unwinnable war in Algeria, Charles de Gaulle, the wartime leader of the Free French, returned to power in France. He created the Fifth French Republic, ending the post-war parliamentary system and replacing it with a strong Presidency, which became dominated by his followers -- the Gaullists. De Gaulle made ambitious changes to French foreign policy -- first ending the war in Algeria, and then withdrawing France from the NATO command structure.
De Gaulle feared that letting Britain into the European Community would open the way for Anglo - Saxon (i.e., US and UK) influence to overwhelm the France - West Germany coalition that was now dominant. On 14 January 1963, de Gaulle announced that France would veto Britain 's entry into the Common Market.
When de Gaulle resigned in 1969, a new French government under Georges Pompidou was prepared to open a more friendly dialogue with Britain. He felt that in the economic crises of the 1970s Europe needed Britain. Pompidou welcomed British membership of the EEC, opening the way for the United Kingdom to join it in 1973.
The two countries ' relationship was strained significantly in the lead - up to the 2003 War in Iraq. Britain and its American ally strongly advocated the use of force to remove Saddam Hussein, while France (with China, Russia, and other nations) strongly opposed such action, with French President Jacques Chirac threatening to veto any resolution proposed to the UN Security Council. However, despite such differences Chirac and then British Prime Minister Tony Blair maintained a fairly close relationship during their years in office even after the Iraq War started. Both states asserted the importance of the Entente cordiale alliance, and the role it had played during the 20th century.
Following his election in 2007, President Nicolas Sarkozy attempted to forge closer relations between France and the United Kingdom: in March 2008, Prime Minister Gordon Brown said that "there has never been greater cooperation between France and Britain as there is now ''. Sarkozy also urged both countries to "overcome our long - standing rivalries and build together a future that will be stronger because we will be together ''. He also said "If we want to change Europe my dear British friends -- and we Frenchmen do wish to change Europe -- we need you inside Europe to help us do so, not standing on the outside. '' On 26 March 2008, Sarkozy had the privilege of giving a speech to both British Houses of Parliament, where he called for a "brotherhood '' between the two countries and stated that "France will never forget Britain 's war sacrifice '' during World War II.
In March 2008, Sarkozy made a state visit to Britain, promising closer cooperation between the two countries ' governments in the future.
The final months towards the end of François Hollande 's tenure as President saw the UK vote to leave the EU. His response to the result was "I profoundly regret this decision for the United Kingdom and for Europe, but the choice is theirs and we have to respect it. ''
Economy Minister and, currently, President, Emmanuel Macron accused the U.K. of taking the EU "hostage '' with a referendum called to solve a domestic political problem of eurosceptics and that "the failure of the British government (has opened up) the possibility of the crumbling of Europe. ''
In contrast, the vote was welcomed by Eurosceptic political leaders and presidential candidates Marine Le Pen and Nicolas Dupont - Aignan as a victory for "freedom ''.
The two nations have a post WWII record of working together on international security measures, as was seen in the Suez Crisis and Falklands War.
On 2 November 2010, France and the UK signed two defence co-operation treaties. They provide for the sharing of aircraft carriers, a 1000 - strong joint reaction force, a common nuclear simulation centre in France, a common nuclear research centre in the UK, sharing air - refuelling tankers and joint training.
Their post-colonial entanglements have given them a more outward focus than the other countries of Europe, leading them to work together on issues such as the Libyan Civil War.
France is the United Kingdom 's third - biggest export market after the United States and Germany. Exports to France rose 14.3 % from £ 16.542 billion in 2010 to £ 18.905 billion in 2011, overtaking exports to the Netherlands. Over the same period, French exports to Britain rose 5.5 % from £ 18.133 billion to £ 19.138 billion.
The British Foreign & Commonwealth Office estimates that 19.3 million British citizens, roughly a third of the entire population, visit France each year. In 2012, the French were the biggest visitors to the UK (12 %, 3,787,000) and the second - biggest tourist spenders in Britain (8 %, £ 1.513 billion).
The Entente Cordiale Scholarship scheme is a selective Franco - British scholarship scheme which was announced on 30 October 1995 by British Prime Minister John Major and French President Jacques Chirac at an Anglo - French summit in London.
It provides funding for British and French students to study for one academic year on the other side of the Channel. The scheme is administered by the French embassy in London for British students, and by the British Council in France and the UK embassy in Paris for French students. Funding is provided by the private sector and foundations. The scheme aims to favour mutual understanding and to promote exchanges between the British and French leaders of tomorrow.
The programme was initiated by Sir Christopher Mallaby, British ambassador to France between 1993 and 1996.
The Concorde supersonic commercial aircraft was developed under an international treaty between the UK and France in 1962, and commenced flying in 1969.
In general, France is regarded with favour by Britain in regard to its high culture and is seen as an ideal holiday destination, whilst France sees Britain as a major trading partner. Both countries are famously contemptuous of each other 's cooking, many French claiming all British food is bland and boring, whilst many British claim that French food is inedible. Much of the apparent disdain for French food and culture in Britain takes the form of self - effacing humour, and British comedy often uses French culture as the butt of its jokes. Whether this is representative of true opinion or not is open to debate. Sexual euphemisms with no link to France, such as French kissing, or French letter for a condom, are used in British English slang.
French classical music has always been popular in Britain. British popular music is in turn popular in France. English literature, in particular the works of Agatha Christie and William Shakespeare, has been immensely popular in France. French artist Eugène Delacroix based many of his paintings on scenes from Shakespeare 's plays. In turn, French writers such as Molière, Voltaire and Victor Hugo have been translated numerous times into English. In general, most of the more popular books in either language are translated into the other.
The first foreign language most commonly taught in schools in Britain is French, and the first foreign language most commonly taught in schools in France is English. Those are also the languages perceived as "most useful to learn '' in both countries. French is a substantial minority language and immigrant language in the United Kingdom, with over 100,000 French - born people in the UK. According to a 2006 European Commission report, 23 % of UK residents are able to carry on a conversation in French and 39 % of French residents are able to carry on a conversation in English. French is also an official language in both Jersey and Guernsey. Both use French to some degree, mostly in an administrative or ceremonial capacity. Jersey Legal French is the standardized variety used in Jersey. However, Norman (in its local forms, Guernésiais and Jèrriais) is the historical vernacular of the islands.
Both languages have influenced each other throughout the years. According to different sources, nearly 30 % of all English words have a French origin, and today many French expressions have entered the English language as well. The term Franglais, a portmanteau combining the French words "français '' and "anglais '', refers to the combination of French and English (mostly in the UK) or the use of English words and nouns of Anglo - Saxon roots in French (in France).
Modern and Middle English reflect a mixture of Oïl and Old English lexicons after the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, when a Norman - speaking aristocracy took control of a population whose mother tongue was Germanic in origin. Due to the intertwined histories of England and continental possessions of the English Crown, many formal and legal words in Modern English have French roots. For example, buy and sell are of Germanic origin, while purchase and vend are from Old French.
In the sport of rugby union there is a rivalry between England and France. Both countries compete in the Six Nations Championship and the Rugby World Cup. England have the edge in both tournaments having the most outright wins in the Six Nations (and its previous version the Five Nations), and most recently knocking the French sides out of the 2003 and 2007 World Cups at the semifinal stage and France knocked England out of the 2011 Rugby World Cup with a convincing score in their quarter final match. Though rugby is originally a British sport, French rugby has developed to such an extent that the English and French teams are now stiff competitors, with neither side greatly superior to the other.
The influence of French players and coaches on British football has been increasing in recent years and is often cited as an example of Anglo - French cooperation. In particular the Premier League club Arsenal has become known for its Anglo - French connection due to a heavy influx of French players since the advent of French manager Arsène Wenger in 1996. In March 2008 their Emirates stadium was chosen as the venue for a meeting during a state visit by the French President precisely for this reason.
Many people blamed the then French President Jacques Chirac for contributing to Paris ' loss to London in its bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics after he made deregatory remarks about British cuisine and saying that "only Finnish food is worse ''. The IOC committee which would ultimately decide to give the games to London had two members from Finland.
The busiest seaway in the world, the English Channel, connects ports in Great Britain such as Dover, Newhaven, Poole, Weymouth, Portsmouth and Plymouth to ports such as Roscoff, Calais, Boulogne, Dunkerque, Dieppe, Cherbourg - Octeville, Caen, St Malo and Le Havre in mainland France. Companies such as Brittany Ferries, P&O Ferries, DFDS Seaways and LD Lines operate ferry services across the Channel.
In addition, there are ferries across the Anguilla Channel between Blowing Point, Anguilla (a British Overseas Territory) and Marigot, Saint Martin (an overseas collectivity of France).
The Channel Tunnel (French: Le tunnel sous la Manche; also referred to as the Chunnel) is a 50.5 - kilometre (31.4 mi) undersea rail tunnel (linking Folkestone, Kent, in the United Kingdom with Coquelles, Pas - de-Calais, near the city of Calais in northern France) beneath the English Channel at the Strait of Dover. Ideas for a cross-Channel fixed link appeared as early as 1802, but British political and press pressure over compromised national security stalled attempts to construct a tunnel. The eventual successful project, organised by Eurotunnel, began construction in 1988 and was opened by British Queen Elizabeth II and French President François Mitterrand in a ceremony held in Calais on 6 May 1994. The same year the American Society of Civil Engineers elected the Channel Tunnel as one of the seven modern Wonders of the World.
11,675,910 passengers in 2008 travelled on flights between the United Kingdom and France.
There are lists of twinnings (including those to towns in other countries) at List of twin towns and sister cities in France and at List of twin towns and sister cities in the United Kingdom.
Media related to Relations of France and the United Kingdom at Wikimedia Commons
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when did the world wide web became popular | History of the World Wide Web - Wikipedia
The World Wide Web ("WWW '' or simply the "Web '') is a global information medium which users can read and write via computers connected to the Internet. The term is often mistakenly used as a synonym for the Internet itself, but the Web is a service that operates over the Internet, just as e-mail also does. The history of the Internet dates back significantly further than that of the World Wide Web. Web is the global information system.
The hypertext portion of the Web in particular has an intricate intellectual history; notable influences and precursors include Vannevar Bush 's Memex, IBM 's Generalized Markup Language, and Ted Nelson 's Project Xanadu.
Paul Otlet 's Mundaneum project has also been named as an early 20th century precursor of the Web.
The concept of a global information system connecting homes is prefigured in "A Logic Named Joe '', a 1946 short story by Murray Leinster, in which computer terminals, called "logics, '' are present in every home. Although the computer system in the story is centralized, the story anticipates a ubiquitous information environment similar to the Web. The cultural impact of the web was imagined even further back in a short story by E.M. Forster, "The Machine Stops, '' first published in 1909.
In 1980, Tim Berners - Lee, an English independent contractor at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Switzerland, built ENQUIRE, as a personal database of people and software models, but also as a way to play with hypertext; each new page of information in ENQUIRE had to be linked to an existing page.
Berners - Lee 's contract in 1980 was from June to December, but in 1984 he returned to CERN in a permanent role, and considered its problems of information management: physicists from around the world needed to share data, yet they lacked common machines and any shared presentation software.
Shortly after Berners - Lee 's return to CERN, TCP / IP protocols were installed on some key non-Unix machines at the institution, turning it into the largest Internet site in Europe within a few years. As a result, CERN 's infrastructure was ready for Berners - Lee to create the Web.
Berners - Lee wrote a proposal on March 13, 1989 for "a large hypertext database with typed links ''. Although the proposal attracted little interest, Berners - Lee was encouraged by his boss, Mike Sendall, to begin implementing his system on a newly acquired NeXT workstation. He considered several names, including Information Mesh, The Information Mine or Mine of Information, but settled on World Wide Web.
Berners - Lee found an enthusiastic supporter in Robert Cailliau. Berners - Lee and Cailliau pitched Berners - Lee 's ideas to the European Conference on Hypertext Technology in September 1990, but found no vendors who could appreciate his vision of marrying hypertext with the Internet.
By Christmas 1990, Berners - Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 0.9, the HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the first Web browser (named WorldWideWeb, which was also a Web editor), the first HTTP server software (later known as CERN httpd), the first web server (http://info.cern.ch), and the first Web pages that described the project itself. The browser could access Usenet newsgroups and FTP files as well. However, it could run only on the NeXT; Nicola Pellow therefore created a simple text browser, called the Line Mode Browser, that could run on almost any computer. To encourage use within CERN, Bernd Pollermann put the CERN telephone directory on the web -- previously users had to log onto the mainframe in order to look up phone numbers.
While inventing and working on setting up the Web, Berners - Lee spent most of his working hours in Building 31 (second floor) at CERN (46 ° 13 ′ 57 '' N 6 ° 02 ′ 42 '' E / 46.2325 ° N 6.0450 ° E / 46.2325; 6.0450 (CERN Building 31, Birthplace of the World Wide Web)), but also at his two homes, one in France, one in Switzerland. In January 1991 the first Web servers outside CERN itself were switched on.
The first web page may be lost, but Paul Jones of UNC - Chapel Hill in North Carolina revealed in May 2013 that he has a copy of a page sent to him in 1991 by Berners - Lee which is the oldest known web page. Jones stored the plain - text page, with hyperlinks, on a floppy disk and on his NeXT computer. CERN put the oldest known web page back online in 2014, complete with hyperlinks that helped users get started and helped them navigate what was then a very small web.
On August 6, 1991, Berners - Lee posted a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the alt. hypertext newsgroup, inviting collaborators. This date is sometimes confused with the public availability of the first web servers, which had occurred months earlier.
Paul Kunz from the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center visited CERN in September 1991, and was captivated by the Web. He brought the NeXT software back to SLAC, where librarian Louise Addis adapted it for the VM / CMS operating system on the IBM mainframe as a way to display SLAC 's catalog of online documents; this was the first Web server outside of Europe and the first in North America. The www - talk mailing list was started in the same month.
In 1992 the Computing and Networking Department of CERN, headed by David Williams, did not support Berners - Lee 's work. A two - page email sent by Williams stated that the work of Berners - Lee, with the goal of creating a facility to exchange information such as results and comments from CERN experiments to the scientific community, was not the core activity of CERN and was a misallocation of CERN 's IT resources. Following this decision, Tim Berners - Lee left CERN despite many of his peers in the IT center advocating for his support, in particular, M. Ben Segal from the distributed computing SHIFT project. He left for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he continued to develop the HTTP protocol.
An early CERN - related contribution to the Web was the parody band Les Horribles Cernettes, whose promotional image is believed to be among the Web 's first five pictures.
In keeping with its birth at CERN and the first page opened, early adopters of the World Wide Web were primarily university - based scientific departments or physics laboratories such as Fermilab and SLAC. By January 1993 there were fifty Web servers across the world. In April 1993 CERN made the World Wide Web available on a royalty - free basis. By October 1993 there were over five hundred servers online. Two of the earliest webcomics started on the World Wide Web in 1993: Doctor Fun and NetBoy.
Early websites intermingled links for both the HTTP web protocol and the then - popular Gopher protocol, which provided access to content through hypertext menus presented as a file system rather than through HTML files. Early Web users would navigate either by bookmarking popular directory pages, such as Berners - Lee 's first site at http://info.cern.ch/, or by consulting updated lists such as the NCSA "What 's New '' page. Some sites were also indexed by WAIS, enabling users to submit full - text searches similar to the capability later provided by search engines.
By the end of 1994, the total number of websites was still minute compared to present figures, but quite a number of notable websites were already active, many of which are the precursors or inspiring examples of today 's most popular services.
Initially, a web browser was available only for the NeXT operating system. This shortcoming was discussed in January 1992, and alleviated in April 1992 by the release of Erwise, an application developed at the Helsinki University of Technology, and in May by ViolaWWW, created by Pei - Yuan Wei, which included advanced features such as embedded graphics, scripting, and animation. ViolaWWW was originally an application for HyperCard. Both programs ran on the X Window System for Unix. In 1992, the first tests between browsers on different platforms were concluded successfully between buildings 513 and 31 in CERN, between browsers on the NexT station and the X11 - ported Mosaic browser.
Students at the University of Kansas adapted an existing text - only hypertext browser, Lynx, to access the web. Lynx was available on Unix and DOS, and some web designers, unimpressed with glossy graphical websites, held that a website not accessible through Lynx was n't worth visiting.
The first Microsoft Windows browser was Cello, written by Thomas R. Bruce for the Legal Information Institute at Cornell Law School to provide legal information, since access to Windows was more widespread amongst lawyers than access to Unix. Cello was released in June 1993.
The Web was first popularized by Mosaic, a graphical browser launched in 1993 by Marc Andreessen 's team at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign (UIUC). The origins of Mosaic date to 1992. In November 1992, the NCSA at the University of Illinois (UIUC) established a website. In December 1992, Andreessen and Eric Bina, students attending UIUC and working at the NCSA, began work on Mosaic with funding from the High - Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a US - federal research and development program. Andreessen and Bina released a Unix version of the browser in February 1993; Mac and Windows versions followed in August 1993. The browser gained popularity due to its strong support of integrated multimedia, and the authors ' rapid response to user bug reports and recommendations for new features.
After graduation from UIUC, Andreessen and James H. Clark, former CEO of Silicon Graphics, met and formed Mosaic Communications Corporation in April 1994, to develop the Mosaic Netscape browser commercially. The company later changed its name to Netscape, and the browser was developed further as Netscape Navigator.
In May 1994, the first International WWW Conference, organized by Robert Cailliau, was held at CERN; the conference has been held every year since. In April 1993, CERN had agreed that anyone could use the Web protocol and code royalty - free; this was in part a reaction to the perturbation caused by the University of Minnesota 's announcement that it would begin charging license fees for its implementation of the Gopher protocol.
In September 1994, Berners - Lee founded the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and the European Commission. It comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web. Berners - Lee made the Web available freely, with no patent and no royalties due. The W3C decided that its standards must be based on royalty - free technology, so they can be easily adopted by anyone.
By 1996 it became obvious to most publicly traded companies that a public Web presence was no longer optional. Though at first people saw mainly the possibilities of free publishing and instant worldwide information, increasing familiarity with two - way communication over the "Web '' led to the possibility of direct Web - based commerce (e-commerce) and instantaneous group communications worldwide. More dotcoms, displaying products on hypertext webpages, were added into the Web.
Low interest rates in 1998 -- 99 facilitated an increase in start - up companies. Although a number of these new entrepreneurs had realistic plans and administrative ability, most of them lacked these characteristics but were able to sell their ideas to investors because of the novelty of the dot - com concept.
Historically, the dot - com boom can be seen as similar to a number of other technology - inspired booms of the past including railroads in the 1840s, automobiles in the early 20th century, radio in the 1920s, television in the 1940s, transistor electronics in the 1950s, computer time - sharing in the 1960s, and home computers and biotechnology in the 1980s.
In 2001 the bubble burst, and many dot - com startups went out of business after burning through their venture capital and failing to become profitable. Many others, however, did survive and thrive in the early 21st century. Many companies which began as online retailers blossomed and became highly profitable. More conventional retailers found online merchandising to be a profitable additional source of revenue. While some online entertainment and news outlets failed when their seed capital ran out, others persisted and eventually became economically self - sufficient. Traditional media outlets (newspaper publishers, broadcasters and cablecasters in particular) also found the Web to be a useful and profitable additional channel for content distribution, and an additional means to generate advertising revenue. The sites that survived and eventually prospered after the bubble burst had two things in common; a sound business plan, and a niche in the marketplace that was, if not unique, particularly well - defined and well - served.
In the aftermath of the dot - com bubble, telecommunications companies had a great deal of overcapacity as many Internet business clients went bust. That, plus ongoing investment in local cell infrastructure kept connectivity charges low, helped to make high - speed Internet connectivity more affordable. During this time, a handful of companies found success developing business models that helped make the World Wide Web a more compelling experience. These include airline booking sites, Google 's search engine and its profitable approach to keyword - based advertising, as well as eBay 's auction site and Amazon.com 's online department store.
This new era also begot social networking websites, such as MySpace and Facebook, which gained acceptance rapidly and became a central part of youth culture. The 2010s also saw the emergence of various controversial trends, such as the expansion of cybercrime and of internet censorship.
Beginning in 2002, new ideas for sharing and exchanging content ad hoc, such as Weblogs and RSS, rapidly gained acceptance on the Web. This new model for information exchange, primarily featuring user - generated and user - edited websites, was dubbed Web 2.0. The Web 2.0 boom saw many new service - oriented startups catering to a newly democratized Web.
As the Web became easier to query, it attained a greater ease of use overall and gained a sense of organization which ushered in a period of rapid popularization. Many new sites such as Wikipedia and its Wikimedia Foundation sister projects were based on the concept of user - edited content. In 2005, three former PayPal employees created a video viewing website called YouTube, which quickly became popular and introduced a new concept of user - submitted content in major events.
The popularity of YouTube, Facebook, etc., combined with the increasing availability and affordability of high - speed connections has made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. Many video - content hosting and creation sites provide an easy means for their videos to be embedded on third party websites without payment or permission.
This combination of more user - created or edited content, and easy means of sharing content, such as via RSS widgets and video embedding, has led to many sites with a typical "Web 2.0 '' feel. They have articles with embedded video, user - submitted comments below the article, and RSS boxes to the side, listing some of the latest articles from other sites.
Continued extension of the Web has focused on connecting devices to the Internet, coined Intelligent Device Management. As Internet connectivity becomes ubiquitous, manufacturers have started to leverage the expanded computing power of their devices to enhance their usability and capability. Through Internet connectivity, manufacturers are now able to interact with the devices they have sold and shipped to their customers, and customers are able to interact with the manufacturer (and other providers) to access new content.
"Web 2.0 '' has found a place in the English lexicon.
Popularized by Berners - Lee 's book Weaving the Web and a Scientific American article by Berners - Lee, James Hendler, and Ora Lassila, the term Semantic Web describes an evolution of the existing Web in which the network of hyperlinked human - readable web pages is extended by machine - readable metadata about documents and how they are related to each other, enabling automated agents to access the Web more intelligently and perform tasks on behalf of users. This has yet to happen. In 2006, Berners - Lee and colleagues stated that the idea "remains largely unrealized ''.
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where is bile produced and what functions does it perform | Bile - wikipedia
Bile or gall is a dark green to yellowish brown fluid, produced by the liver of most vertebrates, that aids the digestion of lipids in the small intestine. In humans, bile is produced continuously by the liver (liver bile), and stored and concentrated in the gallbladder. After eating, this stored bile is discharged into the duodenum. The composition of gallbladder bile is 97 % water, 0.7 % bile salts, 0.2 % bilirubin, 0.51 % fats (cholesterol, fatty acids, and lecithin), and 200 meq / l inorganic salts.
Bile was the yellow bile in the four humor system of medicine, the standard of medical practice in Europe from around 500 BCE to the early 19th century. About 400 to 800 ml of bile is produced per day in adult human beings.
Bile or gall acts to some extent as a surfactant, helping to emulsify the lipids in food. Bile salt anions are hydrophilic on one side and hydrophobic on the other side; consequently, they tend to aggregate around droplets of lipids (triglycerides and phospholipids) to form micelles, with the hydrophobic sides towards the fat and hydrophilic sides facing outwards. The hydrophilic sides are negatively charged, and this charge prevents fat droplets coated with bile from re-aggregating into larger fat particles. Ordinarily, the micelles in the duodenum have a diameter around 14 -- 33 μm.
The dispersion of food fat into micelles provides a greatly increased surface area for the action of the enzyme pancreatic lipase, which actually digests the triglycerides, and is able to reach the fatty core through gaps between the bile salts. A triglyceride is broken down into three fatty acids and a monoglyceride, which are absorbed by the villi on the intestine walls. After being transferred across the intestinal membrane, the fatty acids reform into triglycerides (re-esterified), before being absorbed into the lymphatic system through lacteals. Without bile salts, most of the lipids in food would be excreted in faeces, undigested.
Since bile increases the absorption of fats, it is an important part of the absorption of the fat - soluble substances, such as the vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Besides its digestive function, bile serves also as the route of excretion for bilirubin, a byproduct of red blood cells recycled by the liver. Bilirubin derives from hemoglobin by glucuronidation.
Bile tends to be alkali on average. The pH of common duct bile (7.50 to 8.05) is higher than that of the corresponding gallbladder bile (6.80 to 7.65). Bile in the gallbladder becomes more acidic the longer a person goes without eating, though resting slows this fall in pH. As an alkali, it also has the function of neutralizing excess stomach acid before it enters the duodenum, the first section of the small intestine. Bile salts also act as bactericides, destroying many of the microbes that may be present in the food.
In the absence of bile, fats become indigestible and are instead excreted in feces, a condition called steatorrhea. Feces lack their characteristic brown color and instead are white or gray, and greasy. Steatorrhea can lead to deficiencies in essential fatty acids and fat - soluble vitamins. In addition, past the small intestine (which is normally responsible for absorbing fat from food) the gastrointestinal tract and gut flora are not adapted to processing fats, leading to problems in the large intestine.
The cholesterol contained in bile will occasionally accrete into lumps in the gallbladder, forming gallstones. Cholesterol gallstones are generally treated through surgical removal of the gallbladder. However, they can sometimes be dissolved by increasing the concentration of certain naturally occurring bile acids, such as chenodeoxycholic acid and ursodeoxycholic acid.
On an empty stomach -- after repeated vomiting, for example -- a person 's vomit may be green or dark yellow, and very bitter. The bitter and greenish component may be bile or normal digestive juices originating in the stomach. The color of bile is often likened to "fresh - cut grass '', unlike components in the stomach that look greenish yellow or dark yellow. Bile may be forced into the stomach secondary to a weakened valve (pylorus), the presence of certain drugs including alcohol, or powerful muscular contractions and duodenal spasms.
Biliary obstruction can be caused by a variety of dietary factors. Most biliary obstructions are caused by the high consumption of sugar, fat and processed foods. These foods can cause gallstones. Primarily, biliary obstruction is caused by blockage in the bile ducts. Bile ducts carry bile from the liver and gallbladder through the pancreas. A huge amount of the bile is then released into the small intestine duodenum. The remaining bile is stored in the gallbladder. After food consumption the bile in the gallbladder is released to help with digestion and fat absorption.
In medical theories prevalent in the West from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, the body 's health depended on the equilibrium of four "humors '', or vital fluids, two of which related to bile: blood, phlegm, "yellow bile '' (choler), and "black bile ''. These "humors '' are believed to have its roots in the appearance of a blood sedimentation test made in open air, which exhibits a dark clot at the bottom ("black bile ''), a layer of unclotted erythrocytes ("blood ''), a layer of white blood cells ("phlegm '') and a layer of clear yellow serum ("yellow bile '').
Excesses of black bile and yellow bile were thought to produce depression and aggression, respectively, and the Greek names for them gave rise to the English words cholera (from Greek kholé) and melancholia. In the former of those senses, the same theories explain the derivation of the English word bilious from bile, the meaning of gall in English as "exasperation '' or "impudence '', and the Latin word cholera, derived from the Greek kholé, which was passed along into some Romance languages as words connoting anger, such as colère (French) and cólera (Spanish).
Bile from dead mammals can be mixed with soap. This mixture, called bile soap, can be applied to textiles a few hours before washing and is a traditional and rather effective method for removing various kinds of tough stains.
"Pinapaitan '' is a dish in Philippine cuisine that uses bile as flavoring.
In regions such as Asia where bile products are a popular ingredient in traditional medicine, the abuse of bears from which bile is farmed is common.
Cholic acid
Chenodeoxycholic acid
Glycocholic acid
Taurocholic acid
Deoxycholic acid
Lithocholic acid
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where is the engine located in a smart car | Smart Fortwo - wikipedia
The Smart Fortwo is a rear - engine, rear - wheel - drive, 2 - seater hatchback Microcar (or City car) manufactured and marketed by the Smart division of Daimler AG, introduced in 1998, now in its third generation. Marketed in 46 countries worldwide, Fortwo production had surpassed 1.7 million by early 2015.
The Fortwo is noted for its 2.69 - metre (8.8 ft) overall length, high H - point seating, offset passenger and driver seats (in the first and second generation, the passenger seat is 15 centimetres further rearward than the driver 's), automated manual transmission (1st and 2nd generation), De Dion tube rear suspension, low CO emissions (119 grams per kilometre, North America, 1.0 Liter), two - part rear hatch, interchangeable plastic body panels and prominent steel hemispherical safety - cell, which is marketed as the Tridion cell and is often provided in a contrasting color to the vehicle 's body panels.
Fortwo models are manufactured at Smartville -- a dedicated Daimler assembly plant in Hambach, France -- in Coupé (i.e., hatchback) and Cabrio (i.e., convertible) body styles, each in a mono - box configuration. Generations are internally designated as the W450 build series, introduced at the 1998 Paris Motor Show, and the W451 build series, introduced at the 2006 Bologna Motor Show. Smartville underwent a 200 million euro upgrade beginning in mid-2013 for the third generation Fortwo (2014 --), internally designated as the C453 build series. The third generation Fortwo made its formal global debut on July 16, 2014 at the Tempodrom in Berlin along with a closely related four - door version, the Smart Forfour, co-developed and sharing the same platform and engines with the third generation Renault Twingo.
With the second generation, Smart introduced a version with automatic start - stop, marketed as the MHD, or Micro-Hybrid Drive -- offered only in certain markets. A sport model, marketed as the Brabus model, has been available in both generations, and Daimler introduced the Smart electric drive, an all - electric version, in 2007. The Fortwo forms the basis for Daimler 's Car2go fleet, the largest car - sharing enterprise worldwide.
In 2002, the New York Museum of Modern Art (MoMa) introduced a first generation Fortwo into its permanent collection (the only vehicle to be included into the collection while still in series production), and in 2014 the Fortwo was voted the Best Microcar for the fifth year in a row by readers of the Chinese edition of Auto, Motor und Sport. At the time of its commercial launch, the Smart Fortwo diesel - engined variant, the Cdi, had the world 's lowest carbon dioxide emissions for an internal combustion engine, at 88 grams per kilometer rated NEDC cycle.
The brand name Smart derives from its early history as a cooperative venture between Swatch and Mercedes: Swatch Mercedes ART. The Fortwo nameplate derives from its two - person seating capacity. Until 2004, the Fortwo had been marketed as the smart City - Coupé.
The 2001 marketing brochure for the W450 build series cites a. 37 drag coefficient. Auto, Motor und Sport cites a drag coefficient (Cd) of. 35 and Alles Auto cites a Cd of. 345 for the second generation W451 series For comparison, the current Fiat 500 offers a. 38 Cd and the first generation Honda Insight offers a Cd of. 29. The W450 and W451 series each have a frontal area of 1.95 square metres (21.0 sq ft) and 2.057 square metres (22.14 sq ft) respectively.
The first and second generation Fortwo models employ an automated manual transmission, designed and manufactured by Getrag, where the clutch is computer controlled, eliminating the clutch pedal. The first generation used a six - speed version, and the second generation uses a five - speed version, model 5AMT130. Input from floor - mounted shifter or optional steering - wheel - mounted paddles controls a servo - operated clutch and sequential automated gearbox. The vehicle may be driven in automatic mode (early models had the option of full automatic mode, or standard "soft - tip '' which was manual mode indicated by no button on the gear lever) or via paddle shifters, where the operator controls the shift points but can not feather or adjust the speed of the clutch.
From 2009, revised transmission software enabled smoother and faster gear changes. The software, available via an ECU upgrade, was also made available for 2008 second generation cars, with a new battery as required.
Third generation models receive a five - speed manual transmission or dual clutch automated manual transmission.
With an overall length (first generation: 2.5 m (98.4 in)) approximately equal to the width of regular parking space, a smart Fortwo can park perpendicularly in spaces typically designed for parallel parking, allowing two Smarts to park in one space -- a manner of parking not permissible in many jurisdictions worldwide (e.g. Austria, New Zealand and California).
The first generation, build series W450, debuted in 1998 and received a facelift in 2002.
The engines are turbocharged with three cylinders. Originally the basic petrol engine was 599 cc, and came in three versions -- 45 hp (33 kW), 51 hp (38 kW) and 61 hp (45 kW). The engine displacement was increased to 698 cc with the facelift in 2002, in 37 kW (50 hp) and 45 kW (61 hp) variants. The turbo - diesel engine had 799 cc displacement giving 30 kW (41 hp).
The Fortwo is available as a coupe or cabriolet, originally called the "city coupe '' & "city cabrio '', now the "Fortwo '' & "Fortwo cabrio '', introduced in 2000 and restyled in 2002. Trim levels include the Pure, Pulse, and Passion. Pure models are fitted with the standard audio system but nothing else, Pulse models are fitted with alloy wheels, panoramic glass roof and paddle - shifters on the steering wheel (2004 +), and finally, the Passion models are fitted with air - conditioning and ability to select between fully automatic and sequential gearbox.
One of four BRABUS Canada 1 cdi cars in Canada
Coupe
Convertible
Tachometer generation 450 and clock
Smart Crossblade
2002 Smart Fortwo BRABUS
2002 facelift
2002 facelift
Japanese market Smart K
The second generation, build series W451 (internally: C 451, Coupé -- A 451, Cabrio), was introduced in November 2006 -- its length increased by 200 mm to 2,690 mm (106.1 in) and offering improved crash performance. The second generation retained the interchangeable plastic body panels as well as the prominent exposed, rigid steel safety cell, which is 50 % high - strength steel, hot - dip galvanised and powder - coated -- and marketed as Tridion.
The range received a minor interior facelift for model year 2011 with standard knee airbags, new instrument cluster, more extensive cloth trimming for the top of the instrument panel, circular rather than rectangular outboard dash vents, optional multimedia system with a 6.5 '' display, and optional surround - sound audio system. For model year 2013 all Fortwo 's received a minor exterior facelift with revised lower facias, front and rear, and a relocated brand emblem located inside rather than above the front grille.
The second generation Fortwo remained the lightest production car on sale in Europe.
The 999 cc I3 Mitsubishi 3B2 engine (2007 onwards) is offered in normally aspirated and turbo versions. German tuner company Brabus, in a joint venture with Smart, has developed a high powered version of the 1.0 - litre turbo, producing 102 PS (75 kW; 101 bhp), originally available only in Europe, but now available elsewhere. A small 0.8 - litre three - cylinder turbo diesel common rail engine made by Mercedes was available in most European markets.
European Union (EU) fuel consumption testing for the combined cycle rates the 1.0 - litre mhd at 65.7 mpg (4.30 L / 100 km; 54.7 mpg), the turbo at 57.6 mpg (4.90 L / 100 km; 48.0 mpg) and 85.6 mpg (3.30 L / 100 km; 71.3 mpg) for the diesel. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) rates the 1.0 - litre mhd at 36 mpg (6.5 L / 100 km; 43 mpg) combined (the EPA does not offer a rating for the diesel engine).
At the 2007 Frankfurt Motor Show, Smart debuted the "micro hybrid drive '' (mhd) version of the Fortwo, which was subsequently launched in the UK in 2008. The technology features an automated start - stop system, and a belt - driven starter - generator, which replaces both the starter and alternator. The system generates electricity to charge the battery when the driver is braking, and automatically cuts the engine when the speed drops below 5 mph (8 km / h). Smart claims a fuel efficiency improvement of eight percent from 50 miles per US gallon (4.7 L / 100 km; 60 mpg) to almost 55 miles per US gallon (4.3 L / 100 km; 66 mpg) on the slow NEDC drive cycle -- with a reduction in Carbon dioxide emissions from 112 to 103 g / km. This was further improved to 97 g / km in 2010. The mhd version of the Fortwo is not available in the United States or Canada.
At introduction, the second generation featured front airbags as well as seat - mounted combination head / thorax side airbags along with the tridion cell, seat belt tensioners, anti-lock brakes, brake force distribution and electronic stability control. In the United States from model year 2012 onward, the Fortwo featured a total of eight dual - stage airbags in the Coupe -- front, knee, side (thorax / pelvis) and window curtain -- and a total of six dual - stage airbags in the Cabrio model -- front, knee, side (thorax / head) dual - stage airbags. As a part of the vehicle 's tridion cell and crash management system, the front crumple zone is maximized by the rear - mounted engine location.
In Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) tests, the 2008 Smart Fortwo earned the top overall rating of "Good '' in both the front and side crash tests. The Fortwo received the "Good '' score in 8 of 11 measured injury categories. Its seat / head restraints earned the second highest rating of "Acceptable '' for protection against whiplash in rear impacts. The IIHS did an offset crash test with a Smart Fortwo and Mercedes - Benz C - Class, which is 40 % of one car 's driver 's side head on with 40 % of another car 's driver 's side, and the Smart received a "Poor '' rating due to the occupants ' heads slamming into the steering wheel. Also, there was too much intrusion into the footwell of the Smart Fortwo. The dummy movement was not well controlled. The Smart Fortwo spun 450 degrees in the air upon impact.
The Fortwo in its stand - alone IIHS crash test
The Fortwo crashed into a Mercedes - Benz C - Class
U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) crash test results for the 2008 Smart Fortwo:
Euro NCAP crash results:
An all - electric version of the Fortwo, the Smart Fortwo electric drive, began development in 2006. Field testing began in London with 100 units in 2007, and the second generation, with a total of 2,000 units, was introduced in 2009 and available in 18 markets around the world for leasing or through the Car2Go carsharing service in San Diego and Amsterdam. Production of the second - generation Smart Fortwo electric drive began in November 2009 in Hambach, France. The Smart EDs have a lithium - ion battery provided by Tesla Motors with capacity of 14 kilowatt - hours (50 MJ). The range of a fully charged battery is up to 135 kilometres (84 miles) under the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) cycle. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 's official all - electric range is 63 miles (101 km) and rated the Smart ED with a combined fuel economy of 87 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg - e) (2.7 L gasoline equivalent / 100 km; 104 mpg - imp gasoline equivalent).
The third - generation Smart electric drive is scheduled to be launched in the U.S. and Europe by the second quarter of 2013 and Daimler AG plans to mass - produce the electric car with availability in 30 markets worldwide. The third - generation Smart electric drive was unveiled at the September 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show. Key differences with the second - generation model include a more powerful electric motor, which improves acceleration and top speed, a new lithium - ion battery pack that will allow to increase the range to 140 kilometres (87 mi), and an option for quick - charge will be available.
Brabus (styled BRABUS) is a sport package that include a sport exhaust with dual center tips, sport suspension, 16 - front and 17 - inch rear wheels, power steering and various Brabus visual cues. An originally planned turbocharged engine was not included. The Brabus package is available in cabriolet or coupe body styles, the latter equipped with a panoramic roof (made of glass for the first generation and polycarbonate for the second), and available in metallic silver or deep black.
Passion coupe
Cabrio
Interior
Designed under the direction of Kai Sieber with designer Michael Gebhardt, the third generation made its worldwide debut on July 16, 2014, having been jointly developed with Renault. The third generation is available as the 3 - door 2 - seater (internally designated as the C453 build series) and 5 - door 4 - seater (internally designated the W453 build series), marketed as the Fortwo and Forfour, respectively. Motor Trend reported prior to its introduction that the third generation was to share approximately 70 % of its parts with the third generation Renault Twingo.
The third generation Fortwo is powered by either of two 3 - cylinder engines; a 1.0 - litre engine producing 71 bhp, and 67 lb ft of torque and a turbocharged 0.9 - litre (898 cc) 89 bhp engine with 100 lb ft of torque. A lower - powered 59 bhp engine will follow later. All versions come with either a manual five - speed gearbox or ' twinamic ' automatic dual clutch transmission instead of the previous ' Softouch ' system. During development, Daimler had consulted with Ford to learn about their Ecoboost 1.0 - litre turbo - charged inline 3 - cylinder engine, in turn sharing information about its own Euro6 stratified lean - burn gasoline engines.
Prior to its debut, Smart CEO Annette Winkler reported the C453 would share its 2.69 metre length with the current W451 build series as well as its trademark hemispherical steel safety cell, marketed as the Tridion cell. The Fortwo continues to be assembled at Smartville, and the Forfour is manufactured alongside the Renault Twingo 3 in Novo Mesto, Slovenia.
Smartville, where the W450 and W451 build series have been manufactured, underwent a 200 million euro upgrade beginning in mid-2013, in preparation for the C453 Fortwo.
In 2015, Smart announced a cabriolet version of the Smart Fortwo at the 2015 Frankfurt Motor Show. The smart fortwo cabrio launched globally in 2016. Cabrio models received additional safety cell reinforcements to compensate for the roof openings, including torsional bulkheads beneath the car, a crossbar behind the passenger seats (sometimes referred to as a basket handle), and additional reinforcement of the A-pillars. smart claims the standard power soft top will open or close in 12 seconds, and can be operated at any speed. At market launch, 5 soft top colors were offered; black, red, grey, beige and brown. Grey, beige and brown tops were marketed as BRABUS tailor made soft tops.
The smart was initially available only in left - hand - drive form, as the floorpan allowed only for a left - hand - drive version. Smart subsequently designed a floorpan for right - hand - drive models. The Fortwo is now marketed in 37 countries worldwide.
Australia: The Smart Fortwo was marketed through select Mercedes - Benz dealers in Australia from 2003 to 2015 in only the middle ' Pulse ' range, and with the petrol engine. In 2007, the base price for the Fortwo coupé was A $ 19,900, and the Fortwo cabriolet was $22,900. Mercedes - Benz stopped selling the Smart brand in Australia in 2015 due to declining sales.
China: In April 2008, Smart premiered at the 2008 Beijing Auto Show. In October 2008, the Smart "vending machine '' road show had the first stop in Shenyang and began the Fortwo 's pre-order period.
Japan: The Fortwo is the only non-Japanese car ever to fulfill the regulations for Kei cars. There is a Japan - only variant of the first generation Smart Fortwo, called the Smart K.
The smart fortwo was introduced in Canada in September 2004 and sold through Mercedes - Benz dealers. Only the turbo - diesel powerplant was offered for the 450 coupé and 450 convertible models because the fuel vapour recovery system for the gasoline powered car would have had to be redesigned to meet Transport Canada standards. Diesels do not require such a system because the fuel is not volatile, so the cdi was certified instead. Demand was initially heavy, with up to six - month waiting lists in major urban areas in the spring of 2005. 10,242 cdi cars were imported in model years 2005 and 2006. Two or three of these were used in Transport Canada crash testing.
Canada received three special versions of the 450 cdi: the grandstyle -- only available in dark green with silver, and beige leather -- of which 200 were imported in coupé and cabriolet forms, the BRABUS nightrun -- equipped with BRABUS accessories at the Hambach factory, which only came as a black on black (with blue - grey leather) coupé, and 50 of those were delivered, and finally the BRABUS Tailor Made Canada 1 models, of which only four were produced, three red on red and one white on white, all with highest equipment levels and all BRABUS accessories, high quality dyed - through leather and Alcantara interiors. The white car is a cabriolet, as are two of the red ones. The sole Canada 1 coupé has a fixed glass roof.
In 2008, Canada received only the gasoline 451 model because the diesel version did not meet 2007 Canadian emission standards. The 451 fortwo carries a 1.0 - litre engine that delivers up to 70 horsepower (52 kW) and a re-engineered automated - manual 5 - speed transmission with a slightly larger body. This engine has been the sole powertrain for Canada since the 451 was introduced -- even the BRABUS models only have 70 HP. The 451 has sold very well in Canada: over 12,600 were registered between the start of 2008 and the end of 2012. The lack of a diesel option has hindered 451 sales to some owners of the diesel 450s.
Canada received several special versions of the 451 as well: the limited 1, the limited 3, the highstyle, the greystyle, the edit10n BRABUS Tailor Made (ten coupés), one all orange "Ultimate '' BRABUS Tailor Made, the sharpred, among others.
Smart Canada released ten 10th anniversary edition smart Fortwo cars in February 2009. Each car started life as a Canadian BRABUS model before being converted into 10th anniversary editions by BRABUS in Germany. All examples feature arctic grey metallic paint with brown and alcantara leather interiors and black BRABUS Monoblock 7 wheels. The cars carry a number plate on the dash to signify its production number out of ten.
Smart Canada also commissioned Busch Automodelle GmbH to produce 1: 87 scale versions (with a black tridion), of which 10,000 were made.
In June 2002, a Smart Fortwo was exhibited in the U.S. at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) affiliate P.S. 1 in Queens, New York.
In January 2005, DaimlerChrysler showed the smart brand at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Michigan. smart forfour, smart roadster, smart fortwo coupe and smart fortwo cabrio models were shown.
In September 2006, Daimler AG announced that Smart USA, a division of Penske Auto Group would officially distribute Smart in the United States and Puerto Rico. Subsequently, the second generation smart Fortwo (Model 451) became available in January 2008.
The 2009 model year US version of the smart Fortwo was available in three trims: Pure (base trim), Passion, and Passion cabriolet. Pure has an MSRP of US $ 11,990, Passion has an MSRP of $13,990, and the Passion Cabriolet has an MSRP $16,990. A reservation program was launched by Smart USA in March 2007. This program allowed interested parties to place a $99 refundable deposit on the new Fortwo in preparation for the product 's launch. Since the product 's launch, sales have surpassed production and the reservation program continues as a "wait list '' program. The average wait used to be 12 to 18 months for delivery; although due to the economy, many buyers could n't purchase the vehicles when they were ready for delivery and many are available on dealer lots.
The Fortwo was rated as the most fuel efficient two - seater car in the United States Environmental Protection Agency 's (EPA) 2008 Fuel Economy Guide, with fuel efficiency ratings of 33 mpg (7.1 L / 100 km; 40 mpg) city and 41 mpg (5.7 L / 100 km; 49 mpg) highway. The 2008 Smart Fortwo coupe was given an EPA fuel efficiency rating of 36 mpg (6.5 L / 100 km; 43 mpg) combined.
On May 14, 2008, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety released crash test results for the Fortwo. The IIHS gave the Fortwo top ratings in protecting passengers in front and side crashes. However, the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) cited a Safety Concern on their tests of a 2008 Fortwo, stating "during the side impact test, the driver door unlatched and opened. A door opening during a side impact crash increases the likelihood of occupant ejection. ''
For model years 2012 and later, the U.S. Fortwo Coupe featured eight airbags (front, knee, side and window curtain), while the Cabrio model featured six airbags (front, knee and side - mounted combination head / thorax).
In early 2006, prior to formal importation to the United States, a specialty firm -- G and K Auto conversions of Santa Ana California received DOT, NHTSA, and EPA approval to market a modified European specification Smart Fortwo in the US. Modifications for the grey market vehicles included DOT certified headlights, front and rear side marker lights, reinforced doors for additional side impact protection, an odometer in miles rather than kilometres, and soft padding on the interior pillars and ceiling. Approximately 1,000 model year 2004, 2005, and 2006 cars were imported.
In September 2015, the third generation smart fortwo coupe (C453) launched in the United States for the 2016 model year. US variants are offered in four trim levels; pure, passion, prime and proxy. Significant upgrades, including power steering, eight airbags, alarm, Bluetooth capability and crosswind assist technology were made standard. The 2016 smart fortwo also received a new engine, the 0.9 liter 3 - cylinder turbocharged unit making 89 horsepower and 100 pound - feet of torque as standard. Both a 5 - speed manual transmission and a 6 - speed dual - clutch automatic transmission are offered.
In August 2016, the redesigned 2017 smart fortwo cabrio (A453) joined the smart USA lineup, offered in three trim levels; passion, prime and proxy. The cabrio model makes use of the same gasoline engine and transmissions as the C453 fortwo coupe. A BRABUS Sport Package was also added for 2017 for fortwo coupe and cabrio models, adding unique front and rear body styling, wheels, interior appointments and a retuned sport suspension.
The 4th generation smart fortwo electric drive made its debut at the 2016 Paris Motor Show. The newest generation, built on the C453 chassis, features a new 17.6 kWh lithium - ion battery and an air - cooled electric motor which produce 81 horsepower and 118 lb. - ft. of torque. A new 7 kW onboard charger was added, and smart advertised a charging time of 2.5 hours at a 240V electrical outlet. Range estimates are 75 - 80 miles on a single charge. The 2017 smart fortwo electric drive will be offered in both coupe and cabrio versions in all 50 states, and qualifies for a $7,500 federal tax incentive.
In February 2017, smart USA announced the brand would discontinue gasoline vehicle sales after the 2017 model year and focus purely on battery electric vehicles. The smart fortwo electric drive is scheduled to arrive as a 2017 model in the summer of 2017, and the transition to electric - only will occur for the 2018 model year.
In 2007, Chinese manufacturer Shijiazhuang Shuanghuan Automobile Co released the Shuanghuan Noble (also known as the Martin Motors Bubble), designed similarly to the Fortwo and prompting Daimler AG to sue Shuanghuan for copyright infringement. The German manufacturer persuaded the Italian court to prohibit the Noble from being exhibited at the Bologna Motor Show, but importer Martin Motors violated that injunction and put the car on display.
In May 2009, a Greek judge ruled against Daimler, allowing the Noble to be sold in Greece. The judge cited that "if a vehicle varies in its technical specification, then any external similarities are irrelevant. '' This was in reference to the Noble being a front - engine, front - wheel - drive car, while the Fortwo is a similar sized rear - engine and rear - wheel - drive car.
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when can person be referred to as an artist | Artist - wikipedia
An artist is a person engaged in an activity related to creating art, practicing the arts, or demonstrating an art. The common usage in both everyday speech and academic discourse is a practitioner in the visual arts only. The term is often used in the entertainment business, especially in a business context, for musicians and other performers (less often for actors). "Artiste '' (the French for artist) is a variant used in English only in this context. Use of the term to describe writers, for example, is valid, but less common, and mostly restricted to contexts like criticism.
Wiktionary defines the noun ' artist ' (Singular: artist; Plural: artists) as follows:
The Oxford English Dictionary defines the older broad meanings of the term "artist '':
The Greek word "techně '', often translated as "art, '' implies mastery of any sort of craft. The adjectival Latin form of the word, "technicus '', became the source of the English words technique, technology, technical.
In Greek culture each of the nine Muses oversaw a different field of human creation:
No muse was identified with the visual arts of painting and sculpture. In ancient Greece sculptors and painters were held in low regard, somewhere between freemen and slaves, their work regarded as mere manual labour.
The word art derives from the Latin "ars '' (stem art -), which, although literally defined, means "skill method '' or "technique '', and conveys a connotation of beauty.
During the Middle Ages the word artist already existed in some countries such as Italy, but the meaning was something resembling craftsman, while the word artesan was still unknown. An artist was someone able to do a work better than others, so the skilled excellency was underlined, rather than the activity field. In this period some "artisanal '' products (such as textiles) were much more precious and expensive than paintings or sculptures.
The first division into major and minor arts dates back at least to the works of Leon Battista Alberti (1404 -- 1472): De re aedificatoria, De statua, De pictura, which focused on the importance of the intellectual skills of the artist rather than the manual skills (even if in other forms of art there was a project behind).
With the Academies in Europe (second half of 16th century) the gap between fine and applied arts was definitely set.
Many contemporary definitions of "artist '' and "art '' are highly contingent on culture, resisting aesthetic prescription, in much the same way that the features constituting beauty and the beautiful can not be standardized easily without corruption into kitsch.
Artist is a descriptive term applied to a person who engages in an activity deemed to be an art. An artist also may be defined unofficially as "a person who expresses him - or herself through a medium ''. The word is also used in a qualitative sense of, a person creative in, innovative in, or adept at, an artistic practice.
Most often, the term describes those who create within a context of the fine arts or ' high culture ', activities such as drawing, painting, sculpture, acting, dancing, writing, filmmaking, new media, photography, and music -- people who use imagination, talent, or skill to create works that may be judged to have an aesthetic value. Art historians and critics define artists as those who produce art within a recognized or recognizable discipline. Contrasting terms for highly skilled workers in media in the applied arts or decorative arts include artisan, craftsman, and specialized terms such as potter, goldsmith or glassblower. Fine arts artists such as painters succeeded in the Renaissance in raising their status, formerly similar to these workers, to a decisively higher level, but in the 20th century the distinction became rather less relevant.
The term may also be used loosely or metaphorically to denote highly skilled people in any non - "art '' activities, as well -- law, medicine, mechanics, or mathematics, for example.
Often, discussions on the subject focus on the differences among "artist '' and "technician '', "entertainer '' and "artisan '', "fine art '' and "applied art '', or what constitutes art and what does not. The French word artiste (which in French, simply means "artist '') has been imported into the English language where it means a performer (frequently in Music Hall or Vaudeville). Use of the word "artiste '' can also be a pejorative term.
The English word ' artiste ' has thus a narrower range of meaning than the word ' artiste ' in French.
In Living with Art, Mark Getlein proposes six activities, services or functions of contemporary artists:
After looking at years of data on arts school graduates as well as policies & program outcomes regarding artists, arts, & culture, Elizabeth Lingo and Steven Tepper propose the divide between "arts for art 's sake '' artists and commercially successful artists is not as wide as may be perceived, and that "this bifurcation between the commercial and the noncommercial, the excellent and the base, the elite and the popular, is increasingly breaking down '' (Eikhof & Haunschild, 2007). Lingo and Tepper point out:
The US Bureau of Labor Statistics classifies many visual artists as either craft artists or fine artists. A craft artist makes handmade functional works of art, such as pottery or clothing. A fine artist makes paintings, illustrations (such as book illustrations or medical illustrations), sculptures, or similar artistic works primarily for their aesthetic value.
The main source of skill for both craft artists and fine artists is long - term repetition and practice. Many fine artists have studied their art form at university and some have a master 's degree in fine arts. Artists may also study on their own or receive on - the - job training from an experienced artist.
The number of available jobs as an artist is increasing more slowly than other fields. About half of US artists are self - employed. Others work in a variety of industries. For example, a pottery manufacturer will employ craft artists, and book publishers will hire illustrators.
In the US, fine artists have a median income of approximately US $50,000 per year, and craft artists have a median income of approximately US $33,000 per year. This compares to US $61,000 for all art - related fields, including related jobs such as graphic designers, multimedia artists, animators, and fashion designers. Many artists work part - time as artists and hold a second job!
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when did say it ain't so come out | Say It Ai n't So - wikipedia
"Say It Ai n't So '' is a song by the American rock band Weezer. It was released as the third and final single from the band 's self - titled 1994 debut album.
Written by frontman Rivers Cuomo, the song came to be after he had all the music finished and one line, "Say it ai n't so ''. Cuomo made a connection to an incident in high school where he came home and saw a bottle of beer in the fridge. He believed his mother and father 's marriage ended because his father was an alcoholic and this made him fear the marriage between his mother and step - father would end this way as well.
In 2008, Rolling Stone ranked "Say It Ai n't So '' # 72 on "The 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time. '' Pitchfork Media included the song at number 10 on its Top 200 Tracks of the 90s.
"Say It Ai n't So '' is a playable track in the video games Rock Band and Rocksmith 2014 in addition to appearing on an episode of Hindsight.
"Say It Ai n't So '' is written in the key of E flat major. Much of the song (except for the bridge) follows a chord progression of Cm - G - Ab - Eb.
Two mixes of the song exist. The original album pressings had a mix with slightly different sounding drums, bass and no guitar feedback. However, when the band released the single, the mix that kept the guitar feedback in the song was used. The band liked this mix so much that the members asked for it to replace the version on the album, after the album had sold 3 million copies. The album now features the version with the feedback. The deluxe version features both mixes.
The music video for "Say It Ai n't So '', directed by Sophie Muller, met with less success than the previous two Weezer videos directed by Spike Jonze, but the song still successfully climbed to the top 10 of the Modern Rock Tracks chart.
As noted in the Weezer DVD collection Video Capture Device and the slip cover of the re-released special edition of the group 's debut album, the band filmed the music video at the house where the band used to rehearse and record. The video also features a cameo by the band 's webmaster / band photographer / archivist and close friend for many years, Karl Koch.
A small poster of Mercyful Fate / King Diamond frontman King Diamond is visible several times throughout the video, most clearly during the final chorus, just as Rivers Cuomo turns his mic around.
The band Further Seems Forever covered the song on the Weezer tribute album Rock Music: A Tribute to Weezer. An episode of "One Tree Hill '' featured a cover by MoZella, Wakey! Wakey!, and Juliana Hatfield. Deftones, The Sleeping, Young Guns, Finch, Real Estate and Dashboard Confessional have also covered the song live. Asher Roth sampled the song for his debut rap single "I Love College ''. After the song leaked onto the internet, Rivers Cuomo reportedly refused to clear sample, which prompted Roth to debut a remixed version of his song as his official debut single. Foster The People also covered the song in August 2011, after Weezer did a version of "Pumped Up Kicks ''. Chiptune artist Inverse Phase parodied the song on a Commodore 64, titling it "Say It Ai n't Sixty - FO ''
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what modern instrument converts wind to mechanical energy | Mechanical energy - wikipedia
In the physical sciences, mechanical energy is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy. It is the energy associated with the motion and position of an object. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that in an isolated system that is only subject to conservative forces the mechanical energy is constant. If an object is moved in the opposite direction of a conservative net force, the potential energy will increase and if the speed (not the velocity) of the object is changed, the kinetic energy of the object is changed as well. In all real systems, however, nonconservative forces, like frictional forces, will be present, but often they are of negligible values and the mechanical energy 's being constant can therefore be a useful approximation. In elastic collisions, the mechanical energy is conserved but in inelastic collisions, some mechanical energy is converted into heat. The equivalence between lost mechanical energy (dissipation) and an increase in temperature was discovered by James Prescott Joule.
Many devices are used to convert mechanical energy to or from other forms of energy, e.g. an electric motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy, an electric generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy and a steam engine converts heat energy to mechanical energy.
Energy is a scalar quantity and the mechanical energy of a system is the sum of the potential energy which is measured by the position of the parts of the system. The kinetic energy which is also called the energy of motion:
The potential energy, U, depends on the position of an object subjected to a conservative force. It is defined as the object 's ability to do work and is increased as the object is moved in the opposite direction of the direction of the force. If F represents the conservative force and x the position, the potential energy of the force between the two positions x and x is defined as the negative integral of F from x to x:
The kinetic energy, K, depends on the speed of an object and is the ability of a moving object to do work on other objects when it collides with them. It is defined as one half the product of the object 's mass with the square of its speed, and the total kinetic energy of a system of objects is the sum of the kinetic energies of the respective objects:
The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that if a body or system is subjected only to conservative forces, the mechanical energy of that body or system remains constant. The difference between a conservative and a non-conservative force is that when a conservative force moves an object from one point to another, the work done by the conservative force is independent of the path. On the contrary, when a non-conservative force acts upon an object, the work done by the non-conservative force is dependent of the path.
According to the principle of conservation of mechanical energy, the mechanical energy of an isolated system remains constant in time, as long as the system is free of friction and other non-conservative forces. In any real situation, frictional forces and other non-conservative forces are present, but in many cases their effects on the system are so small that the principle of conservation of mechanical energy can be used as a fair approximation. Though energy can not be created or destroyed in an isolated system, it can be converted to another form of energy.
Thus, in a mechanical system like a swinging pendulum subjected to the conservative gravitational force where frictional forces like air drag and friction at the pivot are negligible, energy passes back and forth between kinetic and potential energy but never leaves the system. The pendulum reaches greatest kinetic energy and least potential energy when in the vertical position, because it will have the greatest speed and be nearest the Earth at this point. On the other hand, it will have its least kinetic energy and greatest potential energy at the extreme positions of its swing, because it has zero speed and is farthest from Earth at these points. However, when taking the frictional forces into account, the system loses mechanical energy with each swing because of the work done by the pendulum to oppose these non-conservative forces.
That the loss of mechanical energy in a system always resulted in an increase of the system 's temperature has been known for a long time, but it was the amateur physicist James Prescott Joule who first experimentally demonstrated how a certain amount of work done against friction resulted in a definite quantity of heat which should be conceived as the random motions of the particles that comprise matter. This equivalence between mechanical energy and heat is especially important when considering colliding objects. In an elastic collision, mechanical energy is conserved -- the sum of the mechanical energies of the colliding objects is the same before and after the collision. After an inelastic collision, however, the mechanical energy of the system will have changed. Usually, the mechanical energy before the collision is greater than the mechanical energy after the collision. In inelastic collisions, some of the mechanical energy of the colliding objects is transformed into kinetic energy of the constituent particles. This increase in kinetic energy of the constituent particles is perceived as an increase in temperature. The collision can be described by saying some of the mechanical energy of the colliding objects has been converted into an equal amount of heat. Thus, the total energy of the system remains unchanged though the mechanical energy of the system has reduced.
A satellite of mass m (\ displaystyle m) at a distance r (\ displaystyle r) from the centre of Earth possesses both kinetic energy, K (\ displaystyle K), (by virtue of its motion) and gravitational potential energy, U (\ displaystyle U), (by virtue of its position within the Earth 's gravitational field; Earth 's mass is M (\ displaystyle M)). Hence, mechanical energy E m e c h a n i c a l (\ displaystyle E_ (\ mathrm (mechanical))) of a satellite is given by
If the satellite is in circular orbit, the energy conservation equation can be further simplified into
since in circular motion, Newton 's 2nd Law of motion can be taken to be
Today, many technological devices convert mechanical energy into other forms of energy or vice versa. These devices can be placed in these categories:
The classification of energy into different types often follows the boundaries of the fields of study in the natural sciences.
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the poon swaraj resolution was adopted in the annual session of indian national congress held at | Purna Swaraj - Wikipedia
The Purna Swaraj declaration, or Declaration of the Independence of India, was promulgated by the Indian National Congress under the influence of Bhagat Singh and other revolutionaries on 19 December 1929, resolving the Congress and Indian nationalists to fight for Purna Swaraj, or complete self - rule independent of the British Empire (literally in Sanskrit, purna, "complete, '' swa, "self, '' raj, "rule, '' thus "complete self - rule '').
The flag of India had been hoisted by Gandhi on 31 December 1929, in Lahore, modern - day Pakistan. The Congress asked the people of India to observe 26 January as Republic Day. The flag of India was hoisted publicly across India by Congress volunteers, nationalists and the public.
Before 1930, few Indian political parties had openly embraced the goal of political independence from the United Kingdom. The All India Home Rule League had been advocating Home Rule for India: dominion status within the British Empire, as granted to Australia, Canada, the Irish Free State, Newfoundland, New Zealand, and South Africa. The All India Muslim League favoured dominion status as well, and opposed calls for outright Indian independence. The Indian Liberal Party, by far the most pro-British party, explicitly opposed India 's independence and even dominion status if it weakened India 's links with the British Empire. The Indian National Congress, the largest Indian political party of the time, was at the head of the national debate. Congress leader and famous poet Hasrat Mohani was the first activist to demand complete independence (Poorna Swaraj) from the British in 1921 from an All - India Congress Forum. Veteran Congress leaders such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Aurobindo and Bipin Chandra Pal had also advocated explicit Indian independence from the Empire.
Following the 1919 Amritsar Massacre, there was considerable public outrage against British rule. Europeans, (civilians and officials) were targets and victims of violence across India. In 1920, Gandhi and the Congress committed themselves to Swaraj, described as political and spiritual independence. At the time, Gandhi described this as the basic demand of all Indians; he specifically said that the question of whether India would remain within the Empire or leave it completely would be answered by the behaviour and response of the British. Between 1920 and 1922, Mahatma Gandhi led the Non-Cooperation movement: nationwide civil disobedience to oppose the Rowlatt Acts and the exclusion of Indians from the government, and the denial of political and civil freedoms.
In 1928, the British government further outraged people across India by appointing a seven - man committee led by Sir John Simon, it was an all - European commission Simon Commission to deliberate on constitutional and political reforms for India. Indian political parties were neither consulted nor asked to involve themselves in the process. Upon arrival in India, Chairman Sir John Simon and other commission members were met with angry public demonstrations, which followed them everywhere. The death of a prominent Indian leader, Lala Lajpat Rai, from severe beatings by British police officials further outraged the Indian public.
The Congress appointed an all - Indian commission to propose constitutional reforms for India. Members of other Indian political parties joined the commission led by Congress President Motilal Nehru. The Nehru Report demanded that India be granted self - government under the dominion status within the Empire. While most other Indian political parties supported the Nehru commission 's work, it was opposed by the Indian Liberal Party and the All India Muslim League. The British ignored the commission, its report and refused to introduce political reform.
But the Nehru Report was also controversial within the Congress. Younger nationalist leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru demanded that the Congress resolve to make a complete and explicit break from all ties with the British. Jawaharlal Nehru had been influenced by the idea of Bhagat Singh ("total independence ''), which Singh had introduced a resolution demanding in 1927, which was rejected because of Gandhi 's opposition. Now Bose and Nehru opposed dominion status, which would retain the Monarch of the United Kingdom as the constitutional head of state of India (although in the separate capacity as King of India), and preserve political powers for the British Parliament in Indian constitutional affairs. They were supported in their stand by a large number of rank - and - file Congressmen.
In December 1928, Congress session was held in Kolkata and Mohandas Gandhi proposed a resolution that called for the British to grant dominion status to India within two years. After Some time Gandhi brokered a further compromise by reducing the time given from two years to one. Jawaharlal Nehru voted for the new resolution, while Subhash Bose told his supporters that he would not oppose the resolution, and abstained from voting himself. The All India Congress Committee voted 118 to 45 in its favor (the 45 votes came from supporters of a complete break from the British). However, when Bose introduced an amendment during the open session of Congress that sought a complete break with the British, Gandhi admonished the move:
You may take the name of independence on your lips but all your muttering will be an empty formula if there is no honor behind it. If you are not prepared to stand by your words, where will independence be?
The amendment was rejected, by 1350 to 973, and the resolution was fully adopted.
On 31 October 1929, the Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin announced that the government would meet with Indian representatives in London for a Round Table Conference. To facilitate Indian participation, Irwin met with Mohandas Gandhi, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and out - going Congress President Motilal Nehru to discuss the meeting. Gandhi asked Irwin if the conference would proceed on the basis of dominion status and Irwin said he could not assure that, resulting in the end of the meeting.
As a result of the denial of reforms and political rights, and the persistent ignorance of Indian political parties, the Indian National Congress grew increasingly cohesive -- unified in the desire to oust the British from India completely. A very large number of Congress volunteers and delegates, members of other political parties and an especially large public gathering attended the session convened in Lahore. Despite the bitterly cold weather, Pattabhi Sitaramayya records that:
The heat of passion and excitement, the resentment at the failure of negotiation, the flushing of faces on hearing the war drums -- oh, it was all in marked contrast to the weather.
Jawaharlal Nehru was elected President and veteran leaders like Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel returned to the Congress Working Committee. They approved a declaration of independence, which stated:
The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally and spiritually... Therefore... India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraj or complete independence.
At midnight on New Year 's Eve, President Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the tricolour flag of India upon the banks of the Ravi in Lahore, which later became part of Pakistan. A pledge of independence was read out, which included a readiness to withhold taxes. The massive gathering of public attending the ceremony were asked if they agreed with it, and the vast majority of people were witnessed to raise their hands in approval. One hundred seventy two Indian members of central and provincial legislatures resigned in support of the resolution and in accordance with Indian public sentiment.
The Declaration of Independence was officially promulgated on 26 January 1930. Gandhi and other Indian leaders would immediately begin the planning of a massive national non-violence would encourage the common people not to attack Britishers even if they attcked them. The Salt Satyagraha was initiated by.
There is some dispute as to who drafted the text of the declaration. Gandhi directly claimed authorship in 1940, while other sources either cite Nehru as a major editor or attribute it to Nehru outright.
The Congress regularly observed 26 January as the Independence Day of India -- commemorating those who campaigned for Indian independence. In 1947, the British agreed to transfer power and political finesse to India, and 15 August became the official Independence Day. However, the new Constitution of India, as drafted and approved by the Constituent Assembly, was mandated to take effect on 26 January 1950, to commemorate the 1930 declaration. On that day in 1950, India became a republic. 26 January is now celebrated as Republic Day of India every year.
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what is the album cover for awaken my love | "Awaken, My Love! '' - Wikipedia
"Awaken, My Love! '' is the third studio album by American rapper and singer Childish Gambino. It was released on December 2, 2016, by Glassnote Records. Consisting of tracks being sung rather than rapped, its fusion of psychedelic soul, funk and R&B influences was considered a bold departure from the predominately hip hop style of his prior work. The album was produced by Glover and his longtime collaborator, Ludwig Göransson.
"Awaken, My Love! '' received generally positive reviews from critics and debuted at number five on the US Billboard 200. It also debuted at number two on the US Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums chart. The album was supported by two singles, "Me and Your Mama '' and "Redbone ''.
On June 17, 2016, after a hiatus from social media, Glover tweeted "pharos. earth '', a link to download his new app. The app itself placed the user in outer space looking at a small blue planet while a clock counted down to zero. The app then had the user crash down into space, placing them on a map that was located on Joshua Tree, California. The app then showed the dates of his upcoming performances at Joshua Tree Hill, where the user could also purchase tickets. The concert festival was to debut the album and give the audience the "full - album experience ''. From September 3 to 5, nearly three months before the release of his album, Glover held three concert performances at Joshua Tree Hill to debut the album. Glover wore glow - in - the - dark paint on his braids and a pink and yellow skirt, with his bandmates wearing similar attire. He performed eleven songs during the concert with minimal rapping, mainly featuring a funk / jazz vibe.
Upon its release, Glover updated his Pharos app so users could watch the performance of his first lead single, "Me and Your Mama '' at Joshua Tree through a virtual reality lens on the phone.
"Me and Your Mama '' was released as the album 's lead single on Beats 1 radio and the iTunes Store on November 10, 2016, while "Redbone '' was released a week later, premiering on Annie Mac 's Hottest Record on BBC Radio 1.
"Awaken, My Love! '' received generally positive reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album has received an average score of 77, based on 25 reviews. Mosi Reeves of Rolling Stone wrote that "'' Awaken, My Love! '' is an enthralling trip into the land of funk, '' while Dan Bogosian from The A.V. Club wrote "Is Childish Gambino suddenly the new Prince, a virtuoso multi-instrumentalist always ready to keep the world an arm 's length away from knowing what he 's thinking? Is he D'Angelo, a soul god fighting against his first image with all - time great music? No. He is Donald Glover, a man who can perform and write comedy, act in drama, and drop a truly wonderful album on short notice with all the influences and instructions spelled out. '' Perry Kostidakis of the FSView & Florida Flambeau wrote that "with each successive album, Childish Gambino has exhibited phenomenal growth, but no more than on his latest release. Unflinchingly ambitious and boldly different, "Awaken, My Love '' calls back the sounds and themes of the 1970s funkadelic movement to provide a wholly original, emotional and immersive musical experience, '' with The Guardian 's Gwilym Mumford adding "only the limitations of his voice occasionally let him down -- he does n't quite have the range to nail Awaken 's more ostentatious vocal lines. Still, it 's a minor gripe when there 's so much here to enjoy. ''
El Hunt of DIY said, "Colourful, brilliantly messy, and a fully committed hodge - podge of psych and spacecake croons, "Awaken, My Love! '' is unlikely to shed further light on exactly what Childish Gambino is at heart, but by now, Glover 's erratic approach is surely part of his central appeal. '' Jon Pareles of The New York Times said, "It 's at once a homage and a parody, equally aware of that era 's excesses and its glories, of the way that the most memorable 1970s R&B merged sensuality, activism, humor, toughness, outlandishness, futurism, soul roots, wild eccentricity and utopian community spirit. That 's an extremely high bar, but at its best, "Awaken, My Love! '' recalls many of those virtues. '' Adam Kivel of Consequence of Sound said, "Some of the same issues that dogged Childish Gambino 's previous attempts at this sort of powerful expression linger here, but Glover 's anguished wail strikes a far more resonant chord than his impish punchlines. '' A. Harmony of Exclaim! said, "Despite this galling blunder ('' California ", an infuriating interruption to an otherwise cohesive project), Gambino knocks Awaken out of the park. '' Tim Sendra of AllMusic said, "'' Awaken, My Love! '' is a stone - cold blast from beginning to end. ''
Matthew Strauss of Pitchfork said, "There are times, however, when that nodding feels more like mimicry than anything else. Maybe he 'll figure out how to smuggle Donald Glover 's heart into Childish Gambino 's brain eventually, but if he has n't figured out what he wants out of Childish Gambino yet, it 's increasingly rewarding watching him try. '' Scott Glaysher of XXL said, "Childish Gambino gets definite props for pushing the envelope and refusing to operate within any genre confinements on this refreshing 49 - minute trip through the funkadelic 1970s. While these blurred lines make this album a little hard to follow, "Awaken, My Love! '' proves his versatility as a rapper turning over a new leaf. '' Kitty Empire of The Observer said, "Throughout, Glover 's genre fluency is unimpeachable; the only minor drawback is the overmannered air of some of these period pieces, where there could be more straight - up abandon, as on the persuasive "Me and Your Mama ''. '' Brian Josephs of Spin said, "That combination of bottled passion and efficiency spreads itself evenly through the 11 - track set. '' Jonathan Wroble of Slant Magazine said, "A maddening ride with an authenticity problem, "Awaken, My Love! '' finds Glover confusing his idols for muses. ''
Variance Magazine placed "Awaken My Love! '' at number 15 on their "50 Best Albums of 2016 '' year - end list.
"Awaken, My Love! '' debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 with 101,000 album - equivalent units, marking the third highest debut of the week. It was the fourth best - selling album of the week, selling 72,000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan. The album was also streamed 41.5 million times in the first week. It is Glover 's highest - charting album. As of December 28, 2016, the album has sold 151,000 total album equivalents, with 100,000 in physical album sales. On June 29, 2017, the album has been certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling 500,000 in combined pure sales and album - equivalent units.
Musicians
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shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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what accounts for the largest portion of gdp | List of countries by GDP sector composition - Wikipedia
This is a list of countries by gross domestic product (GDP) sector composition.
The figures are based on nominal GDP and GDP (PPP) estimates and sector composition ratios provided by the CIA World Factbook at market or government official exchange rates with figures in trillions of United States dollars.
Nominal GDP sector composition, 2015 (in percentage and in millions of dollars):
PPP GDP sector composition, 2015 (in percentage and in millions of dollars)
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how many countries will qualify for world cup from south america | 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONMEBOL) - wikipedia
The South American section of the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification acted as qualifiers for the 2018 FIFA World Cup to be held in Russia, for national teams which are members of the South American Football Confederation (CONMEBOL). A total of 4.5 slots (4 direct slots and 1 inter-confederation play - off slot) in the final tournament were available for CONMEBOL teams.
The qualification structure was the same as for the previous five tournaments. The ten teams played in a league of home - and - away round - robin matches. The top four teams qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and the fifth - placed team advanced to the inter-confederation play - offs.
Unlike previous qualifying tournaments where the fixtures were pre-determined, the fixtures were determined by draw, which was held as part of the 2018 FIFA World Cup Preliminary Draw on 25 July 2015, starting 18: 00 MSK (UTC + 3), at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
For scheduling reasons, Argentina and Brazil were automatically positioned as Teams 4 and 5 respectively to ensure that no team has to play both of them on any double matchday. The remaining eight teams were drawn into one of the remaining eight positions from Teams 1 to 10 (except 4 and 5).
All 10 national teams from CONMEBOL entered qualification.
Note: Bolded teams qualified for the World Cup. Italicised team advanced to the inter-confederation play - offs.
There were a total of 18 matchdays: four in 2015, eight in 2016, and six in 2017.
The inter-confederation play - offs were scheduled to be played between 6 -- 14 November 2017.
Bolivia v Uruguay
Colombia v Peru
Venezuela v Paraguay
Chile v Brazil
Argentina v Ecuador
Ecuador v Bolivia
Uruguay v Colombia
Paraguay v Argentina
Brazil v Venezuela
Peru v Chile
Bolivia v Venezuela
Ecuador v Uruguay
Chile v Colombia
Argentina v Brazil
Peru v Paraguay
Colombia v Argentina
Venezuela v Ecuador
Paraguay v Bolivia
Uruguay v Chile
Brazil v Peru
Bolivia v Colombia
Ecuador v Paraguay
Chile v Argentina
Peru v Venezuela
Brazil v Uruguay
Colombia v Ecuador
Uruguay v Peru
Venezuela v Chile
Argentina v Bolivia
Paraguay v Brazil
Bolivia v Peru
Colombia v Venezuela
Ecuador v Brazil
Argentina v Uruguay
Paraguay v Chile
Uruguay v Paraguay
Chile v Bolivia
Venezuela v Argentina
Brazil v Colombia
Peru v Ecuador
Ecuador v Chile
Uruguay v Venezuela
Paraguay v Colombia
Brazil v Bolivia
Peru v Argentina
Bolivia v Ecuador
Colombia v Uruguay
Argentina v Paraguay
Chile v Peru
Venezuela v Brazil
Colombia v Chile
Uruguay v Ecuador
Paraguay v Peru
Brazil v Argentina
Venezuela v Bolivia
Bolivia v Paraguay
Ecuador v Venezuela
Argentina v Colombia
Chile v Uruguay
Peru v Brazil
Colombia v Bolivia
Paraguay v Ecuador
Uruguay v Brazil
Argentina v Chile
Venezuela v Peru
Bolivia v Argentina
Ecuador v Colombia
Chile v Venezuela
Brazil v Paraguay
Peru v Uruguay
Venezuela v Colombia
Chile v Paraguay
Uruguay v Argentina
Brazil v Ecuador
Peru v Bolivia
Bolivia v Chile
Colombia v Brazil
Ecuador v Peru
Argentina v Venezuela
Paraguay v Uruguay
Bolivia v Brazil
Venezuela v Uruguay
Argentina v Peru
Chile v Ecuador
Colombia v Paraguay
Brazil v Chile
Ecuador v Argentina
Paraguay v Venezuela
Peru v Colombia
Uruguay v Bolivia
The draw for the inter-confederation play - offs was held as part of the 2018 FIFA World Cup Preliminary Draw on 25 July 2015, starting 18: 00 MSK (UTC + 3), at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg. The fifth - placed team from CONMEBOL was drawn against the first - placed team from OFC, with the CONMEBOL team hosting the second leg.
The following teams from CONMEBOL have qualified for the final tournament.
There were 242 goals scored in 90 matches, for an average of 2.69 goals per match.
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what role did international organizations play in africa during the cold war | Organisation of African unity - wikipedia
-- in Africa (light blue & dark grey) -- in the African Union (light blue)
The Organisation of African Unity (OAU; French: Organisation de l'unité africaine (OUA)) was established on 25 May 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia with 32 signatory governments. It was disbanded on 9 July 2002 by its last chairperson, South African President Thabo Mbeki, and replaced by the African Union (AU). Some of the key aims of the OAU were to encourage political and economic integration among member states, and to eradicate colonialism and neo-colonialism from the African continent. Although it did achieved some success, there were also differences of opinion as to how that was going to be achieved.
The OAU was founded in May 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia by 32 African states with the main aim of bringing the African nations together and resolve the issues within the continent. Its first ever conference was held on 1st May 1963 at Addis Ababa. In that conference, the late Gambia historian, and one of the leading Gambian nationalists and Pan-Africanists at the time -- Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof delivered a speech in front of the member states -- in which he said:
The OAU had the following primary aims:
A Liberation Committee was established to aid independence movements and look after the interests of already - independent states. The OAU also aimed to stay neutral in terms of global politics, which would prevent them from being controlled once more by outside forces -- an especial danger with the Cold War.
The OAU had other aims, too:
Soon after achieving independence, a number of African states expressed a growing desire for more unity within the continent. Not everyone was agreed on how this unity could be achieved, however, and two opinionated groups emerged in this respect:
Some of the initial discussions took place at Sanniquellie, Liberia. The dispute was eventually resolved when Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie I invited the two groups to Addis Ababa, where the OAU and its headquarters were subsequently established. The Charter of the Organisation was signed by 32 independent African states.
At the time of the OAU 's disbanding, 53 out of the 54 African states were members; Morocco left on 12 November 1984 following the admission of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as the government of Western Sahara in 1982.
The organisation was widely derided as a bureaucratic "talking shop '' with little power. It struggled to enforce its decisions, and its lack of armed force made intervention exceedingly difficult. Civil wars in Nigeria and Angola continued unabated for years, and the OAU could do nothing to stop them.
The policy of non-interference in the affairs of member states also limited the effectiveness of the OAU. Thus, when human rights were violated, as in Uganda under Idi Amin in the 1970s, the OAU was powerless to stop them.
The Organisation was praised by Ghanaian former United Nations Secretary - General Kofi Annan for bringing Africans together. Nevertheless, in its 39 years of existence, critics argue that the OAU did little to protect the rights and liberties of African citizens from their own political leaders, often dubbing it as a "Dictators ' Club '' or "Dictator 's Trade Union ''.
The OAU was, however, successful in some respects. Many of its members were members of the UN, too, and they stood together within the latter organisation to safeguard African interests -- especially in respect of lingering colonialism. Its pursuit of African unity, therefore, was in some ways successful.
Total unity was difficult to achieve, however, as the OAU was largely divided. The former French colonies, still dependent on France, had formed the Monrovia Group, and there was a further split between those that supported the United States and those that supported the USSR in the Cold War of ideologies. The pro-Socialist faction was led by Kwame Nkrumah, while Félix Houphouët - Boigny of the Ivory Coast led the pro-capitalists. Because of these divisions, it was difficult for the OAU to take action against states involved in internal conflicts because it could rarely reach an agreement on what was to be done.
The OAU did play a pivotal role in eradicating colonialism and white minority rule in Africa. It gave weapons, training and military bases to rebel groups fighting white minority and colonial rule. Groups such as the ANC and PAC, fighting apartheid, and ZANU and ZAPU, fighting to topple the government of Rhodesia, were aided in their endeavours by the OAU. African harbours were closed to the South African government, and South African aircraft were prohibited from flying over the rest of the continent. The UN was convinced by the OAU to expel South Africa from bodies such as the World Health Organisation.
The OAU also worked with the UN to ease refugee problems. It set up the African Development Bank for economic projects intended to make Africa financially stronger. Although all African countries eventually won their independence, it remained difficult for them to become totally independent of their former colonisers. There was often continued reliance on the former colonial powers for economic aid, which often came with strings attached: loans had to be paid back at high interest - rates, and goods had to be sold to the aiders at low rates.
The USA and USSR intervened in post-colonial Africa in pursuit of their own objectives. Help was sometimes provided in the form of technology and aid - workers. Despite the fight to keep "Westerners '' (Colonialists) out of African affairs, the OAU has failed to achieve to meet goals set up to advocate African affairs. The Organisation still heavily depends on Western help (Military and Economic) to intervene in African affairs despite African leaders displeasure dealing with the international community especially Western Countries.
Autonomous specialised agencies, working under the auspices of the OAU, were:
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who said no plan survives first contact with the enemy | Helmuth von Moltke the Elder - wikipedia
Helmuth Karl Bernhard Graf von Moltke (26 October 1800, Parchim, Mecklenburg - Schwerin -- 24 April 1891, Berlin) was a German Field Marshal. The chief of staff of the Prussian Army for thirty years, he is regarded as the creator of a new, more modern method of directing armies in the field. He is described as embodying "Prussian military organization and tactical genius ''. He is often referred to as Moltke the Elder to distinguish him from his nephew Helmuth Johann Ludwig von Moltke, who commanded the German Army at the outbreak of World War I.
Moltke was born in Parchim, Mecklenburg - Schwerin, son of the Danish Generalleutnant Friedrich Philipp Victor von Moltke (1768 -- 1845). In 1805, his father settled in Holstein, but about the same time was left impoverished when the French burned his country house and plundered his town house in Lübeck, where his wife and children were during the Fourth Coalition. Young Moltke therefore grew up under difficult circumstances. At nine he was sent as a boarder to Hohenfelde in Holstein, and at age twelve went to the cadet school at Copenhagen, being destined for the Danish army and court. In 1818 he became a page to the king of Denmark and a second lieutenant in a Danish infantry regiment.
At twenty - one Moltke resolved to enter the Prussian service, in spite of the loss of seniority. In 1822 he became a second lieutenant in the 8th Infantry Regiment stationed at Frankfurt (Oder). At twenty - three, he was allowed to enter the general war school (later called the Prussian Military Academy), where he studied the full three years and passed in 1826.
For a year Moltke had charge of a cadet school at Frankfurt an der Oder, then he was for three years employed on the military survey in Silesia and Posen. In 1832 he was seconded for service on the general staff at Berlin, to which he was transferred in 1833 on promotion to first lieutenant. He was at this time regarded as a brilliant officer by his superiors, including Prince William, then a lieutenant - general.
Max Boot says of Moltke in his War Made New:
Moltke loved music, poetry, art, archaeology, and theater. He knew seven languages (German, Danish, English, French, Italian, Spanish, and Turkish). He was a prolific artist who filled sketchbooks with landscapes and portraits, as well as a popular author... his account of travels in Turkey, released after his return to Berlin in 1840 and illustrated with his own drawings, turned him into a literary celebrity, a role that he embraced by donning a Turkish fez and giving public lectures... For all his catholicity of interests, Moltke was no closet liberal. He was a nationalist to the core who was appalled by the liberal revolutions that swept Europe on 1848. He placed his faith in the king and the forces of the old regime.
Moltke was well received at court and in the best society of Berlin. His tastes inclined him to literature, to historical study and to travel. In 1827 he had published a short romance, The Two Friends. In 1831 he wrote an essay entitled Holland and Belgium in their Mutual Relations, from their Separation under Philip II to their Reunion under William I. A year later he wrote An Account of the Internal Circumstances and Social Conditions of Poland, a study based both on reading and on personal observation of Polish life and character.
In 1832 he contracted to translate Gibbon 's The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire into German, for which he was to receive 75 marks, his object being to earn the money to buy a horse. In eighteen months he had finished nine volumes out of twelve, but the publisher failed to produce the book and Moltke never received more than 25 marks.
In 1835 on his promotion as captain, Moltke obtained six months leave to travel in south - eastern Europe. After a short stay in Constantinople he was requested by the Sultan Mahmud II to help modernize the Ottoman Empire army, and being duly authorized from Berlin he accepted the offer. He remained two years at Constantinople, learned Turkish and surveyed the city of Constantinople, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. He travelled through Wallachia, Bulgaria and Rumelia, and made many other journeys on both sides of the Strait.
In 1838 Moltke was sent as adviser to the Ottoman general commanding the troops in Anatolia, who was to carry on a campaign against Muhammad Ali of Egypt (for details see Ali 's rebellion.) During the summer Moltke made extensive reconnaissances and surveys, riding several thousand miles in the course of his journey. He navigated the rapids of the Euphrates and visited and mapped many parts of the Ottoman Empire. In 1839 the army moved south to fight the Egyptians, but upon the approach of the enemy the general refused to listen to Moltke 's advice. Moltke resigned his post of staff officer and took charge of the artillery. In the Battle of Nezib (modern - day Nisibis) on 24 June 1839, the Ottoman army was beaten. With great difficulty Moltke made his way back to the Black Sea, and thence to Constantinople. His patron, Sultan Mahmud II, was dead, so he returned to Berlin where he arrived, broken in health, in December 1839.
Once home Moltke published some of the letters he had written as Letters on Conditions and Events in Turkey in the Years 1835 to 1839. This book was well received at the time. Early the next year he married a young English woman, Maria Bertha Helena Burt, the daughter of John Heyliger Burt esq of St. Croix in the Danish West Indies, who married his sister Augusta. It was a happy union, though there were no children.
In 1840 Moltke had been appointed to the staff of the 4th Army Corps, stationed at Berlin and he published his maps of Constantinople, and, jointly with other German travellers, a new map of Asia Minor and a memoir on the geography of that country. He became fascinated by railroads and he was one of the first directors of the Hamburg - Berlin railway. In 1843 he published an article What Considerations should determine the Choice of the Course of Railways?.
In 1845 Moltke published The Russo - Turkish Campaign in Europe, 1828 -- 1829; this book was also well received in military circles. Also in that year he served in Rome as personal adjutant to Prince Henry of Prussia, which allowed him to create another map of the Eternal City (published in 1852). In 1848, after a brief return to the General Staff in Berlin, he became Chief of the Staff of the 4th Army Corps, of which the headquarters were then at Magdeburg, where he remained seven years, during which he rose to Lieutenant Colonel and Colonel.
In 1855 Moltke served as personal aide to Prince Frederick (later Emperor Frederick III). He accompanied the prince to England (for his marriage), as well as to Paris and to Saint Petersburg for the coronation of Alexander II of Russia.
In 1857 Moltke was given the position Chief of the Prussian General Staff, a position he held for the next 30 years (though after the establishment of the German Empire, the Prussian General Staff 's title was changed to "Great General Staff '', as it would have overall direction of the various German armies during war). As soon as he gained the position he went to work making changes to the strategic and tactical methods of the Prussian army; changes in armament and in means of communication; changes in the training of staff officers (such as instituting staff rides); and changes to the method for the mobilization of the army. He also instituted a formal study of European politics in connection with the plans for campaigns which might become necessary. In short, he rapidly put into place the features of a modern general staff.
In 1859 the Austro - Sardinian War in Italy caused the mobilization of the Prussian army, though it did not fight. After the mobilization, the army was reorganized and its strength was nearly doubled. The reorganization was the work not of Moltke but of the Prince Regent, William, and the Minister of War, Albrecht von Roon. Moltke watched the Italian campaign closely and wrote a history of it (published in 1862). This history was attributed on the title - page to the historical division of the Prussian staff (yet another first in military affairs).
In December 1862 Moltke was asked for an opinion upon the military aspect of the quarrel with Denmark. He thought the difficulty would be to bring the war to an end, as the Danish army would, if possible, retire to the islands, where, as the Danes had the command of the sea, it could not be attacked. He sketched a plan for turning the flank of the Danish army before the attack upon its position in front of Schleswig. He suggested that by this means its retreat might be cut off.
When the Second Schleswig War began in February 1864, Moltke was not sent with the Prussian forces, but kept at Berlin. His war plan was mismanaged and the Danish army escaped to the fortresses of Dybbøl and Fredericia, each of which commanded a retreat across a strait to an island. Dybbøl and Fredericia were besieged, Dybbøl taken by storm, and Fredericia abandoned by the Danes without assault -- but the war showed no signs of ending. The Danish army was safe on the islands of Als and Funen.
On April 30, 1864, Moltke was sent to be chief of the staff for the allied (German) forces. After a two - month armistice, the German army attacked the Danes in the island of Als (June 29). The Danes evacuated Als and shortly thereafter agreed to the German peace terms. Moltke 's appearance on the scene had transformed the war, and his influence with the king had acquired a firm basis. Accordingly, when in 1866 the quarrel with Austria came to a head, Moltke 's plans were adopted and executed.
A disciple of Carl von Clausewitz, whose theory of war was more an effort to grasp its essential nature, rather than of Jomini, who expounded a system of rules, Moltke regarded strategy as a practical art of adapting means to ends, and had developed the methods of Napoleon in accordance with altered conditions of his age. He had been the first to realize the great defensive power of modern firearms, and had inferred from it that an enveloping attack had become more formidable than the attempt to pierce an enemy 's front.
Moltke had pondered the tactics of Napoleon at the Battle of Bautzen, when the emperor brought up Ney 's corps, coming from a great distance, against the flank of the allies, rather than to unite it with his own force before the battle; he had also drawn this conclusion from the combined action of the allies at the Battle of Waterloo. Additionally, Moltke realized that the increase in firepower reduced the risk a defender ran in splitting his forces, while the increase in the size of armies made outflanking maneuvers more practical.
At the same time Moltke had worked out the conditions of the march and supply of an army. Only one army corps could be moved along one road in the same day; to put two or three corps on the same road meant that the rear corps could not be made use of in a battle at the front. Several corps stationed close together in a small area could not be fed for more than a day or two. Accordingly, he believed that the essence of strategy in his day lay in arrangements for the separation of the corps for marching and their concentration in time for battle. In order to make a large army manageable, it must be broken up into separate armies or groups of corps, each group under a commander authorized to regulate its movements and action subject to the instructions of the commander - in - chief as regards the direction and purpose of its operations.
Moltke also realized that the expansion in the size of armies since the 1820s made it essentially impossible to exercise detailed control over the entire force as Napoleon or Wellington had done in battle. Subordinates would have to use initiative and independent judgment for the forces to be effective in battle. Therefore, overall campaign and battle plans should encourage and take advantage of the decentralization that would be necessary in any case. In this new concept, commanders of distant detachments were required to exercise initiative in their decision making and von Moltke emphasized the benefits of developing officers who could do this within the limits of the senior commander 's intent.
He accomplished this by means of directives stating his intentions, rather than detailed orders, and he was willing to accept deviations from a directive provided that it was within the general framework of the mission. Von Moltke held this view firmly and it later became a fundamental of all German military theory, especially for the field manual Truppenführung.
Moltke 's main thesis was that military strategy had to be understood as a system of options since it was only possible to plan the beginning of a military operation. As a result, he considered the main task of military leaders to consist in the extensive preparation of all possible outcomes. His thesis can be summed up by two statements, one famous and one less so, translated into English as "No plan of operations extends with certainty beyond the first encounter with the enemy 's main strength '' (or "no plan survives contact with the enemy '') and "Strategy is a system of expedients ''.
Moltke planned and led the successful military operations during the Austro - Prussian War of 1866.
In the strategy for the war the main points are as follows. First Moltke demonstrated a concentration of effort. There were two enemy groups opposing the Prussians, the Austro - Saxon armies, 270,000; and their allied North and South German armies, some 120,000 strong. The Prussian forces were smaller by some 60,000, but Moltke was determined to be superior at the decisive point. The army placed against Austria was 278,000 men, leaving just 48,000 men remaining to defend against Austria 's German allies. Those 48,000 under Falckenstein managed to capture the Hanoverian army in less than two weeks, and then to attack and drive away the South German forces.
In dealing with the Austrian and Saxon army, the difficulty was to have the Prussian army ready first. This was not easy, as the king would not mobilize until after the Austrians. Moltke 's railway knowledge helped him to save time. Five railway lines led from the various Prussian provinces to a series of points on the southern frontier. By employing all these railways at once, Moltke had all his army corps moved simultaneously from their peace quarters to the frontier.
After marching into Saxony, the Saxon army retreated into Bohemia. Moltke had two Prussian armies about 100 miles apart. The problem was how to bring them together so as to catch the Austrian army between them like the French at Waterloo between Wellington and Blücher. He determined to bring his own two armies together by directing each of them to advance towards Gitschin. He foresaw that the march of the Crown Prince would probably bring him into collision with a portion of the Austrian army; but the Crown Prince had 100,000 men, and it was not likely that the Austrians could have a stronger force.
The Austrians, under Ludwig von Benedek, marched faster than Moltke expected, and might have opposed Prince Frederick Charles (the Red Prince) with four or five corps; but Benedek 's attention was centered on Crown Prince Frederick, and his four corps, not under a common command, were beaten in detail. On July 1, Benedek collected his shaken forces into a defensive position in front of Königgrätz. Moltke 's two armies were now within a short march of one another and of the enemy. On July 3, they were brought into action, the first army against the Austrian forces and the second against the Austrian right flank. The Austrian army was completely defeated and the campaign and war were won.
Moltke was not quite satisfied with the Battle of Königgrätz. He tried to have the Prussian Army of the Elbe brought up above Königgrätz, so as to prevent the Austrian retreat, but its commanding officer failed to get there in time. He also tried to prevent the Prussian First Army from pushing its attack too hard, hoping in that way to keep the Austrians in their position until their retreat should be cut off by the Crown Prince 's army, but this also did not happen.
During the negotiations, Otto von Bismarck opposed the king 's wish to annex the Kingdom of Saxony and other territory beyond what was actually taken; he feared the active intervention of France. Moltke, however, was confident of beating both French and Austrians if the French should intervene, and he submitted to Bismarck his plans in case a war against both France and Austria proved necessary.
After the peace, the Prussian government voted Moltke the sum of 30,000 marks, with which he bought the estate of Kreisau, near Schweidnitz (now Świdnica) in Silesia.
In 1867 The Campaign of 1866 in Germany was published. This history was produced under Moltke 's personal supervision and was regarded as quite accurate at the time. On December 24, 1868, Moltke 's wife died at Berlin. Her remains were buried in a small chapel erected by Moltke as a mausoleum in the park at Kreisau.
Moltke again planned and led the Prussian armies in the Franco - Prussian War (1870 -- 71), which paved the way for the creation of the Prussian - led German Empire in 1871. The aspects of such a war had occupied Moltke 's attention almost continuously since 1857; documents published after his death show the many times he considered such a war and the best arrangement of the Prussian or German forces for such a campaign. The arrangements for the transport of the army by railway were revised annually in order to suit the changes in his plans brought about by political conditions and by the growth of the army, as well as by the improvement of the Prussian system of railways.
The successes of 1866 had strengthened Moltke 's position, so that when on July 5, 1870, the order for the mobilization of the Prussian and South German forces was issued, his plans were adopted without dispute. Five days later he was appointed Chief of Staff of the Army for the duration of the war. This gave Moltke the right to issue orders which were equivalent to royal commands.
Moltke 's plan was to assemble the whole army south of Mainz, this being one district in which a single army could secure the defence of the whole frontier. If the French disregarded the neutrality of Belgium and Luxembourg, and advanced towards Cologne (or any other point on the Lower Rhine), the German army would be able to strike at their flank. At the same time the Rhine itself, with the fortresses of Koblenz, Cologne and Wesel, would be a serious obstacle in their path. If the French should attempt to invade south Germany, an advance by the Germans up the Rhine river would threaten their communications. Moltke expected that the French would be compelled by the direction of their railways to collect the greater part of their army near Metz, and a smaller portion near Strasbourg.
The German forces were grouped into three armies: the first of 60,000 men under Steinmetz, on the Moselle below Trier; the second of 130,000 men, under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia, around Homburg (with a reserve of 60,000 men behind them); the third under the Crown Prince Frederick of 130,000 men, at Landau. Three army corps were held back in north - Eastern Germany, in case Austria - Hungary should make common cause with France.
Moltke 's plan was that the three armies, while advancing, should make a right wheel, so that the first army on the right would reach the bank of the Moselle opposite Metz, while the second and third armies should push forward, the third army to defeat the French force near Strasbourg, and the second to strike the Moselle near Pont - à - Mousson. If the French army should be found in front of the second army, it would be attacked in front by the second army and in flank by the first or the third (or both). If it should be found on or north of the line from Saarburg to Lunéville, it could still be attacked from two sides by the second and third armies in co-operation. The intention of the great right wheel was to attack the principal French army in such a direction as to drive it north and cut its communications with Paris. The fortress of Metz was to be only monitored, and the main German forces, after defeating the chief French army, would then march against Paris.
This plan was carried out in its broad outlines. The Battle of Wörth was brought on prematurely, and therefore led, not to the capture of MacMahon 's army, which was intended, but only to its defeat and hasty retreat as far as Châlons. The Battle of Spicheren was not intended by Moltke, who wished to keep Bazaine 's army on the Saar until he could attack it with the second army in front and the first army on its left flank. But these unexpected victories did not disconcert Moltke, who carried out his intended advance to Pont - Mousson, crossed the Moselle with the first and second armies, then faced north and wheeled round, so that the effect of the battle of Gravelotte was to drive Bazaine into the fortress of Metz and cut him off from Paris.
Nothing shows Moltke 's insight and strength of purpose in a clearer light than his determination to attack on 18 August, at the Battle of Gravelotte, when other strategists would have thought that, the strategic victory having been gained, a tactical victory was unnecessary. He has been blamed for the last attack of Gravelotte, in which there was a fruitless heavy loss; but it is now known that this attack was ordered by the king, and Moltke blamed himself for not having used his influence to prevent it.
During the night following the battle Moltke left one army to invest Bazaine at Metz, and set out with the two others to march towards Paris, the more southerly one leading, so that when MacMahon 's army should be found the main blow might be delivered from the south and MacMahon driven to the north. On August 25 it was found that MacMahon was moving north - east for the relief of Bazaine. The moment Moltke was satisfied of the accuracy of his information, he ordered the German columns to turn their faces north instead of west. MacMahon 's right wing was attacked at Beaumont while attempting to cross the Meuse, his advance necessarily abandoned, and his army with difficulty collected at Sedan.
At the Battle of Sedan, the two German armies surrounded the French army, which on September 1 was attacked from multiple sides and compelled to surrender. Moltke then resumed the advance on Paris, which was also surrounded.
From this time Moltke 's strategy is remarkable for its judicious economy of force, for he was wise enough never to attempt more than was practicable with the means at his disposal. The surrender of Metz and of Paris was just a question of time, and the problem was, while maintaining the sieges, to be able to ward off the attacks of the new French armies levied for the purpose of raising the Siege of Paris. The Siege of Metz ended with its surrender on October 27.
On January 28, 1871, an armistice was concluded at Versailles by which the garrison became virtually prisoners and the war was ended.
In October 1870, Moltke was made a Graf (Count) as a reward for his services during the Franco - Prussian War and victory at the Battle of Sedan. In June 1871, he was further rewarded by a promotion to the rank of field marshal and a large monetary grant. He served in the Diet of the North German Confederation from 1867 -- 71, and from 1871 -- 91 he was a member of the Reichstag (federal parliament). For "meritorious achievements for the unified, reborn German fatherland '' (Verdienste um das zur Einheit wiedergeborene Deutsche Vaterland) he was named an honorary citizen of Hamburg.
Moltke superintended the preparation of the official history of the Franco - Prussian War, which was published between 1874 and 1881 by the German General Staff. After the war, he became a national hero and celebrity. More than 50 monuments to Moltke were erected throughout Germany in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; some were destroyed during or after World War II but many remain.
When Moltke retired in 1888 as Chief of the General Staff, he was succeeded by Alfred Alfred von Waldersee. (His nephew, Helmuth Johann Ludwig von Moltke, was chief from 1906 to 1914.) Moltke officially retired from active service on August 9, 1888. His 90th birthday on October 26, 1890 was declared a national holiday. Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke died at his home in Berlin on April 24, 1891 after a short illness. He received a state funeral where his body lay in state surrounded by military honors and thousands paid their respects, including Kaiser Wilhelm II; Bismarck did not attend. Thousands of troops led by the Kaiser, escorted his casket to Berlin 's Lehrter Railroad Station, from which it was transported to Silesia.
Moltke 's remains were interred in the family mausoleum on the Kreisau estate, which however was plundered after the Second World War, when Kreisau (now Krzyżowa) was lost to Poland. No trace of his remains is known to exist.
In 1889, Moltke made two audio recordings with Adelbert Theodor Wangemann, a German native who worked with Thomas Edison and had been sent to Europe with Edison 's newly invented cylinder phonograph. Moltke recorded excerpts from Shakespeare and Goethe on two cylinders, recordings which were lost until 1957 and were unidentified for decades after. On January 30, 2012, they were among a number of recordings revealed by the Thomas Edison National Historical Park. The two cylinders made by Moltke are the only known voice recordings of anyone born in the 18th century.
From the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia
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what are the provisions of the english bill of rights | Bill of Rights 1689 - wikipedia
The Bill of Rights, also known as the English Bill of Rights, is an Act of the Parliament of England that deals with constitutional matters and sets out certain basic civil rights. It received the Royal Assent on 16 December 1689 and is a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention Parliament to William III and Mary II in February 1689, inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England. The Bill of Rights lays down limits on the powers of the monarch and sets out the rights of Parliament, including the requirement for regular parliaments, free elections, and freedom of speech in Parliament. It sets out certain rights of individuals including the prohibition of cruel and unusual punishment and reestablished Protestants to have arms for their defence within the rule of law. Furthermore, the Bill of Rights described and condemned several misdeeds of James II of England.
These ideas reflected those of the political thinker John Locke and they quickly became popular in England. It also sets out -- or, in the view of its drafters, restates -- certain constitutional requirements of the Crown to seek the consent of the people, as represented in Parliament.
In the United Kingdom, the Bill of Rights is further accompanied by Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 as some of the basic documents of the uncodified British constitution. A separate but similar document, the Claim of Right Act 1689, applies in Scotland. The Bill of Rights 1689 was one of the inspirations for the United States Bill of Rights.
Along with the Act of Settlement 1701, the Bill of Rights is still in effect in all Commonwealth realms. Following the Perth Agreement in 2011, legislation amending both of them came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015.
During the 17th century, there was renewed interest in Magna Carta. The Parliament of England passed the Petition of Right in 1628 which established certain liberties for subjects. The English Civil War (1642 -- 1651) was fought between the King and an oligarchic but elected Parliament, during which the idea of a political party took form with groups debating rights to political representation during the Putney Debates of 1647. Subsequently, the Protectorate (1653 - 59) and the English Restoration (1660) restored more autocratic rule although Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act in 1679, which strengthened the convention that forbade detention lacking sufficient cause or evidence.
Objecting to the policies of King James II of England (James VII of Scotland and James II of Ireland), a group of English Parliamentarians invited the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange - Nassau (William of Orange) to overthrow the King. William 's successful invasion with a Dutch fleet and army led to James fleeing to France. In December 1688, William took over the provisional government by appointment of the peers of the realm, as was the legal right of the latter in circumstances when the King was incapacitated, and summoned an assembly of certain members of parliament. This assembly called for an English Convention Parliament to be elected, which convened on 22 January 1689.
The proposal to draw up a statement of rights and liberties and James 's violation of them was first made on 29 January 1689 in the House of Commons, with members arguing that the House "can not answer it to the nation or Prince of Orange till we declare what are the rights invaded '' and that William "can not take it ill if we make conditions to secure ourselves for the future '' in order to "do justice to those who sent us hither ''. On 2 February a committee specially convened reported to the Commons 23 Heads of Grievances, which the Commons approved and added some of their own. However, on 4 February the Commons decided to instruct the committee to differentiate between "such of the general heads, as are introductory of new laws, from those that are declaratory of ancient rights ''. On 7 February the Commons approved this revised Declaration of Right, and on 8 February instructed the committee to put into a single text the Declaration (with the heads which were "introductory of new laws '' removed), the resolution of 28 January and the Lords ' proposal for a revised oath of allegiance. It passed the Commons without division.
On 13 February the clerk of the House of Lords read the Declaration of Right, and the Marquess of Halifax, in the name of all the estates of the realm, asked William and Mary to accept the throne. William replied for his wife and himself: "We thankfully accept what you have offered us ''. They then went in procession to the great gate at Whitehall. The Garter King at Arms proclaimed them King and Queen of England, France and Ireland, whereupon they adjourned to the Chapel Royal, with the Bishop of London preaching the sermon. They were crowned on 11 April, swearing an oath to uphold the laws made by Parliament. The Coronation Oath Act 1688 had provided a new coronation oath, whereby the monarchs were to "solemnly promise and swear to govern the people of this kingdom of England, and the dominions thereunto belonging, according to the statutes in parliament agreed on, and the laws and customs of the same ''. They were also to maintain the laws of God, the true profession of the Gospel, and the Protestant Reformed faith established by law. This replaced an oath which had deferred more to the monarch. The previous oath required the monarch to rule based on "the laws and customs... granted by the Kings of England ''.
The Declaration of Right was enacted in an Act of Parliament, the Bill of Rights 1689, which received the Royal Assent in December 1689. The Act asserted "certain ancient rights and liberties '' by declaring that:
The Act declared James ' flight from England following the Glorious Revolution to be an abdication of the throne. It listed twelve of James 's policies by which James designed to "endeavour to subvert and extirpate the protestant religion, and the laws and liberties of this kingdom ''. These were:
In a prelude to the Act of Settlement to come twelve years later, the Bill of Rights barred Roman Catholics from the throne of England as "it hath been found by experience that it is inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a papist prince ''; thus William III and Mary II were named as the successors of James II and that the throne would pass from them first to Mary 's heirs, then to her sister, Princess Anne of Denmark and her heirs (and, thereafter, to any heirs of William by a later marriage).
The Bill of Rights is commonly dated in legal contexts to 1688. This convention arises from the legal fiction (prior to the passage of the Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793) that an Act of Parliament came into force on the first day of the session in which it was passed. The Bill was therefore deemed to be effective from 13 February 1689 (New Style), or, under the Old Style calendar in use at the time, 13 February 1688. Under the Short Titles Act 1896, the Bill was given the official short title of "The Bill of Rights '', without a calendar year suffix.
The Bill of Rights was later supplemented by the Act of Settlement 1701 (which was agreed to by the Parliament of Scotland as part of the Treaty of Union). The Act of Settlement altered the line of succession to the throne laid out in the Bill of Rights. However, both the Bill of Rights and the Claim of Right contributed a great deal to the establishment of the concept of parliamentary sovereignty and the curtailment of the powers of the monarch. Leading, ultimately, to the establishment of constitutional monarchy, while also (along with the penal laws) settling the political and religious turmoil that had convulsed Scotland, England and Ireland in the 17th century.
The Bill of Rights (1689) reinforced the Petition of Right (1628) and the Habaes Corpus Act (1679) by codifying certain rights and liberties. The rights expressed in these Acts became associated with the idea of the rights of Englishmen, and described as Fundamental Laws of England. The Bill of Rights directly influenced the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights, which in turn influenced the Declaration of Independence.
Although not a comprehensive statement of civil and political liberties, the Bill of Rights stands as one of the landmark documents in the development of civil liberties in the United Kingdom and a model for later, more general, statements of rights; these include the United States Bill of Rights, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights. For example, as with the Bill of Rights 1689, the US Constitution prohibits excessive bail and "cruel and unusual punishment ''. Similarly, "cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment '' is banned under Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights.
The Bill of Rights remains in statute and continues to be cited in legal proceedings in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms, particularly Article 9 on parliamentary freedom of speech. Following the Perth Agreement in 2011, legislation amending the Bill of Rights and the Act of Settlement 1701 came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015 which changed the laws of succession to the British throne.
Part of the Bill of Rights remains in statute in the Republic of Ireland.
The Bill of Rights applies in England and Wales; it was enacted in the Kingdom of England which at the time included Wales. Scotland has its own legislation, the Claim of Right Act 1689, passed before the Act of Union between England and Scotland. There are doubts as to whether, or to what extent, the Bill of Rights applies in Northern Ireland.
On 21 July 1995 a libel case brought by Neil Hamilton (then a member of parliament) against The Guardian was stopped after Justice May ruled that the Bill of Rights ' prohibition on the courts ' ability to question parliamentary proceedings would prevent The Guardian from obtaining a fair hearing. Section 13 of the Defamation Act 1996, was subsequently enacted to permit MPs to waive their parliamentary privilege and thus cite their own speeches if relevant to litigation.
Following the United Kingdom European Union membership referendum in 2016, the Bill of Rights was quoted in a court ruling on a legal challenge seeking a judicial declaration that triggering EU exit must first be authorised by an act of Parliament.
The ninth article, regarding parliamentary freedom of speech, is actively used in Australia.
The article on parliamentary freedom of speech is in active use in Canada.
The Bill of Rights was invoked in New Zealand in the 1976 case of Fitzgerald v Muldoon and Others, which centred on the purporting of newly appointed Prime Minister Robert Muldoon that he would advise the Governor - General to abolish a superannuation scheme established by the New Zealand Superannuation Act, 1974, without new legislation. Muldoon felt that the dissolution would be immediate and he would later introduce a bill in parliament to retroactively make the abolition legal. This claim was challenged in court and the Chief Justice declared that Muldoon 's actions were illegal as they had violated Article 1 of the Bill of Rights, which provides "that the pretended power of dispensing with laws or the execution of laws by regal authority... is illegal. ''
The Act was retained in the Republic of Ireland although sections were repealed by the Statute Law Revision Act 2007 section 2 (2) (a), and Part 2 of Schedule 1. Section 2 (3) of that Act repealed:
Two special designs of commemorative two pound coins were issued in the United Kingdom in 1989 to celebrate the tercentenary of the Glorious Revolution. One referred to the Bill of Rights and the other to the Claim of Right. Both depict the Royal Cypher of William and Mary and the mace of the House of Commons, one also shows a representation of the St Edward 's Crown and the other the Crown of Scotland.
In May 2011, the Bill of Rights was inscribed in UNESCO 's UK Memory of the World Register.
As part of the Parliament in the Making programme, the Bill of Rights was on display at the Houses of Parliament in February 2015.
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what is the purpose of sona of the president | State of the Nation Address (Philippines) - wikipedia
The State of the Nation Address (abbreviated SONA; Filipino: Talumpatì sa Kalagayan ng Bansâ) is an annual address by the President of the Philippines to a joint session of the Congress of the Philippines. Mandated by the 1987 Constitution, the speech is delivered every fourth Monday of July at the Plenary Hall of the Batasang Pambansa Complex in Batasan Hills, Quezon City, Metro Manila.
The SONA, which is often broadcast, serves as a means to inform the nation about its present economic, political, and social condition. It is also a vehicle for the President to summarise the accomplishments and plans of his / her programme of government both for a particular year and until the end of their term of office.
The Address is usually delivered at around 16: 00 PST (UTC + 8). Before the appointed time, legislators enter the Plenary Hall, with Congresswomen and consorts of Congressmen in recent years sporting traditionally - inspired bespoke couture that, in some cases, expresses their legislative agenda or ideological leanings.
The President meanwhile arrives at the Batasang Pambansa Complex some minutes before the beginning of the joint session, and enters the main building through a back entrance. The President is then welcomed with military honors, and greeted by the Speaker of the House, the President of the Senate, and the welcoming committee, before proceeding to the Presidential Legislate Liaison Office.
The President then enters the Plenary Hall as the Presidential Anthem is played. The Secretary General introduces the President, who approaches the rostrum and is seated. The President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House then convene the joint session, and the House of Representatives Choir leads the now standing assembly in singing Lupang Hinirang. Representatives of various religious groups then lead the assembly in an ecumenical prayer.
The Speaker then introduces the President in English or Filipino with words similar to the following:
The Address, which can last anywhere from one to several hours, is broadcast on television, radio, and online streaming by state agencies such as Radio Television Malacañang, as well as private media organizations.
An early form of the Address was in place during the First Philippine Republic, which was established in 1899 in Malolos, Bulacan. The revolutionary government took ideas from European parliaments, where the magisterial role of the head of state in the legislature was to mark the legislature 's official opening.
The Malolos Constitution of 1899 provided for the President to preside over the opening of Congress, as well as convey his messages to the legislature through a secretary. When Emilio Aguinaldo addressed the Malolos Congress in Spanish on September 15, 1898, he simply congratulated the formation of the first representative body of the Philippines and Asia. This is not considered a State of the Nation Address because the Malolos Constitution did not explicitly provide for one.
The State of the Nation Address as an annual practise began during the Commonwealth Era.
The Jones Act enacted in 1916 was the first instance where a report about the Philippine Islands was required to be submitted. However, the law only mandated a report by the Governor - General to an executive office assigned by the President of the United States. This was in the form of a written document that discussed the transactions and movements of the Insular Government.
When the Commonwealth of the Philippines was created and the 1935 Constitution enacted, it provided for an annual report of the President of the Philippines to Congress:
"The President shall from time to time give to the Congress information on the state of the Nation, and recommend to its consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient. ''
The first formal State of the Nation Address was delivered by President Manuel L. Quezon on June 16, 1936 at the Legislative Building in Manila. The dates of the SONA were fixed on June 16 of every year at the start of opening sessions of Congress, by virtue of Commonwealth Act No 17. However, CA 49 changed the date of the opening of Congress to October 16.
In 1937, October 16 fell on a Saturday, and the opening of Congress was moved to 18th, when Quezon gave the second State of the Nation Address. The opening date of Congress was again changed that year to the fourth Monday of every year. President Manuel L. Quezon delivered his final State of the Nation Address on January 31, 1941, prior to the onset of World War II.
≤ = = = = Second World War = = = = ≥ ≤ José P. Laurel, president of the Japanese - sponsored puppet Second Republic, was able to deliver his only message before the special session of the National Assembly, led by Speaker Benigno S. Aquino, Sr., on 18 October at the Legislative Building -- four days after the Second Republic 's establishment. This is, however, not considered a SONA as the 1943 Constitution did not -- as President Laurel himself pointed out -- provide for such an address.
With the 1945 defeat of the Japanese Empire and the re-establishment of the Commonwealth Government, the now - bicameral Congress of the Philippines convened on June 9, 1945, the first time since their election in 1941. During this special session, President Sergio Osmeña addressed lawmakers at their provisional quarters (a repurposed schoolhouse) along Lepanto Street in Manila, and gave a comprehensive report on the work carried out by the Commonwealth Government during its three - year as a government - in - exile in Washington, D.C. Furthermore, he described the conditions prevailing in the Philippines during the Japanese Occupation and an acknowledgment of the invaluable assistance rendered by recognized guerrillas to combined Filipino and American forces in the liberation of the Philippines.
The last Address of the Commonwealth was delivered by President Manuel Roxas on June 3, 1946. President Roxas would later deliver the first SONA of the Third Philippine Republic in front of the First Congress on January 27, 1947. the state of the nation address is 1st century ≥
Beginning in 1949, the SONA was delivered at the rebuilt Legislative Building. Only once did a President not appear personally before Congress: on January 23, 1950, President Elpidio Quirino, who was recuperating at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland, delivered his SONA to a joint session of Congress via RCA. The Address was picked up by a local radio network at 10: 00 Philippine Time (GMT + 8), in time for the opening of the regular session of the 2nd Congress.
The tradition of delivering the SONA on the fourth Monday of January ended in 1972, when from 1973 to 1977, President Ferdinand E. Marcos delivered the Address every September 21 -- the official anniversary of his imposition of Martial Law upon the country. Since Congress was abolished with the promulgation of the 1973 Constitution, these addresses were delivered before a legislative assembly either in Malacañang Palace or at Rizal Park, except in 1976 when the Address was given during the opening of the Batasang Bayan at the Philippine International Convention Center.
President Marcos began giving the Address at the Batasang Pambansa Complex on June 12, 1978 during the opening session of the Interim Batasang Pambansa. From 1979 onwards, the SONA was delivered on the fourth Monday of July, following the provisions in the 1973 Constitution and the superseding 1987 Constitution. The only exceptions to this were in 1983, when the SONA was delivered on January 17 (the anniversary of the 1973 Constitution 's ratification and the second anniversary of the lifting of Martial Law), and in 1986 when President Corazón C. Aquino did not deliver any SONA following the People Power Revolution.
With the re-establishment of Congress in 1987, President Corazón C. Aquino delivered her first SONA at the Plenary Hall of the Batasang Pambansa. All her successors in the office have since delivered their respective Addresses in the same venue.
Local chief executives also give their own addresses modeled after the State of the Nation Address. These speeches are not mandated by law, but are given usually as a matter of practice or tradition.
Recent addresses have been the subject of criticism by various sectors for being too ostentatious and flashy, with politicians and media personalities treating the event as a red carpet fashion show. Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago blasted the organizers and called the event a "thoughtless extravagance '' where "peacocks spread their tails and turn around and around, as coached by media in a feeding frenzy. '' Presumptive House Speaker Pantaleon Alvarez for the 17th Congress urged representatives to dress in simple business attire for future addresses, preferably the Barong Tagalog for men and "short '' Filipiniana for women, in preparation for President Rodrigo Duterte 's first address in 2016.
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is there a season 3 of el chapo | El Chapo (tv series) - wikipedia
El Chapo is an American crime television series, co-produced by Netflix and Univision, about the life of Joaquín "El Chapo '' Guzmán. The series premiered on April 23, 2017 at Univision before airing on Netflix worldwide. It stars Marco de la O as the titular character.
The series recounts the beginnings of Joaquín "El Chapo '' Guzmán in 1985, when he was a low - level member of the Guadalajara Cartel, his rise to power as head of the Sinaloa Cartel, and his downfall.
On May 12, 2017, Univision confirmed that the series would be renewed for a second season. Season 2 premiered on September 17, 2017.
Netflix released the first season, comprising nine episodes, on June 16, 2017. The second season was released on December 15, 2017.
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where do scientists hope to get hydrogen to use in cars | Hydrogen vehicle - Wikipedia
A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen as its onboard fuel for motive power. Hydrogen vehicles include hydrogen - fueled space rockets, as well as automobiles and other transportation vehicles. The power plants of such vehicles convert the chemical energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in an internal combustion engine, or by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to run electric motors. Widespread use of hydrogen for fueling transportation is a key element of a proposed hydrogen economy.
As of 2016, there are 3 hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the Toyota Mirai, the Hyundai ix35 FCEV, and the Honda Clarity. Several other companies are working to develop hydrogen cars. As of 2014, 95 % of hydrogen is made from natural gas. It can be produced using renewable sources, but that is an expensive process. Integrated wind - to - hydrogen (power - to - gas) plants, using electrolysis of water, are exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with hydrogen production using natural gas. The drawbacks of hydrogen use are high carbon emissions intensity when produced from natural gas, capital cost burden, low energy content per unit volume, production and compression of hydrogen, and the large investment in infrastructure that would be required to fuel vehicles.
Automobiles, buses, forklifts, trains, PHB bicycles, canal boats, cargo bikes, golf carts, motorcycles, wheelchairs, ships, airplanes, submarines, and rockets can already run on hydrogen, in various forms. NASA used hydrogen to launch Space Shuttles into space. A working toy model car runs on solar power, using a regenerative fuel cell to store energy in the form of hydrogen and oxygen gas. It can then convert the fuel back into water to release the solar energy. Since the advent of hydraulic fracturing the key concern for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is consumer and public policy confusion concerning the adoption of natural gas powered hydrogen vehicles with heavy hidden emissions to the detriment of environmentally friendly transportation.
A land - speed record for a hydrogen - powered vehicle of 286.476 miles per hour (461.038 km / h) was set by Ohio State University 's Buckeye Bullet 2, which achieved a "flying - mile '' speed of 280.007 miles per hour (450.628 km / h) at the Bonneville Salt Flats in August 2008. A record of 207.297 miles per hour (333.612 km / h) was set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car at the Bonneville Salt Flats, in August 2007, using a large compressed oxygen tank to increase power.
As of 2016, there are 3 hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the Toyota Mirai, the Hyundai ix35 FCEV, and the Honda Clarity.
Toyota launched its first production fuel cell vehicle (FCV), the Mirai, in Japan at the end of 2014 and began sales in California, mainly the Los Angeles area, in 2015. The car has a range of 312 mi (502 km) and takes about five minutes to refill its hydrogen tank. The initial sale price in Japan was about 7 million yen ($69,000). Former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold. Many automobile companies have introduced demonstration models in limited numbers (see list of fuel cell vehicles). One disadvantage of hydrogen compared to other automobile fuels is its low density.
In 2013 BMW leased hydrogen technology from Toyota, and a group formed by Ford Motor Company, Daimler AG, and Nissan announced a collaboration on hydrogen technology development. By 2017, however, Daimler had abandoned hydrogen vehicle development, and most of the automobile companies developing hydrogen cars had switched their focus to battery electric vehicles.
Fuel - cell buses (as opposed to hydrogen fueled buses) are being trialed by several manufacturers in different locations, for example, Ursus Lublin. The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global fuel cell bus testing collaboration.
In March 2015, China South Rail Corporation (CSR) demonstrated the world 's first hydrogen fuel cell - powered tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao. The chief engineer of the CSR subsidiary CSR Sifang Co Ltd., Liang Jianying, said that the company is studying how to reduce the running costs of the tram. Tracks for the new vehicle have been built in seven Chinese cities. China plans to spend 200 billion yuan ($32 billion) through 2020 to increase tram tracks to more than 1,200 miles.
Pearl Hydrogen Power Sources of Shanghai, China, unveiled a hydrogen bicycle at the 9th China International Exhibition on Gas Technology, Equipment, and Applications in 2007.
ENV develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, including the Crosscage and Biplane. Other manufacturers as Vectrix are working on hydrogen scooters. Finally, hydrogen - fuel - cell - electric - hybrid scooters are being made such as the Suzuki Burgman fuel - cell scooter. and the FHybrid. The Burgman received "whole vehicle type '' approval in the EU. The Taiwanese company APFCT conducted a live street test with 80 fuel - cell scooters for Taiwan 's Bureau of Energy.
Autostudi S.r.l 's H - Due is a hydrogen - powered quad, capable of transporting 1 - 3 passengers. A concept for a hydrogen - powered tractor has been proposed.
Companies such as Boeing, Lange Aviation, and the German Aerospace Center pursue hydrogen as fuel for manned and unmanned airplanes. In February 2008 Boeing tested a manned flight of a small aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. Unmanned hydrogen planes have also been tested. For large passenger airplanes, The Times reported that "Boeing said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of large passenger jet airplanes but could be used as backup or auxiliary power units onboard. ''
In July 2010 Boeing unveiled its hydrogen - powered Phantom Eye UAV, powered by two Ford internal - combustion engines that have been converted to run on hydrogen.
In Britain, the Reaction Engines A2 has been proposed to use the thermodynamic properties of liquid hydrogen to achieve very high speed, long distance (antipodal) flight by burning it in a precooled jet engine.
A HICE forklift or HICE lift truck is a hydrogen fueled, internal combustion engine - powered industrial forklift truck used for lifting and transporting materials. The first production HICE forklift truck based on the Linde X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in Hannover on May 27, 2008. It used a 2.0 litre, 43 kW (58 hp) diesel internal combustion engine converted to use hydrogen as a fuel with the use of a compressor and direct injection.
A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift truck) is a fuel cell powered industrial forklift truck. In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in the US. The global market was estimated at 1 million fuel cell powered forklifts per year for 2014 -- 2016. Fleets are being operated by companies around the world. Pike Research stated in 2011 that fuel - cell - powered forklifts will be the largest driver of hydrogen fuel demand by 2020.
Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts. Fuel - cell - powered forklifts can provide benefits over battery powered forklifts as they can be refueled in 3 minutes. They can be used in refrigerated warehouses, as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The fuel cell units are often designed as drop - in replacements.
Many large rockets use liquid hydrogen as fuel, with liquid oxygen as an oxidizer (LH2 / LOX). An advantage of hydrogen rocket fuel is the high effective exhaust velocity compared to kerosene / LOX or UDMH / NTO engines. According to the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, a rocket with higher exhaust velocity uses less propellant to accelerate. Also the energy density of hydrogen is greater than any other fuel. LH2 / LOX also yields the greatest efficiency in relation to the amount of propellant consumed, of any known rocket propellant.
A disadvantage of LH2 / LOX engines is the low density and low temperature of liquid hydrogen, which means bigger and insulated and thus heavier fuel tanks are needed. This increases the rocket 's structural mass which reduces its delta - v significantly. Another disadvantage is the poor storability of LH2 / LOX - powered rockets: Due to the constant hydrogen boil - off, the rocket must be fueled shortly before launch, which makes cryogenic engines unsuitable for ICBMs and other rocket applications with the need for short launch preparations.
Overall, the delta - v of a hydrogen stage is typically not much different from that of a dense fuelled stage, but the weight of a hydrogen stage is much less, which makes it particularly effective for upper stages, since they are carried by the lower stages. For first stages, dense fuelled rockets in studies may show a small advantage, due to the smaller vehicle size and lower air drag.
LH2 / LOX were also used in the Space Shuttle to run the fuel cells that power the electrical systems. The byproduct of the fuel cell is water, which is used for drinking and other applications that require water in space.
In 2016 Nikola Motor Company introduced a hydrogen - powered Class 8 heavy truck powered by a 320 kWh EV battery. Nikola plans two versions of the hydrogen powered truck, long haul Nikola One and day cab Nikola Two. United Parcel Service began testing of a hydrogen powered delivery vehicle in 2017. US Hybrid, Toyota, and Kenworth have also announced plans to test Class 8 drayage hydrogen fuel cell trucks.
Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars. The hydrogen internal combustion car is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline internal combustion engine car. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline engines do; the main difference is the exhaust product. Gasoline combustion results in carbon dioxide and water vapor, while the only exhaust product of hydrogen combustion is water vapor.
In 1807 Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed the first hydrogen - fueled internal combustion engine. In 1965, Roger Billings, then a high school student, converted a Model A to run on hydrogen. In 1970 Paul Dieges patented a modification to internal combustion engines which allowed a gasoline - powered engine to run on hydrogen US 3844262.
Mazda has developed Wankel engines burning hydrogen. The advantage of using an internal combustion engine, like Wankel and piston engines, is the lower cost of retooling for production.
HICE forklift trucks have been demonstrated based on converted diesel internal combustion engines with direct injection.
Hydrogen fuel cells are relatively expensive to produce, as their designs require rare substances such as platinum as a catalyst, In 2014, Toyota said it would introduce its Toyota Mirai in Japan for less than $70,000 in 2015. Former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimates that Toyota will initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.
The problems in early fuel - cell designs at low temperatures concerning range and cold start capabilities have been addressed so that they "can not be seen as show - stoppers anymore ''. Users in 2014 said that their fuel cell vehicles perform flawlessly in temperatures below zero, even with the heaters blasting, without significantly reducing range. Studies using neutron radiography on unassisted cold - start indicate ice formation in the cathode, three stages in cold start and Nafion ionic conductivity. A parameter, defined as coulomb of charge, was also defined to measure cold start capability.
The service life of fuel cells is comparable to that of other vehicles. PEM service life is 7,300 hours under cycling conditions.
Hydrogen does not come as a pre-existing source of energy like fossil fuels but is first produced and then stored as a carrier, much like a battery. A suggested benefit of large - scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles is that it could lead to decreased emissions of greenhouse gasses and ozone precursors. However, as of 2014, 95 % of hydrogen is made from methane. It can be produced using renewable sources, but that is an expensive process. Integrated wind - to - hydrogen (power to gas) plants, using electrolysis of water, are exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with traditional energy sources.
According to Ford Motor Company, "when FCVs are run on hydrogen reformed from natural gas using this process, they do not provide significant environmental benefits on a well - to - wheels basis (due to GHG emissions from the natural gas reformation process). '' While methods of hydrogen production that do not use fossil fuel would be more sustainable, currently renewable energy represents only a small percentage of energy generated, and power produced from renewable sources can be used in electric vehicles and for non-vehicle applications.
The challenges facing the use of hydrogen in vehicles include production, storage, transport, and distribution. The well - to - wheel efficiency for hydrogen is less than 25 %. More recent analyses confirm this.
The molecular hydrogen needed as an onboard fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be obtained through many thermochemical methods utilizing natural gas, coal (by a process known as coal gasification), liquefied petroleum gas, biomass (biomass gasification), by a process called thermolysis, or as a microbial waste product called biohydrogen or Biological hydrogen production. 95 % of hydrogen is produced using natural gas, and 85 % of hydrogen produced is used to remove sulfur from gasoline. Hydrogen can also be produced from water by electrolysis at working efficiencies in the 50 -- 60 % range for the smaller electrolysers and around 65 -- 70 % for the larger plants. Hydrogen can also be made by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or aluminum. Current technologies for manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms, totaling between 25 and 50 percent of the higher heating value of the hydrogen fuel, used to produce, compress or liquefy, and transmit the hydrogen by pipeline or truck.,
Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of greenhouse gasses, a consequence that would also result from the on - board reforming of methanol into hydrogen. Analyses comparing the environmental consequences of hydrogen production and use in fuel - cell vehicles to the refining of petroleum and combustion in conventional automobile engines do not agree on whether a net reduction of ozone and greenhouse gasses would result. Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions, but the scale of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs. As of 2016, 14.9 percent of U.S. electricity was produced from renewable sources. In a few countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For example, Iceland is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen, and Denmark is using wind.
Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density at ambient conditions, equal to about one - third that of methane. Even when the fuel is stored as liquid hydrogen in a cryogenic tank or in a compressed hydrogen storage tank, the volumetric energy density (megajoules per liter) is small relative to that of gasoline. Hydrogen has three times higher specific energy by mass compared to gasoline (143 MJ / kg versus 46.9 MJ / kg). In 2011, scientists at Los Alamos National Laboratory and University of Alabama, working with the U.S. Department of Energy, found a single - stage method for recharging ammonia borane, a hydrogen storage compound.
The DOE has studied hydrogen storage methods, focusing on on - board vehicular hydrogen storage systems that will allow for a driving range of 300 + miles. Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used for hydrogen tank systems in vehicles, based on type IV carbon - composite technology.
The hydrogen infrastructure consists mainly of industrial hydrogen pipeline transport and hydrogen - equipped filling stations like those found on a hydrogen highway. Hydrogen stations which are not situated near a hydrogen pipeline can obtain supply via hydrogen tanks, compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production.
According to GM, 70 % of the U.S. population lives near a hydrogen - generating facility but has little access to hydrogen, despite its wide availability for commercial use. The distribution of hydrogen fuel for vehicles throughout the U.S. would require new hydrogen stations that would cost, by some estimates approximately 20 billion dollars and 4.6 billion in the EU. Other estimates place the cost in the United States as high as half trillion dollars.
As of 2016, there were 23 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the USA, 20 of which were located in California. By May 2017, there were 91 hydrogen fueling stations in Japan.
Hydrogen codes and standards, as well as codes and technical standards for hydrogen safety and the storage of hydrogen, have been identified as an institutional barrier to deploying hydrogen technologies and developing a hydrogen economy. To enable the commercialization of hydrogen in consumer products, new codes and standards must be developed and adopted by federal, state and local governments.
In 2003, George W. Bush announced an initiative to promote hydrogen powered vehicles. In 2009, President Obama and his Department of Energy Secretary Steven Chu stripped the funding of fuel cell technology due to their belief that the technology was still decades away. Under heavy criticism, the funding was partially restored. In 2014 the Obama administration announced they want to speed up production and development of hydrogen powered vehicles. The Department of Energy planned to spread a $7.2 million investment among the states of Georgia, Kansas, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee to support projects that fuel vehicles and support power systems. The Center for Transportation and The Environment, Fed Ex Express, Air Products and Chemicals, and Sprint have invested in the development of fuel cells. Fuel cells could also be used in handling equipment such as forklifts as well as telecommunications infrastructure.
Senator Byron L. Dorgan stated in 2013: "The Energy and Water Appropriations bill makes investments in our nation 's efforts to develop safe, homegrown energy sources that will reduce our reliance on foreign oil. And, because ongoing research and development is necessary to develop game - changing technologies, this bill also restores funding for Hydrogen energy research ''. In June 2013, the U.S. Department of Energy gave 9 million dollars in grants to speed up technology development, 4.5 million for advanced fuel cell membranes, $3 million to 3M corporation to work on membranes with improved durability and performance, and 1.5 million to the Colorado School of Mines for work on simpler and more affordable fuel cell membranes.
In Japan, hydrogen is mainly to be sourced from outside Japan.
Norway plans a series of hydrogen refueling stations along the main roads.
Critics claim the time frame for overcoming the technical and economic challenges to implementing wide - scale use of hydrogen cars is likely to last for at least several decades, and hydrogen vehicles may never become broadly available. They claim that the focus on the use of the hydrogen car is a dangerous detour from more readily available solutions to reducing the use of fossil fuels in vehicles. In May 2008, Wired News reported that "experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption or global warming, and we ca n't afford to wait that long. In the meantime, fuel cells are diverting resources from more immediate solutions. ''
Critiques of hydrogen vehicles are presented in the 2006 documentary, Who Killed the Electric Car?. According to former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph Romm, "A hydrogen car is one of the least efficient, most expensive ways to reduce greenhouse gases. '' Asked when hydrogen cars will be broadly available, Romm replied: "Not in our lifetime, and very possibly never. '' The Los Angeles Times wrote, in 2009, "Hydrogen fuel - cell technology wo n't work in cars... Any way you look at it, hydrogen is a lousy way to move cars. ''
The Economist magazine, in 2008, quoted Robert Zubrin, the author of Energy Victory, as saying: "Hydrogen is ' just about the worst possible vehicle fuel ' ''. The magazine noted the withdrawal of California from earlier goals: "In (2008) the California Air Resources Board, an agency of California 's state government and a bellwether for state governments across America, changed its requirement for the number of zero - emission vehicles (ZEVs) to be built and sold in California between 2012 and 2014. The revised mandate allows manufacturers to comply with the rules by building more battery - electric cars instead of fuel - cell vehicles. '' The magazine also noted that most hydrogen is produced through steam reformation, which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some of today 's gasoline cars. On the other hand, if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all - electric or plug - in hybrid vehicles. ''
A 2009 study at UC Davis, published in the Journal of Power Sources, similarly found that, over their lifetimes, hydrogen vehicles will emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles. This agrees with a 2014 analysis. The Washington Post asked in 2009, "(W) hy would you want to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries ''? The Motley Fool stated in 2013 that "there are still cost - prohibitive obstacles (for hydrogen cars) relating to transportation, storage, and, most importantly, production. ''
Volkswagen 's Rudolf Krebs said in 2013 that "no matter how excellent you make the cars themselves, the laws of physics hinder their overall efficiency. The most efficient way to convert energy to mobility is electricity. '' He elaborated: "Hydrogen mobility only makes sense if you use green energy '', but... you need to convert it first into hydrogen "with low efficiencies '' where "you lose about 40 percent of the initial energy ''. You then must compress the hydrogen and store it under high pressure in tanks, which uses more energy. "And then you have to convert the hydrogen back to electricity in a fuel cell with another efficiency loss ''. Krebs continued: "in the end, from your original 100 percent of electric energy, you end up with 30 to 40 percent. '' The Business Insider commented:
Pure hydrogen can be industrially derived, but it takes energy. If that energy does not come from renewable sources, then fuel - cell cars are not as clean as they seem... Another challenge is the lack of infrastructure. Gas stations need to invest in the ability to refuel hydrogen tanks before FCEVs (fuel cell electric vehicles) become practical, and it 's unlikely many will do that while there are so few customers on the road today... Compounding the lack of infrastructure is the high cost of the technology. Fuel cells are "still very, very expensive ''.
In 2014, Joseph Romm devoted three articles to updating his critiques of hydrogen vehicles. He stated that fuel cell vehicles still have not overcome the following issues: high cost of the vehicles, high fueling cost, and a lack of fuel - delivery infrastructure. "It would take several miracles to overcome all of those problems simultaneously in the coming decades. '' Moreover, he wrote, "FCVs are n't green '' because of escaping methane during natural gas extraction and when hydrogen is produced, as 95 % of it is, using the steam reforming process. He concluded that renewable energy can not economically be used to make hydrogen for an FCV fleet "either now or in the future. '' GreenTech Media 's analyst reached similar conclusions in 2014. In 2015, Clean Technica listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles as did Car Throttle. Another Clean Technica writer concluded that "while hydrogen may have a part to play in the world of energy storage (especially seasonal storage), it looks like a dead end when it comes to mainstream vehicles. '' A 2016 study in the November issue of the journal Energy by scientists at Stanford University and the Technical University of Munich concluded that, even assuming local hydrogen production, "investing in all - electric battery vehicles is a more economical choice for reducing carbon dioxide emissions, primarily due to their lower cost and significantly higher energy efficiency. ''
A 2017 analysis published in Green Car Reports concluded that the best hydrogen - fuel - cell vehicles consume "more than three times more electricity per mile than an electric vehicle... generate more greenhouse - gas emissions than other powertrain technologies... (and have) very high fuel costs... Considering all the obstacles and requirements for new infrastructure (estimated to cost as much as $400 billion), fuel - cell vehicles seem likely to be a niche technology at best, with little impact on U.S. oil consumption. The US Department of Energy agrees, for fuel produced by grid electricity via electrolysis, but not for most other pathways for generation. Argonne National Laboratory developed a model of these emission pathways, to communicate the impact of potential fuel cell vehicle advantages and disadvantages. In 2017, Michael Barnard, writing in Forbes, listed the continuing disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell cars and concluded that "by about 2008, it was very clear that hydrogen was and would be inferior to battery technology as a storage of energy for vehicles. (B) y 2025 the last hold - outs should likely be retiring their fuel cell dreams. ''
Hydrogen vehicles compete with various proposed alternatives to the modern fossil fuel powered vehicle infrastructure.
Plug - in hybrid electric vehicles, or PHEVs, are hybrid vehicles that can be plugged into the electric grid and contain an electric motor and also an internal combustion engine. The PHEV concept augments standard hybrid electric vehicles with the ability to recharge their batteries from an external source, enabling increased use of the vehicle 's electric motors while reducing their reliance on internal combustion engines. The infrastructure required to charge PHEVs is already in place, and transmission of power from grid to car is about 93 % efficient. This, however, is not the only energy loss in transferring power from grid to wheels. AC / DC conversion must take place from the grids AC supply to the PHEV 's DC. This is roughly 98 % efficient. The battery then must be charged. As of 2007, the Lithium iron phosphate battery was between 80 - 90 % efficient in charging / discharging. The battery needs to be cooled; the GM Volt 's battery has 4 coolers and two radiators. As of 2009, "the total well - to - wheels efficiency with which a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle might utilize renewable electricity is roughly 20 % (although that number could rise to 25 % or a little higher with the kind of multiple technology breakthroughs required to enable a hydrogen economy). The well - to - wheels efficiency of charging an onboard battery and then discharging it to run an electric motor in a PHEV or EV, however, is 80 % (and could be higher in the future) -- four times more efficient than current hydrogen fuel cell vehicle pathways. '' A 2006 article in Scientific American argued that PHEVs, rather than hydrogen vehicles, would become standard in the automobile industry. A December 2009 study at UC Davis found that, over their lifetimes, PHEVs will emit less carbon than current vehicles, while hydrogen cars will emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles.
Internal combustion engine - based compressed natural gas (CNG), HCNG or LNG vehicles (Natural gas vehicles or NGVs) use methane (Natural gas or Biogas) directly as a fuel source. Natural gas has a higher energy density than hydrogen gas. NGVs using biogas are nearly carbon neutral. Unlike hydrogen vehicles, CNG vehicles have been available for many years, and there is sufficient infrastructure to provide both commercial and home refueling stations. Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles by the end of 2011. The other use for natural gas is in steam reforming which is the common way to produce hydrogen gas for use in electric cars with fuel cells.
A 2008 Technology Review article stated, "Electric cars -- and plug - in hybrid cars -- have an enormous advantage over hydrogen fuel - cell vehicles in utilizing low - carbon electricity. That is because of the inherent inefficiency of the entire hydrogen fueling process, from generating the hydrogen with that electricity to transporting this diffuse gas long distances, getting the hydrogen in the car, and then running it through a fuel cell -- all for the purpose of converting the hydrogen back into electricity to drive the same exact electric motor you 'll find in an electric car. '' Thermodynamically, each additional step in the conversion process decreases the overall efficiency of the process.
A 2013 comparison of hydrogen and battery electric vehicles agreed with the 25 % figure from Ulf Bossel in 2006 and stated that the cost of an electric vehicle battery "is rapidly coming down, and the gap will widen further '', while there is little "existing infrastructure to transport, store and deliver hydrogen to vehicles and would cost billions of dollars to put into place, everyone 's household power sockets are "electric vehicle refueling '' station and the "cost of electricity (depending on the source) is at least 75 % cheaper than hydrogen. '' In 2013 the National Academy of Sciences and DOE stated that even under optimistic conditions by 2030 the price for the battery is not expected to go below $17,000 ($200 -- $250 / kWh) on 300 miles of range. In 2013 Matthew Mench, from the University of Tennessee stated: "If we are sitting around waiting for a battery breakthrough that will give us four times the range than we have now, we are going to be waiting for a long time ''. Navigant Research, (formerly Pike research), on the other hand, forecasts that "lithium - ion costs, which are tipping the scales at about $500 per kilowatt hour now, could fall to $300 by 2015 and to $180 by 2020. '' In 2013 Takeshi Uchiyamada, a designer of the Toyota Prius stated: "Because of its shortcomings -- driving range, cost and recharging time -- the electric vehicle is not a viable replacement for most conventional cars ''.
Many electric car designs offer limited driving range causing range anxiety. For example, the 2013 Nissan Leaf has a range of 75 mi (121 km), the 2014 Mercedes - Benz B - Class Electric Drive has an estimated range of 115 mi (185 km) and the Tesla Model S has a range of up to 265 mi (426 km). However, most US commutes are 30 -- 40 miles (48 -- 64 km) per day round trip and in Europe, most commutes are around 20 kilometres (12 mi) round - trip
In 2013, The New York Times stated that there are only 10 publicly accessible hydrogen - filling stations in the U.S., eight of which are in Southern California, and that BEVs ' cost - per - mile expense in 2013 is one - third as much as hydrogen cars when comparing electricity from the grid and hydrogen at a filling station. The Times commented: "By the time Toyota sells its first fuel - cell sedan, there will be about half - million plug - in vehicles on the road in the United States -- and tens of thousands of E.V. charging stations. '' In 2013 John Swanton of the California Air Resources Board, who sees them as complementary technologies, stated that EVs have the jump on fuel - cell autos, which "are like electric vehicles were 10 years ago. EVs are for real consumers, no strings attached. With EVs you have a lot of infrastructure in place. The Business Insider, in 2013 commented that if the energy to produce hydrogen "does not come from renewable sources, then fuel - cell cars are not as clean as they seem... Gas stations need to invest in the ability to refuel hydrogen tanks before FCEVs become practical, and it 's unlikely many will do that while there are so few customers on the road today... Compounding the lack of infrastructure is the high cost of the technology. Fuel cells are "still very, very expensive '', even compared to battery - powered EVs.
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they dont care about us michael jackson release date | They Do n't Care About Us - wikipedia
"They Do n't Care About Us '' is the fifth single from Michael Jackson 's album HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I, released on March 31, 1996. The song remains one of the most controversial pieces Jackson ever composed. In the US, media scrutiny surrounding allegations of antisemitic lyrics were the catalyst for Jackson issuing multiple apologies and re-recording the song with altered lyrics. The singer countered allegations of antisemitism, arguing that reviews had misinterpreted the context of the song, either unintentionally or deliberately.
The song was accompanied by two music videos directed by Spike Lee. The first was shot in two locations in Brazil, in Pelourinho, the historic city center of Salvador, and in a favela of Rio de Janeiro called Dona Marta, where the state authorities had tried to ban all production over fears the video would damage their image, the area and prospects of Rio de Janeiro staging the 2004 Olympics. Still, the residents of the area were happy to see the singer, hoping their problems would be made visible to a wider audience. The second video was shot in a prison and contained video footage of multiple references to human rights abuses.
Commercially, the song became a top ten hit in all European countries and number one in Germany for three weeks. In the US, radio stations were reluctant to play the controversial composition; it, however, managed to peak at number 30 on the Billboard Hot 100.
The song was remixed with parts of songs such as "Privacy '' (from the album Invincible) and "Tabloid Junkie '', and released on the Immortal album, in November, 2011.
The song was performed during Jackson 's third and final concert series, the HIStory World Tour which ran from 1996 to 1997 as part of a medley with "Scream '' and "In the Closet ''. The song was set to be performed on Jackson 's This Is It comeback concert series at The O2 Arena in London from July 2009 to March 2010 but the shows were cancelled due to his sudden death on June 25, 2009.
The song begins with a group of children singing the chorus, "All I wan na say is that they do n't really care about us ''. In between the chorus lines, one child chants, "Do n't worry what people say, we know the truth. '' after which another child says, "Enough is enough of this garbage! '' According to the sheet music published on Musicnotes.com by Alfred Music Publishing "They Do n't Care About Us '' is played in the key of D minor and the track 's time signature is common time. The song, which is cited as being a pop song, has a moderately slow tempo of 90 beats per minute. Instruments used include a piano and guitar. Jon Pareles stated that Jackson was calling himself "a victim of police brutality '' and a "victim of hate ''. He continued, "A listener might wonder just who ' Us ' is supposed to be... To make the songs lodge in the ear, Jackson uses elementary singsong melodies -- a ' nyah, nyah ' two - note motif in ' They Do n't Care About Us '... and he comes up with all kinds of surprises in the arrangements ''.
James Hunter of Rolling Stone magazine noted that musically, Jackson was no longer trying to hide any eccentricities he had, he expressed the opinion that in "They Do n't Care About Us '', the pop musician sounded more embattled than ever. Jim Farber of New York Daily News said that Jackson "snarled '' while singing, that the song "clicked '' and has an "original clattering rhythm ''. The review of HIStory in The Washington Times noted of "They Do n't Care About Us '': "(it) follows fast, inviting more pathos -- and more controversy. With haunting clapping and a police scanner in the background ''. The Sacramento Bee described it as a "looped reggae - lite dance beat ''.
The song gained renewed attention and relevance due to its use during Black Lives Matter protests in 2014 and 2015.
In the UK, it peaked at number four and stayed on the chart for three months. The song found particular success in Europe, peaking within the top ten in all countries, except in Spain, where peaked at number 11, and remained in the chart for just one week. European highlights came in Austria, Switzerland, France, Belgium and Sweden, in these countries the song became a top five hit and stayed in their respective charts for a minimum of 21 weeks. The song reached the top of the charts for three weeks in Germany and stayed a full 30 weeks in the survey. It is the longest consecutive chart run of a Michael Jackson song in the German charts. The lyrical controversy surrounding "They Do n't Care About Us '' brought partial commercial disappointment in the US; radio stations were reluctant to play the song. It peaked at number 30 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, falling short of the record breaking success of the two previous singles "Scream / Childhood '' and "You Are Not Alone '', yet the song peaked at number 10 on the US Billboard Hot R&B Singles chart.
Producing the first video proved to be a difficult task for Jackson. State authorities unsuccessfully tried to ban the singer filming in Salvador (Pelourinho) and in Rio de Janeiro. Officials in the state of Rio feared images of poverty might affect tourism and accused Jackson of exploiting the poor. Ronaldo Cezar Coelho, the state secretary for Industry, Commerce and Tourism demanded editing rights over the finished product, stating, "I do n't see why we should have to facilitate films that will contribute nothing to all our efforts to rehabilitate Rio 's image ''. Some were concerned that scenes of poverty and human rights abuses would affect their chances of hosting the Olympics in 2004. Others supported Jackson 's wish to highlight the problems of the region, arguing that the government were embarrassed by their own failings.
A judge banned all filming but this ruling was overturned by an injunction. Although officials were angry, the residents were not and Jackson was surrounded by crowds of enthusiastic onlookers during filming. One woman managed to push through security to hug Jackson who continued dancing while hugging her. Another woman appeared and hugged him from behind. He then fell to the ground as police pulled the two women off him and escorted them away. After the director helped Jackson get up off the street, he continued to sing and dance. This incident made it into the music video. 1,500 policemen and 50 residents acting as security guards effectively sealed off the Dona Marta favela. Some residents and officials found it offensive that Jackson 's production team had negotiated with drug dealers in order to gain permission to film in one of the city 's shantytowns.
The music video was directed by Spike Lee. Asked why he chose Lee to direct the video, Jackson responded, "' They Do n't Care About Us ' has an edge, and Spike Lee had approached me. It 's a public awareness song and that 's what he is all about. It 's a protest kind of song... and I think he was perfect for it ''.
Jackson also collaborated with 200 members of the cultural group Olodum, who "swayed to the heavy beat of Salvador 's ' samba - reggae ' music ''. The media interest surrounding the music video exposed Olodum to 140 countries around the world. It brought them worldwide fame and increased their credibility in Brazil. At the beginning of the video, a Brazilian woman says "Michael, eles não ligam pra gente '' which means "Michael, they do n't care about us ''.
Speaking of the music video, in The New Brazilian Cinema, Lúcia Nagib observed:
When Michael Jackson decided to shoot his new music video in a favela of Rio de Janeiro... he used the favela people as extras in a visual super-spectacle... All the while there is a vaguely political appeal in there... The interesting aspect of Michael Jackson 's strategy is the efficiency with which it gives visibility to poverty and social problems in countries like Brazil without resorting to traditional political discourse. The problematic aspect is that it does not entail a real intervention in that poverty.
In 2009, Billboard described the area as "now a model for social development '' and claimed that Jackson 's influence was partially responsible for this improvement.
For the first time in his career, Jackson made a second music video for a single. This second version was filmed in a prison with cell mates; in the video Jackson is seen handcuffed. It also contains real footage of police attacking African Americans, the military crackdown of the protest in the Tiananmen Square, the Ku Klux Klan, war crimes, genocide, execution, martial law, and other human rights abuses.
The first music video of the song appears on the box set Visionary: The Video Singles, and the video albums HIStory on Film, Volume II and Vision; the latter additionally includes the prison version.
The voice intro, "Michael, Michael, eles não ligam pra gente '' (Portuguese for "they do n't care about us ''), was recorded by Angélica Vieira, producer of Manhattan Connection.
"They Do n't Care About Us '' was only performed as part of the opening medley for the HIStory World Tour, along with "Scream '' and "In the Closet ''. The segment for "They Do n't Care About Us '' began with a short, military - style dance sequence and contained an excerpt of "HIStory ''. A short unedited video clip released after Jackson 's death of the June 23, 2009 rehearsal for the This Is It concert series shows Jackson performing the song as the main song in a medley with parts of "HIStory '' song as well as "Why You Wanna Trip On Me '' and "She Drives Me Wild '' from Dangerous. The song was later remixed and featured as part of Cirque du Soleil 's Michael Jackson: The Immortal World Tour.
The New York Times reported the song contained racist and anti-Semitic content on June 15, 1995, just a day before the album 's release. The publication highlighted the lyrics, "Jew me, sue me, everybody do me / Kick me, kike me, do n't you black or white me. '' Jackson responded directly to the publication, stating:
The idea that these lyrics could be deemed objectionable is extremely hurtful to me, and misleading. The song in fact is about the pain of prejudice and hate and is a way to draw attention to social and political problems. I am the voice of the accused and the attacked. I am the voice of everyone. I am the skinhead, I am the Jew, I am the black man, I am the white man. I am not the one who was attacking. It is about the injustices to young people and how the system can wrongfully accuse them. I am angry and outraged that I could be so misinterpreted.
When questioned further about the lyrics on the ABC News program Prime Time Live, Jackson stated, "It 's not anti-Semitic because I 'm not a racist person... I could never be a racist. I love all races. '' The singer also said that some of his closest employees and friends were Jewish. That same day, Jackson received support from his manager and record label, who described the lyrics as "brilliant '', that they were about opposition to prejudice and taken out of context. The following day, two leading members of the Jewish community stated that Jackson 's attempt to make a song critical of discrimination had backfired. They expressed the opinion that the lyrics used were unsuitable for a teenage audience that might not understand the song 's context, adding that the song was too ambiguous for some listeners to understand. They accepted that Jackson meant well and suggested that the entertainer write an explanation in the album booklet.
On June 17, Jackson issued another public apology for his choice of words. He promised that future copies of the album would include an apology. By this point, however, two million copies of the record had already been shipped. The singer concluded, "I just want you all to know how strongly I am committed to tolerance, peace and love, and I apologize to anyone who might have been hurt. '' The next day, in his review of HIStory, Jon Pareles of The New York Times alleged, "In... ' They Do n't Care About Us ', he gives the lie to his entire catalogue of brotherhood anthems with a burst of anti-Semitism. ''
On June 21, Patrick Macdonald of The Seattle Times criticized Jackson, stating, "He may have lived a sheltered life, but there really is no excuse for using terms like ' Jew me ' and ' kike ' in a pop song, unless you make it clear you are denouncing such terms, and do so in an artful way. '' Two days later, Jackson decided, despite the cost incurred, he would return to the studio and alter the offending wording on future copies of the album; "Jew me '' and "Kike me '' would be substituted with "do me '' and "strike me ''. The music video and some copies of the album still carry the original words, but with loud, abstract noises partially drowning them out. He reiterated his acceptance that the song was offensive to some. Spike Lee noted some kind of double standard in the music industry, stating "While the New York Times asserted the use of racial slurs in "They Do n't Care About Us '', they were silent on other racial slurs in the album. The Notorious B.I.G. says "nigga '' on "This Time Around, '' another song on the HIStory album, but it did not attract media attention, as well as, many years before, use in lyrics of word "nigger '' by John Lennon. ''
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the first person to call for a crusade against heretics in western europe was | Albigensian Crusade - wikipedia
Crusaders
Cathars County of Toulouse
Simon de Montfort † Amaury VI of Montfort Philip II of France
Raymond Roger Trencavel Raymond VI of Toulouse Raymond VII of Toulouse
After 1291
Northern Crusades (1147 -- 1410)
Against Christians
The Albigensian Crusade or the Cathar Crusade (1209 -- 1229) was a 20 - year military campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism in Languedoc, in southern France. The Crusade was prosecuted primarily by the French crown and promptly took on a political flavour, resulting in not only a significant reduction in the number of practising Cathars, but also a realignment of the County of Toulouse in Languedoc, bringing it into the sphere of the French crown and diminishing the distinct regional culture and high level of influence of the Counts of Barcelona.
The Cathars originated from an anti-materialist reform movement within the Bogomil churches of Dalmatia and Bulgaria calling for a return to the Christian message of perfection, poverty and preaching, combined with a rejection of the physical to the point of starvation. The reforms were a reaction against the often scandalous and dissolute lifestyles of the Catholic clergy in southern France. Their theology, neo-Gnostic in many ways, was basically dualist. Several of their practices, especially their belief in the inherent evil of the physical world, conflicted with the doctrines of the Incarnation of Christ and sacraments, initiated accusations of Gnosticism and brought them the ire of the Catholic establishment. They became known as the Albigensians, because there were many adherents in the city of Albi and the surrounding area in the 12th and 13th centuries.
Between 1022 and 1163, the Cathars were condemned by eight local church councils, the last of which, held at Tours, declared that all Albigenses should be put into prison and have their property confiscated. The Third Lateran Council of 1179 repeated the condemnation. Innocent III 's diplomatic attempts to roll back Catharism were met with little success. After the murder of his legate, Pierre de Castelnau, in 1208, Innocent III declared a crusade against the Cathars. He offered the lands of the Cathar heretics to any French nobleman willing to take up arms.
From 1209 to 1215, the Crusaders experienced grand success, capturing Cathar lands and perpetrating acts of extreme violence, often against civilians. From 1215 to 1225, a series of revolts caused many of the lands to be lost. A renewed crusade resulted in the recapturing of the territory effectively drove Catharism underground by 1244. The Albigensian Crusade also had a role in the creation and institutionalization of both the Dominican Order and the Medieval Inquisition. The Dominicans promulgated the message of the Church to combat alleged heresies by preaching the Church 's teachings in towns and villages, while the Inquisition investigated heresies. Because of these efforts, by the middle of the 14th century, the Cathar movement had been virtually extinguished.
Derived in part from earlier forms of Gnosticism, the theology of the Cathars was dualistic, a belief in two equal and comparable transcendental principles: God, the force of good, and the demiurge, the force of evil. They held that the physical world was evil and created by this demiurge, which they called Rex Mundi (Latin, "King of the World ''). Rex Mundi encompassed all that was corporeal, chaotic and powerful. The Cathar understanding of God was entirely disincarnate: they viewed God as a being or principle of pure spirit and completely unsullied by the taint of matter. He was the God of love, order and peace. Jesus was an angel with only a phantom body, and the accounts of him in the New Testament were to be understood allegorically. As the physical world and the human body were the creation of the evil principle, sexual abstinence (even in marriage) was encouraged. Civil authority had no claim on a Cathar, since this was the rule of the physical world. As such, the Cathars refused to take oaths of allegiance or volunteer for military service. Cathars also refused to kill animals or consume meat.
Cathars rejected the Catholic priesthood, labeling its members, including the pope, unworthy and corrupted. Disagreeing on the Catholic concept of the unique role of the priesthood, they taught that anyone, not just the priest, could consecrate the Eucharistic host or hear a confession. Cathars insisted on it being the responsibility of the individual to develop a relationship with God, independent of an established clergy. A particularly prominent 12th century Cathar preacher was Henry the Petrobrusian, who, in addition to being strongly anti-clerical, adopted the Pelagian view that people were not tainted with original sin, but instead succumbed to sin through their own actions. He gained a large following.
On baptism, Cathars claimed that the sacrament should only be given to adults. Cathars regarded baptism not as a sign of God 's grace, to be bestowed on anyone, but as necessitating the conscious decision of an adult. Catharism developed its own unique form of "sacrament '' known as the consolamentum, to replace the Catholic rite of baptism. Instead of receiving baptism through water, one received the consolamentum by the laying on of hands. They regarded water as unclean, and therefore refused to use it. The act was typically received just before death, as Cathars believed that this increased one 's chances for salvation by wiping away all previous sins. After taking the sacrament, the recipient became known as perfectus.
Despite Cathar anti-clericalism, there were men selected amongst the Cathars to serve as bishops and deacons. The bishops were selected from among the "perfect. ''
By the 12th century, organized groups of dissidents, such as the Waldensians and Cathars, were beginning to appear in the towns and cities of newly urbanized areas. In western Mediterranean France, one of the most urbanized areas of Europe at the time, the Cathars grew to represent a popular mass movement, and the belief was spreading to other areas. One such area was Lombardy, which by the 1170s was sustaining a community of Cathars. The Cathar movement was seen by some as a reaction against the corrupt and earthly lifestyles of the clergy. It has also been viewed as a manifestation of dissatisfaction with papal power.
Cathar theology found its greatest success in the Languedoc. The Cathars were known as Albigensians because of their association with the city of Albi, and because the 1176 Church Council which declared the Cathar doctrine heretical was held near Albi. The condemnation was repeated through the Third Lateran Council of 1179. In Languedoc, political control and land ownership was divided among many local lords and heirs. Before the crusade, there was little fighting in the area and it had a fairly sophisticated polity. Western Mediterranean France itself was at that time divided between the Crown of Aragon and the County of Toulouse.
On becoming Pope in 1198, Innocent III resolved to deal with the Cathars and sent a delegation of friars to the province of Languedoc to assess the situation. The Cathars of Languedoc were seen as not showing proper respect for the authority of the French king or the local Catholic Church, and their leaders were being protected by powerful nobles, who had clear interest in independence from the king.
One of the most powerful, Count Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse, openly supported the Cathars and their independence movement. He refused to assist the delegation. He was excommunicated in May 1207 and an interdict was placed on his lands. The senior papal legate, Pierre de Castelnau, seen as responsible for these actions, was killed. His death was attributed to supporters of the count. This brought down more penalties on Count Raymond, but he soon agreed to reconcile with the Church and the excommunication was lifted. At the Council of Avignon (1209) Raymond was again excommunicated for not fulfilling the conditions of ecclesiastical reconciliation. After this, Innocent III called for a crusade against the Albigensians, with the view that ridding Europe of heresy could better defend its borders against invading Muslims. The time period of the Crusade coincided with the Fifth and Sixth Crusades in the Holy Land.
By mid-1209, around 10,000 crusaders had gathered in Lyon before marching south. Many Crusaders stayed on for no more than 40 days before being replaced. A large number came from Northern France, while some had volunteered from England. The crusaders turned towards Montpellier and the lands of Raymond Roger Trencavel, aiming for the Cathar communities around Albi and Carcassonne. Raymond Roger, a nobleman, was a supporter of the Cathar movement. Like Raymond of Toulouse, he sought an accommodation with the crusaders, but he was refused a meeting and raced back to Carcassonne to prepare his defences.
The Crusaders captured the small village of Servian and then headed for Béziers, arriving on July 21, 1209. Under the command of the papal legate, Arnaud Amalric, they started to besiege the city, calling on the Catholics within to come out, and demanding that the Cathars surrender. Neither group did as commanded. The city fell the following day when an abortive sortie was pursued back through the open gates. The entire population was slaughtered and the city burned to the ground. It was reported that Amalric, when asked how to distinguish Cathars from Catholics, responded, "Kill them all! God will know his own. '' Whether this was actually said is sometimes considered doubtful, but, according to historian Joseph Strayer, it captures the "spirit '' of the Crusaders, who killed nearly every man, woman, and child in the town.
Amarlic and Milo, a fellow legate, in a letter to the Pope, claim that the crusaders "put to the sword almost 20,000 people. '' Strayer insists that this number is too high, but noted that in his letter "the legate expressed no regret about the massacre, not even a word of condolence for the clergy of the cathedral who were killed in front of their own altar. '' News of the disaster quickly spread and afterwards many settlements surrendered without a fight.
After the Massacre at Béziers, the next major target was Carcassonne, a city with many well known Cathars. Carsaconne was well fortified, but vulnerable, and overflowing with refugees. The Crusaders traversed the 45 miles between Béziers and Carsaconne in six days, arriving in the city on August 1, 1209. The siege did not last long. By August 7 they had cut the city 's water supply. Raymond Roger sought negotiations but was taken prisoner while under truce, and Carcasonne surrendered on August 15. The people were not killed, but were forced to leave the town. They were naked according to Peter of Vaux - de-Cernay, a monk and eyewitness to many events of the crusade, but "in their shifts and breeches, '' according to Guillaume de Puylaurens, a contemporary.
Simon de Montfort, a prominent French nobleman, was then appointed leader of the Crusader army, and was granted control of the area encompassing Carcassonne, Albi, and Béziers. After the fall of Carcassonne, other towns surrendered without a fight. Albi, Castelnaudary, Castres, Fanjeaux, Limoux, Lombers and Montréal all fell quickly during the autumn.
The next battle centred around Lastours and the adjacent castle of Cabaret. Attacked in December 1209, Pierre Roger de Cabaret repulsed the assault. Fighting largely halted over the winter, but fresh Crusaders arrived. In March 1210, Bram was captured after a short siege. In June the well - fortified city of Minerve was besieged. The city was not of major strategic importance. Simon 's decision to attack it was probably influenced by the large number of perfects who had gathered there. Unable to take the town by storm because of the surrounding geography, Simon launched a heavy bombardment against the town, and in late June the main well was destroyed and on July 22, the city, short on water, surrendered. Simon wished to treat the occupants leniently, but was pressured by Arnaud Amalric to punish the Cathars. The Crusaders allowed the soldiers defending the town as well as the Catholics inside of it to go free, along with the non-perfect Cathars. The Cathar "perfects '' were given the opportunity to return to Catholicism. All but three women did. The 140 who refused were burned at the stake. Some entered the flames voluntarily, not awaiting their executioners. In August, the Crusade proceeded to the stronghold of Termes. Despite sallies from Pierre - Roger de Cabaret, the siege was solid. On November 22 the Cathars managed to abandon the city and escape.
By the time operations resumed in 1211, the actions of Arnaud - Amaury and Simon de Montfort had alienated several important lords, including Raymond de Toulouse, who had been excommunicated again. The crusaders returned in force to Lastours in March and Pierre - Roger de Cabaret soon agreed to surrender. In May the castle of Aimery de Montréal was retaken; he and his senior knights were hanged, and several hundred Cathars were burned. Cassès and Montferrand both fell easily in early June and the crusaders headed for Toulouse. The town was besieged, but for once the attackers were short of supplies and men, and Simon de Montfort withdrew before the end of the month. Emboldened, Raymond de Toulouse led a force to attack Montfort at Castelnaudary in September. Montfort broke free from the siege but Castelnaudary fell that December to Raymond 's troops and Raymond 's forces went on to liberate over thirty towns before the counter-attack ground to a halt at Lastours in the autumn.
The Cathars now faced a difficult situation. To repel the Crusaders, they turned to Peter II of Aragon for assistance. A favorite of the Catholic Church, Peter II had been crowned king by Innocent III in 1204. He fought the Moors in Spain, and served in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. However, his sister, Eleanor, had married Raymond VI, securing an alliance. He then decided to come to the aid of Toulouse. The Crown of Aragon, under Peter II, allied with the County of Toulouse and various other entities. This force engaged Simon 's troops on September 12 in the Battle of Muret. The Crusaders were heavily outnumbered, but nonetheless prevailed. Peter II was struck down and killed. The Albigensian army, hearing of his death, fled. This allowed Simon 's troops to occupy the northern part of Toulouse.
It was a serious blow for the resistance, and in 1214 the situation became worse. As the Crusaders continued their advance, Raymond was forced to flee to England, and his lands were given by the pope to the victorious Philip II, a stratagem which finally succeeded in interesting the king in the conflict. In November, Simon de Montfort entered Périgord and easily captured the castles of Domme and Montfort; he also occupied Castlenaud and destroyed the fortifications of Beynac. In 1215, Castelnaud was recaptured by Montfort, and the Crusaders entered Toulouse. The town paid an indemnity of 30,000 marks. Toulouse was gifted to Montfort. The Fourth Council of the Lateran in 1215 solidified Crusader control over the area by officially proclaiming Simon the Count of Toulouse.
Raymond VI, together with his son Raymond VII, returned to the region in April 1216 and soon raised a substantial force from disaffected towns. Beaucaire was besieged in May and fell after three months; the efforts of Montfort to relieve the town were repulsed. Innocent III died suddenly in July 1216 and the crusade was left in temporary disarray. The command passed to the more cautious Philip II of France, who was reluctant to vigorously prosecute the crusade.
Montfort then had to put down an uprising in Toulouse before heading west to capture Bigorre, but he was repulsed at Lourdes in December 1216. On September 12, 1217, Raymond retook Toulouse without a fight while Montfort was occupied in the Foix region. Montfort hurried back, but his forces were insufficient to retake the town before campaigning halted. Responding to a call from Pope Honorius III to renew the crusade, Montfort resumed the siege in the spring of 1218. On June 25 or 29, while attempting to fend off a sally by the defenders, Montfort was struck and killed by a stone hurled from defensive siege equipment. Toulouse was held, and the Crusaders driven back. Popular accounts state that the city 's artillery was operated by the women and girls of Toulouse.
The Crusade continued with renewed vigor. Philip refused to command in person, but agreed to appoint his son, the also reluctant Prince Louis, to lead an expedition. His army marched south beginning in May, passing through Poitou. In June, an army under Amaury de Montfort, son of the late Simon, joined by Louis, besieged Marmande. The town fell in June 1219. Its occupants, excluding only the commander and his knights, were massacred. After capturing Marmande, Louis attempted to retake Toulouse. Following a siege of six weeks, the army abandoned the mission and went home. Honorius III called the endeavor a "miserable setback. '' Without Louis 's troops, Amaury was unable to hold on to the lands that he had taken, and the Cathars were able to retake much of their land. Castelnaudary was retaken by troops under Raymond VII. Amaury again besieged the town from July 1220 to March 1221, but it withstood an eight - month assault. In 1221, the success of Raymond and his son continued: Montréal and Fanjeaux were retaken and many Catholics were forced to flee. By 1222, Raymond VII had reclaimed all the lands that had been lost. That same year, Raymond VI died and was succeeded by Raymond VII. On July 14, 1223, Philip II died. In 1224, Amaury de Montfort abandoned Carcassonne. Raymond VII returned from exile to reclaim the area. That same year, Amaury ceded his remaining lands to Louis VIII.
In November 1225, the Council of Bourges convened in order to deal with the alleged Cathar heresy. At the council, Raymond VII, like his father, was excommunicated. The council gathered a thousand churchmen to authorize a tax on their annual incomes, the "Albigensian tenth, '' to support the crusade, though permanent reforms intended to fund the papacy in perpetuity foundered.
Louis VIII headed the new crusade. His army assembled at Bourges in May 1226. While the exact number of troops present is unknown, it was certainly the largest force ever sent against the Cathars. It set out in June 1226. The crusaders captured once more the towns of Béziers, Carcassconne, Beaucaire, and Marseilles, this time with no resistance. However, Avignon, nominally under the rule of the German emperor, did resist, refusing to open its gates to the French troops. Not wanting to storm the well - fortified walls of the town, Louis settled in for a siege. A frontal assault that August was fiercely beaten back. Finally, in early September, the town surrendered, agreeing to pay 6,000 marks and destroy its walls. The town was occupied on September 9. No killing or looting took place. Louis VIII died in November and was succeeded by the child king Louis IX. But Queen - regent Blanche of Castile allowed the crusade to continue under Humbert V de Beaujeu. Labécède fell in 1227 and Vareilles in 1228. At that time, the Crusaders once again besieged Toulouse. While doing so, they systematically laid waste to the surrounding landscape: uprooting vineyards, burning fields and farms, and slaughtering livestock. Eventually, the city was retaken. Raymond did not have the manpower to intervene.
Eventually, Queen Blanche offered Raymond a treaty recognizing him as ruler of Toulouse in exchange for his fighting the Cathars, returning all church property, turning over his castles and destroying the defenses of Toulouse. Moreover, Raymond had to marry his daughter Joan to Louis ' brother Alphonse, with the couple and their heirs obtaining Toulouse after Raymond 's death, and the inheritance reverting to the king. Raymond agreed and signed the Treaty of Paris at Meaux on April 12, 1229.
Historian Daniel Power notes that the fact that Peter of Vaux - de-Cernay's Historia Albigensis, which many historians of the crusade rely heavily upon, was published only in 1218 leaves a shortage of primary source material for events after that year. As such, there is more difficulty in discerning the nature of various events during the subsequent time period.
The Inquisition was established under Pope Gregory IX in 1234 to uproot heretical movements, including the remaining Cathars. Operating in the south at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns during the whole of the 13th century, and a great part of the 14th, it succeeded in crushing Catharism as a popular movement and driving its remaining adherents underground. Punishments for Cathars varied greatly. Most frequently, they were made to wear yellow crosses atop their garments as a sign of outward penance. Others made obligatory pilgrimages, which often included fighting against Muslims. Visiting a local church naked once each month to be scourged was also a common punishment, including for returned pilgrims. Cathars who were slow to repent suffered imprisonment and, often, the loss of property. Others who altogether refused to repent were burned.
The Catholic Church found another useful duel for combatting heresy in the establishment of the Order of Preachers, whose members were called "Dominicans, '' after their founder, Saint Dominic. The Dominicans would travel to towns and villages preaching in favor of the teachings of the Church and against heresy. In some cases, they took part in prosecuting Cathars.
From May 1243 to March 1244, the Cathar fortress of Montségur was besieged by the troops of the seneschal of Carcassonne and Pierre Amiel, the Archbishop of Narbonne. On March 16, 1244, a large massacre took place, in which over 200 Cathar perfects were burnt in an enormous pyre at the prat dels cremats ("field of the burned '') near the foot of the castle. After this, Catharism did not completely vanish initially, but was practiced by its remaining adherents in secret.
The Inquisition continued to search for and attempt to prosecute Cathars. While few prominent men joined the Cathars, a small group of ordinary followers remained, and were generally successful at concealing themselves. The Inquisitors sometimes used torture as a method to find Cathars, but still were able to catch only a relatively small number. The Inquisitors received funding from the French monarchy up until the 1290s, when King Phillip IV, who was in conflict with Pope Boniface VIII, severely restricted it. However, after visiting southern France in 1303, he became alarmed by the anti-monarchial sentiments of the people in the region, especially in Carcassonne, and decided to remove the restrictions placed on the Inquisition.
Pope Clement V introduced new rules designed to protect the rights of the accused. The Dominican Bernard Gui, Inquisitor of Toulouse from 1308 to 1323, wrote a manual discussing the customs of non-Catholic sects and the methods to be employed by the Inquisitors in combating heresy. A large portion of the manual describes the reputed customs of the Cathars, while contrasting them with those of Catholics. Gui also describes methods to be used for interrogating accused Cathars. He ruled that any person found to have died without confessing his known heresy would have his remains exhumed and burned, while any person known to have been a heretic but not known whether to have confessed or not would have his body unearthed but not burned. Under Gui, a final push against Catharism began. By 1350, the movement was virtually extinguished.
Strayer argues that the Albigensian Crusade increased the power of the French monarchy and made the papacy more dependent on it. This would eventually lead to the Avignon Papacy.
Raphael Lemkin, who in the 20th century coined the word "genocide, '' referred to the Albigensian Crusade as "one of the most conclusive cases of genocide in religious history. ''
Mark Gregory Pegg writes that "The Albigensian Crusade ushered genocide into the West by linking divine salvation to mass murder, by making slaughter as loving an act as His sacrifice on the cross. '' Robert E. Lerner argues that Pegg 's classification of the Albigensian Crusade as a genocide is inappropriate, on the grounds that it "was proclaimed against unbelievers... not against a ' genus ' or people; those who joined the crusade had no intention of annihilating the population of southern France... If Pegg wishes to connect the Albigensian Crusade to modern ethnic slaughter, well -- words fail me (as they do him). '' Laurence Marvin is not as dismissive as Lerner regarding Pegg 's contention that the Albigensian Crusade was a genocide; he does however take issue with Pegg 's argument that the Albigensian Crusade formed an important historical precedent for later genocides including the Holocaust.
Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Solveig Björnson describe the Albigensian Crusade as "the first ideological genocide. '' Kurt Jonassohn and Frank Chalk (who together founded the Montreal Institute for Genocide and Human Rights Studies) include a detailed case study of the Albigensian Crusade in their genocide studies textbook The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies, authored by Joseph R. Strayer and Malise Ruthven.
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when does the male-female difference in the level of aggression become apparent | Sexual dimorphism - Wikipedia
Sexual dimorphism is the condition where the two sexes of the same species exhibit different characteristics beyond the differences in their sexual organs. The condition occurs in many animals and some plants. Differences may include secondary sex characteristics, size, color, markings, and may also include behavioral differences. These differences may be subtle or exaggerated, and may be subjected to sexual selection. The opposite of dimorphism is monomorphism.
Common and easily identified types of dimorphism are ornamentation and coloration, though not always apparent. A difference in coloration of sexes within a given species is called sexual dichromatism, which is commonly seen in many species of birds and reptiles. Sexual selection leads to the exaggerated dimorphic traits that are used predominantly in competition over mates. The increased fitness resulting from ornamentation offsets its cost to produce or maintain suggesting complex evolutionary implications, but the costs and evolutionary implications vary from species to species.
Exaggerated ornamental traits are used predominantly in the competition over mates, implying sexual selection. Ornaments may be costly to produce or maintain, which has complex evolutionary implications but the costs and implications differ depending on the nature of the ornamentation (such as the colour mechanism involved).
The peafowl constitute conspicuous illustrations of the principle. The ornate plumage of peacocks, as used in the courting display, attracts peahens. At first sight one might mistake peacocks and peahens for completely different species because of the vibrant colours and the sheer size of the male 's plumage; the peahen being of a subdued brown coloration. The plumage of the peacock increases its vulnerability to predators because it is a hindrance in flight, and it renders the bird conspicuous in general. Similar examples are manifold, such as in birds of paradise and argus pheasants.
Another example of sexual dichromatism is that of the nestling blue tits. Males are chromatically more yellow than females. It is believed that this is obtained by the ingestion of green lepidopteran larvae, which contain large amounts of the carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin. This diet also affects the sexually dimorphic colours in the human - invisible UV spectrum. Hence, the male birds, although appearing yellow to humans actually have a violet - tinted plumage that is seen by females. This plumage is thought to be an indicator of male parental abilities. Perhaps this is a good indicator for females because it shows that they are good at obtaining a food supply from which the carotenoid is obtained. There is a positive correlation between the chromas of the tail and breast feathers and body condition. Carotenoids play an important role in immune function for many animals, so carotenoid dependent signals might indicate health.
Frogs constitute another conspicuous illustration of the principle. There are two types of dichromatism for frog species: ontogenetic and dynamic. Ontogenetic frogs are more common and have permanent color changes in males or females. Litoria lesueuri is an example of a dynamic frog that has temporarily color changes in males during breeding season. Hyperolius ocellatus is an ontogenetic frog with dramatic differences in both color and pattern between the sexes. At sexual maturity, the males display a bright green with white dorsolateral lines. In contrast, the females are rusty red to silver with small spots. The bright coloration in the male population serves to attract females and as an aposematic sign to potential predators.
Females often show a preference for exaggerated male secondary sexual characteristics in mate selection. The sexy son hypothesis explains that females prefer more elaborate males and select against males that are dull in color, independent of the species ' vision.
Similar sexual dimorphism and mating choice are also observed in many fish species. For example, male guppies have colorful spots and ornamentations while females are generally grey in color. Female guppies prefer brightly colored males to duller males.
In redlip blennies, only the male fish develops an organ at the anal - urogenital region that produces antimicrobial substances. During parental care, males rub their anal - urogenital regions over their nests ' internal surfaces, thereby protecting their eggs from microbial infections, one of the most common causes for mortality in young fish.
Most flower plants are hermaphroditic but approximately 6 % have separate males and females (dioecy). Males and females in insect - pollinated species generally look similar to one another because plants provide rewards (e.g. nectar) that encourage pollinators to visit another similar flower, completing pollination. Catasetum orchids are one interesting exception to this rule. Male Catasetum orchids violently attach pollinia to euglossine bee pollinators. The bees will then avoid other male flowers but may visit the female, which looks different from the males.
Various other dioecious exceptions, such as Loxostylis alata have visibly different genders, with the effect of eliciting the most efficient behaviour from pollinators, who then use the most efficient strategy in visiting each gender of flower instead of searching say, for pollen in a nectar - bearing female flower.
Some plants, such as some species of Geranium have what amounts to serial sexual dimorphism. The flowers of such species might for example present their anthers on opening, then shed the exhausted anthers after a day or two and perhaps change their colours as well while the pistil matures; specialist pollinators are very much inclined to concentrate on the exact appearance of the flowers they serve, which saves their time and effort and serves the interests of the plant accordingly. Some such plants go even further and change their appearance again once they have been fertilised, thereby discouraging further visits from pollinators. This is advantageous to both parties because it avoids damage to the developing fruit and avoids wasting the pollinator 's effort on unrewarding visits. In effect the strategy ensures that the pollinators can expect a reward every time they visit an appropriately advertising flower.
Females of the aquatic plant Vallisneria americana have floating flowers attached by a long flower stalk that are fertilized if they contact one of the thousands of free floating flowers released by a male. Sexual dimorphism is most often associated with wind - pollination in plants due to selection for efficient pollen dispersal in males vs pollen capture in females, e.g. Leucadendron rubrum.
Sexual dimorphism in plants can also be dependent on reproductive development. This can be seen in Cannabis sativa, a type of hemp, which have higher photosynthesis rates in males while growing but higher rates in females once the plants become sexually mature.
It also should be borne in mind that every sexually reproducing extant species of vascular plant actually has an alternation of generations; the plants we see about us generally are diploid sporophytes, but their offspring really are not the seeds that people commonly recognise as the new generation. The seed actually is the offspring of the haploid generation of microgametophytes (pollen) and megagametophytes (the embryo sacs in the ovules). Each pollen grain accordingly may be seen as a male plant in its own right; it produces a sperm cell and is dramatically different from the female plant, the megagametophyte that produces the female gamete.
Insects display a wide variety of sexual dimorphism between taxa including size, ornamentation and coloration. The female - biased sexual size dimorphism observed in many taxa evolved despite intense male - male competition for mates. In Osmia rufa, for example, the female is larger / broader than males, with males being 8 -- 10 mm in size and females being 10 -- 12 mm in size. In the hackberry emperor females are similarly larger than males. The reason for the sexual dimorphism is due to provision size mass, in which females consume more pollen than males. In some species, there is evidence of male dimorphism, but it appears to be for the purpose of distinctions of roles. This is seen in the bee species Macrotera portalis in which there is a small - headed morph, capable of flight, and large - headed morph, incapable of flight, for males. Anthidium manicatum also displays male - biased sexual dimorphism. The selection for larger size in males rather than females in this species may have resulted due to their aggressive territorial behavior and subsequent differential mating success. Another example is Lasioglossum hemichalceum, which is a species of sweat bee that shows drastic physical dimorphisms between male offpsring. Not all dimorphism has to have a drastic difference between the sexes. Andrena agilissima is a mining bee where the females only have a slightly larger head than the males.
Weaponry leads to increased fitness by increasing success in male - male competition in many insect species. The beetle horns in Onthophagus taurus are enlarged growths of the head or thorax expressed only in the males. Copris ochus also has distinct sexual and male dimorphism in head horns. These structures are impressive because of the exaggerated sizes. There is a direct correlation between male horn lengths and body size and higher access to mates and fitness. In other beetle species, both males and females may have ornamentation such as horns. Generally, insect sexual size dimorphism (SSD) within species increases with body size.
Sexual dimorphism within insects is also displayed by dichromatism. In butterfly genera Bicyclus and Junonia, dimorphic wing patterns evolved due to sex - limited expression, which mediates the intralocus sexual conflict and leads to increased fitness in males. The sexual dichromatic nature of Bicyclus anyana is reflected by female selection on the basis of dorsal UV - reflective eyespot pupils (Robertson & Monteiro, 2005). The common brimstone also displays sexual dichromatism; males have yellow and iridescent wings, while female wings are white and non-iridescent. Naturally selected deviation in protective female coloration is displayed in mimetic butterflies.
Size dimorphism shows a correlation with sexual cannibalism, which is prominent in spiders (it is also found in insects such as praying mantises). In the size dimorphic wolf spider, food - limited females cannibalize more frequently. Therefore, there is a high risk of low fitness for males due to pre-copulatory cannibalism, which led to male selection of larger females for two reasons: higher fecundity and lower rates of cannibalism. In addition, female fecundity is positively correlated with female body size and large female body size is selected for, which is seen in the family Araneidae. All Argiope species, including Argiope bruennichi, use this method. Some males evolved ornamentation including binding the female with silk, having proportionally longer legs, modifying the female 's web, mating while the female is feeding, or providing a nuptial gift in response to sexual cannibalism. Male body size is not under selection due to cannibalism in all spider species such as Nephila pilipes, but is more prominently selected for in less dimorphic species of spiders, which often selects for larger male size.
Ray finned fish are an ancient and diverse class, with the widest degree of sexual dimorphism of any Animal class. Fairbairn notes that "females are generally larger than males but males are often larger in species with male - male combat or male paternal care... (sizes range) from dwarf males to males more than 12 times heavier than females ''
There are cases where males are substantially larger than females. An example is Lamprologus callipterus, a type of cichlid fish. In this fish, the males are characterized as being up to 60 times larger than the females. The male 's increased size is believed to be advantageous because males collect and defend empty snail shells in each of which a female breeds. Males must be larger and more powerful in order to collect the largest shells. The female 's body size must remain small because in order for her to breed, she must lay her eggs inside the empty shells. If she grows too large, she will not fit in the shells and will be unable to breed. Another example is the dragonet, in which males are considerably larger than females and possess longer fins.
The female 's small body size is also likely beneficial to her chances of finding an unoccupied shell. Larger shells, although preferred by females, are often limited in availability. Hence, the female is limited to the growth of the size of the shell and may actually change her growth rate according to shell size availability. In other words, the male 's ability to collect large shells depends on his size. The larger the male, the larger the shells he is able to collect. This then allows for females to be larger in his brooding nest which makes the difference between the sizes of the sexes less substantial. Male - male competition in this fish species also selects for large size in males. There is aggressive competition by males over territory and access to larger shells. Large males win fights and steal shells from competitors. Sexual dimorphism also occurs in hermaphroditic fish. These species are known as sequential hermaphrodites. In fish, reproductive histories often include the sex - change from female to male where there is a strong connection between growth, the sex of an individual, and the mating system it operates within. In protogynous mating systems where males dominate mating with many females, size plays a significant role in male reproductive success. Males have a propensity to be larger than females of a comparable age but it is unclear whether the size increase is due to a growth spurt at the time of the sexual transition or due to the history of faster growth in sex changing individuals. Larger males are able to stifle the growth of females and control environmental resources.
Social organization plays a large role in the changing of sex by the fish. It is often seen that a fish will change its sex when there is a lack of dominant male within the social hierarchy. The females that change sex are often those who attain and preserve an initial size advantage early in life. In either case, females which change sex to males are larger and often prove to be a good example of dimorphism.
In other cases with fish, males will go through noticeable changes in body size, and females will go through morphological changes that can only be seen inside of the body. For example, in sockeye salmon, males develop larger body size at maturity, including an increase in body depth, hump height, and snout length. Females experience minor changes in snout length, but the most noticeable difference is the huge increase in gonad size, which accounts for about 25 % of body mass.
Sexual selection was observed for female ornamentation in Gobiusculus flavescens, known as two - spotted gobies. Traditional hypotheses suggest that male - male competition drives selection. However, selection for ornamentation within this species suggests that showy female traits can be selected through either female - female competition or male mate choice. Since carotenoid - based ornamentation suggests mate quality, female two - spotted guppies that develop colorful orange bellies during the breeding season are considered favorable to males. The males invest heavily in offspring during the incubation, which leads to the sexual preference in colorful females due to higher egg quality.
In amphibians and reptiles, the degree of sexual dimorphism varies widely among taxonomic groups. The sexual dimorphism in amphibians and reptiles may be reflected in any of the following: anatomy; relative length of tail; relative size of head; overall size as in many species of vipers and lizards; coloration as in many amphibians, snakes, and lizards, as well as in some turtles; an ornament as in many newts and lizards; the presence of specific sex - related behaviour is common to many lizards; and vocal qualities which are frequently observed in frogs.
Anole lizards show prominent size dimorphism with males typically being significantly larger than females. For instance, the average male Anolis sagrei was 53.4 mm vs. 40 mm in females. Different sizes of the heads in anoles have been explained by differences in the estrogen pathway. The sexual dimorphism in lizards is generally attributed to the effects of sexual selection, but other mechanisms including ecological divergence and fecundity selection provide alternative explanations. The development of color dimorphism in lizards is induced by hormonal changes at the onset of sexual maturity, as seen in Psamodromus algirus, Sceloporus gadoviae, and S. undulates erythrocheilus.
Male painted dragon lizards, Ctenophorus pictus. are brightly conspicuous in their breeding coloration, but male color declines with aging. Male coloration appears to reflect innate anti-oxidation capacity that protects against oxidative DNA damage. Male breeding coloration is likely an indicator to females of the underlying level of oxidative DNA damage (a significant component of aging) in potential mates.
Sexual dimorphism in birds can be manifested in size or plumage differences between the sexes. Sexual size dimorphism varies among taxa with males typically being larger, though this is not always the case, e.g. birds of prey, hummingbirds, and some species of flightless birds. Plumage dimorphism, in the form of ornamentation or coloration, also varies, though males are typically the more ornamented or brightly colored sex. Such differences have been attributed to the unequal reproductive contributions of the sexes. This difference produces a stronger female choice since they have more risk in producing offspring. In some species, the male 's contribution to reproduction ends at copulation, while in other species the male becomes the main caregiver. Plumage polymorphisms have evolved to reflect these differences and other measures of reproductive fitness, such as body condition or survival. The male phenotype sends signals to females who then choose the ' fittest ' available male.
Sexual dimorphism is a product of both genetics and environmental factors. An example of sexual polymorphism determined by environmental conditions exists in the red - backed fairywren. Red - backed fairywren males can be classified into three categories during breeding season: black breeders, brown breeders, and brown auxiliaries. These differences arise in response to the bird 's body condition: if they are healthy they will produce more androgens thus becoming black breeders, while less healthy birds produce less androgens and become brown auxiliaries. The reproductive success of the male is thus determined by his success during each year 's non-breeding season, causing reproductive success to vary with each year 's environmental conditions.
Migratory patterns and behaviors also influence sexual dimorphisms. This aspect also stems back to the size dimorphism in species. It has been shown that the larger males are better at coping with the difficulties of migration and thusly are more successful in reproducing when reaching the breeding destination. When viewing this in an evolutionary standpoint many theories and explanations come to consideration. If these are the result for every migration and breeding season the expected results should be a shift towards a larger male population through sexual selection. Sexual selection is strong when the factor of environmental selection is also introduced. The environmental selection may support a smaller chick size if those chicks were born in an area that allowed them to grow to a larger size, even though under normal conditions they would not be able to reach this optimal size for migration. When the environment gives advantages and disadvantages of this sort, the strength of selection is weakened and the environmental forces are given greater morphological weight. The sexual dimorphism could also produce a change in timing of migration leading to differences in mating success within the bird population. When the dimorphism produces that large of a variation between the sexes and between the members of the sexes multiple evolutionary effects can take place. This timing could even lead to a speciation phenomenon if the variation becomes strongly drastic and favorable towards two different outcomes.
Sexual dimorphism is maintained by the counteracting pressures of natural selection and sexual selection. For example, sexual dimorphism in coloration increases the vulnerability of bird species to predation by European sparrowhawks in Denmark. Presumably, increased sexual dimorphism means males are brighter and more conspicuous, leading to increased predation. Moreover, the production of more exaggerated ornaments in males may come at the cost of suppressed immune function. So long as the reproductive benefits of the trait due to sexual selection are greater than the costs imposed by natural selection, then the trait will propagate throughout the population. Reproductive benefits arise in the form of a larger number of offspring, while natural selection imposes costs in the form of reduced survival. This means that even if the trait causes males to die earlier, the trait is still beneficial so long as males with the trait produce more offspring than males lacking the trait. This balance keeps the dimorphism alive in these species and ensures that the next generation of successful males will also display these traits that are attractive to the females.
Such differences in form and reproductive roles often cause differences in behavior. As previously stated, males and females often have different roles in reproduction. The courtship and mating behavior of males and females are regulated largely by hormones throughout a bird 's lifetime. Activational hormones occur during puberty and adulthood and serve to ' activate ' certain behaviors when appropriate, such as territoriality during breeding season. Organizational hormones occur only during a critical period early in development, either just before or just after hatching in most birds, and determine patterns of behavior for the rest of the bird 's life. Such behavioral differences can cause disproportionate sensitivities to anthropogenic pressures. Females of the whinchat in Switzerland breed in intensely managed grasslands. Earlier harvesting of the grasses during the breeding season lead to more female deaths. Populations of many birds are often male - skewed and when sexual differences in behavior increase this ratio, populations decline at a more rapid rate. Also not all male dimorphic traits are due to hormones like testosterone, instead they are a naturally occurring part of development, for example plumage.
Sexual dimorphism may also influence differences in parental investment during times of food scarcity. For example, in the blue - footed booby, the female chicks grow faster than the males, resulting in booby parents producing the smaller sex, the males, during times of food shortage. This then results in the maximization of parental lifetime reproductive success.
Sexual dimorphism may also only appear during mating season, some species of birds only show dimorphic traits in seasonal variation. The males of these species will molt into a less bright or less exaggerated color during the off breeding season. This occurs because the species is more focused on survival than reproduction, causing a shift into a less ornate state.
Consequently, sexual dimorphism has important ramifications for conservation. However, sexual dimorphism is not only found in birds and is thus important to the conservation of many animals. Such differences in form and behavior can lead to sexual segregation, defined as sex differences in space and resource use. Most sexual segregation research has been done on ungulates, but such research extends to bats, kangaroos, and birds. Sex - specific conservation plans have even been suggested for species with pronounced sexual segregation.
The term sesquimorphism (the Latin numeral prefix sesqui - means one - and - one - half, so halfway between mono - (one) and di - (two)) has been proposed for bird species in which "both sexes have basically the same plumage pattern, though the female is clearly distinguishable by reason of her paler or washed - out colour ''. Examples include Cape sparrow (Passer melanurus), rufous sparrow (subspecies P. motinensis motinensis), and saxaul sparrow (P. ammodendri).
In a large proportion of mammal species, males are larger than females. Just like in birds, the brains of many mammals, including humans, are significantly different for males and females of the species. Both genes and hormones affect the formation of many animal brains before "birth '' (or hatching), and also behaviour of adult individuals. Hormones significantly affect human brain formation, and also brain development at puberty. A 2004 review in Nature Reviews Neuroscience observed that "because it is easier to manipulate hormone levels than the expression of sex chromosome genes, the effects of hormones have been studied much more extensively, and are much better understood, than the direct actions in the brain of sex chromosome genes. '' It concluded that while "the differentiating effects of gonadal secretions seem to be dominant, '' the existing body of research "support the idea that sex differences in neural expression of X and Y genes significantly contribute to sex differences in brain functions and disease. ''
Marine mammals show some of the greatest sexual size differences of mammals, because of sexual selection. The mating system of pinnipeds varies from polygyny to serial monogamy. Pinnipeds are known for early differential growth and maternal investment since the only nutrients for newborn pups is the milk provided by the mother. For example, the males are significantly larger than the females at birth in sea lion pups. The pattern of differential investment can be varied principally prenatally and post-natally. Mirounga leonina, the southern elephant seal, is one of the most dimorphic mammals.
Sexual dimorphism in elephant seals is associated with the ability of a male to defend territories, which correlates with polygynic behavior. The large sexual size dimorphism is due to sexual selection, but also because females reach reproductive age much earlier than males. In addition the males do not provide parental care for the young and allocate more energy to growth. This is supported by the secondary growth spurt in males during adolescent years.
Top: Stylised illustration of humans on the Pioneer plaque, showing both male (left) and female (right). Bottom: Comparison between male (left) and female (right) pelvises.
In humans, biological sex is determined by five factors present at birth: the presence or absence of a Y chromosome, the type of gonads, the sex hormones, the internal reproductive anatomy (such as the uterus in females), and the external genitalia. Generally, the five factors are either all male or all female. Sexual ambiguity is rare in humans, but wherein such ambiguity does occur, the individual is biologically classified as intersex.
Sexual dimorphism among humans includes differentiation among gonads, internal genitals, external genitals, breasts, muscle mass, height, the endocrine (hormonal) systems and their physiological and behavioral effects. Human sexual differentiation is effected primarily at the gene level, by the presence or absence of a Y - chromosome, which encodes biochemical modifiers for sexual development in males. According to Clark Spencer Larsen, modern day Homo sapiens show a range of sexual dimorphism, with average body mass difference between the sexes being roughly equal to 15 %.
The average basal metabolic rate is about 6 percent higher in adolescent males than females and increases to about 10 percent higher after puberty. Females tend to convert more food into fat, while males convert more into muscle and expendable circulating energy reserves. Aggregated data of absolute strength indicates that females have, on average, 40 - 60 % the upper body strength of males, and 70 - 75 % the lower body strength. The difference in strength relative to body mass is less pronounced in trained individuals. In Olympic weightlifting, male records vary from 5.5 × body mass in the lowest weight category to 4.2 × in the highest weight category, while female records vary from 4.4 × to 3.8 ×, a weight adjusted difference of only 10 - 20 %, and an absolute difference of about 30 % (i.e. 472 kg vs 333 kg for unlimited weight classes) (see Olympic weightlifting records). A study, carried about by analyzing annual world rankings from 1980 -- 1996, found that males ' running times were, on average, 11 % faster than females '.
Females are taller, on average, than males in early adolescence, but males, on average, surpass them in height in later adolescence and adulthood. In the United States, adult males are, on average, 9 % taller and 16.5 % heavier than adult females. There is no comparative evidence of differing levels of sexual selection having produced sexual size dimorphism between human populations.
Males typically have larger tracheae and branching bronchi, with about 30 percent greater lung volume per body mass. On average, males have larger hearts, 10 percent higher red blood cell count, higher hemoglobin, hence greater oxygen - carrying capacity. They also have higher circulating clotting factors (vitamin K, pro thrombin and platelets). These differences lead to faster healing of wounds and higher peripheral pain tolerance.
Females typically have more white blood cells (stored and circulating), more granulocytes and B and T lymphocytes. Additionally, they produce more antibodies at a faster rate than males. Hence they develop fewer infectious diseases and succumb for shorter periods. Ethologists argue that females, interacting with other females and multiple offspring in social groups, have experienced such traits as a selective advantage.
Considerable discussion in academic literature concerns potential evolutionary advantages associated with sexual competition (both intrasexual and intersexual) and short - and long - term sexual strategies. According to Daly and Wilson, "The sexes differ more in human beings than in monogamous mammals, but much less than in extremely polygamous mammals. '' One proposed explanation is that human sexuality has developed more in common with its close relative the bonobo, who have similar sexual dimorphism and which are polygynandrous and use recreational sex to reinforce social bonds and reduce aggression.
In the human brain, a difference between sexes was observed in the transcription of the PCDH11X / Y gene pair unique to Homo sapiens. Sexual differentiation in the human brain from the undifferentiated state is triggered by testosterone from the fetal testis. Testosterone is converted to estrogen in the brain through the action of the enzyme aromatase. Testosterone acts on many brain areas, including the SDN - POA, to create the masculinized brain pattern. Brains of pregnant females carrying male fetuses may be shielded from the masculinizing effects of androgen through the action of sex - hormone binding globulin.
The relationship between sex differences in the brain and human behavior is a subject of controversy in psychology and society at large. Many females tend to have a higher ratio of gray matter in the left hemisphere of the brain in comparison to males. Males on average have larger brains than females; however, when adjusted for total brain volume the gray matter differences between sexes is almost nonexistent. Thus, the percentage of gray matter appears to be more related to brain size than it is to sex. Differences in brain physiology between sexes do not necessarily relate to differences in intellect. Haier et al. found in a 2004 study that "men and women apparently achieve similar IQ results with different brain regions, suggesting that there is no singular underlying neuroanatomical structure to general intelligence and that different types of brain designs may manifest equivalent intellectual performance ''. (See the sex and intelligence article for more on this subject.) Strict graph - theoretical analysis of the human brain connections revealed that in numerous graph - theoretical parameters (e.g., minimum bipartition width, edge number, the expander graph property, minimum vertex cover), the structural connectome of women are significantly "better '' connected than the connectome of men. It was shown that the graph - theoretical differences are due to the sex and not to the differences in the cerebral volume, by analyzing the data of 36 females and 36 males, where the brain volume of each man in the group was smaller than the brain volume of each woman in the group.
Sexual dimorphism was also described in the gene level and shown to be extend from the sex chromosomes. Overall, about 6500 genes have been found to have sex - differential expression in at least one tissue. Many of these genes are not directly associated with reproduction, but rather linked to more general biological features. In addition, it has been shown that genes with sex specific expression undergo reduced selection efficiency, which lead to higher population frequencies of deleterious mutations and contributing to the prevalence of several human diseases
Phenotypic differences between sexes are evident even in cultured cells from tissues. For example, female muscle - derived stem cells have a better muscle regeneration efficiency than male ones. There are reports of several metabolic differences between male and female cells and they also respond to stress differently.
In theory, larger females are favored by competition for mates, especially in polygamous species. Larger females offer an advantage in fertility, since the physiological demands of reproduction are limiting in females. Hence there is a theoretical expectation that females tend to be larger in species that are monogamous. Females are larger in many species of insects, many spiders, many fish, many reptiles, owls, birds of prey and certain mammals such as the spotted hyena, and baleen whales such as blue whale. As an example, in some species, females are sedentary, and so males must search for them. Fritz Vollrath and Geoff Parker argue that this difference in behaviour leads to radically different selection pressures on the two sexes, evidently favouring smaller males. Cases where the male is larger than the female have been studied as well, and require alternative explanations.
One example of this type of sexual size dimorphism is the bat Myotis nigricans, (black myotis bat) where females are substantially larger than males in terms of body weight, skull measurement, and forearm length. The interaction between the sexes and the energy needed to produce viable offspring make it favorable for females to be larger in this species. Females bear the energetic cost of producing eggs, which is much greater than the cost of making sperm by the males. The fecundity advantage hypothesis states that a larger female is able to produce more offspring and give them more favorable conditions to ensure their survival; this is true for most ectotherms. A larger female can provide parental care for a longer time while the offspring matures. The gestation and lactation periods are fairly long in M. nigricans, the females suckling their offspring until they reach nearly adult size. They would not be able to fly and catch prey if they did not compensate for the additional mass of the offspring during this time. Smaller male size may be an adaptation to increase maneuverability and agility, allowing males to compete better with females for food and other resources.
Some species of anglerfish also display extreme sexual dimorphism. Females are more typical in appearance to other fish, whereas the males are tiny rudimentary creatures with stunted digestive systems. A male must find a female and fuse with her: he then lives parasitically, becoming little more than a sperm - producing body in what amounts to an effectively hermaphrodite composite organism. A similar situation is found in the Zeus water bug Phoreticovelia disparata where the female has a glandular area on her back that can serve to feed a male, which clings to her (note that although males can survive away from females, they generally are not free - living). This is taken to the logical extreme in the Rhizocephala crustaceans, like the Sacculina, where the male injects itself into the female 's body and becomes nothing more than sperm producing cells, to the point that the superorder used to be mistaken for hermaphroditic.
Some plant species also exhibit dimorphism in which the females are significantly larger than the males, such as in the moss Dicranum and the liverwort Sphaerocarpos. There is some evidence that, in these genera, the dimorphism may be tied to a sex chromosome, or to chemical signalling from females.
Another complicated example of sexual dimorphism is in Vespula squamosa, the southern yellowjacket. In this wasp species, the female workers are the smallest, the male workers are slightly larger, and the female queens are significantly larger than her female worker and male counterparts.
Sexual dimorphism by size is evident in some extinct species such as the velociraptor. In the case of velociraptors the sexual size dimorphism may have been caused by two factors: male competition for hunting ground to attract mates, and / or female competition for nesting locations and mates, males being a scarce breeding resource.
In 1871, Charles Darwin advanced the theory of sexual selection, which related sexual dimorphism with sexual selection.
It has been proposed that the earliest sexual dimorphism is the size differentiation of sperm and eggs (anisogamy), but the evolutionary significance of sexual dimorphism is more complex than that would suggest. Anisogamy and the usually large number of small male gametes relative to the larger female gametes usually lies in the development of strong sperm competition, because small sperm enable organisms to produce a large number of sperm, and make males (or male function of hermaphrodites) more redundant. This intensifies male competition for mates and promotes the evolution of other sexual dimorphim in many species, especially in vertebrates including mammals. However, in some species, the females can be larger than males, irrespective of gametes, and in some species females (usually of species in which males invest a lot in rearing offspring and thus no longer considered as so redundant) compete for mates in ways more usually associated with males.
In many non-monogamous species, the benefit to a male 's reproductive fitness of mating with multiple females is large, whereas the benefit to a female 's reproductive fitness of mating with multiple males is small or nonexistent. In these species, there is a selection pressure for whatever traits enable a male to have more matings. The male may therefore come to have different traits from the female.
These traits could be ones that allow him to fight off other males for control of territory or a harem, such as large size or weapons; or they could be traits that females, for whatever reason, prefer in mates. Male - male competition poses no deep theoretical questions but mate choice does.
Females may choose males that appear strong and healthy, thus likely to possess "good alleles '' and give rise to healthy offspring. In some species, however, females seem to choose males with traits that do not improve offspring survival rates, and even traits that reduce it (potentially leading to traits like the peacock 's tail). Two hypotheses for explaining this fact are the sexy son hypothesis and the handicap principle.
The sexy son hypothesis states that females may initially choose a trait because it improves the survival of their young, but once this preference has become widespread, females must continue to choose the trait, even if it becomes harmful. Those that do not will have sons that are unattractive to most females (since the preference is widespread) and so receive few matings.
The handicap principle states that a male who survives despite possessing some sort of handicap thus proves that the rest of his genes are "good alleles ''. If males with "bad alleles '' could not survive the handicap, females may evolve to choose males with this sort of handicap; the trait is acting as a hard - to - fake signal of fitness.
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what are the reindeers names on santa's sleigh | Santa Claus 's reindeer - wikipedia
In traditional festive legend, Santa Claus 's reindeer pull a sleigh through the night sky to help Santa Claus deliver gifts to children on Christmas Eve. The commonly cited names of the eight reindeer are Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet, Cupid, Donner, and Blitzen. They are based on those used in the 1823 poem "A Visit from St. Nicholas '' (commonly called "The Night Before Christmas ''), arguably the basis of the reindeers ' popularity.
The enduring popularity of the Christmas song "Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer '' has led to Rudolph often joining the list, bringing the number of Santa Claus 's reindeer up to nine.
In traditional lore, Santa Claus 's sleigh is led by eight reindeer: Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet, Cupid, Dunder (variously spelled Donder and Donner), and Blixem (variously spelled Blixen and Blitzen), with Rudolph being a 20th - century inclusion.
The names Dunder and Blixem derive from Dutch words for thunder and lightning, respectively. In the premiere episode of The Simpsons, Homer misremembers them collectively as "Donna Dixon ''.
The first reference to Santa 's sleigh being pulled by a reindeer appears in Old Santeclaus with Much Delight, an illustrated children 's poem published in New York in 1821. The names of the author and the illustrator are not known. The poem, with eight colored lithographic illustrations, was published by William B. Gilley as a small paperback book entitled The Children 's Friend: A New - Year 's Present, to the Little Ones from Five to Twelve.
The 1823 poem by Clement C. Moore "A Visit from St. Nicholas '' (also known as "' Twas the Night Before Christmas '') is largely credited for the contemporary Christmas lore that includes eight named reindeer.
The relevant segment of the poem reads:
When, what to my wondering eyes should appear, but a miniature sleigh, and eight tiny rein - deer, with a little old driver, so lively and quick, I knew in a moment it must be St. Nick. More rapid than eagles his coursers they came, And he whistled, and shouted, and call 'd them by name: "Now, Dasher! Now, Dancer! Now, Prancer, and Vixen! "On, Comet! On, Cupid! On, Dunder and Blixem! "To the top of the porch! to the top of the wall! "Now dash away! dash away! dash away all! ''
As dry leaves that before the wild hurricane fly, When they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky;
In An American Anthology, 1787 -- 1900, Edmund Clarence Stedman reprints the 1844 Clement C. Moore version of the poem, including the German spelling of "Donder and Blitzen, '' rather than the original 1823 version using the Dutch spelling, "Dunder and Blixem ''. Both phrases translate as "Thunder and Lightning '' in English, though German for "thunder '' is now spelled Donner, and the Dutch words would now be spelled Donder and Bliksem.
Rudolph 's story was originally written in verse by Robert L. May for the Montgomery Ward chain of department stores in 1939, and published as a book to be given to children in the store at Christmas time. According to this story, Rudolph 's glowing red nose made him a social outcast among the other reindeer. Santa Claus 's worldwide flight one year was imperiled by severe fog. Visiting Rudolph 's house to deliver his presents, Santa observed Rudolph 's glowing red nose in the darkened bedroom and decided to use him as a makeshift lamp to guide his sleigh. Rudolph accepted Santa 's request to lead the sleigh for the rest of the night, and he returned home a hero for having helped Santa Claus.
Rudolph 's story is a popular Christmas story that has been retold in numerous forms, most notably a popular song, a stop motion television special and an animated feature film. The television special departed significantly from Robert L. May 's original story, depicting Rudolph as Donner 's son, who lived among Santa Claus 's reindeer from birth. In 1998, a film titled Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer: The Movie was released that depicted Rudolph as Blitzen 's son.
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when does one piece episode 830 come out | List of one piece. episodes (season 19) - wikipedia
The nineteenth season of the One Piece anime series was produced by Toei Animation, and directed by Toshinori Fukuzawa. The season began broadcasting in Japan on Fuji Television on April 9, 2017. Like the rest of the series, it follows the adventures of Monkey D. Luffy and his Straw Hat Pirates. The story arc, called "Whole Cake Island '', adapts material from the rest of the 82nd volume onwards of the manga by Eiichiro Oda. It deals with Luffy and his small team rescuing Sanji from his arranged marriage to finalize a political alliance between his own family, the Vinsmoke 's, and Big Mom 's family.
As of October 2017, two pieces of theme music are used for this season. The opening themes are "We Can '' (ウィー キャン!, Wī Kyan!) sung by Kishidan and Hiroshi Kitadani for episodes 784 to 806, and "Hope '' performed by Namie Amuro beginning with episode 807.
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major medical insurance and catastrophic insurance are mostly used as a supplement to medicaid | Medicaid - wikipedia
Medicaid in the United States is a joint federal and state program that helps with medical costs for some people with limited income and resources. Medicaid also offers benefits not normally covered by Medicare, like nursing home care and personal care services. The Health Insurance Association of America describes Medicaid as a "government insurance program for persons of all ages whose income and resources are insufficient to pay for health care ''. Medicaid is the largest source of funding for medical and health - related services for people with low income in the United States, providing free health insurance to 74 million low - income and disabled people (as of 2017). It is a means - tested program that is jointly funded by the state and federal governments and managed by the states, with each state currently having broad leeway to determine who is eligible for its implementation of the program. States are not required to participate in the program, although all have since 1982. Medicaid recipients must be U.S. citizens or legal permanent residents, and may include low - income adults, their children, and people with certain disabilities. Poverty alone does not necessarily qualify someone for Medicaid.
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ("Obamacare '') significantly expanded both eligibility for and federal funding of Medicaid. Under the law as written, all U.S. citizens and legal residents with income up to 133 % of the poverty line, including adults without dependent children, would qualify for coverage in any state that participated in the Medicaid program. However, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius that states do not have to agree to this expansion in order to continue to receive previously established levels of Medicaid funding, and many states have chosen to continue with pre-ACA funding levels and eligibility standards
Research suggests that Medicaid improves recipients ' financial security. However, the evidence is mixed regarding whether Medicaid actually improves health outcomes, although "the best existing evidence says (having health insurance) improves health. '' Medicare and Medicaid are the two government sponsored medical insurance schemes in the United States and are administered by the U.S. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Baltimore, MD.
Beginning in the 1980s, many states received waivers from the federal government to create Medicaid managed care programs. Under managed care, Medicaid recipients are enrolled in a private health plan, which receives a fixed monthly premium from the state. The health plan is then responsible for providing for all or most of the recipient 's healthcare needs. Today, all but a few states use managed care to provide coverage to a significant proportion of Medicaid enrollees. As of 2014, 26 states have contracts with managed care organizations (MCOs) to deliver long - term care for the elderly and individuals with disabilities. The states pay a monthly capitated rate per member to the MCOs that provide comprehensive care and accept the risk of managing total costs. Nationwide, roughly 80 % of enrollees are enrolled in managed care plans. Core eligibility groups of poor children and parents are most likely to be enrolled in managed care, while the aged and disabled eligibility groups more often remain in traditional "fee for service '' Medicaid.
Because the service level costs vary depending on the care and needs of the enrolled, a cost per person average is only a rough measure of actual cost of care. The annual cost of care will vary state to state depending on state approved Medicaid benefits, as well as the state specific care costs. 2008 average cost per senior was reported as $14,780 (in addition to Medicare), and a state by state listing was provided. In a 2010 national report for all age groups, the per enrolled average cost was calculated to $5,563 and a listing by state and by coverage age is provided.
As of 2013, Medicaid is a program intended for those with low income, but a low income is not the only requirement to enroll in the program. Eligibility is categorical -- that is, to enroll one must be a member of a category defined by statute; some of these categories include low - income children below a certain wage, pregnant women, parents of Medicaid - eligible children who meet certain income requirements, and low - income seniors. The details of how each category is defined vary from state to state.
People with disabilities who do not have a work history and who receive Supplemental Security Income, or SSI, are enrolled in Medicaid as a mechanism to provide them with health insurance. Persons with a disability, including blindness or physical disability, deafness, or mental illness can apply for SSI. However, in order to be enrolled, applicants must prove that they are disabled to the point of being unable to work. In recent years, a substantial liberalization occurred in the field of individual disability income insurance, which provides benefits when an insured person is unable to work because of illness or injury (HIAA, p. 13).
Some states operate a program known as the Health Insurance Premium Payment Program (HIPP). This program allows a Medicaid recipient to have private health insurance paid for by Medicaid. As of 2008 relatively few states had premium assistance programs and enrollment was relatively low. Interest in this approach remained high, however.
Included in the Social Security program under Medicaid are dental services. These dental services are optional for adults above the age of 21; however, this service is a requirement for those eligible for Medicaid and below the age of 21. Minimum services include pain relief, restoration of teeth, and maintenance for dental health. Early and Periodic Screening, Diagnostic and Treatment (EPSDT) is a mandatory Medicaid program for children that aims to focus on prevention, early diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Oral screenings are not required for EPSDT recipients, and they do not suffice as a direct dental referral. If a condition requiring treatment is discovered during an oral screening, the state is responsible for taking care of this service, regardless of whether or not it is covered on that particular Medicaid plan.
The Social Security Amendments of 1965 created Medicaid by adding Title XIX to the Social Security Act, 42 U.S.C. § § 1396 et sec. Under the program, the federal government provides matching funds to states to enable them to provide medical assistance to residents who meet certain eligibility requirements. The objective is to help states provide medical assistance to residents whose incomes and resources are insufficient to meet the costs of necessary medical services. Medicaid serves as the nation 's primary source of health insurance coverage for low - income populations.
States are not required to participate. Those that do must comply with federal Medicaid laws under which each participating state administers its own Medicaid program, establishes eligibility standards, determines the scope and types of services it will cover, and sets the rate of payment. Benefits vary from state to state, and because someone qualifies for Medicaid in one state, it does not mean they will qualify in another. The federal Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) monitors the state - run programs and establishes requirements for service delivery, quality, funding, and eligibility standards.
The Medicaid Drug Rebate Program and the Health Insurance Premium Payment Program (HIPP) were created by the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 (OBRA - 90). This act helped to add Section 1927 to the Social Security Act of 1935 which became effective on January 1, 1991. This program was formed due to the costs that Medicaid programs were paying for outpatient drugs at their discounted prices.
The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 (OBRA - 93) amended Section 1927 of the Act as it brought changes to the Medicaid Drug Rebate Program, as well as requiring states to implement a Medicaid estate recovery program to sue the estate of decedents for medical care costs paid by Medicaid.
Medicaid also offers a Fee for Service (Direct Service) Program to schools throughout the United States for the reimbursement of costs associated with the services delivered to special education students. Federal law mandates that every disabled child in America receive a "free appropriate public education. '' Decisions by the United States Supreme Court and subsequent changes in federal law make it clear that Medicaid must pay for services provided for all Medicaid - eligible disabled children.
The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, passed in 2010, would have revised and expanded Medicaid eligibility starting in 2014. Under the law as written, states that wished to participate in the Medicaid program would be required to allow people with income up to 133 % of the poverty line to qualify for coverage, including adults without dependent children. The federal government would pay 100 % of the cost of Medicaid eligibility expansion in 2014, 2015, and 2016; 95 % in 2017, 94 % in 2018, 93 % in 2019, and 90 % in 2020 and all subsequent years.
However, the Supreme Court ruled in NFIB v. Sebelius that this provision of the ACA was coercive, and that the federal government must allow states to continue at pre-ACA levels of funding and eligibility if they chose. Several states have opted to reject the expanded Medicaid coverage provided for by the act; over half of the nation 's uninsured live in those states. They include Texas, Florida, Kansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi. As of May 24, 2013 a number of states had not made final decisions, and lists of states which have opted out or were considering opting out varied, but Alaska, Idaho, South Dakota, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Maine, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Oklahoma seemed to have decided to reject expanded coverage.
Several factors are associated with states ' decisions to accept or reject Medicaid expansion in accordance with the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Partisan composition of state governments is the most significant factor, with states led primarily by Democrats tending to expand Medicaid and states led primarily by Republicans tending to reject expansion. Other important factors include the generosity of the Medicaid program in a given state prior to 2010, spending on elections by health care providers, and the attitudes people in a given state tend to have about the role of government and the perceived beneficiaries of expansion.
The federal government will pay 100 percent of defined costs for certain newly eligible adult Medicaid beneficiaries in "Medicaid Expansion '' states. The NFIB v. Sebelius ruling, effective January 1, 2014, allows Non-Expansion states to retain the program as it was before January 2014.
As of January 2014, confirmed opting out states include Alabama, Alaska, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia & Wisconsin. States opting in after 2014 are Indiana & Pennsylvania. On July 17, 2015, Governor Bill Walker sent a letter to the Alaskan state legislature, providing the required 45 - day notice of his intention to accept the expansion of Medicaid in Alaska.
Under 2017 American Health Care Act (AHCA) legislation under the House and Senate, both versions of proposed Republican bills have proposed cuts to Medicaid funding on differing timelines. Under both bills, the Congressional Budget Office has rated these as reducing coverage of Americans by Medicaid, with the Senate bill reducing costs of Medicaid by the year 2026 with by a reduction of cost by 26 percent in comparison to projections of ACA subsidies. Additionally, CBO estimated have predicted number of uninsured rising under AHCA from 28 million persons to 49 million (under the Senate bill) or to 51 (under the House Bill).
States may bundle together the administration of Medicaid with other programs such as the Children 's Health Insurance Program (CHIP), so the same organization that handles Medicaid in a state may also manage the additional programs. Separate programs may also exist in some localities that are funded by the states or their political subdivisions to provide health coverage for indigents and minors.
State participation in Medicaid is voluntary; however, all states have participated since 1982 when Arizona formed its Arizona Health Care Cost Containment System (AHCCCS) program. In some states Medicaid is subcontracted to private health insurance companies, while other states pay providers (i.e., doctors, clinics and hospitals) directly. There are many services that can fall under Medicaid and some states support more services than other states. The most provided services are intermediate care for mentally handicapped, prescription drugs and nursing facility care for under 21 - year - olds. The least provided services include institutional religious (non-medical) health care, respiratory care for ventilator dependent and PACE (inclusive elderly care).
Most states administer Medicaid through their own programs. A few of those programs are listed below:
As of January 2012, Medicaid and / or CHIP funds could be obtained to help pay employer health care premiums in Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Florida, and Georgia.
According to CMS, the Medicaid program provided health care services to more than 46.0 million people in 2001. In 2002, Medicaid enrollees numbered 39.9 million Americans, the largest group being children (18.4 million or 46 percent). From 2000 to 2012, the proportion of hospital stays for children paid by Medicaid increased by 33 percent, and the proportion paid by private insurance decreased by 21 percent. Some 43 million Americans were enrolled in 2004 (19.7 million of them children) at a total cost of $295 billion. In 2008, Medicaid provided health coverage and services to approximately 49 million low - income children, pregnant women, elderly people, and disabled people. In 2009, 62.9 million Americans were enrolled in Medicaid for at least one month, with an average enrollment of 50.1 million. In California, about 23 % of the population was enrolled in Medi - Cal for at least 1 month in 2009 -- 10.
Medicaid payments currently assist nearly 60 percent of all nursing home residents and about 37 percent of all childbirths in the United States. The federal government pays on average 57 percent of Medicaid expenses.
Loss of income and medical insurance coverage during the 2008 -- 2009 recession resulted in a substantial increase in Medicaid enrollment in 2009. Nine U.S. states showed an increase in enrollment of 15 % or more, resulting in heavy pressure on state budgets.
Unlike Medicaid, Medicare is a social insurance program funded at the federal level and focuses primarily on the older population. As stated in the CMS website, Medicare is a health insurance program for people age 65 or older, people under age 65 with certain disabilities, and (through the End Stage Renal Disease Program) people of all ages with end - stage renal disease. The Medicare Program provides a Medicare part A which covers hospital bills, Medicare Part B which covers medical insurance coverage, and Medicare Part D which covers prescription drugs.
Medicaid is a program that is not solely funded at the federal level. States provide up to half of the funding for the Medicaid program. In some states, counties also contribute funds. Unlike the Medicare program, Medicaid is a means - tested, needs - based social welfare or social protection program rather than a social insurance program. Eligibility is determined largely by income. The main criterion for Medicaid eligibility is limited income and financial resources, a criterion which plays no role in determining Medicare coverage. Medicaid covers a wider range of health care services than Medicare.
Some people are eligible for both Medicaid and Medicare and are known as Medicare dual eligibles. In 2001, about 6.5 million Americans were enrolled in both Medicare and Medicaid. In 2013, approximately 9 million people qualified for Medicare and Medicaid.
Medicaid is a joint federal - state program that provides health coverage or nursing home coverage to certain categories of low - asset people, including children, pregnant women, parents of eligible children, people with disabilities and elderly needing nursing home care. Medicaid was created to help low - asset people who fall into one of these eligibility categories "pay for some or all of their medical bills. ''
There are two general types of Medicaid coverage. "Community Medicaid '' helps people who have little or no medical insurance. Medicaid nursing home coverage pays all of the costs of nursing homes for those who are eligible except that the recipient pays most of his / her income toward the nursing home costs, usually keeping only $66.00 a month for expenses other than the nursing home.
While Congress and the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) set out the general rules under which Medicaid operates, each state runs its own program. Under certain circumstances, an applicant may be denied coverage. As a result, the eligibility rules differ significantly from state to state, although all states must follow the same basic framework.
Having limited assets is one of the primary requirements for Medicaid eligibility, but poverty alone does not qualify people to receive Medicaid benefits unless they also fall into one of the defined eligibility categories. According to the CMS website, "Medicaid does not provide medical assistance for all poor persons. Even under the broadest provisions of the Federal statute (except for emergency services for certain persons), the Medicaid program does not provide health care services, even for very poor persons, unless they are in one of the designated eligibility groups. '' In 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act expanded Medicaid eligibility starting in 2014; people with income up to 133 % of the poverty line qualify for coverage, including adults without dependent children. However, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the federal government must make participation in the expanded Medicaid program voluntary, and several state governments have declared that they will not participate.
More recently, many states have authorized financial requirements that will make it more difficult for working - poor adults to access coverage. In Wisconsin, nearly a quarter of Medicaid patients were dropped after the state government imposed premiums of 3 % of household income. A survey in Minnesota found that more than half of those covered by Medicaid were unable to obtain prescription medications because of co-payments.
There are a number of Medicaid eligibility categories; within each category there are requirements other than income that must be met. These other requirements include, but are not limited to, assets, age, pregnancy, disability, blindness, income and resources, and one 's status as a U.S. citizen or a lawfully admitted immigrant.
The Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 requires anyone seeking Medicaid to produce documents to prove that he is a United States citizen or resident alien. An exception is made for Emergency Medicaid where payments are allowed for the pregnant and disabled regardless of immigration status. Special rules exist for those living in a nursing home and disabled children living at home. A child may be covered under Medicaid if he or she is a U.S. citizen or a permanent resident.
A child may be eligible for Medicaid regardless of the eligibility status of his parents. Thus, a child may be covered by Medicaid based on his individual status even if his parents are not eligible. Similarly, if a child lives with someone other than a parent, he may still be eligible based on its individual status.
Legal permanent residents (LPRs) with a substantial work history (defined as 40 quarters of Social Security covered earnings) or military connection are eligible for the full range of major federal means - tested benefit programs, including Medicaid (Medi - Cal). LPRs entering after August 22, 1996, are barred from Medicaid for five years, after which their coverage becomes a state option, and states have the option to cover LPRs who are children or who are pregnant during the first five years. Noncitizen SSI recipients are eligible for (and required to be covered under) Medicaid. Refugees and asylees are eligible for Medicaid for seven years after arrival; after this term, they may be eligible at state option.
Nonimmigrants and unauthorized aliens are not eligible for most federal benefits, regardless of whether they are means tested, with notable exceptions for emergency services (e.g., Medicaid for emergency medical care), but states have the option to cover nonimmigrant and unauthorized aliens who are pregnant or who are children, and can meet the definition of "lawfully residing '' in the United States. Special rules apply to several limited noncitizen categories: certain "cross-border '' American Indians, Hmong / Highland Laotians, parolees and conditional entrants, and cases of abuse.
Aliens outside the United States who seek to obtain visas at US consulates overseas, or admission at US ports of entry, are generally denied entry if they are deemed "likely at any time to become a public charge. '' Aliens within the United States who seek to adjust their status to that of lawful permanent resident (LPR), or who entered the United States without inspection, are also generally subject to exclusion and deportation on public charge grounds. Similarly, LPRs and other aliens who have been admitted to the United States are removable if they become a public charge within five years after the date of their entry due to causes that preexisted their entry.
A 1999 policy letter from immigration officials defined "public charge '' and identified which benefits are considered in public charge determinations, and the policy letter underlies current regulations and other guidance on the public charge grounds of inadmissibility and deportability. Collectively, the various sources addressing the meaning of public charge have historically suggested that an alien 's receipt of public benefits, per se, is unlikely to result in the alien being deemed to be removable on public charge grounds.
One - third of children and over half (59 %) of low - income children are insured through Medicaid or SCHIP. The insurance provides them with access to preventive and primary services which are used at a much higher rate than for the uninsured, but still below the utilization of privately insured patients. As of February 2011, a record 90 % of children have coverage. However, 8 million children remain uninsured, including 5 million who are eligible for Medicaid and SCHIP but not enrolled.
Children enrolled in Medicaid are individually entitled under the law to comprehensive preventive and restorative dental services, but dental care utilization for this population is low. The reasons for low use are many, but a lack of dental providers who participate in Medicaid is a key factor. Few dentists participate in Medicaid -- less than half of all active private dentists in some areas. Low reimbursement rates, complex forms and burdensome administrative requirements are commonly cited by dentists as reasons for not participating in Medicaid. In Washington state, a program known as Access to Baby and Child Dentistry (ABCD) has helped increase access to dental services by providing dentists higher reimbursements for oral health education and preventive and restorative services for children. After the passing of the Affordable Care Act, many dental practices began using Dental Service Organizations to provide business management and support, allowing practices to minimize costs and pass the saving on to patients currently without adequate dental care.
Medicaid provided the largest portion of federal money spent on health care for people living with HIV / AIDS until the implementation of Medicare Part D when the prescription drug costs for those eligible for both Medicare and Medicaid shifted to Medicare. Unless low income people who are HIV positive meet some other eligibility category, they are not eligible for Medicaid assistance unless they can qualify under the "disabled '' category to receive Medicaid assistance -- as, for example, if they progress to AIDS (T - cell count drops below 200). The Medicaid eligibility policy contrasts with the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) guidelines which recommend therapy for all patients with T - cell counts of 350 or less, or in certain patients commencing at an even higher T - cell count. Due to the high costs associated with HIV medications, many patients are not able to begin antiretroviral treatment without Medicaid help. More than half of people living with AIDS in the US are estimated to receive Medicaid payments. Two other programs that provide financial assistance to people living with HIV / AIDS are the Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) and the Supplemental Security Income.
Once someone is approved as a beneficiary in the Supplemental Security Income program, they may automatically be eligible for Medicaid coverage (depending on the laws of the state they reside in).
Both the federal government and state governments have made changes to the eligibility requirements and restrictions over the years. The Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 (DRA) significantly changed the rules governing the treatment of asset transfers and homes of nursing home residents. The implementation of these changes proceeded state - by - state over the next few years and has now been substantially completed.
The DRA created a five - year "look - back period. '' That means that any transfers without fair market value (gifts of any kind) made by the Medicaid applicant during the preceding five years are penalizable.
The penalty is determined by dividing the average monthly cost of nursing home care in the area or State into the amount of assets gifted. Therefore, if a person gifted $60,000 and the average monthly cost of a nursing home was $6,000, one would divide $6000 into $60,000 and come up with 10. 10 represents the number of months the applicant would not be eligible for medicaid.
All transfers made during the five - year look - back period are totaled, and the applicant is penalized based on that amount after having already dropped below the Medicaid asset limit. This means that after dropping below the asset level ($2,000 limit in most states), the Medicaid applicant will be ineligible for a period of time. The penalty period does not begin until the person is eligible for medicaid but for the gift.
Elders who gift or transfer assets can be caught in the situation of having no money but still not being eligible for Medicaid.
During 2003 -- 2012, the share of hospital stays billed to Medicaid increased by 2.5 percent, or 0.8 million stays.
Medicaid super utilizers (defined as Medicaid patients with four or more admissions in one year) account for more hospital stays (5.9 vs. 1.3 stays), longer length of stay (6.1 vs. 4.5 days), and higher hospital costs per stay ($11,766 vs. $9,032). Medicaid super-utilizers were more likely than other Medicaid patients to be male and to be aged 45 -- 64 years. Common conditions among super-utilizers include mood disorders and psychiatric disorders, as well as diabetes; cancer treatment; sickle cell anemia; septicemia; congestive heart failure; chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; and complications of devices, implants and grafts.
Unlike Medicare, which is solely a federal program, Medicaid is a joint federal - state program. Each state operates its own Medicaid system, but this system must conform to federal guidelines in order for the state to receive matching funds and grants. The matching rate provided to states is determined using a federal matching formula (called Federal Medical Assistance Percentages), which generates payment rates that vary from state to state, depending on each state 's respective per capita income. The wealthiest states only receive a federal match of 50 % while poorer states receive a larger match.
Medicaid funding has become a major budgetary issue for many states over the last few years, with states, on average, spending 16.8 % of state general funds on the program. If the federal match expenditure is also counted, the program, on average, takes up 22 % of each state 's budget. Some 43 million Americans were enrolled in 2004 (19.7 million of them children) at a total cost of $295 billion. In 2008, Medicaid provided health coverage and services to approximately 49 million low - income children, pregnant women, elderly people, and disabled people. Federal Medicaid outlays were estimated to be $204 billion in 2008. In 2011, there were 7.6 million hospital stays billed to Medicaid, representing 15.6 percent (approximately $60.2 billion) of total aggregate inpatient hospital costs in the United States. At $8,000, the mean cost per stay billed to Medicaid was $2,000 less than the average cost for all stays.
Medicaid does not pay benefits to individuals directly; Medicaid sends benefit payments to health care providers. In some states Medicaid beneficiaries are required to pay a small fee (co-payment) for medical services. Medicaid is limited by federal law to the coverage of "medically necessary services ''.
Since Medicaid program was established in 1965, "states have been permitted to recover from the estates of deceased Medicaid recipients who were over age 65 when they received benefits and who had no surviving spouse, minor child, or adult disabled child. '' In 1993, Congress enacted the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, which required states to attempt to recoup "the expense of long - term care and related costs for deceased Medicaid recipients 55 or older. '' The Act also allowed states to recover other Medicaid expenses for deceased Medicaid recipients 55 or older, at each state 's choice. However, states are prohibited from estate recovery when "there is a surviving spouse, a child under the age of 21 or a child of any age who is blind or disabled '' and "the law also carved out other exceptions for adult children who have served as caretakers in the homes of the deceased, property owned jointly by siblings, and income - producing property, such as farms. '' Each state now maintains a Medicaid Estate Recovery Program, although the sum of money collected significantly varies from state to state, "depending on how the state structures its program and how vigorously it pursues collections. ''
Medicaid payments currently assist nearly 60 percent of all nursing home residents and about 37 percent of all childbirths in the United States. The federal government pays on average 57 percent of Medicaid expenses.
On November 25, 2008, a new federal rule was passed that allows states to charge premiums and higher co-payments to Medicaid participants. This rule will enable states to take in greater revenues, limiting financial losses associated with the program. Estimates figure that states will save $1.1 billion while the federal government will save nearly $1.4 billion. However, this means that the burden of financial responsibility will be placed on 13 million Medicaid recipients who will face a $1.3 billion increase in co-payments over 5 years. The major concern is that this rule will create a disincentive for low - income people to seek healthcare. It is possible that this will force only the sickest participants to pay the increased premiums and it is unclear what long - term effect this will have on the program.
A 2017 survey of the academic research on Medicaid found it improved recipients ' health and financial security. A 2017 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that Medicaid expansion under the Affordable Care Act "reduced unpaid medical bills sent to collection by $3.4 billion in its first two years, prevented new delinquencies, and improved credit scores. Using data on credit offers and pricing, we document that improvements in households ' financial health led to better terms for available credit valued at $520 million per year. We calculate that the financial benefits of Medicaid double when considering these indirect benefits in addition to the direct reduction in out - of - pocket expenditures. ''
A 2016 NBER paper found that Medicaid has substantial positive long - term effects on the health of recipients: "Early childhood Medicaid eligibility reduces mortality and disability and, for whites, increases extensive margin labor supply, and reduces receipt of disability transfer programs and public health insurance up to 50 years later. Total income does not change because earnings replace disability benefits. '' The government recoups its investment in Medicaid through savings on benefit payments later in life and greater payment of taxes because recipients of Medicaid are healthier: "The government earns a discounted annual return of between 2 and 7 percent on the original cost of childhood coverage for these cohorts, most of which comes from lower cash transfer payments. ''
A 2017 study in the American Political Science Review found that Medicaid enrollment increases political participation (measured in terms of voter registration and turnout).
A 2017 study in the Journal of Public Economics found that Medicaid expansion, by increasing treatment for substance abuse, "led to a sizeable reduction in the rates of robbery, aggravated assault and larceny theft. ''
"The Oregon Health Insurance Experiment: Evidence from the First Year, '' a 2011 paper by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Harvard School of Public Health, used Oregon 's 2008 decision to hold a randomized lottery for the provision of Medicaid insurance in order to measure the impact of health insurance on an individual 's health and well - being. The study examined the outcomes of the 10,000 lower - income people eligible for Medicaid who were chosen by this randomized system, which helped eliminate potential bias in the data produced. The study 's authors caution that the survey sample is relatively small and "estimates are therefore difficult to extrapolate to the likely effects of much larger health insurance expansions, in which there may well be supply side responses from the health care sector. '' Nevertheless, the study finds evidence that:
In the experiment, patients with catastrophic health spending (with costs that were greater than 30 % of income) dropped. The experiment also showed that Medicaid patients had cut in half the probability of requiring loans or forgoing other bills to pay for medical costs. The study found that Medicaid recipients had greater financial security: "recipients had fewer out - of - pocket medical expenses, were less likely to owe medical debt, or to refuse treatment due to costs ''.
In 2013, the same research team reported that Medicaid did not significantly improve physical health outcomes in the first two years after the Oregon Health Insurance Experiment (aka OHIE) began, but that it did "increase use of health care services, raise rates of diabetes detection and management, lower rates of depression, and reduce financial strain. ''
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cast of the planet of the apes 2014 | Dawn of the Planet of the Apes - Wikipedia
Dawn of the Planet of the Apes is a 2014 American science fiction film directed by Matt Reeves and written by Mark Bomback, Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver. It stars Andy Serkis, Jason Clarke, Gary Oldman, Keri Russell, Toby Kebbell, and Kodi Smit - McPhee. It is the sequel to the 2011 film Rise of the Planet of the Apes, which began 20th Century Fox 's reboot of the original Planet of the Apes series. Dawn is set ten years after the events of Rise, and follows a group of people in San Francisco who struggle to stay alive in the aftermath of a plague that is wiping out humanity, while Caesar tries to maintain dominance over his community of intelligent apes.
Dawn of the Planet of the Apes was released in the United States on July 11, 2014 and was met with highly positive reviews, with critics praising its visual effects, story, direction, acting, musical score, action and emotional depth. It was also a box office success, grossing over $710 million worldwide, and making it the eighth highest - grossing film of 2014. The film received an Academy Award nomination for Best Visual Effects. It was also nominated for eight Saturn Awards, including Best Science Fiction Film, Best Director for Reeves, and Best Supporting Actor for Serkis.
A third installment, titled War for the Planet of the Apes, was released on July 14, 2017.
Ten years after the pandemic of the deadly ALZ - 113 virus, later called Simian Flu, the worldwide human population was drastically reduced, with only about one in five hundred genetically immune to the virus. Meanwhile, the apes, under the chimpanzee Caesar, all bestowed with genetically enhanced intelligence by the virus, have long established a colony in the Muir Woods near San Francisco.
One day, a group of humans led by a man named Malcolm enter the apes ' territory from San Francisco in search of a hydroelectric dam that would restore power to the city. An encounter by Caesar 's son Blue Eyes and his friend Ash leads to the latter 's injury by a man named Carver. Malcolm manages to prevent further escalation while Caesar orders the humans to leave. Prompted by Koba, a scarred bonobo who holds a grudge against humans for his mistreatment as a test subject, Caesar brings his army to the humans ' community at an unfinished tower as a display of strength. Caesar announces his intent to fight the humans if forced to while demanding the humans to stay in their territory. Malcolm convinces his fellow leader Dreyfus to give him time to take a small team to the forest and reconcile with the apes so they can access the dam. He meets with Caesar, who allows them to work on the generator on the condition that they surrender their guns. As Malcolm, his wife Ellie, and son Alexander work, they bond with the apes. The fragile bonding is greatly helped when Ellie, a nurse, effectively treats Cornelia 's illness.
Meanwhile, Dreyfus arms his community using the Fort Point armory. Koba discovers the armory and confronts Caesar of this, but accuses him of loving humans more than apes. Caesar beats Koba in response but refrains from killing him. Koba later returns to the armory and takes an assault rifle, killing two guards and then Carver as the humans succeed in repairing the generator and restoring power to the city. Koba takes advantage of their celebration to covertly set fire to the apes ' home. He then shoots Caesar, who falls into the underbrush below, and frames the humans for Caesar 's apparent death in order to wage war. Koba quickly takes command and leads the apes into San Francisco, where they plunder the armory and mount an assault on the tower. The apes breach the building and imprison the humans as Dreyfus flees underground. When Ash refuses Koba 's orders to kill unarmed humans, citing Caesar 's teachings, Koba throws the ape to his death and has any other ape loyal to Caesar imprisoned.
Malcolm 's family finds Caesar barely alive and transports him to his former house in San Francisco. Caesar reveals that Koba shot him and confesses that apes can be as corrupt and violent as humans. When Malcolm sneaks into the settlement to find medical supplies for Caesar, he encounters Blue Eyes, who spares him before learning that his father is still alive and that it was Koba who shot him, not the humans. After reconciling with Caesar, Blue Eyes returns to the tower and frees the imprisoned humans and apes. Malcolm escorts the apes into the tower, and then finds Dreyfus. He learns that the return of electricity allowed Dreyfus ' men to make radio contact with survivors at a military base, who are now coming to fight the apes. Caesar confronts Koba at the top of the tower; as they fight, Dreyfus detonates C - 4 charges that destabilize the tower in a failed attempt to kill the apes, at the cost of his own life. Koba starts shooting at the apes, but Caesar tackles him off a ledge. While clinging on a metal girder, Koba is rejected as an ape by Caesar and dropped to his death.
Malcolm and Caesar acknowledge their friendship, with Malcolm warning of the approaching human military. Caesar responds that the humans will never forgive the apes for their attack and convinces Malcolm to leave with his family. He then stands before a kneeling mass of apes, preparing for war.
After the release of Rise of the Planet of the Apes, director Rupert Wyatt commented on possible sequels: "I think we 're ending with certain questions, which is quite exciting. To me, I can think of all sorts of sequels to this film, but this is just the beginning. '' Screenwriter and producer Rick Jaffa also stated that Rise featured several clues as to future sequels: "I hope that we 're building a platform for future films. We 're trying to plant a lot of the seeds for a lot of the things you are talking about in terms of the different apes and so forth. ''
In an interview recorded after the release of Rise, Wyatt stated, "We want to grow and evolve, in the films that will (hopefully) come after this, to the ' 68 original. '' Wyatt also stated that he wants it to take place eight years after Rise, as a whole new ape generation can be born, and explore the dynamics of Caesar and Koba 's relationship. According to screenwriter Rick Jaffa, a version of the spaceship from the 1968 Planet of the Apes under the name Icarus was in Rise as a deliberate hint to a possible sequel.
In November 2011, Andy Serkis was the first to be announced as having closed a deal for a sequel to Rise. It was reported to be a "healthy seven - figure deal '' for him to reprise his role as Caesar, the ape leader. On May 15, 2012, it was announced Scott Z. Burns had been hired to do rewrites on the original screenplay by Rise writers Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver. On May 31, 2012, 20th Century Fox announced that the sequel would be titled Dawn of the Planet of the Apes.
On September 17, 2012, there were reports that director Wyatt was considering leaving the sequel due to his concern that a May 2014 release date would not give him enough time to make the film properly. On October 1, Cloverfield director Matt Reeves was confirmed as his replacement. Reeves had been working on developing a new Twilight Zone film. On October 18, Mark Bomback, writer of Live Free or Die Hard, was reported to be doing a re-write for Reeves.
In December 2012, after the departure of director Wyatt, James Franco speculated that he would not be returning for the sequel, saying, "Now Rupert 's not a part of it so I do n't know. My guess is I wo n't be in it. Nobody 's talked to me since Rupert left. '' Later, Matt Reeves revealed that Franco would be seen in a cameo in the film. Freida Pinto, who played primatologist Caroline Aranha in Rise, confirmed that she would not be returning for Dawn. In April 2014, when asked by IGN about the fate of Franco and Pinto 's characters, producer Dylan Clark said, "I mean, they 're the ones that died... They were ground zero of the virus. ''
In February 2013, actors Gary Oldman, Jason Clarke, and Kodi Smit - McPhee were cast in lead roles for the sequel, set ten years after the events from the first film. In March 2013, actress Keri Russell was cast in a role. That same month, Judy Greer was cast as Cornelia, a female chimp and love interest for Caesar. Toby Kebbell, Enrique Murciano and Kirk Acevedo joined the cast during filming. On May 15, 2013, Jocko Sims was cast in a supporting role of military operative Werner.
Filming began in April 2013 around the town of Campbell River, British Columbia. The location of Vancouver Island was chosen for its similarity to the locations depicted in the film, the forests, and the variety of landscapes. Filming in New Orleans started in May 2013 and continued in July 2013 at various locations such as the former Six Flags park Six Flags New Orleans.
Like Rise, visual effects for Dawn were done by Weta Digital. In addition to the apes, Weta created other digital animals, such as a herd of elk, a grizzly bear, and CG doubles of the live horses. The elk were created using key - frame animation and the digital crowd enhancement software MASSIVE, the bear through key - frame animation, and the horses with a mixture of key - frame animation and motion capture.
The film 's score was composed by Michael Giacchino. The soundtrack was released by Sony Masterworks on July 8, 2014.
All music composed by Michael Giacchino.
On May 31, 2012, Fox announced that Dawn of the Planet of the Apes was scheduled for release on May 23, 2014. It was announced on June 20, 2013 that the release date for Dawn was being pushed back two months to July 18, 2014. On December 10, 2013, the film was pushed up one week to July 11, 2014. The film premiered at the Palace of Fine Arts in San Francisco, California on June 26, 2014. The film closed the 36th Moscow International Film Festival on June 28.
In Hungary, the largest cinema chain called Cinema City could not agree with the film 's distributor, InterCom, and as a result it opened on July 17, 2014 on 45 screens, significantly fewer than similar big - budget productions. However, the film still managed to top the weekend box office chart of the country beating Transformers: Age of Extinction, which had been leading the chart for three weeks (on 105 screens distributed by UIP Duna).
A viral marketing campaign for the film launched in July 2013 included a "simian flu '' website and mock PSA videos. 20th Century Fox and Vice Media 's Motherboard released three short films online in July 2014 which document the ten - year gap between the events of Rise of the Planet of the Apes and Dawn of the Planet of the Apes. A novel titled Dawn of the Planet of the Apes: Firestorm which is also set between the events of the first two films was published in May 2014 by Titan Books. A partnership with 20th Century Fox and Ndemic Creations saw mobile / PC game Plague Inc. get a Dawn of the Planet of the Apes - themed update on July 10, 2014. It allows players to create and customize a simian flu virus to infect the world and eradicate humanity whilst helping apes survive.
Dawn of the Planet of the Apes was a success at the box office with many critics calling it "the summer 's best popcorn film '', and Deadline.com commented saying it is "a franchise that will keep going and going, unless they screw it up ''. The film grossed $208,545,589 in the USA & Canada, and $500,290,000 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $708,835,589. Calculating in all expenses and revenues, Deadline.com estimated that the film made a net profit of $182.18 million. It had a worldwide opening of $103.3 million which was the 11th - highest of 2014. Worldwide it is the highest - grossing film in the Planet of the Apes franchise and the eighth - highest - grossing film of 2014.
In the United States and Canada, the film is the highest - grossing film in the Planet of the Apes franchise, unadjusted for inflation and the eighth - highest - grossing film of 2014. It opened on July 11, 2014 across 3,967 theaters and topped the box office on its opening day earning $27.7 million (including previews). During its traditional three - opening, the film debuted at number one earning $72.6 million, which was 33 % higher than its predecessor. Box Office Mojo pointed out that the film 's good word of mouth as well as its predecessors ', its darker tone, attachment of new characters and the first film 's way of ending were all determining factors in the film 's strong opening. It remained at the summit for two consecutive weekends in North America despite facing competition with The Purge: Anarchy in its second week.
Dawn of the Planet of the Apes earned $31.3 million during its opening weekend internationally from 4,913 screens in 26 markets where it opened at No. 1 in 14 of those. International opening weekend tallies of more than $5 million were witnessed in the UK ($14.88 million), Mexico ($12.94 million), South Korea ($11.5 million), Russia ($9.99 million), Brazil with ($9.2 million) and Australia ($6.6 million). The film topped the box office outside North America for two non-consecutive weekends.
The film became a massive financial success in China where it opened with $47 million on its opening weekend there. The robust debut helped the film top the international charts for the first time dethroning Guardians of the Galaxy and aided the film in passing $400 million internationally and $600 million globally. Fox reported that the sequel 's debut in China was one of the best in history for a Western title, save for Iron Man 3, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen and Transformers: Age of Extinction at that time. After playing for a month in theaters, it passed $100 million on its fourth weekend and became the fourth Hollywood film of the year to achieve such a milestone. In total, it went on to make $107.4 million there, of which the studio received $26.8 million profit.
Dawn of the Planet of the Apes received critical acclaim upon release. On review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a score of 90 % based on 287 reviews with a rating average of 7.9 / 10. The website 's consensus reads: "With intelligence and emotional resonance to match its stunning special effects, Dawn of the Planet of the Apes expands on its predecessor with an exciting and ambitious burst of sci - fi achievement. '' On review aggregator Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average, the film has a "generally favorable '' rating score of 79 out of 100 based on 48 reviews.
Guy Lodge of Variety said, "An altogether smashing sequel to 2011 's better - than - expected Rise of the Planet of the Apes, this vivid, violent extension of humanoid ape Caesar 's troubled quest for independence bests its predecessor in nearly every technical and conceptual department, with incoming helmer Matt Reeves conducting the proceedings with more assertive genre elan than Rise journeyman Rupert Wyatt. '' Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter stated that the film "manages to do at least three things exceptionally well that are hard enough to pull off individually: Maintain a simmering level of tension without let - up for two hours, seriously improve on a very good first entry in a franchise and produce a powerful humanistic statement using a significantly simian cast of characters. In the annals of sequels, Dawn is to Rise of the Planet of the Apes what The Empire Strikes Back was to Star Wars -- it 's that much better. '' Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph said, "There 's evident patience and intelligence to the filmmaking all over, as well as an engagement with genuine ideas about diplomacy, deterrence, law and leadership. However often it risks monkey - mad silliness, it 's impressively un-stupid. '' Drew McWeeny of HitFix awarded the film an "A + '' grade and said "Dawn is not just a good genre movie or a good summer movie. It 's a great science - fiction film, full - stop, and one of the year 's very best movies so far. ''
Ty Burr of the Boston Globe wrote that "in bearing, speech, and agonized expressiveness, Serkis 's Caesar conveys the conflicts of a king with almost Shakespearean grandeur. '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised the film for being able to balance out the action sequences and special effects with strong storytelling, writing that "Dawn is more than a bunch of occasionally thrilling action sequences, emotional gut punches and throwaway jokes arranged in predictable sequence. It is technically impressive and viscerally exciting, for sure, but it also gives you a lot to think, and even to care, about. ''
Less favorable reviews included Andrew O'Hehir at Salon.com who wrote, "Here 's a rule that has gradually become clear to me: Any film that begins with one of those fake - news montages, where snippets of genuine CNN footage are stitched together to concoct a feeling of semi-urgency around its hackneyed apocalypse, already sucks even before it gets started. This one makes a dutiful attempt to struggle back from that suckage, but it all ends in yelling. ''
Dawn of the Planet of the Apes was released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on Blu - ray 3D, Blu - ray, and DVD on December 2, 2014. According to Nielsen VideoScan, it subsequently became the best - selling home video release for the week.
After seeing his cut of Dawn, 20th Century Fox and Chernin Entertainment signed Matt Reeves to return as director for a third installment of the reboot series. On January 6, 2014, Fox announced Reeves to direct as well as co-write along with Bomback, with a planned July 2016 release. Peter Chernin, Rick Jaffa and Amanda Silver will produce. In January 2015, Fox delayed the release to July 14, 2017. On May 14, 2015, the title was given as War of the Planet of the Apes. In August 2015, Deadline reported that Gabriel Chavarria was cast as one of the humans in the film. In September 2015, The Hollywood Reporter announced that Woody Harrelson had been cast as the film 's antagonist, and that Chavarria 's role was small. In October 2015, The Wrap reported that Steve Zahn was cast as a new ape in the film, retitled as War for the Planet of the Apes.
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name of present chief election commission of india | Election Commissioner of India - wikipedia
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Election Commissioners of India are members of Election Commission of India, a body constitutionally empowered to conduct free and fair elections to the national and state legislatures. The Election Commissioners are usually retired Indian Administrative Service (IAS) officers.
Until 1989, the commission was a single member body, but later two additional Election Commissioners were added. Thus, the Election Commission currently consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners. The decisions of the commission are taken by a majority vote. Om Prakash Rawat is the current Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners are Sunil Arora and Ashok Lavasa
Originally in 1950, the commission had only a Chief Election Commissioner. Two additional Commissioners were appointed to the commission for the first time on 16 October 1989 but they had a very short tenure, ending on 1 January 1990. The Election Commissioner Amendment Act, 1989 made the Commission a multi-member body. The concept of a 3 - member Commission has been in operation since then, with the decisions being made by a majority vote. the official website was introduced on 28 February 1998
The Chief Election Commissioner of India can be removed from his office by the Parliament with a two - thirds majority in both the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha on the grounds of proved misbehavior or incapacity. Other Election Commissioners can be removed by the President of India on the recommendation of the Chief Election Commissioner. A Chief Election Commissioner has never been impeached in India.
In 2009, just before the 2009 Lok Sabha Elections, Chief Election Commissioner N. Gopalaswami sent a recommendation to President Prathibha Patil to remove Election Commissioner Navin Chawla, who was soon to take office as the Chief Election Commissioner and to subsequently supervise the Lok Sabha Election, citing his partisan behavior in favor of one political party. The President opined that such a recommendation is not binding on the President, and hence rejected it. Subsequently, after Gopalswami 's retirement the next month, Chawla became the Chief Election Commissioner and supervised the 2009 Lok Sabha Elections.
The Chief Election Commissioner and the two Election Commissioners who are usually retired IAS officers draw salaries and allowances at par with those of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India as per the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners (Conditions of Service) Rules, 1992.
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is the original name for the field which involves the study of the physiology of behavior | Neuroscience - wikipedia
Neuroscience (or neurobiology) is the scientific study of the nervous system. It is a multidisciplinary branch of biology, that deals with the anatomy, biochemistry, molecular biology, and physiology of neurons and neural circuits. It also draws upon other fields, with the most obvious being pharmacology, psychology, and medicine.
The scope of neuroscience has broadened over time to include different approaches used to study the molecular, cellular, developmental, structural, functional, evolutionary, computational, psychosocial and medical aspects of the nervous system. Neuroscience has also given rise to such other disciplines as neuroeducation, neuroethics, and neurolaw. The techniques used by neuroscientists have also expanded enormously, from molecular and cellular studies of individual neurons to imaging of sensory and motor tasks in the brain. Recent theoretical advances in neuroscience have also been aided by the study of neural networks.
As a result of the increasing number of scientists who study the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists and educators. For example, the International Brain Research Organization was founded in 1960, the International Society for Neurochemistry in 1963, the European Brain and Behaviour Society in 1968, and the Society for Neuroscience in 1969.
The earliest study of the nervous system dates to ancient Egypt. Trepanation, the surgical practice of either drilling or scraping a hole into the skull for the purpose of curing headaches or mental disorders, or relieving cranial pressure, was first recorded during the Neolithic period. Manuscripts dating to 1700 BC indicate that the Egyptians had some knowledge about symptoms of brain damage.
Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing '' of sorts. In Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, the brain was regularly removed in preparation for mummification. It was believed at the time that the heart was the seat of intelligence. According to Herodotus, the first step of mummification was to "take a crooked piece of iron, and with it draw out the brain through the nostrils, thus getting rid of a portion, while the skull is cleared of the rest by rinsing with drugs. ''
The view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of the Greek physician Hippocrates. He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation -- since most specialized organs (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brain -- but was also the seat of intelligence. Plato also speculated that the brain was the seat of the rational part of the soul. Aristotle, however, believed the heart was the center of intelligence and that the brain regulated the amount of heat from the heart. This view was generally accepted until the Roman physician Galen, a follower of Hippocrates and physician to Roman gladiators, observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains.
Abulcasis, Averroes, Avicenna, Avenzoar, and Maimonides, active in the Medieval Muslim world, described a number of medical problems related to the brain. In Renaissance Europe, Vesalius (1514 -- 1564), René Descartes (1596 -- 1650), and Thomas Willis (1621 -- 1675) also made several contributions to neuroscience.
In the first half of the 19th century, Jean Pierre Flourens pioneered the experimental method of carrying out localized lesions of the brain in living animals describing their effects on motricity, sensibility and behavior. Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope and the development of a staining procedure by Camillo Golgi during the late 1890s. The procedure used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate structures of individual neurons. His technique was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine, the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron. Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. While Luigi Galvani 's pioneering work in the late 1700s had set the stage for studying the electrical excitability of muscles and neurons, it was in the late 19th century that Emil du Bois - Reymond, Johannes Peter Müller, and Hermann von Helmholtz demonstrated that the electrical excitation of neurons predictably affected the electrical states of adjacent neurons, and Richard Caton found electrical phenomena in the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys.
In parallel with this research, work with brain - damaged patients by Paul Broca suggested that certain regions of the brain were responsible for certain functions. At the time, Broca 's findings were seen as a confirmation of Franz Joseph Gall 's theory that language was localized and that certain psychological functions were localized in specific areas of the cerebral cortex. The localization of function hypothesis was supported by observations of epileptic patients conducted by John Hughlings Jackson, who correctly inferred the organization of the motor cortex by watching the progression of seizures through the body. Carl Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Modern research through neuroimaging techniques, still uses the Brodmann cerebral cytoarchitectonic map (referring to study of cell structure) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.
During the 20th century, neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right, rather than as studies of the nervous system within other disciplines. Eric Kandel and collaborators have cited David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, and Stephen Kuffler as having played critical roles in establishing the field. Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the Biology Department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. The first freestanding neuroscience department (then called Psychobiology) was founded in 1964 at the University of California, Irvine by James L. McGaugh. This was followed by the Department of Neurobiology at Harvard Medical School which was founded in 1966 by Stephen Kuffler.
The understanding of neurons and of nervous system function became increasingly precise and molecular during the 20th century. For example, in 1952, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called "action potentials '', and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the Hodgkin -- Huxley model. In 1961 -- 1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin -- Huxley, in what is called the FitzHugh -- Nagumo model. In 1962, Bernard Katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons known as synapses. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in Aplysia. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the Morris -- Lecar model. Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous biological neuron models.
The scientific study of the nervous system has increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to advances in molecular biology, electrophysiology, and computational neuroscience. This has allowed neuroscientists to study the nervous system in all its aspects: how it is structured, how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be changed. For example, it has become possible to understand, in much detail, the complex processes occurring within a single neuron. Neurons are cells specialized for communication. They are able to communicate with neurons and other cell types through specialized junctions called synapses, at which electrical or electrochemical signals can be transmitted from one cell to another. Many neurons extrude long thin filaments of protoplasm called axons, which may extend to distant parts of the body and are capable of rapidly carrying electrical signals, influencing the activity of other neurons, muscles, or glands at their termination points. A nervous system emerges from the assemblage of neurons that are connected to each other.
In vertebrates, the nervous system can be split into two parts, the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system. In many species -- including all vertebrates -- the nervous system is the most complex organ system in the body, with most of the complexity residing in the brain. The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. The majority of the approximately 20,000 -- 25,000 genes belonging to the human genome are expressed specifically in the brain. Due to the plasticity of the human brain, the structure of its synapses and their resulting functions change throughout life. Thus the challenge of making sense of all this complexity is formidable.
The study of the nervous system can be done at multiple levels, ranging from the molecular and cellular levels to the systems and cognitive levels. At the molecular level, the basic questions addressed in molecular neuroscience include the mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how axons form complex connectivity patterns. At this level, tools from molecular biology and genetics are used to understand how neurons develop and how genetic changes affect biological functions. The morphology, molecular identity, and physiological characteristics of neurons and how they relate to different types of behavior are also of considerable interest.
The fundamental questions addressed in cellular neuroscience include the mechanisms of how neurons process signals physiologically and electrochemically. These questions include how signals are processed by neurites -- thin extensions from a neuronal cell body, consisting of dendrites (specialized to receive synaptic inputs from other neurons) and axons (specialized to conduct nerve impulses called action potentials) -- and somas (the cell bodies of the neurons containing the nucleus), and how neurotransmitters and electrical signals are used to process information in a neuron. Another major area of neuroscience is directed at investigations of the development of the nervous system. These questions include the patterning and regionalization of the nervous system, neural stem cells, differentiation of neurons and glia, neuronal migration, axonal and dendritic development, trophic interactions, and synapse formation.
Computational neurogenetic modeling is concerned with the development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes.
At the systems level, the questions addressed in systems neuroscience include how neural circuits are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce functions such as reflexes, multisensory integration, motor coordination, circadian rhythms, emotional responses, learning, and memory. In other words, they address how these neural circuits function and the mechanisms through which behaviors are generated. For example, systems level analysis addresses questions concerning specific sensory and motor modalities: how does vision work? How do songbirds learn new songs and bats localize with ultrasound? How does the somatosensory system process tactile information? The related fields of neuroethology and neuropsychology address the question of how neural substrates underlie specific animal and human behaviors. Neuroendocrinology and psychoneuroimmunology examine interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine and immune systems, respectively. Despite many advancements, the way networks of neurons perform complex cognitive processes and behaviors is still poorly understood.
At the cognitive level, cognitive neuroscience addresses the questions of how psychological functions are produced by neural circuitry. The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI, PET, SPECT), electrophysiology, and human genetic analysis combined with sophisticated experimental techniques from cognitive psychology allows neuroscientists and psychologists to address abstract questions such as how human cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural substrates. Although many studies still hold a reductionist stance looking for the neurobiological basis of cognitive phenomena, recent research shows that there is an interesting interplay between neuroscientific findings and conceptual research, soliciting and integrating both perspectives. For example, the neuroscience research on empathy solicited an interesting interdisciplinary debate involving philosophy, psychology and psychopathology. Moreover, the neuroscientific identification of multiple memory systems related to different brain areas has challenged the idea of memory as a literal reproduction of the past, supporting a view of memory as a generative, constructive and dynamic process.
Neuroscience is also allied with the social and behavioral sciences as well as nascent interdisciplinary fields such as neuroeconomics, decision theory, social neuroscience, and neuromarketing to address complex questions about interactions of the brain with its environment. A study into consumer responses for example uses EEG to investigate neural correlates associated with narrative transportation into stories about energy efficiency.
Ultimately neuroscientists would like to understand every aspect of the nervous system, including how it works, how it develops, how it malfunctions, and how it can be altered or repaired. The specific topics that form the main foci of research change over time, driven by an ever - expanding base of knowledge and the availability of increasingly sophisticated technical methods. Over the long term, improvements in technology have been the primary drivers of progress. Developments in electron microscopy, computers, electronics, functional brain imaging, and most recently genetics and genomics, have all been major drivers of progress.
Most studies in neurology have too few test subjects to be scientifically sure. Those insufficient size studies are the basis for all domain - specific diagnoses in neuropsychiatry, since the few large enough studies there are always find individuals with the brain changes thought to be associated with a mental condition but without any of the symptoms. The only diagnoses that can be validated through large enough brain studies are those on serious brain damages and neurodegenerative diseases that destroy most of the brain.
Neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology and pain medicine, neuropathology, neuroradiology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, clinical neurophysiology, addiction medicine, and sleep medicine are some medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the nervous system. These terms also refer to clinical disciplines involving diagnosis and treatment of these diseases. Neurology works with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and stroke, and their medical treatment. Psychiatry focuses on affective, behavioral, cognitive, and perceptual disorders. Anesthesiology focuses on perception of pain, and pharmacologic alteration of consciousness. Neuropathology focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic, and chemically observable alterations. Neurosurgery and psychosurgery work primarily with surgical treatment of diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The boundaries between these specialties have been blurring recently as they are all influenced by basic research in neuroscience. Brain imaging also enables objective, biological insights into mental illness, which can lead to faster diagnosis, more accurate prognosis, and help assess patient progress over time.
Integrative neuroscience makes connections across these specialized areas of focus.
Modern neuroscience education and research activities can be very roughly categorized into the following major branches, based on the subject and scale of the system in examination as well as distinct experimental or curricular approaches. Individual neuroscientists, however, often work on questions that span several distinct subfields.
The largest professional neuroscience organization is the Society for Neuroscience (SFN), which is based in the United States but includes many members from other countries. Since its founding in 1969 the SFN has grown steadily: as of 2010 it recorded 40,290 members from 83 different countries. Annual meetings, held each year in a different American city, draw attendance from researchers, postdoctoral fellows, graduate students, and undergraduates, as well as educational institutions, funding agencies, publishers, and hundreds of businesses that supply products used in research.
Other major organizations devoted to neuroscience include the International Brain Research Organization (IBRO), which holds its meetings in a country from a different part of the world each year, and the Federation of European Neuroscience Societies (FENS), which holds a meeting in a different European city every two years. FENS comprises a set of 32 national - level organizations, including the British Neuroscience Association, the German Neuroscience Society (Neurowissenschaftliche Gesellschaft), and the French Société des Neurosciences. The first National Honor Society in Neuroscience, Nu Rho Psi, was founded in 2006.
In 2013, the BRAIN Initiative was announced in the US.
In addition to conducting traditional research in laboratory settings, neuroscientists have also been involved in the promotion of awareness and knowledge about the nervous system among the general public and government officials. Such promotions have been done by both individual neuroscientists and large organizations. For example, individual neuroscientists have promoted neuroscience education among young students by organizing the International Brain Bee, which is an academic competition for high school or secondary school students worldwide. In the United States, large organizations such as the Society for Neuroscience have promoted neuroscience education by developing a primer called Brain Facts, collaborating with public school teachers to develop Neuroscience Core Concepts for K - 12 teachers and students, and cosponsoring a campaign with the Dana Foundation called Brain Awareness Week to increase public awareness about the progress and benefits of brain research. In Canada, the CIHR Canadian National Brain Bee is held annually at McMaster University.
Finally, neuroscientists have also collaborated with other education experts to study and refine educational techniques to optimize learning among students, an emerging field called educational neuroscience. Federal agencies in the United States, such as the National Institute of Health (NIH) and National Science Foundation (NSF), have also funded research that pertains to best practices in teaching and learning of neuroscience concepts.
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what season does burke come back in grey's anatomy | Preston Burke - wikipedia
"Did n't We Almost Have It All? '' (3.25) May 17, 2007 (as series regular)
Preston Xavier Burke, M.D. is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy, which airs on ABC in the United States. The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes, and was portrayed by actor Isaiah Washington from 2005 to 2007. Introduced as an attending cardiothoracic surgeon at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, Burke 's romantic relationship with intern Cristina Yang formed one of the main storylines in the shows ' first three seasons.
Burke made his final appearance in the third season, leaving Seattle in the aftermath of his failed wedding. On June 7, 2007, ABC announced it had decided not to renew Washington 's contract, and that he would be dropped from the show after an on - set incident with fellow cast members T.R. Knight and Patrick Dempsey.
While mentioned in passing throughout later seasons, Burke officially returns in the tenth season in order to conclude Cristina Yang 's departure from the series.
Preston Burke is the former chief cardiothoracic surgeon at Seattle Grace Hospital. He completed his pre-medical studies at Tulane University where he pledged Kappa Alpha Psi, and went on to graduate first in his class from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. While in college, he met Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), who graduated in second place after him, beginning a rivalry between them. He was once the interim chief of surgery while Dr. Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.) was healing from his brain surgery. In season 1, it is revealed that Richard had promised him the position but instead enticed his former student, renowned neurosurgeon Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey), to Seattle as he felt Burke was becoming arrogant and needed competition to keep him on his toes. He began a relationship with intern Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) but broke it off because he feared it would ruin both of their reputations. Her miscarriage brought them back together. He and Cristina lived together in his perfectly kept apartment.
Towards the end of the second season, he was shot, which affected his control of his right - hand. His temporary fix to this possibly long - term problem was to work together with Cristina during every one of his surgeries so that she could take over in case he might have trouble with his hand. The arrangement fell apart after Cristina, reacting to growing stress after George O'Malley (T.R. Knight) caught onto their secret, went to the Chief and confessed everything. Initially, he was engaged in a cold war with Cristina, where neither of them spoke. However, after she broke the silence, he proposed to her and she accepted his proposal. Before their secret was revealed, Burke was to become the next Chief of Surgery, but he had to compete with his fellow attendings for the position. He has since recovered from the injury, after Derek operated on him. For the remainder of the season, Preston and Cristina prepared for the wedding and experienced normal stresses that result from such a process, such as meeting each other 's parents.
However, in the finale of season three, on the day of their wedding, Burke told Cristina that he no longer wished to make her do anything against her will, and realized he was trying to make Cristina the woman he wanted her to be, and not accept her as the woman she is. Cristina said she "thought this was what she wanted. '' He wanted her to say she knew it was what she wanted, so he left her in the chapel. Cristina then returned to their apartment and discovered Burke had left, taking with him the things that meant something to only him (his trumpet, his Eugene Foote collection, his grandmother 's picture, and his lucky scrub cap), leaving Cristina devastated.
In the fourth season, Preston 's long - time rival and love - to - hate medic Dr. Erica Hahn replaced him as the head of cardiothoracic surgery. Before taking over the position she had tremendous respect for Burke although she would have never admitted it to his face. Hahn disliked Cristina Yang because of her relationships with Dr. Burke and Colin Marlow. During his employment at a new hospital, he is made the recipient of 2008 's Harper Avery, a highly prestigious medical award. Cristina is later hurt that he did not mention her in his article, even though Cristina helped Burke with his recovery from an injury.
In season ten, Preston is seen to be living in Zürich, where he runs a privately owned cardiothoracic research hospital. He invited Cristina to the hospital to give a speech on her research. Cristina is both shocked and angered by the sight of Preston, and the former couple exchange bitter sentiments. Cristina claims that the two would never have worked out because she wanted to emulate him, not be by his side. Preston then reveals his ulterior motive for bringing Cristina to Switzerland: to ask her to take over his hospital, which she accepts. He is married to an Italian woman, Edra, and has two daughters, Simone and Vivianna. They are on the verge of moving to Milan.
Rhimes on Washington 's audition as Burke
The character of Preston Burke was originally envisioned as a caucasian, to be played by Paul Adelstein, who starred in Grey 's Anatomy 's spin - off Private Practice. However, due to his commitment to a film whose shooting dates changed, the actor had to drop out at the last moment and his character was rethought. Isaiah Washington was originally considered for the role of Derek Shepherd, which eventually went to Patrick Dempsey. Washington later received a callback from Rhimes to play Burke. He commented: "I knew I could never be wrong in my heart about something so good and so genuine. Her writing just seemed very complex, very honest. '' "I said that I would only do it if I did n't have to be like that guy on that other medical show who was always struggling with his anger. ''
Shonda Rhimes noted Washington 's commitment to his role, revealing that he learns all his surgeries before he performs them on television. "I think if he stopped at an accident on the street, he 'd know exactly what to do. He has pulled shifts at hospitals where he follows the surgeons around for 48 hours ''. At the beginning of the series, Burke is one of the three African american characters, along with Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) and Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.).
In the show 's third season, Washington became a central figure in a widely reported backstage controversy. In October 2006, news reports surfaced that Washington had insulted co-star T.R. Knight with a homophobic slur. Shortly after the details of the argument became public, Knight publicly disclosed that he was gay. The situation seemed somewhat resolved when Washington issued a statement, apologizing for his "unfortunate use of words during the recent incident on - set. '' The controversy later resurfaced when the cast appeared at the Golden Globes in January 2007. While being interviewed on the red carpet prior to the awards, Washington joked, "I love gay. I wanted to be gay. Please let me be gay. '' After the show won Best Drama, Washington, in response to press queries as to any conflicts backstage, said, "I never called T.R. a faggot. '' However, in an interview with Ellen DeGeneres on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, Knight said that "everybody heard him. '' After being rebuked by his studio, Touchstone Television (now ABC Studios), Washington issued a statement apologizing at length for using the epithet in an argument with Patrick Dempsey. On January 30, 2007, a source told People magazine that Washington was scheduled to return to the Grey 's Anatomy set as early on that Thursday for the first time since entering "executive counseling '' after making the comments at the Golden Globes. However, on June 7, 2007, ABC announced it had decided not to renew Washington 's contract, and that he would be dropped from the show. "I 'm mad as hell and I 'm not going to take it anymore, '' Washington said in a statement released by his publicist, borrowing the famous line from Network. In another report, Washington stated he was planning to "spend the summer pursuing charity work in Sierra Leone, work on an independent film and avoid worrying about the show. '' In a subsequent interview, Washington claimed that "they fired the wrong guy '' (referring to Knight) and said he was considering filing a lawsuit as a result. He accused Knight of using the controversy to bolster his own career and increase his salary on Grey 's Anatomy. Washington, in late June 2007, began asserting that racism within the media was a factor in his firing from the series. On July 2, 2007, Washington appeared on Larry King Live on CNN, to present his side of the controversy. According to Washington, he never used the "F Word '' in reference to Knight, but rather blurted it out in an unrelated context in the course of an argument "provoked '' by Dempsey, who, he felt, was treating him like a "B - word, '' a "P - word, '' and the "F - word, '' which Washington said conveyed "somebody who is being weak and afraid to fight back. '' Washington himself said that his dismissal from Grey 's Anatomy was an unfortunate misunderstanding that he was eager to move past.
On March 6, 2014, Shonda Rhimes announced that Washington would return to his role for one episode airing in May to help conclude Sandra Oh 's final storylines as Cristina Yang. Rhimes said of his return, "It 's important to me that Cristina 's journey unfolds exactly as it should. Burke is vital to that journey -- he gives her story that full - circle moment we need to properly say goodbye to our beloved Cristina Yang. ''
Washington said of his character: "He did start out sort of stone - faced, but he 's evolved into someone we see as an effective leader and someone who learns how to love and be loved. '' Thanks to Yang, Washington says Burke "has been able to show levels of vulnerability. '' In an interview with Oprah Winfrey, Rhimes has described Preston as a "mama 's boy '', and noted the shock the audience felt when discovering that side of his personality after the arrival of his parents. Isaiah Washington also noted Preston 's "determination '' and "commitment ''. Rhimes referred to Burke 's relationship with Yang by the portmanteau "Burktina '', citing "Losing My Religion '' as one of her favorite episodes featuring them because it shows their evolution from the beginning of the second season to its end. Ann Oldenburg of USA Today called it "one of the spiciest relationships on TV right now ''. Drawing a comparison between the two doctors, she said Burke is "tidy '' while Yang is "messy ''; he is "spiritual '' but she is not.
Isaiah Washington has been nominated for multiple awards for his portrayal of Preston Burke. He and the Grey 's Anatomy cast won Best Ensemble in a Television Series at the 2006 Satellite Awards. He was awarded "Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series '' twice at the NAACP Image Awards, in 2006 and 2007. Washington was recognized along with the rest of the cast at the Screen Actors Guild Awards, receiving three nominations for "Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series '' each year from 2006 to 2008, with the 2007 Awards marking a victory. TV Guide named Isaiah Washington "TV 's Sexiest Man '' in 2006.
Burke 's relationship with Cristina Yang was considered as "one of the most interesting relationships on the show. '' Similarly, The Orange County Register wrote that their romance became "one of the most touching and funny attractions of Grey 's Anatomy. '' Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV listed Burke as the fifth worthless TV character.
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office of the director of national intelligence (odni) | Director of National Intelligence - wikipedia
The Director of National Intelligence (DNI) is the United States government Cabinet - level official -- subject to the authority, direction, and control of the President of the United States -- required by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 to:
The Director produces the President 's Daily Brief (PDB), a top - secret document including intelligence from all the various agencies, given each morning to the President of the United States. The PDB is seen by the President and those approved by the President.
On July 30, 2008, President George W. Bush issued Executive Order 13470, amending Executive Order 12333 to strengthen the DNI 's role. Further, by Presidential Policy Directive 19 signed by Barack Obama in October 2012, the DNI was given overall responsibility for Intelligence Community whistleblowing and source protection.
Under 50 U.S.C. § 403 - 3a, "under ordinary circumstances, it is desirable '' that either the Director or the Principal Deputy Director of National Intelligence be an active - duty commissioned officer in the armed forces or have training or experience in military intelligence activities and requirements. Only one of the two positions can be held by a military officer at any given time. The statute does not specify what rank the commissioned officer will hold during his or her tenure in either position.
The DNI is appointed by the President and is subject to confirmation by the Senate, and serves at the pleasure of the President. The current DNI is Dan Coats, who was nominated for the office on January 5, 2017, by then - President - elect Donald Trump. The DNI and Principal Deputy Director of National Intelligence both resigned with effect on January 20, Trump 's Inauguration day. Pending Coats ' confirmation, Mike Dempsey was acting DNI from January 20, and became a member of President Trump 's Cabinet on February 8, the first time that the DNI was a Cabinet - level position. The United States Senate Intelligence Committee held Coats ' confirmation hearing on February 28, which approved Coats on March 9, by a 13 -- 2 vote. The Senate confirmed his nomination with an 85 -- 12 vote on March 15, and he was sworn into office the next day.
Before the DNI was formally established, the head of the Intelligence Community was the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI), who concurrently served as the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
The 9 / 11 Commission recommended establishing the DNI position in its 9 / 11 Commission Report, not released until July 22, 2004, as it had identified major intelligence failures that called into question how well the intelligence community was able to protect U.S. interests against foreign terrorist attacks.
Senators Dianne Feinstein, Jay Rockefeller and Bob Graham introduced S. 2645 on June 19, 2002, to create the Director of National Intelligence position. Other similar legislation soon followed. After considerable debate on the scope of the DNI 's powers and authorities, the United States Congress passed the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 by votes of 336 -- 75 in the House of Representatives, and 89 -- 2 in the Senate. President George W. Bush signed the bill into law on December 17, 2004. Among other things, the law established the DNI position as the designated leader of the United States Intelligence Community and prohibited the DNI from serving as the CIA Director or the head of any other Intelligence Community element at the same time. In addition, the law required the CIA Director to "report '' his agency 's activities to the DNI.
Critics say compromises during the bill 's crafting led to the establishment of a DNI whose powers are too weak to adequately lead, manage and improve the performance of the US Intelligence Community. In particular, the law left the United States Department of Defense in charge of the National Security Agency (NSA), the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), and the National Geospatial - Intelligence Agency (NGA). (The limited DNI role in leading the US Intelligence Community is discussed on the Intelligence Community page.)
The first Director of National Intelligence was US Ambassador to Iraq John Negroponte who was appointed on February 17, 2005, by President George W. Bush, subject to confirmation by the Senate. It was reported that President Bush 's first choice for DNI was former Director of Central Intelligence Robert M. Gates, who was serving as president of Texas A&M University, but who declined the offer. Negroponte was confirmed by a Senate vote of 98 to 2 in favor of his appointment on April 21, 2005, and he was sworn in by President Bush on that day.
On February 13, 2007, John Michael McConnell became the second Director of National Intelligence, after Negroponte was appointed Deputy Secretary of State.
Donald M. Kerr was confirmed by the U.S. Senate to be Principal Deputy Director of National Intelligence on October 4, 2007, and sworn in on October 9, 2007. Kerr, from Virginia, was most recently the Director of the National Reconnaissance Office, and previously the Duty Director for Science and Technology at the US CIA and earlier in his career the Assistant Director of the Justice Department 's FBI.
Declan McCullagh at News.com wrote on August 24, 2007, that the DNI site was configured to repel all search engines to index any page at DNI.gov. This effectively made the DNI website invisible to all search engines and in turn, any search queries. Ross Feinstein, Spokesman for the DNI, said that the cloaking was removed as of September 3, 2007. "We 're not even sure how (the robots. txt file)) got there '' -- but it was again somehow hidden the next day. Another blog entry by McCullagh on September 7, states that the DNI site should now be open to search engines. This explanation is plausible because some software used for web development has been known to cause servers to automatically generate and re-generate robots. txt, and this behavior can be difficult to turn off. Therefore, if the web developers working for the DNI had tried to solve the issue by simply removing robots. txt, it would have looked like it worked at first, but then fail once the server had undergone a self - check for the robots. txt file. robots. txt has been configured to allow access to all directories for any agent.
In September 2007, the Office of the DNI released "Intelligence Community 100 Day & 500 Day Plans for Integration & Collaboration ''. These plans include a series of initiatives designed to build the foundation for increased cooperation and reform of the U.S. Intelligence Community.
On July 20, 2010, President Obama nominated retired Lt. (three - star) Gen. James R. Clapper for the position. Clapper was confirmed by the Senate on August 5, and replaced acting Director David C. Gompert. The prior DNI was retired Navy four - star admiral Dennis C. Blair, whose resignation became effective May 28, 2010.
The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 established the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) as an independent agency to assist the DNI. The ODNI 's goal is to effectively integrate foreign, military and domestic intelligence in defense of the homeland and of United States interests abroad. The budget for the ODNI and the Intelligence Community for fiscal year 2013 was $52.6 billion and the base request for fiscal year 2014 was $48.2 billion. The Military Intelligence Program (MIP) base budget request for fiscal year 2014, excluding overseas contingency funds, is $14.6 billion, which together with the NIP, comprise an Intelligence Community budget request of $62.8 billion for fiscal year 2014. The ODNI has about 1,750 employees.
On March 23, 2007, DNI Mike McConnell announced organizational changes, which include:
The ODNI continued to evolve under succeeding directors, culminating in a new organization focused on intelligence integration across the community. The ODNI has six centers and 15 Offices that, together with the centers, support the Director of National Intelligence as the head of the Intelligence Community (IC) in overseeing and directing implementation of the NIP and acting as the principal advisor to the President, the National Security Council, and the Homeland Security Council for intelligence matters related to national security. The six ODNI centers include:
The ODNI is divided into core, enabling, and oversight offices. The Principal Deputy Director (PDDNI) to the DNI, in a role similar to that of a Chief Operating Officer, oversees operation of ODNI offices, manages Intelligence Community (IC) coordination and information sharing, reinforces the DNI 's intelligence - integration initiatives, and focuses on IC resource challenges.
The core mission functions of the ODNI are organized under the Deputy DNI for Intelligence Integration (DDNI / II). The DDNI / II facilitates information sharing and collaboration through the integration of analysis and collection, and leads the execution of core mission functions. These include:
Mission enablers include policy, engagement, acquisition, resource, human capital, financial, and information offices.
Oversight offices include the General Counsel, civil liberties, public affairs, Inspector General, Equal Employment Opportunity, and legislative affairs functions.
The line of succession for the Director of National Intelligence is as follows:
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how many countries were subject to fallout from chernobyl | Effects of the Chernobyl disaster - wikipedia
The 1986 Chernobyl disaster triggered the release of substantial amounts of radioactivity into the atmosphere in the form of both particulate and gaseous radioisotopes. It is one of the most significant unintentional releases of radioactivity into the environment to present day.
The work of the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE), suggests that the Chernobyl incident can not be directly compared to atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons through a single number, with one being simply x times larger than the other. This is partly due to the fact that the isotopes released at Chernobyl tended to be longer - lived than those released by the detonation of atomic bombs, thus producing radioactivity curves that vary in shape as well as size.
According to a 2009 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR), the Chernobyl accident had by 2005 caused 61,200 man - Sv of radiation exposure to recovery workers and evacuees, 125,000 man - Sv to the populace of the Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia, and a dose to most of the more distant European countries amounting to 115,000 man - Sv. The same report estimated a further 25 % more exposure would be received from residual radiosotopes after 2005. The total global collective dose from Chernobyl was earlier estimated by UNSCEAR in 1988 to be "600,000 man Sv, equivalent on average to 21 additional days of world exposure to natural background radiation. ''
The inhalation dose (internal dose) for the public during the time of the accident and their evacuation from the area in what is now the 30 km evacuation zone around the plant has been estimated (based on ground deposition of caesium - 137) to be between 3 and 150 mSv.
Thyroid doses for adults around the Chernobyl area were estimated to be between 20 and 1000 mSv, while for one - year - old infants, these estimates were higher, at 20 to 6000 mSv. For those who left at an early stage after the accident, the internal dose due to inhalation was 8 to 13 times higher than the external dose due to gamma / beta emitters. For those who remained until later (day 10 or later), the inhalation dose was 50 to 70 % higher than the dose due to external exposure. The majority of the dose was due to iodine - 131 (about 40 %) and tellurium and rubidium isotopes (about 20 to 30 % for Rb and Te).
The ingestion doses in this same group of people have also been estimated using the cesium activity per unit of area, isotope ratios, an average day of evacuation, intake rate of milk and green vegetables, and what is known about the transfer of radioactivity via plants and animals to humans. For adults, the dose has been estimated to be between 3 and 180 mSv, while for one - year - old infants, a dose of between 20 and 1300 mSv has been estimated. Again, the majority of the dose was thought to be mostly due to iodine - 131, and the external dose was much smaller than the internal dose due to the radioactivity in the diet.
Ukraine, Belarus and parts of Russia received substantial amounts of radiation exposure after the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, but prior to the disaster the number of children affected by thyroid cancer was relatively low globally. Every year about, "0.1 -- 2.2 individuals per million of all aged under 15 years old world wide '' were affected by thyroid cancer. Research has shown after the Chernobyl disaster the level of thyroid cancer, particularly in children near the radiation exposure, had abnormally increased. Although iodine - 131 has a relatively short half - life compared to other radioactive isotopes, iodine - 131 made its way through the food chain through a milk - to - consumer pathway. 95 % of iodine - 131 was ingested through milk shortly after the disaster. Communities were unaware of the contamination deposited in soil and the transforming capabilities of radiation into other food sources. Through the consumption of milk children had received abnormal amounts of radiation exposure.
The high absorption rate discovered in children has also shown to be inversely proportional to age. There is a high number of thyroid cancer among children less than 15 years old who were exposed to the radiation after the disaster and an increasing level of dosage as age decreases. This inverse proportion could be explained by the way in which children absorb iodine - 131. Children have smaller thyroid glands compared to adults and have a different dosage response after the ingestion of iodine - 131. A cohort study conducted in 2013 had discovered a similar trend between age and dosage response. The cohort was composed of 12,000 participants, all of which were exposed to the radiation in Belarus and reported to be under the age of 18 at the time of the exposure.
Studying the populations that were exposed to radiation after the Chernobyl accident has provided important data linking exposure to radiation and the future development of cancer.
Cases of pediatric thyroid cancer, likely caused by absorption of Iodine - 131 into the thyroid gland, increased in Ukraine and Belarus 3 to 4 years after the accident. Children were most at risk, and cases did not seem to increase in adults. The greatest increase was seen in children who were the youngest at the time of exposure, and most of the pediatric thyroid cases were reported in Gomel, Belarus, where the population was exposed to the highest levels of contamination. The majority of the cases that appeared in the exposed population were papillary thyroid cancer.
Before the accident, the rate of thyroid cancer in children in Belarus was less than 1 per million. By 1995, nine years after the disaster, the number of cases of pediatric thyroid cancer in Gomel Oblast rose to 100 per million per year. Even as adults those who were exposed to the radiation as children may still be at risk of developing thyroid cancer decades after the exposure. It is important to study the at risk population throughout their lives, and observe if different patterns arise in tumors that develop with longer latency.
A group of experts who are part of the Agenda for Research on Chernobyl Health (ARCH) have proposed a series of potential studies that would examine the continued effects from the Chernobyl accident, and provide more information on the full extent of related health consequences. Results from lifelong observation of the exposed population could provide more information on risks as well as future protections against radiation exposure.
The explosion at the power station and subsequent fires inside the remains of the reactor resulted in the development and dispersal of a radioactive cloud which drifted not only over Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, but also over most of Europe and as far as Canada. In fact, the initial evidence in other countries that a major release of radioactive material had occurred came not from Soviet sources, but from Sweden, where on 28 April workers at the Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant (approximately 1100 km from the Chernobyl site) were found to have radioactive particles on their clothing.
It was Sweden 's search for the source of radioactivity (after they had determined there was no leak at the Swedish plant) that led to the first hint of a serious nuclear problem in the Western Soviet Union. In France, the government then claimed that the radioactive cloud had stopped at the Italian border. Therefore, while some kinds of food (mushrooms in particular) were prohibited in Italy because of radioactivity, the French authorities took no such measures, in an attempt to appease the population 's fears (see below).
Contamination from the Chernobyl disaster was not evenly spread across the surrounding countryside but scattered irregularly depending on weather conditions. Reports from Soviet and Western scientists indicate that Belarus received about 60 % of the contamination that fell on the former Soviet Union. A large area in Russia south of Bryansk was also contaminated, as were parts of northwestern Ukraine.
203 people were hospitalized immediately, of whom 31 died (28 of them died from acute radiation exposure). Most of these were fire and rescue workers trying to bring the disaster under control, who were not fully aware of how dangerous the radiation exposure (from the smoke) was (for a discussion of the more important isotopes in fallout see fission products). 135,000 people were evacuated from the area, including 50,000 from the nearby town of Pripyat, Ukraine. Health officials have predicted that over the next 70 years there will be a 28 % increase in cancer rates in much of the population which was exposed to the 5 -- 12 E Bq (depending on source) of radioactive contamination released from the reactor.
Soviet scientists reported that the Chernobyl Unit 4 reactor contained about 180 -- 190 metric tons of uranium dioxide fuel and fission products. Estimates of the amount of this material that escaped range from 5 to 30 %. Because of the intense heat of the fire, and with no containment building to stop it, part of the ejected fuel was vaporized or particularized and lofted high into the atmosphere, where it spread.
The workers involved in the recovery and clean up after the disaster, called "liquidators '', received high doses of radiation. In most cases, these workers were not equipped with individual dosimeters to measure the amount of radiation received, so experts could only estimate their doses. Even where dosimeters were used, dosimetric procedures varied - some workers are thought to have been given more accurate estimated doses than others. According to Soviet estimates, between 300,000 and 600,000 people were involved in the cleanup of the 30 km evacuation zone around the reactor, but many of them entered the zone two years after the disaster.
Estimates of the number of "liquidators '' vary; the World Health Organization, for example, puts the figure at about 600,000; Russia lists as liquidators some people who did not work in contaminated areas. In the first year after the disaster, the number of cleanup workers in the zone was estimated to be 2,000. These workers received an estimated average dose of 165 millisieverts (16.5 REM).
A sevenfold increase in DNA mutations has been identified in children of liquidators conceived after the accident, when compared to their siblings that were conceived before. However, this effect has diminished sharply over time.
Soviet authorities started evacuating people from the area around Chernobyl only on the second day after the disaster (after about 36 hours). By May 1986, about a month later, all those living within a 30 km (19 mi) radius of the plant (about 116,000 people) had been relocated. This area is often referred to as the zone of alienation. However, significant radiation affected the environment over a much wider scale than this 30 km radius encloses.
According to reports from Soviet scientists, 28,000 square kilometers (km, or 10,800 square miles, mi) were contaminated by caesium - 137 to levels greater than 185 kBq per square meter. Roughly 830,000 people lived in this area. About 10,500 km (4,000 mi) were contaminated by caesium - 137 to levels greater than 555 kBq / m. Of this total, roughly 7,000 km (2,700 mi) lie in Belarus, 2,000 km (800 mi) in the Russian Federation and 1,500 km (580 mi) in Ukraine. About 250,000 people lived in this area. These reported data were corroborated by the International Chernobyl Project.
Some children in the contaminated areas were exposed to high radiation doses of up to 50 gray (Gy), mostly due to an intake of radioactive iodine - 131 (a relatively short - lived isotope with a half - life of 8 days) from contaminated milk produced locally. Several studies have found that the incidence of thyroid cancer among children in Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia has risen sharply since the Chernobyl disaster. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) notes "1800 documented cases of thyroid cancer in children who were between 0 and 14 years of age when the disaster occurred, which is far higher than normal '', although this source fails to note the expected rate. The childhood thyroid cancers that have appeared are of a large and aggressive type but, if detected early, can be treated. Treatment entails surgery followed by iodine - 131 therapy for any metastases. To date, such treatment appears to have been successful in the vast majority of cases.
Late in 1995, the World Health Organization (WHO) linked nearly 700 cases of thyroid cancer among children and adolescents to the Chernobyl disaster, and among these, some 10 deaths are attributed to radiation. However, the rapid increase in thyroid cancers detected suggests some of this increase may be an artifact of the screening process. Typical latency time of radiation - induced thyroid cancer is about 10 years, but the increase in childhood thyroid cancers in some regions was observed as early as 1987.
A large swath of pine forest killed by acute radiation was named the Red Forest. The dead pines were bulldozed and buried. Livestock were removed during the human evacuations. Elsewhere in Europe, levels of radioactivity were examined in various natural foodstocks. In both Sweden and Finland, fish in deep freshwater lakes were banned for resale and landowners were advised not to consume certain types. Information regarding physical deformities in the plant and animal populations in the areas affected by radioactive fallout require sampling and capture, along with DNA testing, of individuals to determine if abnormalities are the result of natural mutation, radiation poisoning, or exposure to other contaminants in the environment (i.e. pesticides, industrial waste, or agricultural run - off).
Animals living in contaminated areas in and around Chernobyl have suffered from a variety of side effects caused by radiation. Oxidative stress and low levels of antioxidants have had severe consequences on the development of the nervous system, including reduced brain size and impaired cognitive abilities. It has been found that birds living in areas with high levels of radiation have statistically significantly smaller brains, which has shown to be a deficit to viability in the wild. Barn swallows (Hirundo rustica) that live in or around Chernobyl have displayed an increased rate of physical abnormalities compared to swallows from uncontaminated areas. Abnormalities included partially albinistic plumage, deformed toes, tumors, deformed tail feathers, deformed beaks, and deformed air sacks. Birds with these abnormalities have a reduced viability in the wild and a decrease in fitness. Moeller et al. claimed in 2007 that these effects were likely due to radiation exposure and elevated teratogenic effects of radioactive isotopes in the environment although these conclusions have been challenged. Various birds in the area appear to have adapted to lower levels of radiation by producing more antioxidants, such as glutathione, to help mitigate the oxidative stress.
Invertebrate populations (including bumblebees, butterflies, grasshoppers, dragonflies, and spiders) significantly decreased. As of 2009, most radioactivity around Chernobyl was located in the top layer of soil, where many invertebrates live or lay their eggs. The reduced abundance of invertebrates could have negative implications for the entire ecosystem surrounding Chernobyl.
Radionuclides migrate through either soil diffusion or transportation within the soil solution. The effects of ionizing radiation on plants and trees in particular depends on numerous factors, including climatic conditions, the mechanism of radiation deposition, and the soil type. In turn, radiated vegetation affects organisms further up the food chain. In general, the upper - level trophic organisms received less contamination, due to their ability to be more mobile and feed from multiple areas.
The amount of radioactive nuclides found to have been deposited into surrounding lakes has increased the normal baseline radioactive amounts by 100 percent. Most of the radionuclides in surrounding water areas were found in the sediments at the bottom of the lakes. There has been a high incidence of chromosomal changes in plant and animal aquatic organisms, and this generally has correlated with the contamination and resulting genetic instability. Most of the lakes and rivers surrounding the Chernobyl exclusion zone are still highly contaminated with radionuclides (and will be for many years to come) as the natural decontamination processes of nucleotides with longer half - lives can take many years.
One of the main mechanisms by which radionuclides were passed to humans was through the ingestion of milk from contaminated cows. Most of the rough grazing that the cows took part in contained plant species such as coarse grasses, sedges, rushes, and plants such as heather (also known as calluna vulgaris). These plant species grow in soils that are high in organic matter, low in pH, and are often very well hydrated, thus making the storage and intake of these radionuclides much more feasible and efficient. In the early stages following the Chernobyl accident, high levels of radionuclides were found in the milk and were a direct result of contaminated feeding. Within two months of banning most of the milk that was being produced in the affected areas, officials had phased out the majority of the contaminated feed that was available to the cows and much of the contamination was isolated. In humans, ingestion of milk containing abnormally high levels of iodine radionuclides was the precursor for thyroid disease, especially in children and in the immunocompromised.
Some plants and animals were able to adapt to the increased radiation levels present in and around Chernobyl. Arabidopsis, a plant native to Chernobyl, was able to resist high concentrations of ionizing radiation and resist forming mutations. This species of plant has been able to develop mechanisms to tolerate chronic radiation that would otherwise be harmful or lethal to other species.
Studies suggest the 19 - mile (30 km) "exclusion zone '' surrounding the Chernobyl disaster has become a wildlife sanctuary. Animals have reclaimed the land including species such as the Przewalski 's horse, Eurasian lynx, wild boar, grey wolf, elk, red deer, moose, brown bear, turtle, voles, mice, shrews, European badger, Eurasian beaver, raccoon dog, red fox, roe deer, European bison, black stork, golden eagle, white - tailed eagle and eagle owl whose populations are all thriving. When the disaster first occurred, the health and reproductive ability of many animals and plants were negatively affected for the first six months. However, 30 years later, animals and plants have reclaimed the abandoned zone to make it their habitat. Even the site of the explosion was flourishing with wildlife in 2012 as birds nested in the wrecked nuclear plant, and plants and mushrooms lived in and on the site. A 2015 study found similar numbers of mammals in the zone compared to nearby similar nature reserves and the wildlife population was probably higher than it had been before the accident.
Due to the bioaccumulation of caesium - 137, some mushrooms as well as wild animals which eat them, e.g. wild boars hunted in Germany and deer in Austria, may have levels which are not considered safe for human consumption. Mandatory radioactivity testing of sheep in parts of the UK that graze on lands with contaminated peat was lifted in 2012.
In 2016, 187 local Ukrainians had returned and were living permanently in the zone.
Despite spurious studies from Germany and Turkey, the only robust evidence of negative pregnancy outcomes that transpired after the accident was the increase in elective abortions, these "indirect effects '', in Greece, Denmark, Italy etc., have been attributed to "anxieties created '' by the media.
In very high doses, it was known at the time that radiation can cause a physiological increase in the rate of pregnancy anomalies, but unlike the dominant linear - no threshold model of radiation and cancer rate increases, it was known, by select researchers who were familiar with both the prior human exposure data and animal testing, that the "Malformation of organs appears to be a deterministic effect with a threshold dose '' below which, no rate increase is observed. This teratology (birth defects) issue was discussed by Frank Castronovo of the Harvard Medical School in 1999, publishing a detailed review of dose reconstructions and the available pregnancy data following the Chernobyl accident, inclusive of data from Kiev 's two largest obstetrics hospitals. Castronovo concludes that "the lay press with newspaper reporters playing up anecdotal stories of children with birth defects '' is, together with dubious studies that show "selection bias '', the two primary factors causing the persistent belief that Chernobyl increased the background rate of birth defects. When the vast amount of pregnancy data simply does not support this perception as no pregnant individuals took part in the most radioactive liquidator operations, no pregnant individuals were exposed to the threshold dose.
The issue of long - term effects of the Chernobyl disaster on civilians is very controversial. The number of people whose lives were affected by the disaster is enormous. Over 300,000 people were resettled because of the disaster; millions lived and continue to live in the contaminated area. On the other hand, most of those affected received relatively low doses of radiation; there is little evidence of increased mortality, cancers or birth defects among them; and when such evidence is present, existence of a causal link to radioactive contamination is uncertain.
An increased incidence of thyroid cancer among children in areas of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia affected by the Chernobyl disaster has been firmly established as a result of screening programs and, in the case of Belarus, an established cancer registry. The findings of most epidemiological studies must be considered interim, say experts, as analysis of the health effects of the disaster is an ongoing process. Multilevel modelling indicates that long - term psychological distress among Belarusians affected by the Chernobyl disaster is better predicted by stress - moderating psychosocial factors present in one 's daily life than by level of residential radiation contamination.
Epidemiological studies have been hampered in the Ukraine, Russian Federation and Belarus by a lack of funds, an infrastructure with little or no experience in chronic disease epidemiology, poor communication facilities and an immediate public health problem with many dimensions. Emphasis has been placed on screening rather than on well - designed epidemiological studies. International efforts to organize epidemiological studies have been slowed by some of the same factors, especially the lack of a suitable scientific infrastructure.
Furthermore, the political nature of nuclear energy may have affected scientific studies. In Belarus, Yury Bandazhevsky, a scientist who questioned the official estimates of Chernobyl 's consequences and the relevancy of the official maximum limit of 1,000 Bq / kg, was imprisoned from 2001 to 2005. Bandazhevsky and some human rights groups allege his imprisonment was a reprisal for his publication of reports critical of the official research being conducted into the Chernobyl incident.
The activities undertaken by Belarus and Ukraine in response to the disaster -- remediation of the environment, evacuation and resettlement, development of uncontaminated food sources and food distribution channels, and public health measures -- have overburdened the governments of those countries. International agencies and foreign governments have provided extensive logistic and humanitarian assistance. In addition, the work of the European Commission and World Health Organization in strengthening the epidemiological research infrastructure in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus is laying the basis for major advances in these countries ' ability to carry out epidemiological studies of all kinds.
Immediately after the disaster, the main health concern involved radioactive iodine, with a half - life of eight days. Today, there is concern about contamination of the soil with strontium - 90 and caesium - 137, which have half - lives of about 30 years. The highest levels of caesium - 137 are found in the surface layers of the soil where they are absorbed by plants, insects and mushrooms, entering the local food supply. Some scientists fear that radioactivity will affect the local population for the next several generations. Note that caesium is not mobile in most soils because it binds to the clay minerals.
Tests (c. 1997) showed that caesium - 137 levels in trees of the area were continuing to rise. It is unknown if this is still the case. There is some evidence that contamination is migrating into underground aquifers and closed bodies of water such as lakes and ponds (2001, Germenchuk). The main source of elimination is predicted to be natural decay of caesium - 137 to stable barium - 137, since runoff by rain and groundwater has been demonstrated to be negligible.
An increased incidence of thyroid cancer was observed for about 4 years after the accident and slowed in 2005. The large increase in incidence of thyroid cancer happened amongst individuals who were adolescents and young children living during the time of the accident, and residing in the most contaminated areas of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. High levels of radioactive iodine were released in the environment from the Chernobyl reactor after the accident, and accumulated in pastures which were eaten by cows. The milk was later consumed by children who already had an iodine deficient diet, therefore causing more of the radioactive iodine to be accumulated. Radioactive iodine has a short half - life, 8.02 days, if the contaminated milk would have been avoided or stopped, it is likely that most of the rise in radiation - induced thyroid cancer would n't have happened.
Within the highly contaminated areas -- Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, there were around 5000 cases of thyroid cancer that have been diagnosed since the accident. These cases were found in individuals who were aged 18 and younger during the time of the accident.
The Chernobyl Tissue Bank (CTB) was created in 1998, 6 years after research was published showing a rise in childhood thyroid cancer. Supported by the Russian Federation and Ukraine, The European Commission, the National Cancer Institute of the USA, and the Sasakawa Memorial Health Foundation, the project is the first international co-operation that collects biological samples from patients who were exposed to radioiodine during childhood. The project started collecting a variety of biological samples from patients on October 1, 1998 and since July 2001, has been a source for ethically available tissue samples - specifically extracted nucleic acids and tissue sections, for 21 research projects in Japan, Europe and the USA. The CTB serves as a model for tissue banking for cancer research in the molecular age.
Twenty - five years after the incident, restriction orders had remained in place in the production, transportation and consumption of food contaminated by Chernobyl fallout. In the UK, only in 2012 the mandatory radioactivity testing of sheep in contaminated parts of the UK that graze on lands was lifted. They covered 369 farms on 750 km and 200,000 sheep. In parts of Sweden and Finland, restrictions are in place on stock animals, including reindeer, in natural and near - natural environments. "In certain regions of Germany, Austria, Italy, Sweden, Finland, Lithuania and Poland, wild game (including boar and deer), wild mushrooms, berries and carnivorous fish from lakes reach levels of several thousand Bq per kg of caesium - 137 '', while "in Germany, caesium - 137 levels in wild boar muscle reached 40,000 Bq / kg. The average level is 6,800 Bq / kg, more than ten times the EU limit of 600 Bq / kg '', according to the TORCH 2006 report. The European Commission has stated that "The restrictions on certain foodstuffs from certain Member States must therefore continue to be maintained for many years to come ''.
As of 2009, sheep farmed in some areas of the UK are still subject to inspection which may lead to them being prohibited from entering the human food chain because of contamination arising from the accident:
Some of this radioactivity, predominantly radiocaesium - 137, was deposited on certain upland areas of the UK, where sheep - farming is the primary land - use. Due to the particular chemical and physical properties of the peaty soil types present in these upland areas, the radiocaesium is still able to pass easily from soil to grass and hence accumulate in sheep. A maximum limit of 1,000 becquerels per kilogramme (Bq / kg) of radiocaesium is applied to sheep meat affected by the accident to protect consumers. This limit was introduced in the UK in 1986, based on advice from the European Commission 's Article 31 group of experts. Under power provided under the Food and Environment Protection Act 1985 (FEPA), Emergency Orders have been used since 1986 to impose restrictions on the movement and sale of sheep exceeding the limit in certain parts of Cumbria, North Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland... When the Emergency Orders were introduced in 1986, the Restricted Areas were large, covering almost 9,000 farms, and over 4 million sheep. Since 1986, the areas covered by restrictions have dramatically decreased and now cover 369 farms, or part farms, and around 200,000 sheep. This represents a reduction of over 95 % since 1986, with only limited areas of Cumbria, South Western Scotland and North Wales, covered by restrictions.
369 farms and 190,000 sheep are still affected, a reduction of 95 % since 1986, when 9,700 farms and 4,225,000 sheep were under restriction across the United Kingdom. Restrictions were finally lifted in 2012.
In Norway, the Sami people were affected by contaminated food (the reindeer had been contaminated by eating lichen, which accumulates some types of radioactivity emitters).
Data from a long - term monitoring program from 1998 to 2015 (The Korma Report II) shows a significant decrease in internal radiation exposure of the inhabitants of small villages in Belarus 80 km north of Gomel. Resettlement may even be possible in parts of the prohibited areas provided that people comply with appropriate dietary rules.
According to reports from Soviet scientists at the First International Conference on the Biological and Radiological Aspects of the Chernobyl Accident (September 1990), fallout levels in the 10 km zone around the plant were as high as 4.81 G Bq / m. The so - called "Red Forest '' of pine trees, previously known as Wormwood Forest and located immediately behind the reactor complex, lay within the 10 km zone and was killed off by heavy radioactive fallout. The forest is so named because in the days following the disaster the trees appeared to have a deep red hue as they died because of extremely heavy radioactive fallout. In the post-disaster cleanup operations, a majority of the 4 km forest was bulldozed and buried. The site of the Red Forest remains one of the most contaminated areas in the world.
In recent years there have been many reports suggesting the zone may be a fertile habitat for wildlife. For example, in the 1996 BBC Horizon documentary ' Inside Chernobyl 's Sarcophagus ', birds are seen flying in and out of large holes in the structure itself. Other casual observations suggest biodiversity around the massive radioactivity release has increased due to the removal of human influence (see the first hand account of the wildlife preserve). Storks, wolves, beavers, and eagles have been reported in the area.
Barn swallows sampled between 1991 and 2006 both in the Chernobyl exclusion zone had more physical abnormalities than control sparrows sampled elsewhere in Europe. Abnormal barn swallows mated with lower frequency, causing the percentage of abnormal swallows to decrease over time. This demonstrated the selective pressure against the abnormalities was faster than the effects of radiation that created the abnormalities. "This was a big surprise to us, '' Dr. Mousseau said. "We had no idea of the impact. ''
It is unknown whether fallout contamination will have any long - term adverse effect on the flora and fauna of the region, as plants and animals have significantly different and varying radiologic tolerance compared with humans. Some birds are reported with stunted tail feathers (which interferes with breeding). There are reports of mutations in plants in the area. The Chernobyl area has not received very much biological study, although studies that have been done suggest that apparently healthy populations may be sink instead of source populations; in other words, that the apparently healthy populations are not contributing to the survival of species.
Using robots, researchers have retrieved samples of highly melanized black fungus from the walls of the reactor core itself. It has been shown that certain species of fungus, such as Cryptococcus neoformans and Cladosporium, can actually thrive in a radioactive environment, growing better than non-melanized variants, implying that they use melanin to harness the energy of ionizing radiation from the reactor.
The Exclusion Zone around the Chernobyl nuclear power station is reportedly a haven for wildlife. As humans were evacuated from the area 25 years ago, existing animal populations multiplied and rare species not seen for centuries have returned or have been reintroduced, for example Eurasian lynx, wild boar, Eurasian wolf, Eurasian brown bear, European bison, Przewalski 's horse, and Eurasian eagle owls. Birds even nest inside the cracked concrete sarcophagus shielding the shattered remains of Reactor 4. In 2007 the Ukrainian government designated the Exclusion Zone as a wildlife sanctuary, and at 488.7 km it is one of the largest wildlife sanctuaries in Europe.
According to a 2005 U.N. report, wildlife has returned despite radiation levels that are presently 10 to 100 times higher than normal background radiation. Although radiation levels were significantly higher soon after the accident, they have fallen because of radioactive decay.
Møller and Tim Mousseau have published the results of the largest census of animal life in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone. (2) It said, contrary to the Chernobyl Forum 's 2005 report, (3) that the biodiversity of insects, birds and mammals is declining. Møller and Mousseau have been criticized strongly by Sergey Gaschak, a Ukrainian biologist who did field work for the pair beginning in 2003. He regards their conclusions to be the result of a biased and unscientific anti-nuclear political agenda, unsupported by the data he collected for them. "I know Chernobyl Zone, '' he says. "I worked here many years. I ca n't believe their results. '' (4)
Some researchers have said that by halting the destruction of habitat, the Chernobyl disaster helped wildlife flourish. Biologist Robert J. Baker of Texas Tech University was one of the first to report that Chernobyl had become a wildlife haven and that many rodents he has studied at Chernobyl since the early 1990s have shown remarkable tolerance for elevated radiation levels.
Møller et al. (2005) suggested that the reproductive success and annual survival rates of barn swallows are much lower in the Exclusion Zone; 28 % of barn swallows inhabiting Chernobyl return each year, while at a control area at Kanev, 250 km to the southeast, the return rate is around 40 %. A later study by Møller et al. (2007) furthermore claimed an elevated frequency of eleven categories of subtle physical abnormalities in barn swallows, such as bent tail feathers, deformed air sacs, deformed beaks, and isolated albinistic feathers.
Smith et al. (2007) have disputed Møller 's findings and instead proposed that a lack of human influence in the Exclusion Zone locally reduced the swallows ' insect prey and that radiation levels across the vast majority of the exclusion zone are now too low to have an observable negative effect. But the criticisms raised were responded to in Møller et al. (2008). It is possible that barn swallows are particularly vulnerable to elevated levels of ionizing radiation because they are migratory; they arrive in the exclusion area exhausted and with depleted reserves of radio - protective antioxidants after their journey.
Several research groups have suggested that plants in the area have adapted to cope with the high radiation levels, for example by increasing the activity of DNA cellular repair machinery and by hypermethylation. Given the uncertainties, further research is needed to assess the long - term health effects of elevated ionizing radiation from Chernobyl on flora and fauna.
In 2015, long - term empirical data showed no evidence of a negative influence of radiation on mammal abundance.
In September 2005, a comprehensive report was published by the Chernobyl Forum, comprising a number of agencies including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations bodies and the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. This report titled: "Chernobyl 's legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio - Economic Impacts '', authored by about 100 recognized experts from many countries, put the total predicted number of deaths due to the disaster around 4,000 (of which 2,200 deaths are expected to be in the ranks of 200,000 liquidators). This predicted death toll includes the 47 workers who died of acute radiation syndrome as a direct result of radiation from the disaster, nine children who died from thyroid cancer and an estimated 4000 people who could die from cancer as a result of exposure to radiation. This number was subsequently updated to 9000 excess cancer deaths.
An IAEA press officer admitted that the 4000 figure was given prominence in the report "... to counter the much higher estimates which had previously been seen... "It was a bold action to put out a new figure that was much less than conventional wisdom. '' ''
The report also stated that, apart from a 30 kilometre area around the site and a few restricted lakes and forests, radiation levels had returned to acceptable levels. For full coverage see the IAEA Focus Page.
The methodology of the Chernobyl Forum report, supported by Elisabeth Cardis of the International Agency for Research on Cancer, has been disputed by some advocacy organizations opposed to nuclear energy, such as Greenpeace and the International Physicians for Prevention of Nuclear Warfare (IPPNW), as well as some individuals such as Dr. Michel Fernex, retired medical doctor from the WHO and campaigner Dr. Christopher Busby (Green Audit, LLRC). The main criticism has been with regard to the restriction of the Forum 's study to Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. Furthermore, it only studied the case of 200,000 people involved in the cleanup, and the 400,000 most directly affected by the released radioactivity. German Green Party Member of the European Parliament Rebecca Harms, commissioned a report on Chernobyl in 2006 (TORCH, The Other Report on Chernobyl). The 2006 TORCH report claimed that:
In terms of their surface areas, Belarus (22 % of its land area) and Austria (13 %) were most affected by higher levels of contamination. Other countries were seriously affected; for example, more than 5 % of Ukraine, Finland and Sweden were contaminated to high levels (> 40,000 Bq / m caesium - 137). More than 80 % of Moldova, the European part of Turkey, Slovenia, Switzerland, Austria and the Slovak Republic were contaminated to lower levels (> 4,000 Bq / m caesium - 137). And 44 % of Germany and 34 % of the UK were similarly affected. (See map of radioactive distribution of caesium - 137 in Europe)
While the IAEA / WHO and UNSCEAR considered areas with exposure greater than 40,000 Bq / m, the TORCH report also included areas contaminated with more than 4,000 Bq / m of Cs - 137.
The TORCH 2006 report "estimated that more than half the iodine - 131 from Chernobyl (which increases the risk of thyroid cancer) was deposited outside the former Soviet Union. Possible increases in thyroid cancer have been reported in the Czech Republic and the UK, but more research is needed to evaluate thyroid cancer incidences in Western Europe ''. It predicted about 30,000 to 60,000 excess cancer deaths, 7 to 15 Times greater than the figure of 4,000 in the IAEA press release; warned that predictions of excess cancer deaths strongly depend on the risk factor used; and predicted excess cases of thyroid cancer range between 18,000 and 66,000 in Belarus alone depending on the risk projection model. However, elevated incidence thyroid cancer is still seen among Ukrainians who were exposed to radioactivity due to Chernobyl accident during their childhood, but who were diagnosed the malignancy as adults.
Another study claims possible heightened mortality in Sweden.
Greenpeace quoted a 1998 WHO study, which counted 212 dead from only 72,000 liquidators. The environmental NGO estimated a total death toll of 93,000 but cite in their report that "The most recently published figures indicate that in Belarus, Russia and the Ukraine alone the disaster could have resulted in an estimated 200,000 additional deaths in the period between 1990 and 2004. '' In its report, Greenpeace suggested there will be 270,000 cases of cancer alone attributable to Chernobyl fallout, and that 93,000 of these will probably be fatal compare with the IAEA 2005 report which claimed that "99 % of thyroid cancers would n't be lethal ''.
According to the Union Chernobyl, the main organization of liquidators, 10 % of the 600,000 liquidators are now dead, and 165,000 disabled.
According to an April 2006 report by the International Physicians for Prevention of Nuclear Warfare (IPPNW), entitled "Health Effects of Chernobyl - 20 years after the reactor catastrophe '', more than 10,000 people are today affected by thyroid cancer and 50,000 cases are expected. In Europe, the IPPNW claims that 10,000 deformities have been observed in newborns because of Chernobyl 's radioactive discharge, with 5,000 deaths among newborn children. They also state that several hundreds of thousands of the people who worked on the site after the disaster are now sick because of radiation, and tens of thousands are dead.
Revisiting the issue for the 25th anniversary of the Chernobyl disaster, the Union of Concerned Scientists described the Forum 's estimate of four thousand as pertaining only to "a much smaller subgroup of people who experienced the greatest exposure to released radiation ''. Their estimates for the broader population are 50,000 excess cancer cases resulting in 25,000 excess cancer deaths.
The majority of premature deaths caused by Chernobyl are expected to be the result of cancers and other diseases induced by radiation in the decades after the event. This will be the result of a large population (some studies have considered the entire population of Europe) exposed to relatively low doses of radiation increasing the risk of cancer across that population. Interpretations of the current health state of exposed populations vary. Therefore, estimates of the ultimate human impact of the disaster have relied on numerical models of the effects of radiation on health. Furthermore, the effects of low - level radiation on human health are not well understood, and so the models used, notably the linear no threshold model, are open to question.
Given these factors, studies of Chernobyl 's health effects have come up with different conclusions and are the subject of scientific and political controversy. The following section presents some of the major studies on this topic.
In September 2005, a draft summary report by the Chernobyl Forum, comprising a number of UN agencies including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), other UN bodies and the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, put the total predicted number of deaths due to the accident at 4000. This death toll predicted by the WHO included the 47 workers who died of acute radiation syndrome as a direct result of radiation from the disaster and nine children who died from thyroid cancer, in the estimated 4000 excess cancer deaths expected among the 600,000 with the highest levels of exposure.
The full version of the WHO health effects report adopted by the UN, published in April 2006, included the prediction of 5000 additional fatalities from significantly contaminated areas in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine and predicted that, in total, 9000 will die from cancer among the 6.9 million most - exposed Soviet citizens. This report is not free of controversy, and has been accused of trying to minimize the consequences of the accident.
In 2006 German Green Party Member of the European Parliament Rebecca Harms commissioned two UK scientists for an alternate report (TORCH, The Other Report on CHernobyl) in response to the UN report. The report included areas not covered by the Chernobyl forum report, and also lower radiation doses. It predicted about 30,000 to 60,000 excess cancer deaths and warned that predictions of excess cancer deaths strongly depend on the risk factor used, and urged more research stating that large uncertainties made it difficult to properly assess the full scale of the disaster.
Greenpeace claimed contradictions in the Chernobyl Forum reports, quoting a 1998 WHO study referenced in the 2005 report, which projected 212 dead from 72,000 liquidators. In its report, Greenpeace suggested there will be 270,000 cases of cancer attributable to Chernobyl fallout, and that 93,000 of these will probably be fatal, but state in their report that "The most recently published figures indicate that in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine alone the accident could have resulted in an estimated 200,000 additional deaths in the period between 1990 and 2004. '' Blake Lee - Harwood, campaigns director at Greenpeace, believes that cancer was likely to be the cause of less than half of the final fatalities and that "intestinal problems, heart and circulation problems, respiratory problems, endocrine problems, and particularly effects on the immune system, '' will also cause fatalities. However, concern has been expressed about the methods used in compiling the Greenpeace report. It is not peer reviewed nor does it rely on peer review science as the Chernobyl Forum report did.
According to an April 2006 report by the German affiliate of the International Physicians for Prevention of Nuclear Warfare (IPPNW), entitled "Health Effects of Chernobyl '', more than 10,000 people are today affected by thyroid cancer and 50,000 cases are expected. The report projected tens of thousands dead among the liquidators. In Europe, it alleges that 10,000 deformities have been observed in newborns because of Chernobyl 's radioactive discharge, with 5000 deaths among newborn children. They also claimed that several hundreds of thousands of the people who worked on the site after the accident are now sick because of radiation, and tens of thousands are dead.
Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment is an English translation of the 2007 Russian publication Chernobyl. It was published online in 2009 by the New York Academy of Sciences in their Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. It presents an analysis of scientific literature and concludes that medical records between 1986, the year of the accident, and 2004 reflect 985,000 deaths as a result of the radioactivity released. The authors suggest that most of the deaths were in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, but others were spread through the many other countries the radiation from Chernobyl struck.
The literature analysis draws on over 1,000 published titles and over 5,000 internet and printed publications discussing the consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. The authors contend that those publications and papers were written by leading Eastern European authorities and have largely been downplayed or ignored by the IAEA and UNSCEAR. Author Alexy V. Yablokov was also one of the general editors on the Greenpeace commissioned report also criticizing the Chernobyl Forum finds published one year prior to the Russian - language version of this report.
A critical review by Dr. Monty Charles in the journal Radiation Protection Dosimetry states that Consequences is a direct extension of the 2005 Greenpeace report, updated with data of unknown quality. The New York Academy of Sciences also published a severely critical review by M.I. Balonov from the Institute of Radiation Hygiene (St. Petersburg, Russia) which stated that "The value of (Consequences) is not zero, but negative, as its bias is obvious only to specialists, while inexperienced readers may well be put into deep error. ''
The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) produced a detailed report on the effects of Chernobyl for the General Assembly of the UN in 2011. This report concluded that 134 staff and emergency workers suffered acute radiation syndrome and of those 28 died of radiation exposure within three months. Many of the survivors suffered skin conditions and radiation induced cataracts, and 19 had since died, but from conditions not necessarily associated with radiation exposure. Of the several hundred thousand liquidators, apart from some emerging indications of increased leukaemia, there was no other evidence of health effects.
In the general public in the affected areas, the only effect with ' persuasive evidence ' was a substantial fraction of the 6,000 cases of thyroid cancer in adolescents of whom by 2005 15 cases had proved fatal. There was no evidence of increased rates of solid cancers or leukaemia among the general population. However, there was a widespread psychological worry about the effects of radiation.
The total deaths reliably attributable by UNSCEAR to the radiation produced by the accident therefore was 62.
The report concluded that ' the vast majority of the population need not live in fear of serious health consequences from the Chernobyl accident '.
The American Academy of Pediatrics published a study state that the overall rate of neural tube defects in the Rivne region of the Ukraine is one of the highest in Europe (22 per 10,000 live births). The rate in Polissia (Ukraine) is 27.0 per 10,000. The study suggested that rates of microcephaly and microphthalmia may also be higher than normal.
Since March 2001, 400 lawsuits have been filed in France against "X '' (the French equivalent of John Doe, an unknown person or company) by the French Association of Thyroid - affected People, including 200 in April 2006. These persons are affected by thyroid cancer or goitres, and have filed lawsuits alleging that the French government, at the time led by Prime Minister Jacques Chirac, had not adequately informed the population of the risks linked to the Chernobyl radioactive fallout. The complaint contrasts the health protection measures put in place in nearby countries (warning against consumption of green vegetables or milk by children and pregnant women) with the relatively high contamination suffered by the east of France and Corsica. Although the 2006 study by the French Institute of Radioprotection and Nuclear Safety said that no clear link could be found between Chernobyl and the increase of thyroid cancers in France, it also stated that papillary thyroid cancer had tripled in the following years.
After the Chernobyl Disaster, many countries were reluctant to expand their own nuclear programs. Some countries, such as Italy and Switzerland tried to ban nuclear power all together. Others, such as the Dutch and Finland postponed the addition of nuclear power plants. The disaster reaffirmed policy made by Austria and Sweden to terminate use of all nuclear energy. Germany set up regulatory organizations and new policy including the Federal Ministry of Environment and Reactor Safety and a new act for precaution protection against nuclear radiation.
Policy levers were not only implemented on a national level, but on an international level as well. In June 1986, the European Community implemented new standards for cesium. They attempted to do the same for iodine, but could not reach an agreement. Additionally several international programs were formed, including the World Association of Nuclear Operators. This association essentially linked 130 operators in 30 different countries. Nuclear engineers would visit nuclear plants worldwide to learn and work towards better safety precautions.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was also created. Funded by the Nuclear Safety Assistance Coordination Centre, the IAEA is an example of the international, multilateral cooperation resulting from the disaster (World Nuclear, 2016). They created the Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident and Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency. Nations called for a more comprehensive set of obligatory regulations for nuclear power plants from safe management of installation to safe management of radioactive waste. They also created the Joint Convention of Safety of Spent Fuel Management in which obliged nations to create proper policy to control nuclear power plant management.
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where does the indian nation turnpike begin and end | Indian Nation Turnpike - wikipedia
The Indian Nation Turnpike is a toll road in southeastern Oklahoma, United States, running between Hugo and Henryetta, Oklahoma, a distance of 105.2 miles (169.3 km). It is the longest tollway in the state.
The Indian Nation turnpike is built to parkway - like design standards, omitting a center barrier and left - hand shoulders for a slightly mounded grassy median that is flush with the edge of the left lane in each direction. The turnpike 's speed limit is 75 mph (121 km / h).
A two - axle vehicle pays $6.25 ($6.05 with Pikepass) to drive the full length of the Turnpike.
Law enforcement along the Indian Nation Turnpike is provided by Oklahoma Highway Patrol Troop XC, a special troop assigned to the turnpike.
The only dining option along the entire turnpike is McDonald 's.
The route is one continuous four - lane limited access highway, but consists of two separately constructed sections. The 41.1 - mile (66.1 km) northern section, which opened in 1966, is the portion between I - 40 / US 62 / US 75 near Henryetta and US 69 south of McAlester. The southern extension opened in 1970, and is the 64.1 - mile (103.2 km) segment from the US 69 junction to US 70 / 271 in Hugo.
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last part of the lord of the rings | The Lord of the Rings (film series) - wikipedia
The Lord of the Rings is a film series consisting of three high fantasy adventure films directed by Peter Jackson. They are based on the novel The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien. The films are subtitled The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Two Towers (2002) and The Return of the King (2003). They are a New Zealand - American venture produced by WingNut Films and The Saul Zaentz Company and distributed by New Line Cinema.
Considered to be one of the biggest and most ambitious film projects ever undertaken, with an overall budget of $281 million (some sources say $310 - $330 million), the entire project took eight years, with the filming for all three films done simultaneously and entirely in New Zealand, Jackson 's native country, resulting in 1 in every 160 New Zealanders being part of the production of the trilogy. Each film in the series also had special extended editions released on DVD a year after their respective theatrical releases. While the films follow the book 's general storyline, they do omit some of the novel 's plot elements and include some additions to and deviations from the source material.
Set in the fictional world of Middle - earth, the films follow the hobbit Frodo Baggins (Elijah Wood) as he and the Fellowship embark on a quest to destroy the One Ring, and thus ensure the destruction of its maker, the Dark Lord Sauron. The Fellowship eventually splits up and Frodo continues the quest together with his loyal companion Sam (Sean Astin) and the treacherous Gollum (Andy Serkis). Meanwhile, Aragorn (Viggo Mortensen), heir in exile to the throne of Gondor, Legolas, Gimli, Merry, and Pippin, and the wizard Gandalf (Ian McKellen) unite to rally the Free Peoples of Middle - earth in the War of the Ring.
The series was received with overwhelming praise and was a major financial success, with the films collectively being among the highest - grossing film series of all time. The films were critically acclaimed and heavily awarded, winning 17 out of 30 total Academy Award nominations. The final film in the series, The Return of the King, won all 11 of its Academy Award nominations including Best Picture, which also tied it with Ben - Hur and Titanic for most Academy Awards received for a film. The series received wide praise for its innovative special and visual effects.
Director Peter Jackson first came into contact with The Lord of the Rings when he saw Ralph Bakshi 's 1978 animated film The Lord of the Rings. Jackson "enjoyed the film and wanted to know more. '' Afterwards, he read a tie - in edition of the book during a twelve - hour train journey from Wellington to Auckland when he was seventeen.
In 1995, Jackson was finishing The Frighteners and considered The Lord of the Rings as a new project, wondering "why nobody else seemed to be doing anything about it ''. With the new developments in computer - generated imagery following Jurassic Park, Jackson set about planning a fantasy film that would be relatively serious and feel real. By October, he and his partner Fran Walsh teamed up with Miramax Films boss Harvey Weinstein to negotiate with Saul Zaentz who had held the rights to the book since the early 1970s, pitching an adaptation of The Hobbit and two films based on The Lord of the Rings. Negotiations then stalled when Universal Studios offered Jackson a remake of King Kong. Weinstein was furious, and further problems arose when it turned out Zaentz did not have distribution rights to The Hobbit; United Artists, which was in the market, did. By April 1996, the rights question was still not resolved.
Jackson decided to move ahead with King Kong before filming The Lord of the Rings, prompting Universal to enter a deal with Miramax to receive foreign earnings from The Lord of the Rings while Miramax received foreign earnings from King Kong. It was also revealed that Jackson originally wanted to finish King Kong before The Lord of the Rings began. But due to location problems, he decided to start with The Lord of the Rings franchise instead.
When Universal cancelled King Kong in 1997, Jackson and Walsh immediately received support from Weinstein and began a six - week process of sorting out the rights. Jackson and Walsh asked Costa Botes to write a synopsis of the book and they began to re-read the book. Two to three months later, they had written their treatment. The first film would have dealt with what would become The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers, and the beginning of The Return of the King, ending with Saruman 's death, and Gandalf and Pippin going to Minas Tirith. In this treatment, Gwaihir and Gandalf visit Edoras after escaping Saruman, Gollum attacks Frodo when the Fellowship is still united, and Farmer Maggot, Glorfindel, Radagast, Elladan and Elrohir are present. Bilbo attends the Council of Elrond, Sam looks into Galadriel 's mirror, Saruman is redeemed before he dies and the Nazgûl just make it into Mount Doom before they fall. They presented their treatment to Harvey and Bob Weinstein, the latter of whom they focused on impressing with their screenwriting as he had not read the book. They agreed upon two films and a total budget of $75 million.
During mid-1997, Jackson and Walsh began writing with Stephen Sinclair. Sinclair 's partner, Philippa Boyens, was a major fan of the book and joined the writing team after reading their treatment. It took 13 -- 14 months to write the two film scripts, which were 147 and 144 pages respectively. Sinclair left the project due to theatrical obligations. Amongst their revisions, Sam is caught eavesdropping and forced to go along with Frodo, as occurs in the original novel. In the final treatment Sam, Merry, and Pippin infer the existence of One Ring and voluntarily go along after confronting Frodo about it. Gandalf 's account of his time at Orthanc was pulled out of flashback and Lothlórien was cut, with Galadriel doing what she does in the story at Rivendell. Denethor attends the Council with his son. Other changes included having Arwen rescue Frodo, and the action sequence involving the cave troll. The writers also considered having Arwen absorb Éowyn 's role entirely by having her kill the Witch - king.
Trouble struck when Marty Katz was sent to New Zealand. Spending four months there, he told Miramax that the films were more likely to cost $150 million, and with Miramax unable to finance this, and with $15 million already spent, they decided to merge the two films into one. On 17 June 1998, Bob Weinstein presented a treatment of a single two - hour film version of the book. He suggested cutting Bree and the Battle of Helm 's Deep, "losing or using '' Saruman, merging Rohan and Gondor with Éowyn as Boromir 's sister, shortening Rivendell and Moria as well as having Ents prevent the Uruk - hai from kidnapping Merry and Pippin. Upset by the idea of "cutting out half the good stuff '' Jackson balked, and Miramax declared that any script or work completed by Weta Workshop was theirs. Jackson went around Hollywood for four weeks, showing a thirty - five - minute video of their work, before meeting with New Line Cinema 's Mark Ordesky. At New Line Cinema, Robert Shaye viewed the video, and then asked why they were making two films when the book was published as three volumes (this was later corrected: New Line only made this choice out of economical reasons); he wanted to make a film trilogy. Now Jackson, Walsh, and Boyens had to write three new scripts.
The expansion to three films allowed much more creative freedom, although Jackson, Walsh, and Boyens had to restructure their script accordingly. The three films do not correspond exactly to the trilogy 's three volumes, but rather represent a three - part adaptation. Jackson takes a more chronological approach to the story than did Tolkien. Frodo 's quest is the main focus, and Aragorn is the main sub-plot, and many sequences (such as Tom Bombadil) that do not contribute directly to those two plots were left out. Much effort was put into creating satisfactory conclusions and making sure exposition did not bog down the pacing. Amongst new sequences, there are also expansions on elements Tolkien kept ambiguous, such as the battles and the creatures. During shooting, the screenplays continued to evolve, in part due to contributions from cast members looking to further explore their characters. Most notable amongst these rewrites was the character Arwen, who was originally planned as a warrior princess, but reverted to her book counterpart, who remains physically inactive in the story (though she sends moral and military support).
To develop fight and sword choreography for the series, the filmmakers employed Hollywood sword - master Bob Anderson. Anderson worked directly with the talent including Viggo Mortensen and Karl Urban to develop the film 's many sword fights and stunts. Bob Anderson 's role in The Lord of the Rings series was highlighted in the film Reclaiming the Blade. This documentary on sword martial arts also featured Weta Workshop and Richard Taylor, The Lord of the Rings illustrator John Howe and actors Viggo Mortensen and Karl Urban. All discussed their roles and work on the series as related to the sword.
Jackson began storyboarding the series with Christian Rivers in August 1997 and assigned his crew to begin designing Middle - earth at the same time. Jackson hired long - time collaborator Richard Taylor to lead Weta Workshop on five major design elements: armour, weapons, prosthetics / make - up, creatures, and miniatures. In November 1997, famed Tolkien illustrators Alan Lee and John Howe joined the project. Most of the imagery in the films is based on their various illustrations. Production designer Grant Major was charged with the task of converting Lee and Howe 's designs into architecture, creating models of the sets, while Dan Hennah worked as art director, scouting locations and organising the building of sets.
Jackson 's vision of Middle - earth was described as being "Ray Harryhausen meets David Lean '' by Randy Cook. Jackson wanted a gritty realism and historical regard for the fantasy, and attempted to make the world rational and believable. For example, the New Zealand Army helped build Hobbiton months before filming began so the plants could really grow. Creatures were designed to be biologically believable, such as the enormous wings of the fell beast to help it fly. In total, 48,000 pieces of armour, 500 bows, and 10,000 arrows were created by Weta Workshop. They also created many prosthetics, such as 1,800 pairs of Hobbit feet for the lead actors, as well as many ears, noses, and heads for the cast, and around 19,000 costumes were woven and aged. Every prop was specially designed by the Art Department, taking the different scales into account.
Principal photography for all three films was conducted concurrently in many locations within New Zealand 's conservation areas and national parks. Filming took place between 11 October 1999 and 22 December 2000, a period of 438 days. Pick - up shoots were conducted annually from 2001 to 2003. The series was shot at over 150 different locations, with seven different units shooting, as well as soundstages around Wellington and Queenstown. Along with Jackson directing the whole production, other unit directors included John Mahaffie, Geoff Murphy, Fran Walsh, Barrie Osbourne, Rick Porras, and any other assistant director, producer, or writer available. Jackson monitored these units with live satellite feeds, and with the added pressure of constant script re-writes and the multiple units interpreting his envisioned result, he only got around four hours of sleep a night. Due to the remoteness of some of the locations, the crew would also bring survival kits in case helicopters could not reach the location to bring them home in time. The New Zealand Department of Conservation was criticised for approving the filming within national parks without adequate consideration of the adverse environmental effects and without public notification. The adverse effects of filming battle scenes in Tongariro National Park meant that the park later required restoration work.
The following is a list of cast members who voiced or portrayed characters appearing in the extended version of The Lord of the Rings film series.
Each film had the benefit of a full year of post-production time before its respective December release, often finishing in October -- November, with the crew immediately going to work on the next film. In this period 's later part, Jackson would move to London to supervise the scoring and continue editing, while having a computer feed for discussions to The Dorchester Hotel, and a "fat pipe '' of Internet connections from Pinewood Studios to look at the special effects. He had a video link and 5.1 surround sound to organise meetings, and listen to new music and sound effects generally wherever he was. The extended editions also had a tight schedule at the start of each year to complete special effects and music.
To avoid pressure, Jackson hired a different editor for each film. John Gilbert worked on the first film, Mike Horton and Jabez Olssen on the second and longtime Jackson collaborator Jamie Selkirk and Annie Collins on the third. Daily rushes would often last up to four hours, with scenes being done throughout 1999 -- 2002 for the rough (41⁄2 hours) assemblies of the films. In total, 1828 km (six million feet) of film was edited down to the 11 hours and 23 minutes (683 minutes) of Extended running time. This was the final area of shaping of the films, when Jackson realised that sometimes the best scripting could be redundant on screen, as he picked apart scenes every day from multiple takes.
The first film 's editing was relatively easygoing, with Jackson coming up with the concept of an Extended Edition later on, although after a screening to New Line they had to re-edit the beginning for a prologue. The Two Towers was always acknowledged by the crew as the most difficult film to make, as "it had no beginning or end '', and had the additional problem of inter-cutting storylines appropriately. Jackson even continued editing the film when that part of the schedule officially ended, resulting in some scenes, including the reforging of Andúril, Gollum 's back - story, and Saruman 's demise, being moved to The Return of the King. Later, Saruman 's demise was cut from the theatrical edition (but included in the Extended edition) when Jackson felt it was not starting the third film effectively enough. As with all parts of the third film 's post-production, editing was very chaotic. The first time Jackson actually saw the completed film was at the Wellington premiere.
Many filmed scenes remain unused, even in the Extended Editions. Promotional material for The Fellowship of the Ring contained an attack by Orcs from Moria on Lothlórien after the Fellowship leaves Moria, replaced with a more suspenseful entrance for the Fellowship. Also cut were scenes from the book, including Frodo seeing more of Middle - earth at Parth Galen and an extended Council of Elrond, and new scenes with an attack upon Frodo and Sam at the river Anduin by an Uruk - hai. The major cut to The Two Towers featured Arwen and Elrond visiting Galadriel at Lothlórien, with Arwen then leading the Elven reinforcements to Helm 's Deep. This scene, and a flashback to Arwen and Aragorn 's first meeting, was cut during a revision of the film 's plot; the Elves ' appearance was explained with a telepathic communication between Elrond and Galadriel.
Éowyn was to have a greater role in defending the refugees in the Glittering Caves from Uruk - hai intruders, while in Osgiliath, Faramir was to have a vision of Frodo becoming like Gollum, with Frodo and Sam having an extended fight sequence. Filmed for The Return of the King were two scenes present in the book; Sam using the Phial of Galadriel to pass the Watchers at Cirith Ungol, and further epilogue footage, with endings for Legolas and Gimli, Éowyn and Faramir 's wedding and Aragorn 's death and funeral. Sauron was to fight Aragorn at the Black Gate, but with Jackson deciding the scene was inappropriate, a computer - generated Troll was used instead. To give context for Wormtongue killing Saruman, and Legolas in turn killing Wormtongue, it was to be revealed Wormtongue poisoned Théodred. The final scene cut was Aragorn having his armour fitted for the Battle of the Black Gate by the trilogy 's armourers, which was the final scene filmed during principal photography. Peter Jackson has stated that he would like to include some of these unused scenes in a future "Ultimate Edition '' home video release, also including out - takes.
Howard Shore composed, orchestrated, conducted, and produced the trilogy 's music. He was hired in August 2000 and visited the set, and watched the assembly cuts of The Fellowship of the Ring and The Return of the King. In the music, Shore included many (85 to 110) leitmotifs to represent various characters, cultures, and places - the largest catalogue of leitmotives in the history of cinema, surpassing - for comparison - that of the entire Star Wars saga. For example, there are multiple leitmotifs just for the hobbits and the Shire. Although the first film had some of its score recorded in Wellington, virtually all of the trilogy 's score was recorded in Watford Town Hall and mixed at Abbey Road Studios. Jackson planned to advise the score for six weeks each year in London, though for The Two Towers he stayed for twelve. As a Beatles fan, Jackson had a photo tribute done there on the zebra crossing.
The score is primarily played by the London Philharmonic Orchestra (ranging from 93 to 120 players throughout the recording), London Voices, London Oratory School Schola boy choir, and many artists such as Ben Del Maestro, Enya, Renée Fleming, James Galway, Annie Lennox and Emilíana Torrini contributed. Even actors Billy Boyd, Viggo Mortensen, Liv Tyler, Miranda Otto (extended cuts only for the latter two), and Peter Jackson (for a single gong sound in the second film) contributed to the score. Fran Walsh and Philippa Boyens served as librettists, writing lyrics to various music and songs, which David Salo translated into Tolkien 's languages. The third film 's end song, "Into the West '', was a tribute to a young filmmaker Jackson and Walsh befriended named Cameron Duncan, who died of cancer in 2003.
Shore composed a main theme for The Fellowship rather than many different character themes, and its strength and weaknesses in volume are depicted at different points in the series. On top of that, individual themes were composed to represent different cultures. Infamously, the amount of music Shore had to write every day for the third film increased dramatically to around seven minutes. The music for the series turned out to be a success and has been voted best movie soundtrack of all time for the six years running, passing Schindler 's List, Gladiator, Star Wars (1977), and Out of Africa respectively.
Sound technicians spent the early part of the year trying to find the right sounds. Some, such as animal sounds like those of tigers and walruses, were bought. Human voices were also used. Fran Walsh contributed to the Nazgûl scream and David Farmer the Warg howls. Other sounds were unexpected: the fell beast 's screech is taken from that of a donkey, and the mûmakil 's bellow comes from the beginning and end of a lion 's roar. In addition, ADR was used for most of the dialogue.
The technicians worked with New Zealand locals to get many of the sounds. They re-recorded sounds in abandoned tunnels for an echo - like effect in the Moria sequence. 20,000 New Zealand cricket fans provided the sound of the Uruk - hai army in The Two Towers, with Jackson acting as conductor during the innings break of a one - day international cricket match between England and New Zealand at Westpac Stadium. They spent time recording sounds in a graveyard at night, and also had construction workers drop stone blocks for the sounds of boulders firing and landing in The Return of the King. Mixing took place between August and November at "The Film Mix '', before Jackson commissioned the building of a new studio in 2003. The building, however, had not yet been fully completed when they started mixing for The Return of the King.
The first film has around 540 effect shots, the second 799, and the third 1,488 (2,730 in total). The total increases to 3,420 with the extended editions. 260 visual effect artists began work on the series, and the number doubled by The Two Towers. The crew, led by Jim Rygiel and Randy Cook, worked long hours, often overnight, to produce special effects within a short space of time. Jackson 's active imagination was a driving force. For example, several major shots of Helm 's Deep were produced within the last six weeks of post-production of The Two Towers, and the same happened again within the last six weeks on The Return of the King.
The trilogy 's online promotional trailer was first released on 27 April 2000, and set a new record for download hits, registering 1.7 million hits in the first 24 hours of its release. The trailer used a selection from the soundtrack for Braveheart and The Shawshank Redemption among other cuts. In 2001, 24 minutes of footage from the series, primarily the Moria sequence, was shown at the Cannes Film Festival, and was very well received. The showing also included an area designed to look like Middle - earth.
The Fellowship of the Ring was released 19 December 2001. It grossed $47 million in its U.S. opening weekend and made around $871 million worldwide. A preview of The Two Towers was inserted just before the end credits near the end of the film 's theatrical run. A promotional trailer was later released, containing music re-scored from the film Requiem for a Dream. The Two Towers was released 18 December 2002. It grossed $62 million in its first U.S. weekend and out - grossed its predecessor with $926 million worldwide. The promotional trailer for The Return of the King was debuted exclusively before the New Line Cinema film Secondhand Lions on 23 September 2003. Released 17 December 2003, its first U.S. weekend gross was $72 million, and became the second film (after Titanic) to gross over $1 billion worldwide.
The first two films were released on standard two - disc edition DVDs containing previews of the next film. The success of the theatrical cuts brought about four - disc Extended Editions, with new editing, added special effects and music. The extended cuts of the films and the included special features were spread over two discs, and a limited collector 's edition was also released. The Fellowship of the Ring was released on 12 November 2002, containing 30 minutes more footage, an Alan Lee painting of the Fellowship entering Moria, and the Moria Gate on the back of the sleeve; an Argonath - styled bookend was included with the Collector 's Edition. The Two Towers, released on 18 November 2003, contained 44 minutes extra footage and a Lee painting of Gandalf the White 's entrance; the Collector 's Edition contained a Sméagol statue, with a crueller - looking statue of his Gollum persona available by order for a limited time.
The Return of the King was released on 14 December 2004, having 51 minutes more footage, a Lee painting of the Grey Havens and a model of Minas Tirith for the Collector 's Edition, with Minas Morgul available by order for a limited time. The Special Extended DVD Editions also had in - sleeve maps of the Fellowship 's travels. They have also played at cinemas, most notably for a 16 December 2003 marathon screening (dubbed "Trilogy Tuesday '') culminating in a late afternoon screening of the third film. Attendees of "Trilogy Tuesday '' were given a limited edition keepsake from Sideshow Collectibles containing one random frame of film from each of the three movies. Both versions were put together in a Limited Edition "branching '' version, plus a new feature - length documentary by Costa Botes. The complete series was released in a six - disc set on 14 November 2006.
Warner Bros. released the trilogy 's theatrical versions on Blu - ray Disc in a boxed set on 6 April 2010. An extended edition Blu - ray box set was made available for pre-order from Amazon.com in March 2011 and was released on 28 June 2011. Each film 's extended Blu - ray version is identical to the extended DVD version; the total running time is longer due to added credit sequence listing the names of "Lord of the Rings fan - club members '' who contributed to the project.
In 2014, brand new Blu - ray steelbook editions of the five - disc Extended Editions were released. The first, The Fellowship of the Ring, was released on 24 March 2014. The discs are identical to those found in the previous five - disc Blu - ray set.
Unadjusted for inflation, The Lord of the Rings film series is the highest - grossing film trilogy worldwide of all time, higher even than other film franchises such as the original Star Wars trilogy and The Godfather trilogy. The film series grossed a total of $2.91 billion and also tied a record with Ben - Hur and Titanic for the total number of Academy Awards won for a single film, with The Return of the King receiving eleven Oscars.
The majority of critics have also praised the series, with Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times writing that "the trilogy will not soon, if ever, find its equal ''. Some were critical of the films ' pacing and length: "It 's a collection of spectacular set pieces without any sense of momentum driving them into one another '' according to Philadelphia Weekly.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the films received approval ratings of 91 %, 95 %, and 93 % respectively. Metacritic, based on its ratings for each film (92, 87, and 94 respectively), features the series within the top ten of the best films of the decade. As of July 2016, every film is placed in the top 200 of Metacritic 's ' Best Movies of all Time ' list. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave the films an average grade of A -, A, and A+ respectively on an A+ to F scale.
The series appears in the Dallas - Fort Worth Film Critics Association 's Top 10 Films, Time magazine 's All - Time 100 Movies, and James Berardinelli 's Top 100. In 2007, USA Today named the series as the most important films of the past 25 years. Entertainment Weekly put it on its end - of - the - decade, "best - of '' list, saying, "Bringing a cherished book to the big screen? No sweat. Peter Jackson 's trilogy -- or, as we like to call it, our preciousssss -- exerted its irresistible pull, on advanced Elvish speakers and neophytes alike. '' Paste Magazine named it one of the 50 Best Movies of the Decade (2000 -- 2009), ranking it at No. 4. In another Time magazine list, the series ranks second in "Best Movies of the Decade ''. Empire magazine voted the films at # 1 on the ' 32 Greatest Film Trilogies '. In addition, six characters and their respective actors made the list of ' The 100 Greatest Movie Characters ', also compiled by Empire, with Viggo Mortensen 's portrayal of Aragorn ranking No. 15, Ian McKellen 's portrayal of Gandalf ranking No. 30, Ian Holm 's portrayal of Bilbo Baggins (shared with Martin Freeman for his portrayal of the same character in The Hobbit films) ranking No. 61, Andy Serkis ' portrayal of Gollum ranking No. 66, Sean Astin 's portrayal of Samwise Gamgee ranking No. 77, and Orlando Bloom 's portrayal of Legolas ranking No. 94.
The three films together were nominated for a total of 30 Academy Awards, of which they won 17, a record for any movie trilogy (the three nominations for The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey and The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug along with the single nomination for The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies brings the series ' total to 37 nominations). The Fellowship of the Ring earned thirteen nominations, the most of any film at the 74th Academy Awards, winning four. The Return of the King won in every category in which it was nominated, setting the current Oscar record for the highest clean sweep, and its 11 Academy Awards wins ties the record held by Ben - Hur and Titanic (though both of those films had additional nominations that they ultimately lost). The Return of the King became only the second sequel to win the Oscar for Best Picture (after The Godfather Part II) and the first fantasy film to receive this honor, though this has been widely perceived as an award by proxy for the entire series (the first two films were also nominated for Best Picture). No actors in any of the three films won Oscars, and Ian McKellen was the only actor in the trilogy to receive a nomination, for his work in The Fellowship of the Ring.
As well as Academy Awards, each film in the series won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, the MTV Movie Award for Best Movie, and the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film. The first and third films also won the BAFTA Award for Best Film. The soundtrack for The Two Towers did not receive a nomination because of a rule prohibiting a soundtrack including music from a previous soundtrack to be eligible for nomination. This rule was changed in time for The Return of the King to receive the Oscar for Best Music Score. The New York Film Critics Circle awarded The Return of the King its Best Picture Award at the 2003 Awards Ceremony, hosted by Andrew Johnston, chair of the organization at that time, who called it "a masterful piece of filmmaking. ''
The film series provoked both positive and negative reaction from fans and scholars of the novels, and was sometimes seen as changing parts Tolkien felt thematically necessary in terms of characters, themes, events and subtlety. Some fans of the book who disagreed with such changes have released fan edits of the films such as The Lord of the Rings: The Purist Edition, which removed many of the changes to bring them closer to the original.
Various changes to characters such as Gandalf, Aragorn, Arwen, Denethor, Faramir, Gimli, and Frodo, when considered together, were seen by some to alter the tone and themes found in the books. Several critics contend that the portrayal of women, especially Arwen, in the films is thematically faithful to (or compatible with) Tolkien 's writings despite some differences. Wayne G. Hammond, a Tolkien scholar, said of the first two films that he found them to be "travesties as adaptations... faithful only on a basic level of plot '' and that many characters had not been depicted faithfully to their appearance in the novel. Other critics have argued that Tolkien 's characters were weakened and misinterpreted by their portrayal in the films.
Changes to events (such as the Elves participating at the Battle of Helm 's Deep, Faramir taking the hobbits to Osgiliath, and the deletion of the chapter "The Scouring of the Shire '') are also seen as changing Tolkien 's themes.
Janet Brennan Croft criticized the films using Tolkien 's own terms "anticipation '' and "flattening '', which she used in critiquing a proposed film script. She contrasts Tolkien 's subtlety with Jackson 's tendency to show "too much too soon ''.
Supporters of the series assert that it is a worthy interpretation of the book and that most of the changes were necessary. Many who worked on the series are fans of the book, including Christopher Lee, who (alone among the cast) had actually met Tolkien in person, and Boyens once noted that no matter what, it is simply their interpretation of the book. Jackson once said that to simply summarize the story on screen would be a mess, and in his own words, "Sure, it 's not really The Lord of the Rings... but it could still be a pretty damn cool movie. '' Other fans also claim that, despite any changes, the films serve as a tribute to the book, appealing to those who have not yet read it, and even leading some to do so. The Movie Guide for The Encyclopedia of Arda (an online Tolkien encyclopedia) states that Jackson 's films were exceptional since filming the whole story of The Lord of the Rings was probably impossible. This notion is partially supported by a review published in 2005 that otherwise criticized a lack of "faithfulness to Tolkien 's spirit and tone. '' Douglas Kellner argues that the conservative community spirit of Tolkien 's Shire is reflected in Jackson 's films as well as the division of the Fellowship into "squabbling races ''. In a 2006 review, film theorist Kristin Thompson was critical about the fact that film studies were undertaken by literary researchers and about the frequent denigration of Jackson 's work in the collected essays.
-- Christopher Tolkien, Le Monde, 9 July 2012
The release of the films saw a surge of interest in The Lord of the Rings and Tolkien 's other works, vastly increasing his impact on popular culture. It was rumored that the Tolkien family became split on the series, with Christopher Tolkien and his son Simon Tolkien feuding over whether or not it was a good idea to adapt. Christopher has since denied these claims, saying, "My own position is that The Lord of the Rings is peculiarly unsuitable to transformation into visual dramatic form. The suggestions that have been made that I ' disapprove ' of the films, even to the extent of thinking ill of those with whom I may differ, are wholly without foundation. '' He added that he had never "expressed any such feeling ''. In 2012, however, he described the films as having "eviscerated '' the book, and criticized the resulting "commercialisation '' of his father 's work.
As a result of the series ' success, Peter Jackson has become a major player in the film business (sometimes called a mogul) in the mold of Steven Spielberg and George Lucas, in the process befriending some industry heavyweights like Bryan Singer and Frank Darabont. Jackson has since founded his own film production company, Wingnut Films, as well as Wingnut Interactive, a video game company. He was also finally given a chance to remake King Kong in 2005. The film was a critical and box office success, although not as successful as The Lord of the Rings series. Jackson has been called a "favourite son '' of New Zealand. In 2004, Howard Shore toured with The Lord of the Rings Symphony, playing two hours of the score. Along with the Harry Potter films, the series has renewed interest in the fantasy film genre. Tourism for New Zealand is up, possibly due to its exposure in the series, with the country 's tourism industry waking up to an audience 's familiarity.
In December 2002, The Lord of the Rings Motion Picture Trilogy: The Exhibition opened at the Te Papa museum in Wellington, New Zealand. As of 2007, the exhibition has traveled to seven other cities around the world. A musical adaptation of the book was launched in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, in 2006, but it closed after mostly poor reviews. A shortened version opened in London, United Kingdom, in the summer of 2007. The success of the films has also spawned numerous video games and many other kinds of merchandise.
The legacy of The Lord of the Rings is also that of court cases over profits from the trilogy. Sixteen cast members (Noel Appleby (de), Jed Brophy, Mark Ferguson, Ray Henwood, Bruce Hopkins, William Johnson, Nathaniel Lees, Sarah McLeod, Ian Mune, Paul Norell, Craig Parker, Robert Pollock, Martyn Sanderson, Peter Tait and Stephan Ure (de)) sued over the lack of revenue from merchandise bearing their appearance. The case was resolved out of court in 2008. The settlement came too late for Appleby, who died of cancer in 2007. Saul Zaentz also filed a lawsuit in 2004 claiming he had not been paid all of his royalties. The next year, Jackson himself sued the studio over profits from the first film, slowing development of the prequels until late 2007. The Tolkien Trust filed a lawsuit in February 2008, for violating Tolkien 's original deal over the rights that they would earn 7.5 % of the gross from any films based on his works. The Trust sought compensation of $150 million. A judge denied them this option, but allowed them to win compensation from the act of the studio ignoring the contract itself. On 8 September 2009, a settlement of this dispute between the Trust and New Line was announced, clearing a potential obstacle to the making of a new film based on The Hobbit.
Numerous video games have been released to supplement the film series. The releases include: The Two Towers, Pinball, The Return of the King, The Third Age, The Third Age (GBA), Tactics, The Battle for Middle - earth, The Battle for Middle - earth II, The Battle for Middle - earth II: The Rise of the Witch - king, The Lord of the Rings Online, Conquest, Aragorn 's Quest, War in the North, Lego The Lord of the Rings, Guardians of Middle - earth, Lego The Hobbit (video game), Middle - earth: Shadow of Mordor, and Middle - earth: Shadow of War.
Peter Jackson also directed three films based on Tolkien 's earlier 1937 novel The Hobbit. Several actors from The Lord of the Rings, including Ian McKellen, Andy Serkis, Hugo Weaving, Elijah Wood, Ian Holm (as older Bilbo), Christopher Lee, Cate Blanchett and Orlando Bloom reprised their roles.
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when was the original lord of the rings written | The Lord of the Rings - wikipedia
The Lord of the Rings is an epic high fantasy novel written by English author and scholar J.R.R. Tolkien. The story began as a sequel to Tolkien 's 1937 fantasy novel The Hobbit, but eventually developed into a much larger work. Written in stages between 1937 and 1949, The Lord of the Rings is one of the best - selling novels ever written, with over 150 million copies sold.
The title of the novel refers to the story 's main antagonist, the Dark Lord Sauron, who had in an earlier age created the One Ring to rule the other Rings of Power as the ultimate weapon in his campaign to conquer and rule all of Middle - earth. From quiet beginnings in the Shire, a hobbit land not unlike the English countryside, the story ranges across Middle - earth, following the course of the War of the Ring through the eyes of its characters, not only the hobbits Frodo Baggins, Samwise "Sam '' Gamgee, Meriadoc "Merry '' Brandybuck and Peregrin "Pippin '' Took, but also the hobbits ' chief allies and travelling companions: the Men, Aragorn, a Ranger of the North, and Boromir, a Captain of Gondor; Gimli, a Dwarf warrior; Legolas Greenleaf, an Elven prince; and Gandalf, a wizard.
The work was initially intended by Tolkien to be one volume of a two - volume set, the other to be The Silmarillion, but this idea was dismissed by his publisher. For economic reasons, The Lord of the Rings was published in three volumes over the course of a year from 29 July 1954 to 20 October 1955. The three volumes were titled The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers and The Return of the King. Structurally, the novel is divided internally into six books, two per volume, with several appendices of background material included at the end. Some editions combine the entire work into a single volume. The Lord of the Rings has since been reprinted numerous times and translated into 38 languages.
Tolkien 's work has been the subject of extensive analysis of its themes and origins. Although a major work in itself, the story was only the last movement of a larger epic Tolkien had worked on since 1917, in a process he described as mythopoeia. Influences on this earlier work, and on the story of The Lord of the Rings, include philology, mythology, religion and the author 's distaste for the effects of industrialization, as well as earlier fantasy works and Tolkien 's experiences in World War I. The Lord of the Rings in its turn is considered to have had a great effect on modern fantasy; the impact of Tolkien 's works is such that the use of the words "Tolkienian '' and "Tolkienesque '' have been recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary.
The enduring popularity of The Lord of the Rings has led to numerous references in popular culture, the founding of many societies by fans of Tolkien 's works, and the publication of many books about Tolkien and his works. The Lord of the Rings has inspired, and continues to inspire, artwork, music, films and television, video games, board games, and subsequent literature. Award - winning adaptations of The Lord of the Rings have been made for radio, theatre, and film. In 2003, it was named Britain 's best - loved novel of all time in the BBC 's The Big Read.
Thousands of years before the events of the novel, the Dark Lord Sauron had forged the One Ring to rule the other Rings of Power and corrupt those who wore them: the leaders of Men, Elves and Dwarves. Sauron was defeated by an alliance of Elves and Men led by Gil - galad and Elendil, respectively. In the final battle, Isildur, son of Elendil, cut the One Ring from Sauron 's finger, causing Sauron to lose his physical form. Isildur claimed the Ring as an heirloom for his line, but when he was later ambushed and killed by the Orcs, the Ring was lost in the River Anduin.
Over two thousand years later, the Ring was found by one of the river - folk called Déagol. His friend Sméagol fell under the Ring 's influence and strangled Déagol to acquire it. Sméagol was banished and hid under the Misty Mountains. The Ring gave him long life and changed him over hundreds of years into a twisted, corrupted creature called Gollum. Gollum lost the Ring, his "precious '', and as told in The Hobbit, Bilbo Baggins found it. Meanwhile, Sauron assumed a new form and took back his old realm of Mordor. When Gollum set out in search of the Ring, he was captured and tortured by Sauron. Sauron learned from Gollum that "Baggins '' of the Shire had taken the Ring. Gollum was set loose. Sauron, who needed the Ring to regain his full power, sent forth his powerful servants, the Nazgûl, to seize it.
The story begins in the Shire, where the hobbit Frodo Baggins inherits the Ring from Bilbo Baggins, his cousin and guardian. Neither hobbit is aware of the Ring 's nature, but Gandalf the Grey, a wizard and an old friend of Bilbo, suspects it to be Sauron 's Ring. Seventeen years later, after Gandalf confirms his guess, he tells Frodo the history of the Ring and counsels him to take it away from the Shire. Frodo sets out, accompanied by his gardener, servant and friend, Samwise "Sam '' Gamgee, and two cousins, Meriadoc "Merry '' Brandybuck and Peregrin "Pippin '' Took. They are nearly caught by the Black Riders, but shake off their pursuers by cutting through the Old Forest. There they are aided by Tom Bombadil, a strange and merry fellow who lives with his wife Goldberry in the forest.
The hobbits reach the town of Bree, where they encounter a Ranger named Strider, whom Gandalf had mentioned in a letter. Strider persuades the hobbits to take him on as their guide and protector. Together, they leave Bree after another close escape from the Black Riders. On the hill of Weathertop, they are again attacked by the Black Riders, who wound Frodo with a cursed blade. Strider fights them off and leads the hobbits towards the Elven refuge of Rivendell. Frodo falls deathly ill from the wound. The Black Riders nearly capture him at the Ford of Bruinen, but flood waters summoned by Elrond, master of Rivendell, rise up and overwhelm them.
Frodo recovers in Rivendell under Elrond 's care. The Council of Elrond discusses the history of Sauron and the Ring. Strider is revealed to be Aragorn, Isildur 's heir. Gandalf reports that Saruman has betrayed them and is now working to become a power in his own right. The Council decides that the Ring must be destroyed, but that can only be done by sending it to the Fire of Mount Doom in Mordor, where it was forged. Frodo takes this task upon himself. Elrond, with the advice of Gandalf, chooses companions for him. The Company of the Ring are nine in number: Frodo, Sam, Merry, Pippin, Aragorn, Gandalf, Gimli the Dwarf, Legolas the Elf, and the Man Boromir, son of Denethor, the Ruling Steward of the land of Gondor.
After a failed attempt to cross the Misty Mountains through the Redhorn Pass, the Company are forced to take a perilous path through the Mines of Moria. They are attacked by the Watcher in the Water before the doors of Moria. Inside Moria, they learn of the fate of Balin and his colony of Dwarves. After surviving an attack, they are pursued by Orcs and by an ancient demon called a Balrog. Gandalf faces the Balrog, and both of them fall into the abyss. The others escape and find refuge in the Elven forest of Lothlórien, where they are counselled by its rulers, Galadriel and Celeborn.
With boats and gifts from Galadriel, the Company travel down the River Anduin to the hill of Amon Hen. There, Boromir tries to take the Ring from Frodo, but Frodo puts it on and disappears. Frodo chooses to go alone to Mordor, but Sam guesses what he intends and goes with him.
Orcs sent by Saruman and Sauron kill Boromir and capture Merry and Pippin. Aragorn, Gimli and Legolas debate which pair of hobbits to follow. They decide to pursue the Orcs taking Merry and Pippin to Saruman. In the kingdom of Rohan, the Orcs are slain by a company of Rohirrim. Merry and Pippin escape into Fangorn Forest, where they are befriended by Treebeard, the oldest of the tree - like Ents. Aragorn, Gimli and Legolas track the hobbits to Fangorn. There they unexpectedly meet Gandalf. Gandalf explains that he slew the Balrog; darkness took him, but he was sent back to Middle - earth to complete his mission. He is clothed in white and is now Gandalf the White, for he has taken Saruman 's place as the chief of the wizards. Gandalf assures his friends that Merry and Pippin are safe. Together they ride to Edoras, capital of Rohan. Gandalf frees Théoden, King of Rohan, from the influence of Saruman 's spy Gríma Wormtongue. Théoden musters his fighting strength and rides with his men to the ancient fortress of Helm 's Deep, while Gandalf departs to seek help from Treebeard.
Meanwhile, the Ents, roused by Merry and Pippin from their peaceful ways, attack Isengard, Saruman 's stronghold, and trap the wizard in the tower of Orthanc. Gandalf convinces Treebeard to send an army of Huorns to Théoden 's aid. Gandalf brings an army of Rohirrim to Helm 's Deep, and they defeat the Orcs, who flee into the "forest '' of Huorns, never to be seen again. Gandalf offers Saruman a chance to turn away from evil. When Saruman refuses to listen, Gandalf strips him of his rank and most of his powers. After Saruman crawls back to his prison, Wormtongue drops a sphere to try and kill Gandalf. Pippin picks it up; it is revealed to be a palantír, a seeing - stone that Saruman used to speak with Sauron and through which Saruman was ensnared. Pippin is seen by Sauron. Gandalf rides for Minas Tirith, chief city of Gondor, taking Pippin with him.
Frodo and Sam capture Gollum, who has followed them from Moria. They force him to guide them to Mordor. They find that the Black Gate of Mordor is too well guarded, so instead they travel to a secret way Gollum knows. On the way, they encounter Faramir, who, unlike his brother Boromir, resists the temptation to seize the Ring. Gollum -- who is torn between his loyalty to Frodo and his desire for the Ring -- betrays Frodo by leading him to the great spider Shelob in the tunnels of Cirith Ungol. Frodo falls to Shelob 's sting. But with the help of Galadriel 's gifts, Sam fights off the spider. Believing Frodo to be dead, Sam takes the Ring to continue the quest alone. Orcs find Frodo; Sam overhears them and learns that Frodo is still alive.
Sauron sends a great army against Gondor. Gandalf arrives at Minas Tirith to warn Denethor of the attack, while Théoden musters the Rohirrim to ride to Gondor 's aid. Minas Tirith is besieged. Denethor is deceived by Sauron and falls into despair. He burns himself alive on a pyre, nearly taking his son Faramir with him. Aragorn, accompanied by Legolas, Gimli and the Rangers of the North, takes the Paths of the Dead to recruit the Dead Men of Dunharrow, who are bound by a curse which denies them rest until they fulfil their ancient forsworn oath to fight for the King of Gondor. Following Aragorn, the Army of the Dead strikes terror into the Corsairs of Umbar invading southern Gondor. Aragorn defeats the Corsairs and uses their ships to transport the men of southern Gondor up the Anduin, reaching Minas Tirith just in time to turn the tide of battle. Éowyn, Théoden 's niece, slays the Lord of the Nazgûl with help from Merry. Together, Gondor and Rohan defeat Sauron 's army in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, though at great cost. Théoden is slain, and Éowyn and Merry are injured.
Meanwhile, Sam rescues Frodo from the tower of Cirith Ungol. They set out across Mordor. Aragorn leads an army of men from Gondor and Rohan to march on the Black Gate to distract Sauron from his true danger. His army is vastly outnumbered by the great might of Sauron. Frodo and Sam reach the edge of the Cracks of Doom, but Frodo can not resist the Ring any longer. He claims it for himself and puts it on his finger. Gollum suddenly reappears. He struggles with Frodo and bites off Frodo 's finger with the Ring still on it. Celebrating wildly, Gollum loses his footing and falls into the Fire, taking the Ring with him. When the Ring is destroyed, Sauron loses his power forever. All he created collapses, the Nazgûl perish, and his armies are thrown into such disarray that Aragorn 's forces emerge victorious.
Aragorn is crowned Elessar, King of Arnor and Gondor, and weds Arwen, daughter of Elrond. The four hobbits make their way back to the Shire, only to find out that it has been taken over by men led by Sharkey. The hobbits raise a rebellion and liberate the Shire, though 19 hobbits are killed and 30 wounded. Sharkey turns out to be Saruman. Frodo stops the hobbits from killing the wizard after Saruman attempts to stab Frodo, but Gríma turns on Saruman and kills him in front of Bag End, Frodo 's home. He is slain in turn by hobbit archers, and the War of the Ring comes to its true end on Frodo 's very doorstep.
Merry and Pippin are celebrated as heroes. Sam marries Rosie Cotton and uses his gifts from Galadriel to help heal the Shire. But Frodo is still wounded in body and spirit, having borne the Ring for so long. A few years later, in the company of Bilbo and Gandalf, Frodo sails from the Grey Havens west over the Sea to the Undying Lands to find peace.
In the appendices, Sam gives his daughter Elanor the Red Book of Westmarch, which contains the story of Bilbo 's adventures and the War of the Ring as witnessed by the hobbits. Sam is then said to have crossed west over the Sea himself, the last of the Ring - bearers.
Some characters in The Lord of the Rings are unequivocal protagonists, and others are absolute antagonists. However despite criticism that the book 's characters "are all either black or white '', some of the ' good ' characters have darker sides that feature in the story, and likewise some of the villains have "good impulses ''. Therefore the categorization of characters as either ' protagonists ' or ' antagonists ' below indicates their general role in the story.
The Lord of the Rings started as a sequel to J.R.R. Tolkien 's work The Hobbit, published in 1937. The popularity of The Hobbit had led George Allen & Unwin, the publishers, to request a sequel. Tolkien warned them that he wrote quite slowly, and responded with several stories he had already developed. Having rejected his contemporary drafts for The Silmarillion, putting on hold Roverandom, and accepting Farmer Giles of Ham, Allen & Unwin thought more stories about hobbits would be popular. So at the age of 45, Tolkien began writing the story that would become The Lord of the Rings. The story would not be finished until 12 years later, in 1949, and would not be fully published until 1955, when Tolkien was 63 years old.
Persuaded by his publishers, he started "a new Hobbit '' in December 1937. After several false starts, the story of the One Ring emerged. The idea for the first chapter ("A Long - Expected Party '') arrived fully formed, although the reasons behind Bilbo 's disappearance, the significance of the Ring, and the title The Lord of the Rings did not arrive until the spring of 1938. Originally, he planned to write a story in which Bilbo had used up all his treasure and was looking for another adventure to gain more; however, he remembered the Ring and its powers and thought that would be a better focus for the new work. As the story progressed, he also brought in elements from The Silmarillion mythology.
Writing was slow, because Tolkien had a full - time academic position, and needed to earn further money as a university examiner. Tolkien abandoned The Lord of the Rings during most of 1943 and only restarted it in April 1944, as a serial for his son Christopher Tolkien, who was sent chapters as they were written while he was serving in South Africa with the Royal Air Force. Tolkien made another concerted effort in 1946, and showed the manuscript to his publishers in 1947. The story was effectively finished the next year, but Tolkien did not complete the revision of earlier parts of the work until 1949. The original manuscripts, which total 9,250 pages, now reside in the J.R.R. Tolkien Collection at Marquette University.
The influence of the Welsh language, which Tolkien had learned, is summarized in his essay English and Welsh: "If I may once more refer to my work. The Lord of the Rings, in evidence: the names of persons and places in this story were mainly composed on patterns deliberately modelled on those of Welsh (closely similar but not identical). This element in the tale has given perhaps more pleasure to more readers than anything else in it. ''
The Lord of the Rings developed as a personal exploration by Tolkien of his interests in philology, religion (particularly Roman Catholicism), fairy tales, Norse and general Germanic mythology, and also Celtic, Slavic, Persian, Greek, and Finnish mythology. Tolkien acknowledged, and external critics have verified, the influences of George MacDonald and William Morris and the Anglo - Saxon poem Beowulf. The question of a direct influence of Wagner 's The Nibelung 's Ring on Tolkien 's work is debated by critics.
Tolkien included neither any explicit religion nor cult in his work. Rather the themes, moral philosophy, and cosmology of The Lord of the Rings reflect his Catholic worldview. In one of his letters Tolkien states, "The Lord of the Rings is of course a fundamentally religious and Catholic work; unconsciously so at first, but consciously in the revision. That is why I have not put in, or have cut out, practically all references to anything like ' religion ', to cults or practices, in the imaginary world. For the religious element is absorbed into the story and the symbolism. ''
Some locations and characters were inspired by Tolkien 's childhood in Birmingham, where he first lived near Sarehole Mill, and later near Edgbaston Reservoir. There are also hints of the Black Country, which is within easy reach of north west Edgbaston. This shows in such names as "Underhill '', and the description of Saruman 's industrialization of Isengard and The Shire. It has also been suggested that The Shire and its surroundings were based on the countryside around Stonyhurst College in Lancashire where Tolkien frequently stayed during the 1940s. The work was influenced by the effects of his military service during World War I, to the point that Frodo has been "diagnosed '' as suffering from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, or "shell - shock '', which was first diagnosed under that name at the Battle of the Somme, at which Tolkien served.
A dispute with his publisher, George Allen & Unwin, led to the book being offered to Collins in 1950. Tolkien intended The Silmarillion (itself largely unrevised at this point) to be published along with The Lord of the Rings, but A&U were unwilling to do this. After Milton Waldman, his contact at Collins, expressed the belief that The Lord of the Rings itself "urgently wanted cutting '', Tolkien eventually demanded that they publish the book in 1952. Collins did not; and so Tolkien wrote to Allen and Unwin, saying, "I would gladly consider the publication of any part of the stuff '', fearing his work would never see the light of day.
For publication, the book was divided into three volumes to minimize any potential financial loss due to the high cost of type - setting and modest anticipated sales: The Fellowship of the Ring (Books I and II), The Two Towers (Books III and IV), and The Return of the King (Books V and VI plus six appendices). Delays in producing appendices, maps and especially an index led to the volumes being published later than originally hoped -- on 29 July 1954, on 11 November 1954 and on 20 October 1955 respectively in the United Kingdom. In the United States, Houghton Mifflin published The Fellowship of the Ring on 21 October 1954, The Two Towers on 21 April 1955, and The Return of the King on 5 January 1956. The Return of the King was especially delayed due to Tolkien revising the ending and preparing appendices (some of which had to be left out because of space constraints). Tolkien did not like the title The Return of the King, believing it gave away too much of the storyline, but deferred to his publisher 's preference. He suggested the title The Two Towers in a deliberately ambiguous attempt to link the unconnected books III and IV, and as such the eponymous towers could be either Orthanc and Barad - dûr, or Minas Tirith and Barad - dûr, or Orthanc and Cirith Ungol.
Tolkien was initially opposed to titles being given to each two - book volume, preferring instead the use of book titles: e.g. The Lord of the Rings: Vol. 1, The Ring Sets Out and The Ring Goes South; Vol. 2, The Treason of Isengard and The Ring Goes East; Vol. 3, The War of the Ring and The End of the Third Age. However these individual book titles were later scrapped, and after pressure from his publishers, Tolkien initially suggested the titles: Vol. 1, The Shadow Grows; Vol. 2, The Ring in the Shadow; Vol. 3, The War of the Ring or The Return of the King.
The books were published under a profit - sharing arrangement, whereby Tolkien would not receive an advance or royalties until the books had broken even, after which he would take a large share of the profits. It has ultimately become one of the best - selling novels ever written, with over 150 million copies sold.
The book was published in the UK by Allen & Unwin until 1990 when the publisher and its assets were acquired by HarperCollins.
In the early 1960s Donald A. Wollheim, science fiction editor of the paperback publisher Ace Books, claimed that The Lord of the Rings was not protected in the United States under American copyright law because Houghton Mifflin, the US hardcover publisher, had neglected to copyright the work in the United States. Then, in 1965, Ace Books proceeded to publish an edition, unauthorized by Tolkien and without paying royalties to him. Tolkien took issue with this and quickly notified his fans of this objection. Grass - roots pressure from these fans became so great that Ace Books withdrew their edition and made a nominal payment to Tolkien. Authorized editions followed from Ballantine Books and Houghton Mifflin to tremendous commercial success. Tolkien undertook various textual revisions to produce a version of the book that would be published with his consent and establish an unquestioned US copyright. This text became the Second Edition of The Lord of the Rings, published in 1965. The first Ballantine paperback edition was printed in October that year, and sold a quarter of a million copies within ten months. On September 4, 1966, the novel debuted on New York Times ' Paperback Bestsellers list as number three, and was number one by December 4, a position it held for eight weeks. Houghton Mifflin editions after 1994 consolidate variant revisions by Tolkien, and corrections supervised by Christopher Tolkien, which resulted, after some initial glitches, in a computer - based unified text.
In 2004, for the 50th Anniversary Edition, Wayne G. Hammond and Christina Scull, under supervision from Christopher Tolkien, studied and revised the text to eliminate as many errors and inconsistencies as possible, some of which had been introduced by well - meaning compositors of the first printing in 1954, and never been corrected. The 2005 edition of the book contained further corrections noticed by the editors and submitted by readers. Further corrections were added to the 60th Anniversary Edition in 2014.
Several editions, notably the 50th Anniversary Edition, combine all three books into one volume, with the result that pagination varies widely over the various editions.
From 1988 to 1992 Christopher Tolkien published the surviving drafts of The Lord of The Rings, chronicling and illuminating with commentary the stages of the text 's development, in volumes 6 -- 9 of his History of Middle - earth series. The four volumes carry the titles The Return of the Shadow, The Treason of Isengard, The War of the Ring, and Sauron Defeated.
The novel has been translated, with various degrees of success, into at least 56 languages. Tolkien, an expert in philology, examined many of these translations, and made comments on each that reflect both the translation process and his work. As he was unhappy with some choices made by early translators, such as the Swedish translation by Åke Ohlmarks, Tolkien wrote a "Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings '' (1967). Because The Lord of the Rings purports to be a translation of the fictitious Red Book of Westmarch, with the English language representing the Westron of the "original '', Tolkien suggested that translators attempt to capture the interplay between English and the invented nomenclature of the English work, and gave several examples along with general guidance.
While early reviews for The Lord of the Rings were mixed, reviews in various media have been, on the whole, highly positive and acknowledge Tolkien 's literary achievement as a significant one. The initial review in the Sunday Telegraph described it as "among the greatest works of imaginative fiction of the twentieth century ''. The Sunday Times echoed this sentiment, stating that "the English - speaking world is divided into those who have read The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit and those who are going to read them ''. The New York Herald Tribune also seemed to have an idea of how popular the books would become, writing in its review that they were "destined to outlast our time ''. W.H. Auden, an admirer of Tolkien 's writings, regarded The Lord of the Rings as a "masterpiece '', further stating that in some cases it outdid the achievement of John Milton 's Paradise Lost.
New York Times reviewer Judith Shulevitz criticized the "pedantry '' of Tolkien 's literary style, saying that he "formulated a high - minded belief in the importance of his mission as a literary preservationist, which turns out to be death to literature itself ''. Critic Richard Jenkyns, writing in The New Republic, criticized the work for a lack of psychological depth. Both the characters and the work itself are, according to Jenkyns, "anemic, and lacking in fibre ''. Even within Tolkien 's literary group, The Inklings, reviews were mixed. Hugo Dyson complained loudly at its readings. However, another Inkling, C.S. Lewis, had very different feelings, writing, "here are beauties which pierce like swords or burn like cold iron. Here is a book which will break your heart. '' Despite these reviews and its lack of paperback printing until the 1960s, The Lord of the Rings initially sold well in hardback.
In 1957, The Lord of the Rings was awarded the International Fantasy Award. Despite its numerous detractors, the publication of the Ace Books and Ballantine paperbacks helped The Lord of the Rings become immensely popular in the United States in the 1960s. The book has remained so ever since, ranking as one of the most popular works of fiction of the twentieth century, judged by both sales and reader surveys. In the 2003 "Big Read '' survey conducted in Britain by the BBC, The Lord of the Rings was found to be the "Nation 's best - loved book ''. In similar 2004 polls both Germany and Australia also found The Lord of the Rings to be their favourite book. In a 1999 poll of Amazon.com customers, The Lord of the Rings was judged to be their favourite "book of the millennium ''. The Lord of the Rings was awarded the Prometheus Hall of Fame Award in 2009.
Although The Lord of the Rings was published in the 1950s, Tolkien insisted that the One Ring was not an allegory for the atomic bomb, nor were his works a strict allegory of any kind, but were open to interpretation as the reader saw fit.
A few critics have found what they consider to be racial elements in the story, generally based upon their views of how Tolkien 's imagery depicts good and evil, characters ' race (e.g. Elf, Dwarf, Hobbit, Southron, Númenórean, Orc); and that the character 's race is seen as determining their behaviour. Counter-arguments note that race - focused critiques often omit relevant textual evidence to the contrary, cite imagery from adaptations rather than the work itself; ignore the absence of evidence of racist attitudes or events in the author 's personal life, and claim that the perception of racism is itself a marginal view.
The opinions that pit races against one another are likely to reflect Tolkien 's critique on war rather than a racist perspective. In The Two Towers, the character Samwise sees a fallen foe and considers for a moment the humanity of this fallen Southron who, just moments before, is shown to be a man of color. Director Peter Jackson considers Sam this scene in the director 's commentary of the scene and argues that Tolkien is n't projecting any negative sentiments towards the individual soldier because of his race, but the evil that 's driving them from their authority. These sentiments, Jackson argues, were derived from Tolkien 's experience in the Great War and found their way into his writings to show the evils of war itself, not of other races.
Critics have also seen social class rather than race as being the determining factor in the portrayal of good and evil. Commentators such as science fiction author David Brin have interpreted the work to hold unquestioning devotion to a traditional elitist social structure. In his essay "Epic Pooh '', science fiction and fantasy author Michael Moorcock critiques the world - view displayed by the book as deeply conservative, in both the "paternalism '' of the narrative voice and the power - structures in the narrative. Tom Shippey cites the origin of this portrayal of evil as a reflection of the prejudices of European middle - classes during the inter-war years towards the industrial working class.
Other observers have cited Christian, specifically Catholic, themes in The Lord of the Rings.
The book has been read as fitting the model of Joseph Campbell 's "monomyth ''.
The Lord of the Rings has been adapted for film, radio and stage.
The book has been adapted for radio four times. In 1955 and 1956, the BBC broadcast The Lord of the Rings, a 13 - part radio adaptation of the story. In the 1960s radio station WBAI produced a short radio adaptation. A 1979 dramatization of The Lord of the Rings was broadcast in the United States and subsequently issued on tape and CD. In 1981, the BBC broadcast The Lord of the Rings, a new dramatization in 26 half - hour instalments. This dramatization of The Lord of the Rings has subsequently been made available on both tape and CD both by the BBC and other publishers. For this purpose it is generally edited into 13 one - hour episodes.
Following J.R.R. Tolkien 's sale of the film rights for The Lord of the Rings to United Artists in 1969, rock band The Beatles considered a corresponding film project and approached Stanley Kubrick as a potential director; however, Kubrick turned down the offer, explaining to John Lennon that he thought the novel could not be adapted into a film due to its immensity. The eventual director of the film adaptation Peter Jackson further explained that a major hindrance to the project 's progression was Tolkien 's opposition to the involvement of the Beatles.
Two film adaptations of the book have been made. The first was J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings (1978), by animator Ralph Bakshi, the first part of what was originally intended to be a two - part adaptation of the story; it covers The Fellowship of the Ring and part of The Two Towers. A three - issue comic book version of the movie was also published in Europe (but not printed in English), with illustrations by Luis Bermejo. When Bakshi 's investors shied away of financing the second film that would complete the story, the remainder of the story was covered in an animated television special by Rankin - Bass. Stylistically, the two segments are very different. The second and more commercially successful adaptation was Peter Jackson 's live action The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, produced by New Line Cinema and released in three instalments as The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001), The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (2002), and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003). All three parts won multiple Academy Awards, including consecutive Best Picture nominations. The final instalment of this trilogy was the second film to break the one - billion - dollar barrier and won a total of 11 Oscars (something only two other films in history, Ben - Hur and Titanic, have accomplished), including Best Picture, Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay.
The Hunt for Gollum, a fan film based on elements of the appendices to The Lord of the Rings, was released on the internet in May 2009 and has been covered in major media. Born of Hope, written by Paula DiSante, directed by Kate Madison, and released in December 2009, is a fan film based upon the appendices of The Lord of the Rings.
On 13 November 2017, it was announced that Amazon had acquired the global television rights to The Lord of the Rings, committing to a multi-season television series. The series will not be a direct adaptation of the books, but will instead introduce new stories that are set before The Fellowship of the Ring. Amazon said the deal included potential for spin - off series as well. The press release referred to "previously unexplored stories based on J.R.R. Tolkien 's original writings ''. Amazon will be the producer in conjunction with the Tolkien Estate and the Tolkien Trust, HarperCollins and New Line Television. According to a 2018 report, it will be the most expensive TV show ever produced.
In 1990, Recorded Books published an audio version of The Lord of the Rings, with British actor Rob Inglis -- who had previously starred in his own one - man stage productions of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings -- reading. A large - scale musical theatre adaptation, The Lord of the Rings was first staged in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in 2006 and opened in London in May 2007.
The enormous popularity of Tolkien 's work expanded the demand for fantasy fiction. Largely thanks to The Lord of the Rings, the genre flowered throughout the 1960s, and enjoys popularity to the present day. The opus has spawned many imitators, such as The Sword of Shannara, which Lin Carter called "the single most cold - blooded, complete rip - off of another book that I have ever read ''. Dungeons & Dragons, which popularized the role - playing game (RPG) genre in the 1970s, features many races found in The Lord of the Rings, most notably halflings (another term for hobbits), elves (who are distinct from dark elves, following Tolkien 's example), dwarves, half - elves, orcs, and dragons. However, Gary Gygax, lead designer of the game, maintained that he was influenced very little by The Lord of the Rings, stating that he included these elements as a marketing move to draw on the popularity the work enjoyed at the time he was developing the game.
Because D&D has gone on to influence many popular role - playing video games, the influence of The Lord of the Rings extends to many of them as well, with titles such as Dragon Quest, the Ultima series, EverQuest, the Warcraft series, and the Elder Scrolls series of games as well as video games set in Middle - earth itself.
Research also suggests that some consumers of fantasy games derive their motivation from trying to create an epic fantasy narrative which is influenced by The Lord of the Rings.
In 1965, songwriter Donald Swann, who was best known for his collaboration with Michael Flanders as Flanders & Swann, set six poems from The Lord of the Rings and one from The Adventures of Tom Bombadil ("Errantry '') to music. When Swann met with Tolkien to play the songs for his approval, Tolkien suggested for "Namárië '' (Galadriel 's lament) a setting reminiscent of plain chant, which Swann accepted. The songs were published in 1967 as The Road Goes Ever On: A Song Cycle, and a recording of the songs performed by singer William Elvin with Swann on piano was issued that same year by Caedmon Records as Poems and Songs of Middle Earth.
Rock bands of the 1970s were musically and lyrically inspired by the fantasy embracing counter-culture of the time; British 70s rock band Led Zeppelin recorded several songs that contain explicit references to The Lord of the Rings, such as mentioning Gollum in "Ramble On '', the Misty Mountains in "Misty Mountain Hop '', and Ringwraiths in "The Battle of Evermore ''. In 1970, the Swedish musician Bo Hansson released an instrumental concept album based on the book titled Sagan om ringen (translated as "The Saga of the Ring '', which was the title of the Swedish translation of The Lord of the Rings at the time). The album was subsequently released internationally as Music Inspired by Lord of the Rings in 1972. The songs "Rivendell '' and "The Necromancer '' by the progressive rock band Rush were inspired by Tolkien. Styx also paid homage to Tolkien on their album Pieces of Eight with the song "Lords of the Ring '', while Black Sabbath 's song, "The Wizard '', which appeared on their debut album, was influenced by Tolkien 's hero, Gandalf. Progressive rock group Camel paid homage to the text in their lengthy composition "Nimrodel / The Procession / The White Rider '', and progressive rock band Barclay James Harvest was inspired by the character Galadriel to write a song by that name, and used "Bombadil '', the name of another character, as a pseudonym under which their 1972 single "Breathless '' / "When the City Sleeps '' was released; there are other references scattered through the BJH oeuvre.
Later, from the 1980s to the present day, many heavy metal acts have been influenced by Tolkien. Blind Guardian has written many songs relating to Middle - earth, including the full concept album Nightfall in Middle Earth. Almost the entire discography of Battlelore are Tolkien - themed. Summoning 's music is based upon Tolkien and holds the distinction of the being the only artist to have crafted a song entirely in the Black Speech of Mordor. Gorgoroth, Cirith Ungol and Amon Amarth take their names from an area of Mordor, and Burzum take their name from the Black Speech of Mordor. The Finnish metal band Nightwish and the Norwegian metal band Tristania have also incorporated many Tolkien references into their music. American heavy metal band Megadeth released two songs titled "This Day We Fight! '' and "How the Story Ends '', which were both inspired by The Lord of the Rings. German folk metal band Eichenschild is named for Thorin Oakenshield, a character in The Hobbit, and naturally has a number of Tolkien - themed songs. They are not to be confused with the ' 70s folk rock band Thorin Eichenschild.
In 1988, Dutch composer and trombonist Johan de Meij completed his Symphony No. 1 "The Lord of the Rings '', which encompassed 5 movements, titled "Gandalf '', "Lothlórien '', "Gollum '', "Journey in the Dark '', and "Hobbits ''. In 1989 the symphony was awarded the Sudler Composition Award, awarded biennially for best wind band composition. The Danish Tolkien Ensemble have released a number of albums that feature the complete poems and songs of The Lord of the Rings set to music, with some featuring recitation by Christopher Lee.
Enya wrote an instrumental piece called "Lothlórien '' in 1991, and composed two songs for the film The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring -- "May It Be '' (sung in English and Quenya) and "Aníron '' (sung in Sindarin).
The Lord of the Rings has had a profound and wide - ranging impact on popular culture, beginning with its publication in the 1950s, but especially throughout the 1960s and 1970s, during which time young people embraced it as a countercultural saga. "Frodo Lives! '' and "Gandalf for President '' were two phrases popular amongst United States Tolkien fans during this time.
Parodies like the Harvard Lampoon 's Bored of the Rings, the VeggieTales episode "Lord of the Beans '', the South Park episode "The Return of the Fellowship of the Ring to the Two Towers '', the Futurama film Bender 's Game, The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius episode "Lights! Camera! Danger! '', The Big Bang Theory episode "The Precious Fragmentation '', and the American Dad! episode "The Return of the Bling '' are testimony to the work 's continual presence in popular culture.
In 1969, Tolkien sold the merchandising rights to The Lord of The Rings (and The Hobbit) to United Artists under an agreement stipulating a lump sum payment of £ 10,000 plus a 7.5 % royalty after costs, payable to Allen & Unwin and the author. In 1976, three years after the author 's death, United Artists sold the rights to Saul Zaentz Company, who now trade as Tolkien Enterprises. Since then all "authorized '' merchandise has been signed - off by Tolkien Enterprises, although the intellectual property rights of the specific likenesses of characters and other imagery from various adaptations is generally held by the adaptors. Outside any commercial exploitation from adaptations, from the late 1960s onwards there has been an increasing variety of original licensed merchandise, from posters and calendars created by illustrators such as Pauline Baynes and the Brothers Hildebrandt, to figurines and miniatures to computer, video, tabletop and role - playing games. Recent examples include the Spiel des Jahres award winning (for best use of literature in a game) board game The Lord of the Rings by Reiner Knizia and the Golden Joystick award - winning massively multiplayer online role - playing game, The Lord of the Rings Online: Shadows of Angmar by Turbine, Inc...
The Lord of the Rings has been mentioned in numerous songs including The Ballad of Bilbo Baggins by Leonard Nimoy, Led Zeppelin 's Misty Mountain Hop, Over the Hills and Far Away, Ramble On, and The Battle of Evermore, Genesis ' song "Stagnation '' (from Trespass, 1970) was about Gollum, Rush included the song "Rivendell '' on their second studio album Fly by Night, and Argent included the song "Lothlorien '' on the 1971 album Ring of Hands.
Steve Peregrin Took (born Stephen Ross Porter) of British rock band T. Rex took his name from the hobbit Peregrin Took (better known as Pippin). Took later recorded under the pseudonym ' Shagrat the Vagrant ', before forming a band called Shagrat in 1970.
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where did barking up the wrong tree originated from | Barking up the wrong tree - wikipedia
Barking up the wrong tree is an idiomatic expression in English, which is used to suggest a mistaken emphasis in a specific context. The phrase is an allusion to the mistake made by dogs when they believe they have chased a prey up a tree, but the game may have escaped by leaping from one tree to another. The phrase means to mistake one 's object, or to pursue the wrong course to obtain it.
In other words, "if you are barking up the wrong tree, it means that you have completely misunderstood something or are totally wrong. ''
Barking up the wrong tree became common use in nineteenth century America in reference to hunting raccoons with a hunting dog. When the nocturnal animal takes to a tree, the dog is supposed to remain at the base of the tree until its master arrives. However, in the dark, if the dog mistakes the tree where the raccoon has taken refuge, the hunter may lose it. The expression was commonly used by writers of western life and tales, appearing in works by James Hall, David Crockett, and Albert Pike.
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who played young chandler in the one with all the thanksgivings | The One with All the Thanksgivings - wikipedia
"The One with All the Thanksgivings '' (also known as "The One with the Thanksgiving Flashbacks '') is the eighth episode of the fifth season of Friends. It first aired on the NBC network in the United States on November 19, 1998. In the episode, the main characters spend Thanksgiving at Monica 's (Courteney Cox) apartment and begin telling stories about their worst Thanksgivings: Chandler (Matthew Perry) learning of his parents ' divorce, Phoebe (Lisa Kudrow) losing arms in past lives and Joey (Matt LeBlanc) having his head stuck in a turkey. Rachel (Jennifer Aniston) reveals Monica 's worst Thanksgiving -- accidentally cutting off Chandler 's toe after he called her "fat '' in their first encounter. When Monica begs Chandler to forgive her, he accidentally reveals that he loves her.
The episode was directed by Kevin S. Bright and written by Gregory S. Malins. It guest - stars Elliott Gould and Christina Pickles as Jack and Judy Geller, with a cameo appearance by Morgan Fairchild as Nora Tyler Bing. The idea was conceived by the writers, who suggested short stories about the "worst Thanksgivings ever ''. A flashback approach was incorporated as the producers realized the audience responded well to it, despite concern the episode might be confused for a clip show.
In its original broadcast the episode reached a 16.0 Nielsen rating and finished the week ranked second. The episode earned Debra McGuire a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Costume Design for a Series. Since airing, it frequently ranks high in polls about the series ' best episode.
Ross 's (David Schwimmer) complaint that his divorce and eviction means he is having the worst Thanksgiving ever prompts the others to tell their stories. Chandler (Matthew Perry) reminds everyone of when his parents told him they were divorcing. Phoebe (Lisa Kudrow) then tells of story from a past life when she was an American Civil War nurse and lost an arm, though Ross objects, with the demand of only tales of present lives. Rachel (Jennifer Aniston) says she knows Monica 's (Courteney Cox) story, but Phoebe interrupts with a story about the time Joey (Matt LeBlanc) had a turkey stuck on his head. Monica tells of Thanksgiving 1987. Monica and Rachel are eighteen years old and seniors in high school, and an overweight Monica spends time comforting Rachel, after Chip ended their relationship. When Ross learns of Rachel 's breakup, he asks Chandler to stay overnight in the hope of getting a date, but Chandler refuses, claiming that he does n't want to be stuck with "your fat sister '' Monica. Overhearing the conversation from behind the door, Monica breaks down in tears and storms out.
Back in the present, Chandler apologizes to Monica. Rachel reveals that 's not the story she was referring to. The flashbacks continue to 1988; Ross and Chandler arrive for dinner to find that Monica has slimmed down, and Chandler now finds her attractive. Monica tells Rachel that she wants to humiliate Chandler for calling her fat, so Rachel suggests tricking him into taking off his clothes. Monica tries to seduce Chandler by rubbing various objects, including a knife, against her skin. She drops the knife and severs his toe. He is rushed to hospital to have it reattached but, in the commotion, Monica mixes up the digit with a carrot. In the present, Chandler becomes upset after learning that he had lost his toe because he called Monica fat, and angrily leaves. When Monica comes by his apartment seeking his forgiveness by putting a turkey on her head, he inadvertently tells her he loves her for the first time in their relationship. A tag scene shows another of Phoebe 's past life memories as she serves in a World War I field hospital and again lost an arm.
"The One with All the Thanksgivings '' was written by Gregory S. Malins and directed by Kevin S. Bright. It is the fifth Thanksgiving special in the Friends series. The producers knew from past recordings that the audience responded well to seeing "the Friends as they were '' and decided to incorporate a flashback episode into a Thanksgiving special. Show creator David Crane considered the Thanksgiving - themed episode as the "hallmark show '' in each season. Marta Kauffman added dialogue centering on six characters being together in a room made the holiday special work. When discussing story ideas, the writers decided to create "a bunch of little pieces '', until someone suggested "what if it 's the worst Thanksgivings? '', later used as the hook. Working on a flashback meant the episode needed "to have meaning '' as the story continues in the present. It was difficult to keep the characters, particularly Chandler, spontaneously mad for something that happened "years ago ''. The comedic content was bigger than usual, because Phoebe 's arm was blown off and Joey 's head stuck in a turkey.
Many scenes were shot in advance. The producers disliked filming beforehand as they preferred "the audience to tell us what 's good and what 's bad. '' They also were concerned that a flashback episode would be mistaken for a clip show, but felt it would be believable because they were "flashing so far back into the past. '' According to Kauffman, certain scenes filmed in the apartment were shot in advance because "it was all over the place ''; the cast were tired and full and their energy levels were low. Special effects and costume changes meant "three or four scenes '' were also pre-shot to ensure the dialogue was happening in front of the audience. This was completed in two days.
Elliott Gould and Christina Pickles reprised their roles as Jack and Judy Geller. The set for the Geller house was used previously in "The One Where Joey Moves Out '', for Jack 's birthday party and in the season seven episode "The One Where Rosita Dies '', when Ross and Monica visit their parent 's garage. The flashback in Thanksgiving 1987 was Monica and Chandler 's first meeting along with Rachel and Chandler. Bright commented that the show tries not to contradict itself; "once we establish something, we try not to undo it. '' In "The Pilot '' it appears Rachel meets Chandler for the first time. She also meets him in a later flashback episode, "The One Where The Stripper Cries ''. To excuse the continuity error, Bright adds they do not remember each other meeting because they look different.
A special rubber and foam turkey was created for Joey and Monica to place on their heads for sanitary and insurance reasons. A weaving, invisible to the audience, was placed in the middle of the turkey to allow the character to see. Chandler 's "flock of seagulls '' hairstyle, mentioned in a previous episode, was based on the 1980s time period. For safety, the scene where Monica severed Chandler 's toe was pre-shot. Originally the sound of a knife slashing through Chandler 's shoe was placed, but according to Crane it "got a little too graphic ''. Dramatic music was dubbed over instead.
The inspiration for Phoebe 's character spurting blood was Dan Aykroyd 's Bass - O - Matic commercial on Saturday Night Live. In the sketch, Aykroyd plays a pitchman who sells a blender specifically designed to liquefy fish. He accidentally gets his hand stuck in the funnel, which causes it to be chopped off while blood sprays everywhere. The turkey stuck on Joey 's head is a reference to Act 4 in "Merry Christmas Mr. Bean '' from Mr. Bean. Ross and Chandler 's costumes in 1988 were inspired by Miami Vice, which was popular at the time. The music used in Chandler 's accident was "The Murder '' from Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho.
In its original airing, the show finished second in ratings for the week of November 16 -- 22, 1998, with a Nielsen rating of 16.0, equivalent to approximately 15.5 million households. It was the network 's second highest - rated show that week, after ER, which aired on the same night. The episode premiered in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on February 25, 1999 and reached 1.88 million viewers which made it the most watched show that week. It aired on Channel 4 on August 27, 1999 and was watched by 4.40 million viewers making Friends the channel 's third - highest rated program for the week ending August 29, 1999.
Entertainment Weekly rated the episode "B + '' and called the "pre-nose job '' Rachel and "Fat Monica '' great sight gags. It cited Joey 's line "It 's not so much an underpant as it is a feat of engineering '' (in reference to a thong) as the best of the episode. The authors of Friends Like Us: The Unofficial Guide to Friends wrote "This unusual episode is one of the series ' best ever, with the non-stop comedy roller - coaster suddenly throwing a brilliant surprise ending at you ''.
Debra McGuire was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Costume Design for a Series, while the mixers were nominated for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special. The popularity of this episode placed it on one of the first Region 1 "best of '' DVD releases. It was also released as part of Friends: The Complete Fifth Season in Regions 1, 2, and 4.
In 2004, "The One with All the Thanksgivings '' was ranked fifth in a list of the top 10 Friends episodes by the Daily Herald and in 2010, was identified as one of the five best Thanksgiving - themed episodes by Contra Costa Times.
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henderson island pitcairn island group british overseas territories | Henderson island (Pitcairn Islands) - wikipedia
Henderson Island (formerly also San Juan Bautista and Elizabeth Island) is an uninhabited island in the south Pacific Ocean. It is one of the world 's last two raised coral atolls whose ecosystems remain relatively unaffected by human contact. Ten of its 51 flowering plants, all four of its land birds and about a third of the identified insects and gastropods are endemic -- a remarkable diversity given the island 's size.
Measuring 9.6 kilometres (6.0 mi) by 5.1 kilometres (3.2 mi), it has an area of 37.3 square kilometres (14.4 sq mi) and is located 193 kilometres (120 mi) northeast of Pitcairn Island. It has poor soil and little fresh water, and is unsuitable for agriculture. There are three beaches on the northern end and the remaining coast comprises steep (mostly undercut) cliffs up to 15 metres (49 ft) in height.
In 1902 Henderson was annexed to the Pitcairn Islands colony, now a South Pacific British Overseas Territory. It was designated a World Heritage Site by the United Nations in 1988.
Archaeological evidence suggests that a small permanent Polynesian settlement existed on Henderson at some time between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. The reasons for the group 's disappearance remain unknown, but may relate to the similar disappearance of the Polynesians on Pitcairn Island, on whom the Hendersonians would have depended for many of the basics of life, especially stone for making tools. The Pitcairn Polynesians may in turn have disappeared because of the decline of nearby Mangareva; thus, Henderson was at the end of a chain of small, dependent colonies of Mangareva.
Portuguese sailor Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, leading a Spanish expedition, was the first European to discover the island on 29 January 1606 and named it San Juan Bautista; Captain Henderson of the British East India Company ship Hercules rediscovered the island on 17 January 1819 and named it Henderson Island; and on 2 March 1819 Captain Henry King in the Elizabeth landed on the island to find the king 's colours already flying. His crew scratched the name of their ship into a tree.
A sperm whale rammed and sank the Nantucket whaleship Essex on 20 November 1820 (a report of which inspired Herman Melville to write Moby - Dick), and the crew arrived at Henderson on 20 December in three small whaleboats. They found the island 's only known drinkable water - source -- a brackish spring on the north shore, exposed at half tide -- and ate fish, birds, eggs, crabs and peppergrass; but they had largely exhausted the ready food within a week and on 27 December the three boats set sail for South America, leaving behind Thomas Chappel, Seth Weeks, and William Wright who chose to stay, and who survived until their rescue on 9 April 1821. In his account of the ordeal, Chappel reported having seen human skeletons in a cave.
In August 1851 visitors from Pitcairn Island also found skeletons in a cave and wreckage on the adjacent beach. After a party of Pitcairn Islanders collecting miro wood rediscovered the skeletons in March 1958, a medical examination determined that the bones were of Caucasian origin, and they were then buried in a shallow grave inside the cave. An American survey team examined the bones in 1966 and buried them in five coffins in the left - hand corner of the cave, tightly jamming a large cross between the ceiling and the rock floor at the entrance. They concluded the remains were of five or six people, one of whom was between three and five years of age. It was presumed they were the survivors of a shipwreck who died of dehydration. A final examination in the context of a scientific expedition in 1991 concluded that the human remains on Henderson Island were prehistoric Polynesians.
Henderson, along with Oeno and Ducie, was formally annexed to the British Empire in 1902 by Captain G.F. Jones, who visited the islands in a cutter with a crew of Pitcairn Islanders; and in August 1937, HMS Leander on a journey from Europe to New Zealand carried out an aerial survey of Henderson, Oeno and Ducie, and on each island a British flag was planted and an inscription was nailed up proclaiming "This island belongs to H.B.M. King George VI. ''
In 1957 a 27 year - old American, Robert Tomarchin lived the life of a castaway on the island for approximately 2 months, accompanied by a pet chimpanzee, apparently as a publicity stunt, until people from Pitcairn rescued him in two longboats.
In the early 1980s, American businessman Arthur "Smiley '' Ratliff expressed interest in establishing a home for himself with an airstrip on the island. The Pitcairn Island Council approved his plans in April 1981 but the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office overrode the decision and vetoed the proposed development after environmentalist groups had lobbied to protect the natural ecology and environment of the island. Henderson Island was listed as a World Heritage site in 1988.
Since the introduction of aluminium - hulled long - boats in the 20th century, Pitcairners have made regular trips to Henderson to harvest the wood of miro and tou trees. Usually they venture to Henderson once per year, but they may make up to three trips if the weather is favourable. Pitcairners carve the wood into curios for tourists, from which they derive much of their income.
Henderson Island is a raised coral atoll that, with Pitcairn, Ducie and Oeno Islands, forms the Pitcairn Island Group. The nearest major landmass is more than 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) away. This coral limestone island sits atop a conical (presumed volcanic) mound, rising from a depth of roughly 3,500 metres (11,500 ft). Its surface is mostly reef - rubble and dissected limestone -- an extremely rugged mixture of steep, jagged pinnacles and shallow sink holes -- and, except for the north end, the island is encircled by steep limestone cliffs up to 15 metres (49 ft) high.
There are three main beaches, on the northwest, north, and northeast sides, and the north and northwest sides are fringed by reefs. The depression at the island 's centre is thought to be a raised lagoon. There is only one known potable (drinkable) water source, a brackish spring on the north shore exposed at half tide, rising from a crevice in flat rock, large surfaces of which compose the face of the beach. The surrounding ocean tidal range is about one metre at spring tide.
Apart from five species bordering the beaches, including coconut palms, the vegetation is undisturbed. Henderson Island is covered by 5 -- 10 m tall tangled scrub forest, more thinly covered in the central depression. It has 51 native species of flowering plants, ten of which are unique to the island (endemic). Dominant tree species include coconut palms, Pandanus tectorius, Thespesia populnea (miro), Tournefortia argentea, Cordia subcordata (tou), Guettarda speciosa, Pisonia grandis, Geniostoma hendersonense, Nesoluma st. - johnianum, Hernandia stokesii, Myrsine hosakae, and Celtis sp.
The island is presently home to four endemic land bird species -- the Henderson fruit dove, Henderson lorikeet, Henderson reed warbler and the flightless Henderson crake. Three species of the family Columbidae -- the Henderson ground dove, the Henderson imperial pigeon and the Henderson archaic pigeon -- were formerly endemic to the island, but became extinct when the Polynesians arrived around 1000 CE. Of the fifteen non-endemic seabird species found, nine or more are believed to breed on the island. Breeding colonies of the globally endangered Henderson petrel formerly existed on Ducie, but were wiped out by invasive rats by 1922. It is believed to now nest uniquely on Henderson island.
Bones associated with prehistoric Polynesian settlement sites dating to somewhere between 500 and 800 years ago include those of the Polynesian storm petrel, Marquesan imperial pigeon, and Polynesian or Pacific imperial pigeon which are no longer found on the island, and two others -- Christmas shearwater and red - footed booby -- that still visit but no longer nest. It is hypothesized that the Polynesian settlers may have driven these bird species, along with six terrestrial snail species, to local extinction, and this loss of a ready and regular food supply may have contributed to the Polynesians ' subsequent disappearance. The island has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area for its endemic landbirds and breeding seabirds.
The invertebrate species are largely unknown but a third of the island 's known non-marine gastropods and insects are endemic. There are no native mammals but the Pacific rat, introduced by Polynesians 800 years ago, abounds. A skink (Emoia cyanura), and the green sea turtle have been identified, and an unidentified gecko has been reported. There are also crabs.
Land bird populations appear to be relatively stable but there is high risk of introduction to the island of predators, disease vectors and diseases by unauthorised landings of yachts. Introduction of the Eurasian black rat or the domestic cat would be likely to cause almost immediate extinction of the ground - dwelling Henderson crake and possibly other species. The endemic birds may have no immunity to the fatal avian pox which is transmitted by biting flies such as hippoboscidae.
Between July and November 2011 a partnership of the Pitcairn Islands Government and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds implemented a poison baiting programme aimed at eradicating the Pacific rat. Mortality was massive but of the 50,000 to 100,000 population, 60 to 80 individuals survived and the population has now fully recovered.
Research published in April 2017 looked at debris on several beaches, and reported "the highest density of plastic rubbish anywhere in the world '' as a result of the South Pacific Gyre. The beaches contain an estimated 37.7 million items of debris together weighing 17.6 tonnes. In a study transect on North Beach, each day 17 to 268 new items washed up on a 10 - metre section. The study noted that purple hermit crabs (Coenobita spinosus) make their homes in plastic containers washed up on beaches.
Northwest Beach
View along the beach
Northwest Beach.
North beach
North beach
East beach
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when did the fidget spinner first come out | Fidget spinner - wikipedia
A fidget spinner is a toy that consists of a ball - bearing in the center of a multi-lobed flat structure made from metal or plastic designed to spin along its axis with little effort.
Fidget spinners became popular toys in April 2017, although similar devices had been invented as early as 1993. The popularity of the toy among children and teenagers has led some schools to ban use of the spinners in class for being a distraction, while other schools have allowed the toy to be used discreetly.
The toy has been advertised as helping people who have trouble with focusing or fidgeting by relieving nervous energy or psychological stress. There are claims that a fidget spinner can be used to help calm people down who suffer from anxiety and other neurological disorders like ADHD and autism. However, as of May 2017, there is no scientific evidence that they are effective as a treatment for autism or ADHD.
Fidget spinners are toys not unlike yo - yo or other skill toys, designed to spin with little effort. A basic fidget spinner consists of a two - or three - pronged design with a bearing in its center circular pad. A person holds the center pad while the toy spins. They are made from various materials including brass, stainless steel, titanium, copper, aluminium, and plastic. The bearings are generally ceramic, metal (stainless steel or chrome), and some are hybrids -- such as ceramic balls with stainless races and cages. Each fidget spinner also has two or more weights on the outside that make it spin faster and stay balanced. Bearings can vary to adjust for the design 's spin time, vibration, and noise, causing unique sensory feedback.
Being a kind of a flywheel of a gyroscope in principle, fidget spinners come with similar effects enabling a player to pull various tricks and stunts while forces of a gyroscope take hold. A fidget spinner can be balanced on top of fingers, thrown and caught, and so on.
As of 2017, the patent status of the various fidget spinners on the market was unclear.
Catherine Hettinger, a chemical engineer by training, was initially credited by some news stories to have been the inventor of the fidget spinner, including by media outlets such as The Guardian, The New York Times, and the New York Post. Hettinger filed a patent application for a "spinning toy '' in 1993 and a patent was issued, but Hettinger allowed the patent to lapse in 2005 after she could not find a commercial partner. A May 2017 Bloomberg News article showed that Hettinger was not the inventor of the fidget spinner, and Hettinger agreed.
In an interview appearing on May 4, 2017 on NPR, Scott McCoskery described how he invented a metal spinning device in 2014 to cope with his own fidgeting in IT meetings and conference calls. In response to requests from an online community, he began selling the device he called the Torqbar online.
With the rapid increase in the spinner 's popularity in 2017, many children and teenagers began using it in school, and some schools also reported that kids were trading and selling the spinner toys.
As a result of their frequent use by schoolchildren, many school districts banned the toy. Some teachers argued that the spinners distracted students from their schoolwork. According to a survey conducted by Alexi Roy and published in May 2017, 32 % of the largest 200 American public and private high schools had banned spinners on campus.
When fidget spinners rose in popularity in 2017, many publications in the popular press discussed the marketing claims made about them for people with ADHD, autism, or anxiety. However, there is no scientific evidence that fidget spinners are effective as a treatment for children with autism or ADHD.
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where did under the tuscan sun take place | Under the Tuscan Sun (film) - wikipedia
Under the Tuscan Sun is a 2003 American romantic comedy drama film written, produced, and directed by Audrey Wells and starring Diane Lane. Based on Frances Mayes ' 1996 memoir Under the Tuscan Sun, the film is about a recently divorced writer who buys a villa in Tuscany on a whim, hoping it will lead to a change in her life. The film was nominated for the Art Directors Guild Excellence in Production Design Award, and for her performance in the film, Diane Lane received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Performance by an Actress.
Frances Mayes (Diane Lane) is a San Francisco writer whose seemingly perfect life takes an unexpected turn when she learns that her husband has been cheating on her. The divorce -- and the loss of her house to her ex-husband and his much - younger, pregnant new partner -- leaves her depressed and unable to write. Her best friend Patti (Sandra Oh), a lesbian who is expecting a child, is beginning to think Frances might never recover. She urges Frances to take an Italian vacation to Tuscany using the ticket she purchased before she became pregnant. At first Frances refuses, but after another depressing day in her gloomy apartment, she decides that it 's a good idea to get away for a while.
In Tuscany, her tour group stops in the small town of Cortona. After wandering through the charming streets, she notices a posting for a villa for sale in Cortona. She rejoins her tour group on the bus, and just outside town, the bus stops to allow a flock of sheep to cross the road. While they wait, Frances realizes that they 've stopped directly in front of the very villa that she had seen for sale -- something she believes is a sign. She asks the driver to stop and she gets off the bus. Through a series of serendipitous events, she becomes the owner of a lovely yet dilapidated villa in beautiful Tuscany.
Frances begins her new life with the help of a variety of interesting characters and unusual but gentle souls. She hires a crew of Polish immigrants to renovate the house. Over time, Frances also befriends her Italian neighbors and develops relationships with her Polish workers, the realtor who sold her the villa, and Katherine (Lindsay Duncan), an eccentric aging British actress who evokes the mystery and beauty of an Italian film star. Later, she is visited by the now very pregnant Patti, whose partner Grace has left her.
Frances meets and has a brief romantic affair with Marcello (Raoul Bova), but their relationship does not last. She is about to give up on happiness when one of her Polish workers, a teenager named Pawel (Pawel Szajda), and a neighbor 's young daughter come to her for help. Her father does not approve of him, due to his being Polish and not having a family, yet they are very much in love and want to get married. Frances persuades the girl 's family to support their love, by proclaiming that she is Pawel 's family, and the young lovers are soon married at the villa. During the wedding celebration, Frances meets an American writer who is traveling in Tuscany, and their attraction for each other points to a romantic future.
Under the Tuscan Sun opened well in the United States, grossing $9,751,425 on 1,226 screens, opening at No. 2 in the U.S. box office in the weekend of September 28, 2003. This was more than half of its estimated $18 million budget. The film was a box office success, earning $43,610,723 domestically and a further $15,268,000 internationally, totaling $58,878,723 worldwide.
The film received positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 61 % out of 147 professional critics gave the film a positive review, with a rating average of 6.2 / 10 and the critical consensus stating: "Though formulaic and superficial, Under the Tuscan Sun is redeemed by Lane 's vibrant performance. ''
Diane Lane 's performance was highly praised and she was nominated for a Best Actress Golden Globe Award.
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when does amelia come back to grey's anatomy | Amelia Shepherd - Wikipedia
Amelia Shepherd, M.D. is a fictional character on the ABC American television medical drama Private Practice, and the spinoff series ' progenitor show, Grey 's Anatomy, portrayed by Caterina Scorsone. In her debut appearance in season three, Amelia visited her former sister - in - law, Addison Montgomery, and became a partner at the Oceanside Wellness Group. After Private Practice ended its run, Scorsone recurred on the tenth season of Grey 's Anatomy, before becoming a series regular in season eleven.
Amelia Shepherd is the youngest sister of Dr. Derek Shepherd, and like her brother, an excellent neurosurgeon. Her ambition to prove herself equal to her brother is only surpassed by her surgical skill. After graduating in the top of her class at Harvard and completing her surgical residency at Johns Hopkins, she comes to Los Angeles on a medical case and decides to stay after she is fired from her fellowship. She asks Naomi Bennett for a job when the two practices merge. She has known Dr. Addison Montgomery for many years and views her as a close friend and surrogate sister. As a young woman, she was addicted to prescription medication and crashed Derek 's car while high. When she came home, she overdosed and was dead for three minutes. Derek saved her life, but was and still is angry with her. Amelia ended up sleeping with Derek 's best friend Mark Sloan, following in the footsteps of her sister Nancy and her ex sister - in - law Addison Montgomery after making peace with Derek following his own shooting.
Amelia first appeared in season three, brought in because her boss was called for a consult on a comatose patient of Addison Montgomery 's. Amelia came up with a plan, which was not approved by her boss, to wake the patient from her coma. The family of the patient urged her to perform the surgery which lead her to be fired from the original job she had. She soon begins to hang around Oceanside Wellness, annoying Addison a bit with her free - living attitude but also giving advice on Addison 's relationship with Sam. Amelia was also the surgeon who operated on Dell Parker after the car crash. As season 4 begins, Amelia is reluctant to visit her brother, Derek, when he is shot, but Addison eventually encourages her to go to Seattle to see him. On the way, Amelia has an in - flight romance with a man with a brain tumor and brings him to Seattle Grace for surgery. She and Derek bicker constantly over the surgery, but eventually settle their differences. She also has a one - night stand with Mark Sloan. When she returns to Los Angeles, she learns that there is a merger going on between the two practices. Amelia asks Naomi Bennett if she could become Ocean Wellness ' new neurosurgeon, a move that annoys Addison.
When Charlotte is attacked and raped, Amelia is out with Cooper and Sam, but after receiving a visit from Violet, she comes to Charlotte 's aid and confides in Charlotte about her addiction to prescription drugs and alcohol while stitching up a laceration on her arm. Later, when a drunken Cooper makes a move on Amelia, she rebuffs his advances and tells him to go home to his fiancée. Cooper eventually tells Charlotte about his interaction with Amelia and though Charlotte confronts her, they remain good friends. Charlotte asks Amelia to be her maid of honor in the episode "Something Old, Something New ''. At the wedding reception Amelia asks for a glass of ginger ale instead of champagne but by accident gets champagne, which she spits out. By the end of the season, however, Amelia relapses into addiction and refuses to get the help suggested by Charlotte. Charlotte tries to intervene with meetings, but Amelia skips them. Later, Charlotte discovers that Amelia operated on a patient while she was under the influence and as a result, Charlotte revokes all of her medical privileges.
Amelia continues her downward spiral in the premiere, injuring herself at a bar falling down drunk. Sheldon picks her up and takes her to the hospital where she sutures herself up in private to avoid Charlotte. The two later find out Pete has had a heart attack and needs surgery. Furthermore, Amelia operates on Pete 's brain while under the influence. Later, Amelia passes a breathalizer test, but is seen drinking alone at home in Addison 's old condo. Amelia 's friend with Huntington 's disease returns from Italy and requests Amelia 's help with physician - assisted suicide. Pete and Sheldon disagree over Amelia 's decision to help her. Later, Amelia and Pete discuss Pete 's past when he reveals he once assisted a dying patient. Later Amelia begins a benzodiazepine injection on her friend, who has an adverse reaction and requests to be saved before she stops breathing; Amelia rushes her to the hospital, where Pete tends to her friend. Shortly after discovering her friend had completed her own suicide after being rescued, Amelia consumes what is believed to be three OxyContin pills she palmed after discovering the friend 's body.
Following her friend 's death, Amelia goes on a drug bender with a man she meets named Ryan. When she is caught by Addison doing drugs with Ryan, Addison kicks her out and they move into a hotel. Despite her friends ' pleas to get help, Amelia begins writing prescriptions for herself until she is caught by Charlotte, who revokes her ability to write prescriptions. While high, Ryan proposes to Amelia and she accepts, giving him her father 's watch. Soon after, Addison and the rest of the doctors stage an intervention for Amelia, but she resists until Addison discovers that she gave Ryan the watch. While telling the story, Amelia lashes out at her and leaves with Ryan. Later that night, Ryan dies from an accidental overdose. Eventually, Amelia is put into rehab, where she recovers from her addiction with the help of her co-workers at the practice, particularly Sheldon. In addition, Sheldon seems to display some romantic feelings towards Amelia, but she does not wish to pursue a romantic relationship.
Several weeks later after being confronted by Sheldon, Amelia admits that she is 20 weeks pregnant with her deceased fiancé 's baby. At the moment, she is struggling on whether or not she should keep the baby and therefore, is heavily depending on Sheldon for advice. In the end she decides to keep the baby, but then she finds out her baby boy will be born with no brain, resulting in her shutting down emotionally and pushing her friends away. She eventually decides to continue the pregnancy to term and donate her baby 's organs when he dies, after a father of a patient she pronounced brain dead decides to donate his daughter 's organs so that something good can come from her death. In the season finale, she ultimately gives birth to her anencephalic son with the help of Addison and Jake. During her labor, she wishes to be left alone, fearing that if anyone was with her, she would break down and show her emotions. At one point while going through a painful contraction, she asks Jake to leave her alone, and when he refuses, she breaks down crying, letting all of her fears out in the open. Additionally while she is in labor, Jake finally tells the practice of her plans for organ donation which divides the doctors. Some believe it was a courageous act, while others believe it was murder. Sam is against the organ donation and refuses to do the harvesting, but after a talk with Amelia, he ultimately changes his mind. When it comes time for her to push, Addison hears her cries from outside the room and walks in. Amelia initially refuses Addison, but later allows Addie to coach her. When her son is born, she initially does not want to see nor hold him and wishes that his head be covered. Before taking him away for the donation, she decides to hold her baby, where she lifts the cap from his head. When the baby goes into respiratory distress in her arms, she momentarily breaks down, wishing for more time, but, then hands the baby over to Addison for the donation. Her last words to her son are "Your daddy is waiting for you in heaven. His name is Ryan. ''
Later on in the series, she gets engaged to Dr. James Peterson, an ER doctor at St. Ambrose Hospital, but breaks it off by moving to Seattle.
Following the end of Private Practice, when ABC cancelled it after six seasons in January 2013, the character of Amelia was added to its progenitor show Grey 's Anatomy. In Season 10, she was seen in the season 's last four episodes visiting her brother Derek and his wife Meredith Grey in their Seattle home and helping care for their children. Previously, she had only made one - off guest appearances on the show when storylines crossed over between the two series.
On June 23, 2014, Scorsone and her character was permanently added to the regular cast for Season 11, which began airing in September 2014.
When Derek is offered a job by the President of the United States running a federal brain - mapping research project in Washington, D.C., Amelia, having begun assisting at Grey - Sloan Memorial Hospital with some of Derek 's patients, takes over his practice, as the head of neurosurgery, at the hospital. She thus gained monikers, such as "Shepherdess '' and "Lady Shepherd, '' so as to differentiate her from Derek. By season 11, she permanently moves in with her brother and her sister - in - law. Initially, she is known at Grey - Sloan largely as Derek 's younger sister and once told her brother that she felt like she was constantly in his shadow. She soon begins a relationship with Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd), her boss, and admits to Derek that she is falling in love with him. However, she later tells Owen that it was a mistake to mix their personal and professional lives. Following her brother 's death and Meredith 's "disappearance, '' she buries herself in work to distract herself. For some time she and Meredith were estranged over the circumstances of Derek 's death but after listening to the very last phone message Derek had recorded for Meredith, she is finally able to let go of the animosity and reaches out to Meredith. Meredith 's half sister Maggie moves in, with Amelia labeling the threesome "Lady Chief Trifecta. '' She gradually befriends Meredith 's colleagues and is accepted into their circle. At the end of season 12, she marries Owen Hunt. However, the marriage is very turbulent at times. They struggle to adjust to married life, especially when Owen tells her that he wants kids as she does not want kids, nor does she want to go through the trauma of another pregnancy after the loss of her first child (who Owen does n't know about). This strains the marriage to the point where she moves out and avoids him entirely. During the rest of the season, she grows closer to the two sisters and focuses more on her work, ignoring her stalling marriage. In season 14, when she went into an MRI as part of a study conducted by Carina Deluca on female brain activity, she found out that she has a brain tumor. She is able to overcome that obstacle, but is forced to step back and reconsider how the tumor had affected her life choices and personality. She and Owen end up having an understanding to break up their marriage but still remain close friends.
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where did the phrase breakfast of champions come from | Breakfast of Champions - wikipedia
Breakfast of Champions, or Goodbye Blue Monday, published in 1973, is the seventh novel by the American author Kurt Vonnegut. Set predominantly in the fictional town of Midland City, Indiana, it is the story of "two lonesome, skinny, fairly old white men on a planet which was dying fast. '' One of these men, Dwayne Hoover, is a charming but deeply deranged Pontiac dealer, and extensive land and franchise owner, whose mental illness causes him to believe that a science fiction story by the other man, Kilgore Trout, is the literal truth. Trout, a largely unknown pulp science fiction writer who has appeared in several other Vonnegut novels, looks like a crazy old man but is in fact relatively sane. As the novel opens, Trout hitchhikes toward Midland City to appear at an art convention where he is destined to meet Dwayne Hoover and unwittingly inspire him to run amok.
Kilgore Trout is a widely published, but otherwise unsung and virtually invisible writer who is invited to deliver a keynote address at a local arts festival in distant Midland City. Dwayne Hoover is a wealthy businessman who owns much of Midland City, but has become increasingly unstable mentally. The novel is achronological and frequently shifts focus between Hoover and Trout, as well as supporting characters like Hoover 's son, Bunny, and Wayne Hoobler, and Kurt Vonnegut himself, who appears as the author of the book. "The novel 's structure is a simple one, yet it employs simultaneously evolving plots from different times and spaces. '' Early on, Vonnegut as narrator / creator says he 's going to purge himself of mental clutter, and, throughout the novel, can be found examining and refuting disparate concepts, from the ' discovery ' of the new world in 1492 to euphemisms for genitalia.
When Kilgore finally arrives in Midland City he piques the interest of Dwayne. A confused Dwayne demands a message from Kilgore, who hands over a copy of his novel. Dwayne reads the novel, which purports to be a message from the Creator of the Universe explaining that the reader -- in this case Dwayne -- is the only individual in the universe with free will. Everyone else is a robot. Dwayne believes the novel to be factual and immediately goes on a violent rampage, severely beating his son, his lover, and nine other people before being taken into custody. While Kilgore is walking the streets of Midland after Dwayne 's rampage the narrator of the book approaches Kilgore. The narrator tells Kilgore of his existence, and lets Kilgore be free and under his own will. Kilgore begs to be made young again, and the novel ends with a full - page drawing of Vonnegut crying.
Suicide, free will, mental illness, and social and economic cruelty are dealt with throughout the novel. In the preface, Vonnegut states that he tends "to think of human beings as huge, rubbery test tubes, too, with chemical reactions seething inside. '' As with Slaughterhouse - Five (1969) and The Sirens of Titan (1959), the nature of free will is called into question, in this case by considering mankind as biological machines, and physical measurements of characters are often given when they are introduced. He attributes the mental illness of Dwayne Hoover and society at large to an abundance of "bad chemicals '' in the brain which, when combined with bad ideas, formed "the Yin and Yang of madness. '' This idea, that humans are no more than machines, is contained within the novel Kilgore Trout gives to Dwayne Hoover. Both Trout and Vonnegut realize the power of bad ideas, with Vonnegut remarking how "natural it was for (people) to behave so abominably, and with such abominable results: They were doing their best to live like people invented in story books. This was the reason Americans shot each other so often: it was a convenient literary device for ending short stories and books. '' The view of humans as biological machines, initially accepted by Vonnegut, is counteracted by Rabo Karabekian, the abstract artist who suggests "Our awareness is all that is alive and maybe sacred in any of us. Everything else about us is dead machinery. ''
The novel is critical of American society and its treatment of its citizens, many of which Vonnegut writes "were so ignored and cheated and insulted that they thought they might be in the wrong country. '' He focuses largely on race, the poor, and the destruction of the environment, criticizing the hypocrisy of a land that claims to be based on the principles of freedom having been founded by people who "used human beings for machinery, and, even after slavery was eliminated, because it was so embarrassing, they and their descendants continued to think of ordinary human beings as machines. '' The incidents in the life of Wayne Hoobler, a black resident of Midland City, are frequently contrasted with those of the similarly named Dwayne Hoover, emphasizing the aforementioned impact of race.
The novel is simple in syntax and sentence structure, part of Vonnegut 's signature style. Likewise, irony, sentimentality, black humor, and didacticism, are prevalent throughout the work. Like much of his oeuvre, Breakfast of Champions is broken into very small pieces, in this case separated by three dots. Vonnegut himself has claimed that his books "are essentially mosaics made up of a whole bunch of tiny little chips... and each chip is a joke. '' Characteristically, he makes heavy use of repetition, in this case starting many sections with "Listen '' and ending many with "And so on. ''
The novel is full of drawings by the author, intending to illustrate various aspects of life on Earth, are sometimes pertinent to the story line and sometimes tangential. They include renderings of an anus, flags, the date 1492, a beaver, a vulva, a flamingo, little girls ' underpants, a torch, headstones, the yin - yang symbol, guns, trucks, cows and the hamburgers that are made from them, chickens and the Kentucky Fried Chicken that is made from them, an electric chair, the letters ETC, Christmas cards, a right hand that has a severed ring finger, the chemical structure of a plastic molecule, an apple, pi, zero, infinity, and the sunglasses the author himself wears as he enters the storyline.
Breakfast of Champions makes heavy use of metafiction, with Vonnegut appearing as the narrator / creator of the work, explaining why and how he makes this world as it is, changing things when and as he sees fit, and even being surprised by events.
The novel also makes use of intertextuality with Vonnegut 's other works. In addition to Kilgore Trout, characters from other Vonnegut books which appear here include Eliot Rosewater and Rabo Karabekian. Rosewater was the main character in God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater (1965) and a minor character in Slaughterhouse - Five (1969), while Karabekian later became the main character in Bluebeard (1988). Hoover 's secretary, Francine Pefko, previously appeared in Cat 's Cradle (1963), where she performed secretarial duties at General Forge and Foundry, in Ilium, New York. (Pefko also appears in "Fubar, '' a story released posthumously in Look at the Birdie.) Vonnegut uses the name "Khashdrahr Miasma '' for a minor character, in reference to a character in Player Piano. The vicious guard dog, Kazak, was Winston Niles Rumfoord 's pet in The Sirens of Titan (1959) and Selena MacIntosh 's guide dog in Galápagos (1985). Many of Midland City 's inhabitants reappear in Deadeye Dick (1982), which locates the city in Ohio.
The title, taken from the well - known slogan for Wheaties breakfast cereal, crops up in a key scene late in the novel when a waitress, apparently ironically, says "Breakfast of Champions '' each time she serves a customer a martini. Vonnegut, in his typical ironic manner, mocks the legal and copyright systems as he notes meticulously that Breakfast of Champions is a registered trademark of General Mills, Inc. for its breakfast cereal products, and that his use of the term is not "intended to disparage their fine products. ''
Vonnegut refers to himself as "Philboyd Studge '' in the preface, a name which he claims his friend Knox Burger associated with cumbersome writing. The name appears to have been borrowed from a short story by Edwardian satirist Saki. ("Filboid Studge, the Story of the Mouse that Helped '', describes the success of the eponymous breakfast food through bizarrely counter-intuitive advertising.)
According to an article in the New York Times Magazine in January 1971, "Vonnegut says repeatedly he is through writing novels... After Slaughterhouse - Five, Vonnegut began work on a novel called Breakfast of Champions, about a world in which everyone but a single man, the narrator, is a robot. He gave it up, however, and it remains unfinished. I asked him why, and he said, ' Because it was a piece of -- --. '' This view persisted, with Harlan Ellison claiming that Vonnegut 's submission in the 1972 short - story anthology Again, Dangerous Visions, would be "the last new piece of fiction you will ever read by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. '' After the publication of Breakfast of Champions, Vonnegut stopped publishing short stories, and many believed he had given up writing altogether, with the New York Times book review stating
Vonnegut 's persona gives up fiction before our very eyes... When he self - destructs himself as a novelist by first warning us in the middle of his book that ' Once I understood what was making America such a dangerous, unhappy nation of people who had nothing to do with real life, I resolved to shun story - telling. '
In the preface, Vonnegut states that as he reached his fiftieth birthday he felt a need to "clear his head of all the junk in there '' -- which includes the various subjects of his drawings, and the characters from his past novels and stories. To this end, he sprinkles plot descriptions for Trout 's stories throughout the novel, illustrates the book with his own simple felt - tip pen drawings, and includes a number of characters from his other novels and short stories.
Vonnegut 's previous novel, Slaughterhouse - Five, was his first commercial success, and brought him from being an unknown science - fiction writer to one of the most famous authors in the country.
Breakfast of Champions spent a total of 56 weeks on the New York Times bestsellers list, 28 weeks for the hardcover edition and 28 for the paperback. The novel received a negative review from the New York Times, as opposed to positive reviews from TIME and Publishers Weekly. Vonnegut himself was unhappy with the novel, and gave it a C grade on a report card of his published work, lower than any other novel besides Slapstick (1976). However, it remains one of Vonnegut 's best - known and most - influential works.
In 1999, the novel was made into a film of the same name, starring Bruce Willis, Albert Finney, Nick Nolte and Omar Epps; see Breakfast of Champions (film). The movie was widely panned by critics and never went into wide release.
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when did the battle of cambrai start and end | Battle of Cambrai (1917) - wikipedia
British Empire
France
The Battle of Cambrai (Battle of Cambrai, 1917, First Battle of Cambrai and Schlacht von Cambrai) was a British attack followed by the biggest German counter-attack against the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) since 1914, in the First World War. Cambrai, in the département of Nord, was an important supply point for the German Siegfriedstellung (known to the British as the Hindenburg Line) and capture of the town and the nearby Bourlon Ridge would threaten the rear of the German line to the north. Major General Henry Tudor, Commander, Royal Artillery (CRA) of the 9th (Scottish) Division, advocated the use of new artillery - infantry techniques on his sector of the front. During preparations, J.F.C. Fuller, a staff officer with the Tank Corps, looked for places to use tanks for raids. General Julian Byng, commander of the British Third Army, decided to combine both plans. The French and British armies had used tanks in mass earlier in 1917, although to considerably less effect.
After a big British success on the first day, mechanical unreliability, German artillery and infantry defences exposed the frailties of the Mark IV tank. On the second day, only about half of the tanks were operational and British progress was limited. In the History of the Great War the British official historian, Wilfrid Miles and modern scholars do not place exclusive credit for the first day on tanks but discuss the concurrent evolution of artillery, infantry and tank methods. Numerous developments since 1915 matured at Cambrai, such as predicted artillery fire, sound ranging, infantry infiltration tactics, infantry - tank co-ordination and close air support. The techniques of industrial warfare continued to develop and played a vital part during the Hundred Days Offensive in 1918, along with replacement of the Mark IV tank with improved types. The rapid reinforcement and defence of Bourlon Ridge by the Germans, as well as the subsequent counter-stroke were also notable achievements, which gave the Germans hope that an offensive strategy could end the war before American mobilisation became overwhelming.
Proposals for an operation in the Cambrai area using a large number of tanks originated from Brigadier Hugh Elles of the Tank Corps, and the reliance on the secret transfer of artillery reinforcements to be "silently registered '' to gain surprise came from Henry Hugh Tudor, commander of the 9th (Scottish) infantry division artillery. In August 1917, Tudor conceived the idea of a surprise attack in the IV Corps sector, he suggested a primarily artillery - infantry attack, which would be supported by a small number of tanks, to secure a breakthrough of the German Hindenburg Line. The German defences were formidable; Cambrai having been a quiet stretch of front thus far enabled the Germans to fortify their lines in depth and the British were aware of this. Tudor 's plan sought to test new methods in combined arms, with emphasis on combined artillery and infantry techniques and see how effective they were against strong German fortifications. Tudor advocated using the new sound ranging and silent registration of guns to achieve instant suppression fire and surprise. He also wanted to use tanks to clear paths through the deep barbed wire obstacles in front of German positions, while supporting the tank force with the No. 106 Fuze, designed to explode high explosive (HE) ammunition without cratering the ground to supplement the armour.
Two weeks before the start of the battle the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) began to train its pilots in ground - attack tactics. Before the ground offensive, the RFC was assigned sets of targets to attack, including trenches, supply points and enemy airfields.
The battle began at dawn, approximately 06: 30 on 20 November, with a predicted bombardment by 1,003 guns on German defences, followed by smoke and a creeping barrage at 300 yd (270 m) ahead to cover the first advances. Despite efforts to preserve secrecy, the Germans had received sufficient intelligence to be on moderate alert: an attack on Havrincourt was anticipated, as was the use of tanks. The attacking force was six infantry divisions of the III Corps (Lieutenant - General Pulteney) on the right and IV Corps (Lieutenant - General Charles Woollcombe) on the left, supported by nine battalions of the Tank Corps with about 437 tanks. In reserve was one infantry division in IV Corps and the three divisions of the Cavalry Corps (Lieutenant - General Charles Kavanagh). Initially, there was considerable success in most areas and it seemed as if a great victory was within reach; the Hindenburg Line had been penetrated with advances of up to 5.0 mi (8 km). On the right, the 12th (Eastern) Division advanced as far as Lateau Wood before being ordered to dig in. The 20th (Light) Division forced a way through La Vacquerie and then advanced to capture a bridge across the Canal de Saint - Quentin at Masnières. The bridge collapsed under the weight of a tank halting the hopes for an advance across the canal. In the centre the 6th Division captured Ribécourt and Marcoing but when the cavalry passed through late, they were repulsed from Noyelles.
On the IV Corps front, the 51st (Highland) Division was held at Flesquières, its first objective. This left the attacking divisions on each flank exposed to enfilade fire. The commander of the 51st Division, George Montague Harper had substituted his own tank drill for the standard one laid down by the Tank Corps. Flesquières was one of the strongest points in the German line and was flanked by other strong points. Its defenders under Major Krebs acquitted themselves well against the tanks, almost 40 being knocked out by the Flesquières artillery. There is little evidence for Krüger 's actions, although it is possible that he may have been responsible for as many as nine tanks. Twenty - eight tanks were lost in the action, through German artillery - fire and breakdowns. Haig concluded that skirmishing infantry was needed, to bring the artillery crews under small - arms fire to allow the tanks to operate. The common explanation of the "mythical '' German officer ignored the fact that the British tanks were faced with the German 54th Division, which had specialised training in anti-tank tactics and experience against French tanks in the Nivelle Offensive. The Germans abandoned Flesquières during the night.
To the west of Flesquières, the 62nd (2nd West Riding) Division swept all the way through Havrincourt and Graincourt to within reach of the woods on Bourlon Ridge and on the British left, the 36th Division reached the Bapaume -- Cambrai road. Of the tanks, 180 were out of action after the first day, although only 65 had been destroyed. Of the other casualties, 71 had suffered mechanical failure and 43 had ditched. The British lost c. 4,000 casualties and took 4,200 prisoners, a casualty rate half that of the Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele) and a greater advance in six hours than in three months at Flanders but the British had failed to reach Bourlon Ridge. The German command was quick to send reinforcements and was relieved that the British did not manage fully to exploit their early gains. When the battle was renewed on 21 November, the pace of British advance was greatly slowed. Flesquières, that had been abandoned and Cantaing were captured in the very early morning but in general the British took to consolidating their gains rather than expanding. The efforts of III Corps were officially halted and attention was turned to IV Corps.
The effort was aimed at Bourlon Ridge. Fighting was fierce around Bourlon and at Anneux (just before the woods) was costly. German counter-attacks squeezed the British out of Moeuvres on 21 November and Fontaine on 22 November; when Anneux was taken, the 62nd Division found themselves unable to enter Bourlon Wood. The British were left exposed in a salient. Haig still wanted Bourlon Ridge and the exhausted 62nd Division was replaced by the 40th Division (John Ponsonby) on 23 November. Supported by almost 100 tanks and 430 guns, the 40th Division attacked into the woods of Bourlon Ridge on the morning of 23 November and made little progress. The Germans had put two divisions of Gruppe Arras on the ridge with another two in reserve and Gruppe Caudry was reinforced. The 40th Division attack reached the crest of the ridge but were held there and suffered more than 4,000 casualties in three days. More British troops were pushed in to move beyond the woods but the British reserves were rapidly depleted and more German reinforcements were arriving. The final British effort was on 27 November by the 62nd Division aided by 30 tanks. Early success was soon reversed by a German counter-attack. The British now held a salient roughly 6.8 mi × 5.9 mi (11 km × 9.5 km) with its front along the crest of the ridge. On 28 November, the offensive was stopped and the British troops were ordered to lay wire and dig in. The Germans were quick to concentrate their artillery on the new British positions. On 28 November, more than 16,000 shells were fired into the wood.
As the British took the ridge, the Germans began reinforcing the area. As early as 23 November, the German command felt that a British breakthrough would not occur and began to consider a counter-offensive. Twenty divisions were arrayed in the Cambrai area. The Germans intended to retake the Bourlon salient and also to attack around Havrincourt while diversionary attacks would hold IV Corps; it was hoped to at least reach the old positions on the Hindenburg Line. The Germans intended to employ the new tactics of a short, intense period of shelling followed by a rapid assault using Hutier infiltration tactics, leading elements attacking in groups rather than waves and bypassing strong opposition. For the initial assault at Bourlon three divisions of Gruppe Arras under Otto von Moser were assigned. On the eastern flank of the British salient, Gruppe Caudry attacked from Bantouzelle to Rumilly and aimed for Marcoing. Gruppe Busigny advanced from Banteux. The two corps groups had seven infantry divisions.
British VII Corps (Lieutenant - General Thomas D'Oyly Snow), to the south of the threatened area, warned III Corps of German preparations. The German attack began at 7: 00 a.m. on 30 November; almost immediately, the majority of III Corps divisions were heavily engaged. The German infantry advance in the south was unexpectedly swift. The commanders of the 29th Division and 12th Division were almost captured, with Brigadier - General Berkeley Vincent having to fight his way out of his headquarters and grab men from retreating units to try to halt the Germans. In the south, the German advance spread across 13,000 m (13 km) and came within a few miles of the vital village of Metz and its link to Bourlon.
At Bourlon the Germans suffered heavy casualties. Despite this, the Germans closed and there was fierce fighting. British units displayed reckless determination; one group of eight British machine guns fired over 70,000 rounds in their efforts to stem the German advance. The concentration of British effort to hold the ridge was impressive but allowed the German advance elsewhere greater opportunity. Only counter-attacks by the Guards Division, the arrival of British tanks and the fall of night allowed the line to be held. By the following day, the impetus of the German advance was lost but pressure on 3 December led to the German capture of La Vacquerie and a British withdrawal on the east bank of the St Quentin canal. The Germans had reached a line looping from Quentin Ridge to near Marcoing. The German capture of Bonavis ridge made the British hold on Bourlon precarious. On 3 December, Haig ordered a partial retreat from the north salient and by 7 December, the British gains were abandoned except for a portion of the Hindenburg line around Havrincourt, Ribécourt and Flesquières. The Germans had exchanged this territorial loss for a slightly smaller sector to the south of Welsh Ridge.
The first day success was greeted in Britain by the ringing of church bells. The massed use of tanks, despite being a further increase on previous deployments, was not entirely new but the success of the attack and the resulting Allied press enthusiasm, including in the United States, were unprecedented. The particular effectiveness of the tanks at Cambrai was the initial passage through barbed wire defences, which had been previously "supposed by the Germans to be impregnable ''.
The initial British success showed that even the strongest trench defences could be overcome by a surprise attack, using a combination of new methods and equipment, reflecting a general increase in the British capacity to combine infantry, artillery, tanks and aircraft in attacks. The German revival after the shock of the British attack improved German morale but the potential for similar attacks meant that the Germans had to divert resources to anti-tank defences and weapons, an extra demand that the Germans could ill afford to meet.
Wherever the ground offers suitable going for tanks, surprise attacks like this may be expected. That being the case, there can be no more mention, therefore, of quiet fronts.
The German counter-attack showed the effectiveness of artillery, trench mortars and evolving stormtrooper tactics, adopted from a pattern introduced by General Hutier against the Russians. From the German perspective, questions arose regarding battlefield supply beyond railheads and the suitability of the MG 08 machine gun for rapid movement. By the end of the battle, the British retained some of the ground captured in the north and the Germans a smaller amount taken in the south. The British conducted several investigations, including a Court of Enquiry.
Sheldon wrote that both sides had c. 40,000 casualties and questioned the British Official History figure of c. 53,000 German casualties, calling them "inflated for no good reason ''. Miles recorded British casualties from 20 November -- 8 December as 47,596, of whom 9,000 were taken prisoner and an official German total of c. 41,000 casualties, which Miles increased to 53,300 on the assumption that German figures omitted lightly wounded, which were counted in British casualty records. Harris wrote that 11,105 German and 9,000 British prisoners were taken.
The battle of Cambrai is commemorated annually by the Royal Tank Regiment on Cambrai day, a major event in the regiment 's calendar. The contributions of the Newfoundland Regiment at the 1917 Battle of Cambrai are remembered in the village of Masnières at the Masnières Newfoundland Memorial. The name Cambrai was chosen in 1917 as the new name for the South Australian town of Rhine Villa, one of many Australian towns renamed during World War I to remove any connection with German place names.
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which of the following is known as the science of the substances in food that are essential to life | Food science - wikipedia
Food science is the applied science devoted to the study of food. The Institute of Food Technologists defines food science as "the discipline in which the engineering, biological, and physical sciences are used to study the nature of foods, the causes of deterioration, the principles underlying food processing, and the improvement of foods for the consuming public ''. The textbook Food Science defines food science in simpler terms as "the application of basic sciences and engineering to study the physical, chemical, and biochemical nature of foods and the principles of food processing ''.
Activities of food scientists include the development of new food products, design of processes to produce these foods, choice of packaging materials, shelf - life studies, sensory evaluation of products using panels or potential consumers, as well as microbiological and chemical testing. Food scientists may study more fundamental phenomena that are directly linked to the production of food products and its properties.
Food science brings together multiple scientific disciplines. It incorporates concepts from fields such as microbiology, chemical engineering, and biochemistry.
Some of the subdisciplines of food science are described below.
Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods. The biological substances include such items as meat, poultry, lettuce, beer, and milk as examples. It is similar to biochemistry in its main components such as carbohydrates, lipids, and protein, but it also includes areas such as water, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, food additives, flavors, and colors. This discipline also encompasses how products change under certain food processing techniques and ways either to enhance or to prevent them from happening.
Food physical chemistry is the study of both physical and chemical interactions in foods in terms of physical and chemical principles applied to food systems, as well as the application of physicochemical techniques and instrumentation for the study and analysis of foods.
Food engineering is the industrial processes used to manufacture food.
Food microbiology is the study of the microorganisms that inhabit, create, or contaminate food, including the study of microorganisms causing food spoilage. "Good '' bacteria, however, such as probiotics, are becoming increasingly important in food science. In addition, microorganisms are essential for the production of foods such as cheese, yogurt, bread, beer, wine and, other fermented foods.
Food preservation involves the causes and prevention of quality spoilage
Food substitution refers to the replacement of fat, sugar, or calories from a product while maintaining similar shape, texture, color, or taste.
Food technology is the technological aspects. Early scientific research into food technology concentrated on food preservation. Nicolas Appert 's development in 1810 of the canning process was a decisive event. The process was n't called canning then and Appert did not really know the principle on which his process worked, but canning has had a major impact on food preservation techniques.
Molecular gastronomy is the scientific investigation of processes in cooking, social and artistic gastronomical phenomena. Molecular gastronomy is a subdiscipline of food science that seeks to investigate the physical and chemical transformations of ingredients that occur in cooking. Its program includes three axis, as cooking was recognized to have three components, which are social, artistic and technical.
New product development includes the invention of new food products.
Quality control involves the causes, prevention and communication dealing with food - borne illness.
Sensory analysis is the study of how consumers ' senses perceive food.
The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) is the federal government agency for scientific research in Australia. CSIRO maintains more than 50 sites across Australia and biological control research stations in France and Mexico. It has nearly 6,500 employees.
The Korean Society of Food Science and Technology, or KoSFoST, claims to be the first society in South Korea for food science.
In the United States, food science is typically studied at land - grant universities. Many of the country 's pioneering food scientists were women who had attended chemistry programs at land - grant universities (which were state - run and largely under state mandates to allow for sex - blind admission), but then graduated and had difficulty finding jobs due to widespread sexism in the chemistry industry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Finding conventional career paths blocked, they found alternative employment as instructors in home economics departments and used that as a base to launch the foundation of many modern food science programs.
The main US organization regarding food science and food technology is the Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, which is the US member organisation of the International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST).
Popular books on some aspects of food science or kitchen science have been written by Harold McGee and Howard Hillman, among others.
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who has a baby in pitch perfect 3 | Pitch Perfect 3 - wikipedia
Pitch Perfect 3 is a 2017 American musical comedy film directed by Trish Sie and written by Kay Cannon and Mike White. A sequel to Pitch Perfect 2 (2015), and the third and final installment in the Pitch Perfect series, the film stars Anna Kendrick, Anna Camp, Rebel Wilson, Brittany Snow, Hailee Steinfeld, Hana Mae Lee, Ester Dean, Chrissie Fit, Alexis Knapp, John Lithgow, Matt Lanter, Ruby Rose, Kelley Jakle, Shelley Regner, Elizabeth Banks, and John Michael Higgins. The film follows the Bellas, now graduated from college, reuniting for one final performance together during an overseas USO tour.
Principal photography on the film began in January 2017 in Atlanta, Georgia and ended in April 2017. The film was released in the United States on December 22, 2017, received mixed reviews from critics, and has grossed $183 million worldwide. It became the second highest - grossing musical comedy film of all time, behind only its predecessor.
Three years after the events of the second movie, the Bellas have graduated college, but have jobs which they all hate. Desperate to see each other again to sing once more, Beca (Anna Kendrick), Fat Amy (Rebel Wilson), Chloe (Brittany Snow), Aubrey (Anna Camp), Lilly (Hana Mae Lee), Stacie (Alexis Knapp), Cynthia - Rose (Ester Dean), Florencia (Chrissie Fit), Jessica (Kelley Jakle), and Ashley (Shelley Regner) are all thrilled to learn that Emily (Hailee Steinfeld), now a senior at Barden and leader of the Barden Bellas, has seemingly asked for the Bellas to reunite at an event in New York Aquarium to sing with each other once more. Upon arriving at the reunion they are told that the reunion was not for the Bellas to sing together, but to watch Emily sing with the new Bellas.
They later gather at a bar in disappointment and Emily apologizes as she thought it would be the only way for them to see each other again. They all express how much they miss each other. Suddenly, Aubrey convinces them to join a USO performance accessed by her Army officer father. If they win the competition, they get to open for DJ Khaled. The Bellas gladly accept, all except for Stacie who is eight months pregnant at the moment and is unable to go with them. The Bellas later arrive at a hangar where two soldiers, Chicago (Matt Lanter) and Zeke (Troy Ian Hall) introduce them to their competition, revealed to be three other groups who use instruments, unlike the Bellas. When the band Evermoist, led by their leader Calamity (Ruby Rose) begin to mock and belittle the Bellas, the competitors are challenged to a riff - off by the Bellas, who leave defeated when the other groups compete using their musical instruments.
The Bellas are taken to a fancy hotel in Spain, where Chloe begins to catch an eye for Chicago. Fat Amy finds an old stuffed bunny sitting in her bed, which she recognizes as an old toy she used to hold when she was very little as her father Fergus (John Lithgow) sang her to sleep every night. Amy then realizes that her father is staying in the same hotel she is in and is shocked upon the discovery, seeing as how Fergus is an international criminal. Later that night, the Bellas are invited to a party at DJ Khaled 's suite at the hotel, where Fat Amy splits with the group when she is called to be at a poker tournament. The tournament was set up by Fergus, who promptly begs for Amy to be back in his life. A hesitant Amy finally agrees to do so after seeing how much he has changed. Beca, after having her breasts grabbed by Chloe, who develops a friendship with DJ Khaled 's music producer Theo (Guy Burnet), is taken to DJ Khaled 's music editing room. Beca produces a mix which impresses Theo who is prompted to send the mix to DJ Khaled. Moments later, the party is thrown into chaos when Aubrey accidentally sets the suite on fire.
The Bellas are left in disgrace after the incident with no hopes of winning the competition until Stacie calls the girls to inform she has given birth to a baby girl and named her Bella. This motivates the Bellas to just perform their hearts out without trying to win. Back at the USO competition, the Bellas perform tremendously to adoring crowds through different performances, repairing their reputation and chances to win in the process. Fergus is accepted by Amy, who believes he came to one of their performances to see her. He accidentally reveals that he has not seen her perform at all, while confessing that he is only trying to acquire an offshore account Amy 's mother set up which contains US $ 180 million. After Amy shuts out Fergus again, Chicago and Zeke escort her away from her father, who swears revenge on her. Meanwhile, only Beca is asked personally by DJ Khaled to open for him, disregarding the other Bellas. Beca politely declines the offer and leaves to her room. Later, the Bellas are taken away by a Frenchman in a dark grey van out onto a yacht in a nearby harbor. The yacht belongs to Fergus, who is using the Bellas as a means to get Amy to come for him. Amy and Beca hear of the kidnapping and decide to rescue the Bellas. Beca distracts Fergus by having the Bellas perform "Toxic '' for him and two of his men, just as Amy sets the yacht to explode. The Bellas escape the yacht just before it blows. Fergus survives the explosion and is arrested for his crimes.
After the Bellas are rescued by the military, Fat Amy reveals DJ Khaled 's proposition to Beca to the others. They encourage her to take the chance, and they all agree that now it 's time to move on with their lives, with Amy using her bank account for multiple tributes to singers named Amy, Aubrey trying to be a birthing coach, Flo 's juice cart becoming part of an international brand, Chloe getting accepted into vet school, Cynthia - Rose staying at the base to get into flight school, Emily going back to Barden to prepare for her upcoming abnormal psychology test while continuing her songwriting, and Lilly revealing that the reason she was quiet was because she was possessed by Satan and the yacht incident snapped her out of it, and that her real name is Ester. They know very well they 'll be separated, but still be connected to each other as a family. Later at the USO 's final performance, Beca opens for DJ Khaled and sings on stage, and afterwards brings up the Bellas onstage for the girls to sing their final performance with the other competitors gladly watching the Bellas sing "Freedom! ' 90 '' to their hearts content.
Gail (Elizabeth Banks) and John (John Michael Higgins) (who were the Bellas ' public announcers in the previous installments) finish filming the Bellas as part of a documentary they have been making about the girls throughout the whole film, only to be appalled when John realizes they did n't record the Bellas ' final performance, which was supposed to be the documentary 's big ending. A series of mid credit scenes reveal the Bellas ' separate story arcs closed out to their mostly happy endings, with Lilly hanging around with DJ Dragon Nutz, whom she flirted with earlier, Aubrey recconects with her father and Chloe and Chicago share a passionate kiss, much to the amusment of Beca, who is now the boss of Theo.
On April 11, 2015, a month before the release of the second film, it was announced that Rebel Wilson would return for a third film, although she stated that she did not know if Anna Kendrick or other cast members would also reprise their roles. She added that she would be "up for a Fat Amy spin - off. '' Director, star, and producer of the second film Elizabeth Banks acknowledged the possibility of a third film during promotion of Pitch Perfect 2, saying, "I will say, it would be disingenuous to say that no one 's talking about a Pitch Perfect 3; the possibility of it. ''
On June 10, 2015, a third film was officially confirmed, and Kay Cannon was set to return to write the script. On June 15, 2015, it was announced that Kendrick and Wilson would both reprise their roles, and on July 28, 2015, Brittany Snow signed on to return. Paul Brooks again produced for Gold Circle Films, along with Max Handelman and Banks for Brownstone Productions. On October 27, 2015, Banks was officially announced to return as director for the film, though she exited in that capacity on June 3, 2016. On September 1, 2016, Trish Sie was confirmed to direct the film. On December 13, 2016, it was reported that Ruby Rose was in talks to join the film, while Anna Camp also signed on to return for the sequel. Cannon wrote the script with later drafts by Mike White and Dana Fox; White would eventually receive screenwriting credits alongside Cannon. On January 5, 2017, a table read occurred, with Ester Dean, Hana Mae Lee, Chrissie Fit, Kelley Jakle, and Shelley Regner also being confirmed to reprise their roles, and singer Andy Allo joining as Charity, a rival in a group opposing the Bellas. While it was revealed by vocal director Deke Sharon that Alexis Knapp is returning, she was n't spotted during the first month of filming, leading fans to show concerns that she might not be returning at all. However, on February 6, she posted a photo on Instagram, confirming her return, and was on set the following day.
Principal photography on the film began on January 5, 2017, and took place in Atlanta, Georgia, and Cádiz, Spain and wrapped on April 3, 2017.
Pitch Perfect 3 was initially scheduled for July 21, and August 4, 2017. It had its world premiere in Sydney, Australia, on November 29, 2017, and was released in the United States on December 22, 2017.
As of March 3, 2018, Pitch Perfect 3 has grossed $104.9 million in the United States and Canada and $79 million in other territories, for a total of $183.9 million, against a production budget of $45 million.
In the United States and Canada, Pitch Perfect 3 was released alongside the openings of Downsizing and Father Figures, and the wide expansions of The Shape of Water and Darkest Hour, and was projected to gross $27 -- 35 million from 3,447 theaters in its opening weekend. The film took in $2.1 million from Thursday night previews, about half of the $4.6 million earned by its predecessor. Over the three - day weekend, which included Christmas Eve, it grossed $19.9 million (down nearly 70 % from the second film 's $69.2 million debut), finishing third at the box office, behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi and Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle. It grossed an additional $6.5 million on Christmas Day, for a four - day total of $26.4 million. It dropped 15 % the following weekend, grossing $16.8 million, and a total of $21.7 million over the four - day New Year 's frame.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 31 % based on 118 reviews and an average rating of 4.7 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Pitch Perfect 3 strains to recapture the magic that helped the original spawn a franchise, but ends up sending this increasingly unnecessary trilogy out on a low note. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 40 out of 100 based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by its predecessor.
Owen Gleiberman of Variety praised the cast and said, "The new film does n't add anything revolutionary to the Pitch Perfect formula. It still sounds like we 're in middle - period Glee written by someone who finds Ryan Murphy too solemn. But as directed by Trish Sie, the movie is bubbly, it 's fast, it 's hella synthetic - clever, and it 's an avid showcase for the personalities of its stars. ''
In a review for The Hollywood Reporter, Frank Scheck wrote "... what started out as a charmingly offbeat comic premise has inevitably degenerated into the sort of crass commercialism that probably would make the Bellas themselves turn up their noses. ''
The official soundtrack was released on December 15, 2017.
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who started the social reform movement in telangana for the welfare of dalit | Bhagya Reddy Varma - Wikipedia
Bhagya Reddy Varma (22 May 1888 -- 18 Feb 1939) was an Indian political leader, social reformer, activist, and businessman. He fought against untouchability in the Hyderabad State.
Reddy was born in the princely Hyderabad State to Madare Venkaiah and Julia
In 1917 in a conference at Vijayawada ' Pratam Andhra - Adi Hindu ' meeting was held. In the same year Bhagya Reddy Vermas 's speech was very much attracted Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 's attention at ' Akhila Bharata Hindu ' round table conference in Calcutta. In 1919 a meeting held with Jangamulu, Dasulu, Mulnavasi, for the Adi Hindu beneficial program. The purpose of this event is to resolve the internal issues in Dalit community; he insisted the panchayat court system to be rebuilt. In 1925 Adi Hindu Hand skills exhibition was held to showcase the dalits skills to the world. Bhagya Reddy also campaigned on many social issues like Child Marriage, Black Magic, Women Education, Alcohol prohibition etc. His work was spread to neighboring states Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Andhra, from their as well people joined voices and followed the revolution. In 1930 in an historical speech he announced to take the dalit issues to the British notice in the upcoming All India Round Table Conference at Lucknow in the same year. He supposes to send BR Ambedkar to lead the group. The agenda was to recognize the dalits as Adi Hindu rather panchmilarnulu (untouchables), mala, madiga.
In 1931 the Nizam government has come forward to agree the demands of Reddy, and registered the dalits as Adi Hindus in the general elections. Nizam Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII praised Reddy for his social work, and recognised it with an award. Later, the Nizam appointed him as chief adviser to his government. Adi Hindu Bhavan, at Chadarghat, Hyderabad, has been the platform for the many revolutionary meetings.
Bhagya Memorial Girls High School at Esamia Bazar, Koti, Hyderabad, Telangana, which he started in 1913 is still functioning.
Reddy had launched a movement against devadasi pratha, forcing the Nizam to declare it a crime.
During the andhra Movement in 2017the students of Telangana region renamed the G.M.C. Balayogi Athletic Stadium as Bhagya Reddy Varma Stadium.
Arya Samaj in 1913 organised a function to honour him with the title Varma.
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why do all minerals have such high melting points | Magma - wikipedia
Magma (from Ancient Greek μάγμα (mágma) meaning "thick unguent '') is a mixture of molten or semi-molten rock, volatiles and solids that is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and is expected to exist on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals, dissolved gas and sometimes gas bubbles. Magma often collects in magma chambers that may feed a volcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion. Magma is capable of intruding into adjacent rocks (forming igneous dikes and sills), extrusion onto the surface as lava, and explosive ejection as tephra, or fragmented rock, to form pyroclastic rock.
Magma is a complex high - temperature fluid substance. Temperatures of most magmas are in the range 700 ° C to 1300 ° C (or 1300 ° F to 2400 ° F), but very rare carbonatite magmas may be as cool as 600 ° C, and komatiite magmas may have been as hot as 1600 ° C. Most magmas are silicate mixtures.
Environments of magma formation and compositions are commonly correlated. Environments include subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Despite being found in such widespread locales, the bulk of the Earth 's crust and mantle is not molten. Except for the liquid outer core, most of the Earth takes the form of a rheid, a form of solid that can move or deform under pressure. Magma, as liquid, typically forms in high - temperature, low - pressure environments within several kilometers of the Earth 's surface.
After formation, magma compositions may be changed by fractional crystallization, contamination, or magma mixing. Rock formed of solidified magma is called igneous rock.
While the study of magma has historically relied on observing magma in the form of lava outflows, magma has been encountered in situ three times during geothermal drilling projects -- twice in Iceland (see Magma usage for energy production below), and once in Hawaii.
Melting of solid rocks to form magma is controlled by three physical parameters: temperature, pressure, and composition. Mechanisms are discussed in the entry for igneous rock.
When rocks melt, they do so slowly and gradually because most rocks are made of several minerals, which all have different melting points; moreover, the physical and chemical relationships controlling the melting are complex. As a rock melts, for example, its volume changes. When enough rock is melted, the small globules of melt (generally occurring between mineral grains) link up and soften the rock. Under pressure within the earth, as little as a fraction of a percent of partial melting may be sufficient to cause melt to be squeezed from its source. Melts can stay in place long enough to melt to 20 % or even 35 %, but rocks are rarely melted in excess of 50 %, because eventually the melted rock mass becomes a crystal - and - melt mush that can then ascend en masse as a diapir, which may then cause further decompression melting.
The degree of partial melting is critical for determining what type of magma is produced. The degree of partial melting required to form a melt can be estimated by considering the relative enrichment of incompatible elements versus compatible elements. Incompatible elements commonly include potassium, barium, cesium, and rubidium.
Rock types produced by small degrees of partial melting in the Earth 's mantle are typically alkaline (Ca, Na), potassic (K) and / or peralkaline (high aluminium to silica ratio). Typically, primitive melts of this composition form lamprophyre, lamproite, kimberlite and sometimes nepheline - bearing mafic rocks such as alkali basalts and essexite gabbros or even carbonatite.
Pegmatite may be produced by low degrees of partial melting of the crust. Some granite - composition magmas are eutectic (or cotectic) melts, and they may be produced by low to high degrees of partial melting of the crust, as well as by fractional crystallization. At high degrees of partial melting of the crust, granitoids such as tonalite, granodiorite and monzonite can be produced, but other mechanisms are typically important in producing them.
The Iceland Deep Drilling Project, while drilling several 5,000 m holes in an attempt to harness the heat in the volcanic bedrock below the surface of Iceland, struck a pocket of magma at 2,100 m in 2009. Being only the third time in recorded history that magma had been reached, IDDP decided to invest in the hole, naming it IDDP - 1.
A cemented steel case was constructed in the hole with a perforation at the bottom close to the magma. The high temperatures and pressure of the magma steam were used to generate 36MW of power, making IDDP - 1 the world 's first magma - enhanced geothermal system.
When a rock melts, the liquid is a primary melt. Primary melts have not undergone any differentiation and represent the starting composition of a magma. In nature it is rare to find primary melts. The leucosomes of migmatites are examples of primary melts. Primary melts derived from the mantle are especially important, and are known as primitive melts or primitive magmas. By finding the primitive magma composition of a magma series it is possible to model the composition of the mantle from which a melt was formed, which is important in understanding evolution of the mantle.
When it is impossible to find the primitive or primary magma composition, it is often useful to attempt to identify a parental melt. A parental melt is a magma composition from which the observed range of magma chemistries has been derived by the processes of igneous differentiation. It need not be a primitive melt.
For instance, a series of basalt flows are assumed to be related to one another. A composition from which they could reasonably be produced by fractional crystallization is termed a parental melt. Fractional crystallization models would be produced to test the hypothesis that they share a common parental melt.
At high degrees of partial melting of the mantle, komatiite and picrite are produced.
Magma develops within the mantle or crust when the temperature - pressure conditions favor the molten state. Magma rises toward the Earth 's surface when it is less dense than the surrounding rock and when a structural zone allows movement. Magma develops or collects in areas called magma chambers. Magma can remain in a chamber until it cools and crystallizes forming igneous rock, it erupts as a volcano, or moves into another magma chamber.
There are two known processes by which magma changes: by volcanic eruption (to become lava), or by crystallization within the crust or mantle to form a pluton. In both cases most of the magma eventually cools and forms igneous rocks.
When magma cools it begins to form solid mineral phases. Some of these settle at the bottom of the magma chamber forming cumulates that might form mafic layered intrusions. Magma that cools slowly within a magma chamber usually ends up forming bodies of plutonic rocks such as gabbro, diorite and granite, depending upon the composition of the magma. Alternatively, if the magma is erupted it forms volcanic rocks such as basalt, andesite and rhyolite (the extrusive equivalents of gabbro, diorite and granite, respectively).
During a volcanic eruption the magma that leaves the underground is called lava. Lava cools and solidifies relatively quickly compared to underground bodies of magma. This fast cooling does not allow crystals to grow large, and a part of the melt does not crystallize at all, becoming glass. Rocks largely composed of volcanic glass include obsidian, scoria and pumice.
Before and during volcanic eruptions, volatiles such as CO and H O partially leave the melt through a process known as exsolution. Magma with low water content becomes increasingly viscous. If massive exsolution occurs when magma heads upwards during a volcanic eruption, the resulting eruption is usually explosive.
Silicate melts are composed mainly of silicon, oxygen, aluminium, alkalis (sodium, potassium, calcium), magnesium and iron. Silicon atoms are in tetrahedral coordination with oxygen, as in almost all silicate minerals, but in melts atomic order is preserved only over short distances. The physical behaviours of melts depend upon their atomic structures as well as upon temperature and pressure and composition.
Viscosity is a key melt property in understanding the behaviour of magmas. More silica - rich melts are typically more polymerized, with more linkage of silica tetrahedra, and so are more viscous. Dissolution of water drastically reduces melt viscosity. Higher - temperature melts are less viscous.
Generally speaking, more mafic magmas, such as those that form basalt, are hotter and less viscous than more silica - rich magmas, such as those that form rhyolite. Low viscosity leads to gentler, less explosive eruptions.
Characteristics of several different magma types are as follows:
At any given pressure and for any given composition of rock, a rise in temperature past the solidus will cause melting. Within the solid earth, the temperature of a rock is controlled by the geothermal gradient and the radioactive decay within the rock. The geothermal gradient averages about 25 ° C / km with a wide range from a low of 5 -- 10 ° C / km within oceanic trenches and subduction zones to 30 -- 80 ° C / km under mid-ocean ridges and volcanic arc environments.
As magma buoyantly rises it will change from a solid to a liquid, and its temperature will drop by adiabatic cooling. At this point, it may erupt to form lava. Melting can also occur due to a reduction in pressure by a process known as decompression melting.
It is usually very difficult to change the bulk composition of a large mass of rock, so composition is the basic control on whether a rock will melt at any given temperature and pressure. The composition of a rock may also be considered to include volatile phases such as water and carbon dioxide.
The presence of volatile phases in a rock under pressure can stabilize a melt fraction. The presence of even 0.8 % water may reduce the temperature of melting by as much as 100 ° C. Conversely, the loss of water and volatiles from a magma may cause it to essentially freeze or solidify.
Also a major portion of almost all magma is silica, which is a compound of silicon and oxygen. Magma also contains gases, which expand as the magma rises. Magma that is high in silica resists flowing, so expanding gases are trapped in it. Pressure builds up until the gases blast out in a violent, dangerous explosion. Magma that is relatively poor in silica flows easily, so gas bubbles move up through it and escape fairly gently.
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when was my driver's license first issued | Driver 's license - wikipedia
A driver 's license is an official document permitting a specific individual to operate one or more types of motorized vehicles, such as a motorcycle, car, truck, or bus on a public road.
The term driver 's license is American English; the Canadian English equivalent is driver 's licence, and in British English it is driving licence. In this article, the American terminology and spelling is used except where the section refers specifically to British practice. The laws relating to the licensing of drivers vary between jurisdictions. In some jurisdictions, a license is issued after the recipient has passed a driving test, while in others, a person acquires a license before beginning to drive. Different categories of license often exist for different types of motor vehicles, particularly large trucks and passenger vehicles. The difficulty of the driving test varies considerably between jurisdictions, as do factors such as age and the required level of practice.
In some international agreements the wording driver 's permit is used, for instance in the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic.
Karl Benz, inventor of the modern automobile, had to receive written permission from the Grand Ducal authorities to operate his car on public roads in 1888 after residents complained about the noise and smell of his Motorwagen. Up until the start of the 20th century, European authorities issued licenses to drive motor vehicles similarly ad hoc, if at all.
Mandatory licensing for drivers came into force on 1 January 1904 after the Motor Car Act 1903 received royal assent in the United Kingdom. Every car owner had to register their vehicle with their local government authority and be able to prove registration of their vehicle on request. The minimum qualifying age was set at 17. The licence gave its holder ' freedom of the road ' with a maximum 20 mph (32 km / h) speed limit. Compulsory testing was introduced in 1934, with the passing of the Road Traffic Act.
Prussia, then a state within the German Empire, introduced compulsory licensing on September 29, 1903. A test on mechanical aptitude had to be passed and the Dampfkesselüberwachungsverein ("steam boiler supervision association '') was charged with conducting these tests. In 1910, the German imperial government mandated the licensing of drivers on a national scale, establishing a system of tests and driver 's education requirements that was adopted in other countries.
In 1909, the Convention with Respect to the International Circulation of Motor Vehicles recognize the need of qualifications, examination, and authorization for international driving.
In 1929, the notion of International Driving Permit is addressed by international Convention.
In 1949, the United Nations defined a convention on road traffic that standardised rules on roads, occupants, rules, signs, driver 's licenses and such. It address the notion of driving license for a number of countries, under the wording "driving permit '' and declares that its color should be pink.
In 1968, the Convention on road traffic, ratified in 1977, further updated these agreements.
Other countries in Europe also introduced driving tests during the twentieth century, the last of them being Belgium where, until 1977, it was possible to purchase and hold a license without having to undergo a driving test.
As automobile - related fatalities soared in North America, public outcry provoked legislators to begin studying the French and German statutes as models. On August 1, 1910, North America 's first licensing law for motor vehicles went into effect in the US state of New York, though it initially applied only to professional chauffeurs. In July 1913, the state of New Jersey became the first to require all drivers to pass a mandatory examination before receiving a license.
Many countries, including Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, have no national identification cards. As many people have driver 's licenses, they are often accepted as de facto proof of identity. Non-drivers can apply for equally valid state - issued identification - only cards. Most identity cards and driver 's licenses are credit card size -- the "ID - 1 '' size and shape defined in ISO / IEC 7810.
Many European countries require drivers to produce their license on demand when driving. Some European countries require adults to carry proof of identity at all times, but a driving license is not valid for identification in every European country.
In the United Kingdom most drivers are not required to carry their licence. A driver may be required by a constable or vehicle examiner to produce their licence, but may provide it in a specified police station within seven days; the police issue a form for this purpose.
In Denmark, Finland, Norway, Spain and Sweden, the driver 's license number is the same as the citizen 's ID number. Banks and authorities use the same number for customer databases, making the licence fully useful for identification purposes.
In Hong Kong a driving license carries the same number as the holder 's ID card, but has no photograph. Upon inspection both must be presented. Plans to make the newly phased in Smart ID contain driving license information have been shelved.
Similarly, the Saudi Arabian government require all drivers to carry an ID card in addition to a license and present them whenever requested. In Saudi Arabia using a license instead is only permitted if the request is made for on - site inspection / identification purposes, especially at checkpoints. Expatriates may be requested to present their visas as well.
In Japan, South Korea, and Singapore driving license cards are widely used as identification.
Japanese driver 's licenses bear one of the following 3 colors on the expiration date.
The Gold License is granted to any driver who, at the point of license renewal, has at least five years of clean driving history (no driving infractions). According to implications in the Road Traffic Laws Reforms that took place on May 10, 1995, all such licenses are marked with a gold band over the license 's expiration date as well as the word 優良 printed in black, below.
Those who hold a gold license have the added benefit of qualifying for the Superior Drivers Course at the time of renewal, a significantly shorter and less - expensive renewal process. In some cases, they can bypass the main license center and have their license renewed at a separate Superior Drivers License Renewal Center.
Moreover, because such license holders are proven to have been free of accidents and moving violations for at least five years, they are deemed low - risk and qualify for optional car insurance discounts. To qualify, drivers must be accident and violation - free for 5 years and 41 days prior to their birthday on their license 's expiration. The period in which the license holder 's driving history is reviewed begins on the 40th day prior to their birthday of that year. Should the license holder be deemed to qualify, they will receive a decision in the mail with the word 優良 printed on it.
Even the so - called "Paper Drivers '' who hold licenses but never drive, who technically are without violation or accident, can lose their eligibility to obtain a gold license for several reasons including if their car is used by a drunk driver or to support drunk driving in any way.
In the United States and Canada, driver 's licenses are issued by the states and provinces (or territories), respectively, and do not look the same nationwide. They are also used as a de facto or government - issued identification document for the holder. Most government issuers of driver 's licenses also provide a government - issued identification card with similar attributes to a driver 's license to those residents within their jurisdictions who do not have or maintain a valid driver 's license, making it easier for them to do things such as open a bank account, and perform any other activities that require official identification. Identification cards serve as government - issued photo ID but do not enable a person to operate a motor vehicle, a fact typically noted on the ID via the phrase ' Not a driver 's license ' or similar wording. This type of photo ID is referred to as a Photo card in some jurisdictions (for example, Ontario Photo Card). Government - issued ID cards are also issued to out - of - state residents e.g. college students enrolled in an institution of higher education outside their state of residence e.g. a domiciled Texas resident enrolled at UCLA where the individual retains their Texas driver license and holds a California state issued ID card (as mentioned above e.g. bank account and financial affairs); also applicable to those who own business assets and not domiciled in a state or city as a resident e.g. one domiciled in Los Angeles and owns either a business or real estate property in Florida). In the United States no individual can hold two valid driver licenses, e.g. a Texas and California driver license held simultaneously, since some U.S. states do not collect personal income taxes e.g. Texas, Florida while California has a personal state income tax.
In Venezuela, the driver 's license number is the same as the citizen 's ID number.
The number of a driving license issued by the Dominican Republic has the same number as the holder 's Dominican Republic ID card.
In a number of countries (including the United States, New Zealand, Australia, UK, Ireland and sometimes Canada as well) people who drive commercially are required to have special licenses. The cost of taking the series of tests and examinations to obtain these licenses usually means that an employer would subsidize his or her drivers.
Egyptian citizens are entitled to a driver 's license once they have reached the age of 18. To obtain their licenses, applicants must pass a driving test as well as several computer tests.
In order to pass, all a person had to do was drive six meters forward and then reverse six meters. However, the test was updated to make it more difficult, now the applicant has to answer 8 out of 10 correct answers in a computer test, then pass a forward & reverse S - track test in addition to an assessment of parking skills.
Driver 's licensing in Ghana is conducted by the nation 's Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority. The legal driving age is 18.
The legal driving age is 18 years old. The license must include:
The legal driving age of Moroccan citizens is 18.
In Nigeria, the minimum age to qualify for a driver 's license is 18. The applicant would first attend training at an accredited driving school. Then, the driving school will then present the applicant to a Vehicle Inspection Officer (VIO) for a driving test. Upon passing the driving test and the applicant would obtain a certificate of proficiency from the VIO. The applicant then completes a driver 's licence application form at the Driver 's Licence Centre (DLC) or download the form online. Afterwards he pays a license fee online or at the Bank and presents his application form to the Board of Internal Revenue (BIR) Officer and VIO at the DLC for endorsement. After all these he proceeds to the Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC) Officer at the DLC for biometric data capture. He is given a temporary driver 's licence which is valid for 60 days. He picks up original driver 's licence at the BIR Office after 60 days.
The minimum driving age in South Africa is 17, when you may drive with an adult whom holds a valid driving license, after passing your learners license theory test. At 18 you can obtain a driving license after passing the road test. Small motorcycles may be driven from the age of 16. To obtain a license, applicants must pass a written or computer - based test to obtain a learner 's license, and then pass a road test to obtain the driving license. Categories for licenses include CODE B (normal vehicles), CODE C1 (LDV), CODE EC (heavy trucks), CODE A (motorcycle). The learners license theory test will contain three sets of questions with multiple answer options; you will have to select the correct answer. Some driving license test centres use computers for the test, whereas other centres require you to complete the test using a test paper and pen.
Driver 's licenses are issued by the Tanzania Revenue Authority. The legal driving age for motor vehicles is 18 and for motorcycles is 16.
The minimum driving age in Hong Kong is 16 for mopeds under 50 cc (3.1 cu in), and 18 for cars and motorcycles. Access to motorcycles producing more than 50 cc (3.1 cu in) is restricted to riders aged 18 and above. The Regional Transport Office (Driver Licencing Offices) issue their own driving licences. Drivers are legally obliged to carry a valid driving license whilst driving, and must be produced if required to do so by a police officer.
People above a certain age have to undergo strict medical tests in order to obtain a license that has limited validity and requires renewal after a certain period.
The minimum driving age in India is 16 for mopeds under 50 cc (3.1 cu in), and 18 for cars and motorcycles. Access to motorcycles producing more than 50 cc (3.1 cu in) is restricted to riders aged 18 and above. The Regional Transport Office (RTO / RTA) issue their own driving licences in various states. Drivers are legally obliged to carry a valid driving license in India whilst driving, and must be produced if required to do so by a police officer.
In India, people aged 50 or more, have to undergo strict medical tests in order to obtain a license that has limited validity and requires renewal every five years. A commercial driving license is valid for 3 years and requires to be renewed.
In Indonesia, to drive a motor vehicle, one must own a legal Indonesian Driving License which is called (Surat Izin Mengemudi) or SIM in Indonesian. It is a card which legally permits one to drive a motor vehicle. In Indonesia, there are classes for each driving license for which is allowed to drive a type of motor vehicle:
The classes above are also allowed by the age of the driver according to the class of the driving license. The ages are accordingly issued to the different classes of the driver 's choice:
The minimum age for obtaining driving license varies between 16 and 21, although there is a concern about teenage driving safety.
As of November 2011, any drivers could renew their license on his or her birthday, rather than expiry date.
The minimum age for eligibility for learner 's permit is 18 years; as the driver 's information is saved against the Computerized National ID Card number which is issued at the age of 18. The License Issuing Authorities vary to each district and work under the relative District Police.
New credit card format driving license has been introduced. The license bears the digital photo, signature and blood group information of card holder. The record of violation is stored automatically in the database. To obtain a driving license one must register for the learner 's permit at any of the local District Police 's designated license offices and after 42 days can apply for test for a regular full license.
The test phase consists of a theory based test followed by a short practical test. Only the ones who pass the theory test are allowed to take the practical test. The whole test stage is a single day process where both the tests are to be taken the same day. The driving license currently issued holds basic information of the Driver including Name, Father 's Name, Date of birth, Address, Authorized Vehicle Types, Emergency Contact, Blood Group, Fingerprint Impression, Driver Photo. The license also has a magnetic strip though its viability is yet to be made public.
Driving licences in Singapore are issued by the traffic police. The minimum age to obtain a provisional driving licence (PDL), which allows the holder to practise driving while under the supervision of an authorised driving instructor, is 18. A provisional driving licence is obtained once the individual has passed the basic theory test. PDL holders are then required to sit for and pass the final theory test before they are allowed to sit for the practical driving test. Once they have passed the practical driving test, they are issued with a driving licence which allows for driving without supervision, though new drivers are required to display probationary plates when driving for the first year after their licence is issued.
In South Korea, one must be holding a driving license called "운전 면허증 '' or an international driving license. The International driving license is valid for 1 years starting from the date of entry. If one is going to stay in South Korea longer than a year, it is necessary to change the international license to a local license by visiting the police office or driving license testing center.
For South Korean driving license, there are classes for each driving license for which is allowed to drive a type of motor vehicle:
Besides the type of the licence, the licence may have a special condition. Depending on the special condition given, the driver must satisfy the condition below to be able to drive. Drving a vehicle without satisfying the given condition is considered as unlicensed driving.
New E-Smart Card driving licenses are available in Sri Lanka. These cards are intended for the use in the proposed "Point System ''.
In Sri Lanka, a driving license is the official document which authorizes its holder to operate various types of motor vehicles on public roads. They are administered by the Department of Motor Traffic (DMT). The minimum age is 18 years for all vehicle types.
In Vietnam, to drive a vehicle, one must own a legal Vietnamese Driving License which is called "bằng lái ''. It is a card which legally permits one to drive a motor vehicle. In Vietnam, there are classes for each driving license for which is allowed to drive a type of motor vehicle:
The classes above are also allowed by the age of the driver according to the class of the driving license. The ages are accordingly issued to the different classes of the driver 's choice:
The European Union has adopted a common format for driving licenses within all 31 European Economic Area member states (EU, Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway), and a common set of driving license categories. They were introduced to replace the 110 different plastic and paper driving licenses. The common format with the same information in the same place on all licenses allows the driving license to be understood, even if it is in a different language.
The system for handling the penalty points remains different in each country, for the existence of points, initial number of points, revolving, and number of points removed (or added) for each penalty.
The minimum age for getting a driver 's license in Iceland is 17 for a B class license, a B class license will qualify a person to drive low powered motorcycles (50 cc (3.1 cu in) two stroke or equivalent, for more powerful bikes one will have to obtain an A class license), Tractors, ATVs and Automobiles that do not exceed a GVWR of 3,500 kg (7,700 lb) or 8 passengers.
The minimum age in Iceland to get a C1 class (vehicles up to 7,500 kg (16,500 lb) GVWR) is 18, for a C class (vehicles exceeding 7,500 kg) one will have to have obtained a 12 - point license (obtainable without getting a ticket for a whole year) and have reached the age of 21 years.
The minimum age in Iceland for a D1 class license is 21 years old and D class (and DE class) license is 23 years old, the same rules apply as with a C / CE class license.
The minimum age for getting a driver 's license in Norway is 16 for A1, T (tractor), 18 for A-C and 21 for D. The driver 's licenses are always revoked when he / she has reached an age of 100.
The minimum age for obtaining a driver 's license in Romania is 18 ("Minimum legal age in Romania '')
The minimum driving age in the United Kingdom is 16 for mopeds under 50 cc (3.1 cu in), and 17 for cars and motorcycles. Access to motorcycles producing more than 25 kW (34 hp) is restricted to riders with two years experience or aged 21. The British Overseas Territories and the British Crown dependencies issue their own driving licences. There is no legal requirement for a non-professional driver to carry a driving licence in the UK whilst driving, although it must be produced at a police station within seven days, if required to do so by a police officer.
In the United Kingdom, one must hold a Passenger Carrying Vehicle (PCV) licence to drive a vehicle with more than eight passenger seats for hire or reward, or a Large Goods Vehicle (LGV) licence to drive a vehicle with a Gross Vehicle Weight (Maximum Authorized Mass) in excess of 3,500 kg (7,700 lb). Licences and Driver Certificate of Professional Competence qualification cards must be carried whilst driving vehicles in such categories. Special licences are also required in order to transport hazardous materials.
The Russian Empire was one of the first countries to create a driving licence. Russia 's first licences were issued in 1900 by Saint Petersburg authorities, and Russia joined an international convention in 1909. However, due to relatively small number of cars, the attempts to create a standardised Russian licence were rather sporadic and limited to major urban areas. No comprehensive system of driver licensing was present until 1936, when the Soviet government organised and standardised traffic and driving regulations, with the statewide system regulated by specialised police authorities.
Russia employs a system of driver 's licenses very similar to the EU standard. Since 2014 there are 14 main categories that require a driving licence: A, A1, B, B1, C, C1, D, D1, BE, CE, C1E, DE, D1E, M and two additional categories: Tm (tram) and Tb (trolleybus).
The current licence style, introduced in 1999, is a laminated plastic card similar to the European driving licence card in dimensions and outward appearance, with the bearer 's photo and name (in Latin and Cyrillic scripts) to the left, place / date of issue, allowed categories and signature to the right. The reverse of the card features a detailed list of allowed categories in Russian. Older booklet - style licenses are also occasionally seen although they are no longer issued and are increasingly rare as a result. The Russian driving license is also sometimes supplemented by a special card called "временное разрешение '' (temporary permission), which serves for registering offense points and as a temporary licence if the primary licence has been seized by the authorities for serious traffic offences. This supplement has been abolished and reinstated a countless number of times as the views of the traffic police change.
The legal driving age within the Russian Federation is 18 years (16 for motorcycles (A1 and M categories only, not A) and 20 for buses) and to obtain a licence one must be physically fit to drive (including certificates of mental fitness and no record of substance abuse). One must also pass a test administered at a local traffic police authority and pay a fee. Tests are divided into theory and practice. The theory test is usually a computerized multiple - choice test on various traffic rules. Twenty multiple - choice questions are asked, only two incorrect answers allowed for a passing grade. A road test is then administered which includes a demonstration of basic driving skills (steering, slope starting for manual transmission vehicles and backing - up), obstacle course as well as a skills examination for road driving. Four minor errors are allowed for the road driving examination -- the obstacle course is pass - fail. The number of retries is unlimited.
Even though Switzerland is a EFTA member state, it is not a member of the European Economic Area. Switzerland has, however, generally adopted much of the harmonised EU legislation with regard to driving licences. Swiss licences can be exchanged in most EEA countries. Switzerland has, since the 2000s, used the EU system of vehicle categories and issued EEA - style credit - card licences.
To apply for a car driving licence (category B), the applicant must be 18 years old. They must first attend first aid courses, and pass an eyesight test. Passing a theory exam is required to receive a learner 's permit valid for two years. This allows holders to drive a car only if accompanied by an adult aged 23 or more who has had a full driving licence for a minimum of three years. Before passing the practical exam, the candidate must attend 10 hours of theory lessons on "sensibilisation (familiarisation) to road traffic ''. Practical driving lessons are not legally required, but are considered a de facto prerequisite for passing the practical exam taken with a government official Driving Test Examiner. Upon succeeding the practical exam, a probationary driving licence is issued for three years. To obtain the full, unlimited, driving licence after these three years, the candidate must not commit a serious traffic offence, and attend two days of further driving training.
For motorcycles and heavier vehicles, the regulations are different, and some agrarian vehicles can be driven without a licence. As of 2011, a 45 - minute driving lesson costs around CHF 90, while the various fees and theoretical instruction costs associated with getting a car driving licence can amount to up to CHF 600, without counting the costs for the two days of further training.
The theoretical exam must be taken in either German, French or Italian. In some cantons it is possible to take it in English.
Turkey has been an associate member since 1963, and application to accede to the European Economic Community, the predecessor of the European Union (EU), was made on 14 April 1987. Turkey signed a Customs Union agreement with the EU in 1995 and was officially recognised as a candidate for full membership on 12 December 1999, at the Helsinki summit of the European Council.
On 1 January 2016 new Turkish laws concerning driving licences were implemented. The changes are intended to bring Turkey more in line with existing EU driving regulations and concern all road users in Turkey. A foreign national can drive in Turkey with an EU license for 6 months. After 6 months he / she has to change it to a Turkish licence. Application can be made to any Traffic Registration office, and the foreign driving licences will not be returned to holders. Instead they will be sent to the issuing authority of the country of origin i.e. for British nationals, DVLA. The DVLA says that expats can drive in the UK on a Turkish licence for up to 12 months, and if they wish to settle back in the UK, the Turkish license can be exchanged for a UK license.
In Turkey you must be at least 18 years old in order to drive a car and at least 17 to drive a motorbike. The driving test comprises a practical and theory test, which has been recently made tougher in order to meet European Union regulations.
The age to obtain a driver 's license in Canada varies by province, as do the necessary procedures. The minimum age for obtaining a driver 's license to drive unaccompanied in most provinces is 16.
In Barbados, a person 16 years or over can apply for a Learner 's Permit which allows them to drive for a specified period with an accompanying tutor. During that period they will be tested on their driving skill and their knowledge of road signs and traffic laws. On passing both the written and driving test the license is issued. Once issued a driver 's license is valid for a period of one to five years depending on which period of time the driver chooses to pay for. On the expiry of the period for which the license is issued, it will become renewable on the last day of the driver 's birth month and will again be valid for the time period for which payment is made. Visitors and non-nationals who are the holders of a valid driver 's license issued in their country of residence or origin are not allowed to drive automatically in Barbados but must go to a police station to have a temporary local driver 's license issued. The license is issued on payment of a fee and the production of the visitor 's existing license.
Every vehicle driver must carry a driver 's license (Licencia de Conducir), which is issued by COSEVI (Consejo de Seguridad Vial) of the ministry of transportation and public infrastructure (Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Transporte).
For this license to be granted there are three needed tests, practical driving (includes driving a car in simulated streets), theoretical driving (a multiple selection written test based on booklet issued by the education department or after taking a special course), and finally a medical test performed by a medical practitioner that tests eyesight, blood pressure and attests the presence of other diseases and behavior of the driver.
Every citizen can solicit a driver 's license at age 18, after being issued the first time, the license must be renewed after two years, and every successive occasion after five years. Foreigners may also obtain a drivers ' license if they have residency.
Besides this document the driver must carry the national identity card (Cédula de Identidad), however both documents use the same identification number, the national identity card being the basis of the driver 's license number.
All driver 's licenses are given by the government agency SERTRACEN (Servicios de Tránsito Centroamericanos S.A. de C.V.).
One needs a minimum of 15 years to receive a driver 's license (a juvenile license). To get a new license, one needs to pass a vision test, a written test, and a driving test. These tests are given at accredited driving schools. Foreigners with a license from another country can obtain an El Salvador license if they have residency. They will also have to pass a vision test. The driver 's license number is the same as the person 's Tax ID number.
El Salvador licenses (as well as vehicle circulation cards) contain a chip which can be read by putting the card in a chip reader.
There are several categories of drivers ' licenses in El Salvador:
A citizen may obtain a learner 's permit once he or she is age 17. A learner will get their driver 's license upon being proven competent through the results of both a written and practical test. This license expires on the holder 's fifth birthday after the date of issue.
Driving licenses in Mexico are regulated by each state, and they all have different rules and requirements. However, all state driving licenses are recognized across Mexico, and international licenses with an IDP are also recognized as well.
A driver is allowed a learner 's permit at the age of 15 (in some states), with the cost of approximately 100 dollars, a duration of a year, and requiring to drive with an adult at all times. At the age of 16, the fee drops to 30 dollars, and a driving permit is issued with some usage restrictions, depending on the state (like a curfew). When a driver turns 18, he or she is allowed a full license.
In Trinidad and Tobago, you could obtain a learner 's permit at your 17th birthday. Licenses to drive are commonly referred to in Trinidad and Tobago as Driver 's Permits. Driver 's Permits are issued by the Licensing Authority, which is governed by the Ministry of Works and Transport. In order to legally operate any motor vehicle in Trinidad and Tobago, whether it is on or off public - owned - roads, the operator of the motor vehicle must be in possession of a valid Driver 's Permit on their person and is legally endorsed for that class of vehicle. Contravention to the aforementioned could warrant a fine of up to TT $ 1,500 and imprisonment.
The eligible age to first obtain a driver 's license varies substantially from state to state, from 14 years, three months, in South Dakota to 17 in New Jersey. In a majority of states one can obtain a license that allows driving without adult supervision by age 16, after passing the requisite tests. Since the driver 's license is a commonplace document that carries much of the necessary information needed for identification, it has become the primary method of identification in the United States.
In the United States, a holder of a driver 's license is typically legally allowed to operate a motor vehicle up to 26,000 pounds if no hazardous materials and no more than 16 persons (driver included) are in the vehicle. Most jurisdictions that grant driver 's licenses only permit the holder to operate a roadworthy vehicle consisting of four or more wheels. To operate a two - wheel motorized vehicle with a sustainable speed greater than 30 mph (48 km / h) requires an endorsement on the license, typically after successful completion of a theory (written) and practical test.
On the federal level, motor vehicles with a curb weight of GCWR of 26,001 lb (11,794 kg) or more, a vehicle designed to transport 16 or more passengers (driver included), or a vehicle transporting hazardous materials can only be driven by an operator carrying a Commercial Driver License (Commercial Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1986). Upon successful completion of theory and practical testing, endorsements can be applied to a CDL to allow legal transport of specialty types of goods:
Various state statutes also mandate that CDL must be held to operate vehicles not covered by federal statutes.
The minimum driving age varies between 16 and 18 years of age in different States and Territories. After the minimum age, a graduated licensing scheme operates, with state variations.
A Cook Islands "License to Drive a Motor Vehicle '' is issued at police headquarters on Rarotonga, on production of a valid license from the visitor 's home country. To use a scooter or motor cycle (the main hire vehicles for tourists) a short test has to be taken by anyone whose home license is only valid for cars, in which a police officer observes the applicant riding up and down the main street of the capital.
Since August 2011, the minimum age to obtain a learner licence is 16 years old in New Zealand; formerly it was 15 years old.
There are three different types of drivers licence in New Zealand: learners, restricted and full licence. Learners licences allow the person to drive, with a wide number of restrictions. Restricted licenses allow driving alone between the hours of 5am to 10pm, and require the person to be 161⁄2. Full licences are restricted to those 18 and over, or 171⁄2 years if an approved advanced driving course has been successfully completed.
There are six different classes of vehicle that are licensed:
The minimum age for a driving license is 18 years old. It is obtained via a test in a car, a computer and the applicant must present a vision test which says they are permitted to drive
Licensing bureaus in many countries add an organ donation option on license forms. Sometimes a small picture of a heart or the term Organ Donor is printed on the driver 's license, to indicate that he or she has agreed to donate his or her organs in case of sudden death, such as after a collision.
In the United States, this is governed by the Uniform Anatomical Gift Act. In New Zealand and the Republic of Ireland, willingness to donate organs for transplant is also listed on driver 's licenses. In Australia, the system of notating organ donation requests on licenses was replaced in July 2005 with a national registration system and the issue of special cards. In Great Britain (England, Wales and Scotland), code "115 '' is printed on the reverse of the licence to indicate that details are on the National Health Service (NHS) Organ Donor Register.
Many groups of countries have agreed to recognize driver 's licenses issued by authorities of any of its members. Examples include the European Union and the GCC, where holders of driver 's licenses issued by any member state can drive in all member states. Most countries worldwide will also recognize the licenses of citizens of foreign states wishing to drive as visitors. All EU member countries now issue licenses in a standard format, regardless of the language of the license.
The International Driving Permit (IDP) (sometimes erroneously called the International Driver 's License) is a booklet which is an authorized translation of a driver 's home license into many languages (especially languages with non-Latin scripts such as Russian, Arabic, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, etc.). In some cases, it is obtained from a motoring organization such as the Automobile Association or the equivalent in the driver 's home country. In other cases, it is delivered by the same government services that deliver ordinary licenses. The IDP has no validity except when used in conjunction with the driver 's own license. The existence of the IDP is necessitated by many countries refusing to recognize driver 's licenses written in foreign languages without accompanying translations.
Temporary visitors from the United States to France (less than 90 days) are permitted to drive with a valid US state driver 's license. In addition to holding a US driver 's license, visitors are advised (but not required) to carry an International Driving permit, or attach a French translation to their US state driver 's license.
China, at present, does not recognize IDPs and requires drivers to get an additional Chinese license before being officially allowed on all roads. Holders of foreign licenses are exempt from certain requirements when obtaining a Chinese license.
A minimum driving age often exists regardless of possession of a foreign license; an American can not drive below the local minimum age in Europe, nor can a 17 - year - old Briton drive in mainland Europe where the minimum age is 18.
Many countries have established a driver 's license exchange arrangement after reviews of the foreign jurisdiction 's licensing processes. Where standards in the other jurisdiction are comparable in areas such as medical standards, minimum driving age, and knowledge and road testing, an exchange (or honoring) of the foreign jurisdiction 's license may occur. This may also be called Driver 's License Reciprocity.
Most license - issuing authorities require holders of foreign licenses taking up residence in their jurisdiction to obtain a local driver 's license within a limited time, typically 6 months or 1 year. In most cases, the driver must follow the full local procedure for obtaining a license, but some jurisdictions have mutual recognition agreements and will exchange the foreign license for a local one without the need to undertake an additional driving test.
An exception is the EU, where licenses do not need to be exchanged since the introduction of the common EU - driver 's - license scheme.
Each state in Australia has different rules for how long a visitor can drive on an international licence or a licence from a different state. For example, New South Wales allows three months whereas Victoria allows six months. Drivers that move permanently to another state must change their licence to a local state licence within the prescribed time. This is usually free. In some states, drivers with a full New Zealand licence are treated as interstate drivers.
British Columbia has a reciprocal license exchange scheme with other Canadian provinces and territories as well other countries provided the license is valid or has been expired for less than three years. Ontario If you have a (7L) licensing, which is given out by British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, you are not restricted to being accompanied by a supervisor while driving in Ontario, until you get your Full License at the age of 18. Ontario has a reciprocal license exchange scheme for Canadian provinces and territories, Canadian Forces Europe, and some other countries. Quebec has a reciprocal license exchange scheme for Canadian provinces and territories, Canadian Forces Europe, American states and other countries.
US state driver 's licenses can be exchanged from the 15 states below during the first year of legal residence in France: Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Maryland, New Hampshire, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia and Wisconsin.
If you are a resident of France (holder of a carte de séjour or carte de residence), you may drive in France with a valid US state driver 's license for a one - year recognition period, beginning on the date of validity of the first carte de séjour (exception for students who are allowed to use their driver 's license for the duration of their studies). In addition to having s US state driver 's license, residents are also required to attach a French translation done by a sworn translator, or expert traducteur or traducteur assermenté.
The US Embassy, supported by the American Chamber of Commerce in Germany, continues to actively press all US states, territories, and the federal district to reach an agreement on the reciprocal recognition of driver 's licenses with Germany, essentially a waiver of testing requirements.
If approved, drivers from Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Delaware, Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Maryland, Michigan, New Mexico, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Puerto Rico, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, Washington State, Wisconsin, and Wyoming will be exempted from road and written driving tests.
If approved, drivers from Connecticut, District of Columbia, Florida, Indiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, North Carolina, Oregon, Tennessee will be exempted from the road tests only.
As stated on the application form for direct issue of full Hong Kong driving license (Rev. 11 / 2008), when a person has documentary evidence to the Commissioner for Transport 's satisfaction that all of the following apply, the person is eligible to direct issue of a Hong Kong license:
A foreigner 18 years of age or older and holding a Work Pass / Dependent Pass / Student Pass may drive in Singapore with a valid class 3, 3A or 2B foreign license, for a period of not more than 12 months. A Singaporean driving licence is required after 12 months. Those on short term social visits may drive with their foreign license for up to 12 months each time they enter into Singapore. For licences not written in the English language, an International Driving Permit or translation is required.
Foreign licence conversion is only granted for class 2B and class 3 qualified driving licences.
In order to convert your foreign licence to a Singapore driving licence, you are required to pass the Basic Theory Test (BTT). Overseas theory test results are not admissible for consideration.
Residents in Sweden having a foreign license can exchange it to a Swedish license, if it is from an EU country, an EEA country, Switzerland or Japan. Foreign licenses are valid if the holder has not been living in Sweden for more than a year (and some more requirements).
The Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA), which licences drivers in Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales), but not Northern Ireland, exchanges full licences issued by:
A Driver 's License from any US state is valid for temporary use in any other US state, although most states require that a person have a license issued by their state of primary residence. Most states allow residents to convert an out - of - state license to an in - state license without any additional written or road tests.
Delaware has a reciprocal license exchange for Germany, France, and Taiwan to allow holders of those licenses to obtain a Delaware license without any additional written or road tests.
A District of Columbia driver 's license may be obtained while maintaining out - of - country driver 's license. D.C. driver 's licenses may vary for non-US citizens, depending on visa classification. The written test is required for non-US citizens who possess an out - of - country driver 's license.
Florida has a reciprocal license agreement with South Korea, allowing South Korea licenses to be exchanged for a Florida license, and vice versa, without taking a written or road test.
A New York State driver 's license may be obtained by a resident of another country. If the driver has a driver license from any nation except Canada, they must pass a written test, complete a 5 - hour pre-licensing course and pass a road test to qualify for a driver 's license.
Texas does n't require drivers from Canada, France, Germany, nor Taiwan to take the written and practical tests. But drivers must still agree to a vision test.
Washington State has a reciprocal license exchange, allowing holders of valid licenses from any other US state, British Columbia, Germany, South Korea, and Taiwan to exchange their license for a Washington State license without taking any written or road tests.
Virginia has a reciprocal agreement with Canada, France and Germany. The knowledge and skills tests may be waived if the driver meets residency and other requirements.
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who became one of the first double agents in american history | Robert Hanssen - wikipedia
Robert Philip Hanssen (born April 18, 1944) is a former Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agent who spied for Soviet and Russian intelligence services against the United States for 22 years from 1979 to 2001. He is currently serving 15 consecutive life sentences at ADX Florence, a federal supermax prison near Florence, Colorado.
Hanssen was arrested on February 18, 2001, at Foxstone Park near his home in Vienna, Virginia, and was charged with selling U.S. secrets to the Soviet Union and subsequently the Russian Federation for more than US $1.4 million in cash and diamonds over a 22 - year period.
On July 6, 2001, in order to avoid the death penalty, he pleaded guilty to 15 counts of espionage in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. He was sentenced to 15 life terms without the possibility of parole. His activities have been described by the Department of Justice 's Commission for the Review of FBI Security Programs as "possibly the worst intelligence disaster in U.S. history. ''
Hanssen was born in Chicago, Illinois, to a family who lived in the Norwood Park community. His father Howard, a Chicago police officer, was emotionally abusive to Hanssen during his childhood. He graduated from William Howard Taft High School in 1962 and went on to attend Knox College in Galesburg, Illinois, where he earned a bachelor 's degree in chemistry in 1966.
Hanssen applied for a cryptographer position in the National Security Agency, but was rebuffed due to budget setbacks. He enrolled in dental school at Northwestern University but switched his focus to business after three years. Hanssen received an MBA in accounting and information systems in 1971 and took a job with an accounting firm. He quit after one year and joined the Chicago Police Department as an internal affairs investigator, specializing in forensic accounting. In January 1976, he left the police department to join the Federal Bureau of Investigation.
Hanssen met Bernadette "Bonnie '' Wauck, a staunch Roman Catholic, while attending dental school at Northwestern. The couple married in 1968, and Hanssen converted from Lutheranism to his wife 's Catholicism, becoming a fervent believer and being extensively involved in the conservative Catholic organization Opus Dei.
Upon becoming a special agent on January 12, 1976, Hanssen was transferred to the FBI 's Gary, Indiana, field office. In 1978, Hanssen and his growing family (of three children and eventually six) moved to New York City when the FBI transferred him to its field office there. The next year, Hanssen was moved into counter-intelligence and given the task of compiling a database of Soviet intelligence for the Bureau.
In 1979, only three years after joining the FBI, Hanssen approached the Soviet GRU and offered his services. He never indicated any political or ideological motive for his actions, telling the FBI after he was caught that his only motivation was profit. During his first espionage cycle, Hanssen told the GRU a significant amount, including information on the FBI 's bugging activities and lists of suspected Soviet intelligence agents. His most important leak was the betrayal of Dmitri Polyakov, a CIA informant who passed enormous amounts of information to American intelligence while he rose to the rank of General in the Soviet Army. For unknown reasons, the Soviets did not act against Polyakov until he was betrayed a second time by CIA mole Aldrich Ames in 1985. Polyakov was arrested in 1986 and executed in 1988. Ames was officially blamed for giving Polyakov 's name to the Soviets, while Hanssen 's attempt was not revealed until after his 2001 capture.
In 1981, Hanssen was transferred to FBI headquarters in Washington, D.C. and moved to the suburb of Vienna, Virginia. His new job in the FBI 's budget office gave him access to information involving many different FBI operations. This included all the FBI activities related to wiretapping and electronic surveillance, which were Hanssen 's responsibility. He became known in the Bureau as an expert on computers.
Three years later, Hanssen transferred to the FBI 's Soviet analytical unit, which was responsible for studying, identifying, and capturing Soviet spies and intelligence operatives in the United States. Hanssen 's section was in charge of evaluating Soviet agents who volunteered to give intelligence to determine whether they were genuine or triple agents. In 1985, Hanssen was again transferred to the FBI 's field office in New York, where he continued to work in counter-intelligence against the Soviets. It was after the transfer, while on a business trip back to Washington, that he resumed his career in espionage.
On October 1, 1985, Hanssen sent an anonymous letter to the KGB offering his services and asking for US $ 100,000 in cash. In the letter, he gave the names of three KGB agents secretly working for the FBI: Boris Yuzhin, Valery Martynov and Sergei Motorin. Although Hanssen was unaware of it, all three agents had already been exposed earlier that year by Ames. Martynov, Motorin and Yuzhin were recalled to Moscow, where they were arrested, charged, tried and convicted of espionage against the USSR. Martynov and Motorin were condemned to death and executed via a gun - shot to the back of the head. Yuzhin was imprisoned for six years before he was released under a general amnesty to political prisoners, and subsequently emigrated to the U.S. Because the FBI blamed Ames for the leak, Hanssen was not suspected nor investigated. The October 1 letter was the beginning of a long, active espionage period for Hanssen.
Hanssen was recalled yet again to Washington in 1987. He was given the task of making a study of all known and rumored penetrations of the FBI in order to find the man who had betrayed Martynov and Motorin; this meant that he was looking for himself. Hanssen ensured that he did not unmask himself with his study, but in addition, he turned over the entire study -- including the list of all Soviets who had contacted the FBI about FBI moles -- to the KGB in 1988. That same year, Hanssen, according to a government report, "committed a serious security breach '' by revealing secret information to a Soviet defector during a debriefing. The agents working underneath him reported this breach to a supervisor, but no action was taken.
In 1989, Hanssen compromised the FBI investigation of Felix Bloch, a State Department official who had come under suspicion for espionage. Hanssen warned that Bloch was under investigation, causing the KGB to abruptly break off contact with Bloch. The FBI was unable to produce any hard evidence, and as a result, Bloch was never charged with a crime, although the State Department later terminated his employment and denied his pension. The failure of the Bloch investigation, and the FBI 's investigation of how the KGB found out they were investigating Bloch, drove the mole hunt that eventually led to the arrest of Hanssen.
Later that year, Hanssen handed over extensive information about American planning for Measurement and Signature Intelligence (MASINT), an umbrella term for intelligence collected by a wide array of electronic means, such as radar, spy satellites, and signal intercepts. When the Soviets began construction on a new embassy in 1977, the FBI dug a tunnel beneath their decoding room. The FBI planned to use it for eavesdropping, but never did for fear of being caught. Hanssen disclosed this detailed information to the Soviets in September 1989 and received a US $55,000 payment the next month. On two occasions, Hanssen gave the Soviets a complete list of American double agents.
In 1990, Hanssen 's brother - in - law, Mark Wauck, who was also an FBI employee, recommended to the Bureau that Hanssen be investigated for espionage; this came after Bonnie Hanssen 's sister Jeanne Beglis had found a pile of cash sitting on a dresser in the Hanssens ' house. Bonnie had previously told her brother that Hanssen once talked about retiring in Poland, then part of the Eastern Bloc. Wauck also knew that the FBI was hunting for a mole and so spoke with his supervisor, who took no action.
When the Soviet Union collapsed in December 1991, Hanssen, possibly worried that he could be exposed during the ensuing political upheaval, broke off communications with his handlers for a time. The following year, after the Russian Federation took over the demised USSR 's spy agencies, Hanssen made a risky approach to the GRU, with whom he had not been in contact in ten years. He went in person to the Russian embassy and physically approached a GRU officer in the parking garage. Hanssen, carrying a package of documents, identified himself by his Soviet code name, "Ramon Garcia, '' and described himself as a "disaffected FBI agent '' who was offering his services as a spy. The Russian officer, who evidently did not recognize the code name, drove off. The Russians then filed an official protest with the State Department, believing Hanssen to be a triple agent. Despite having shown his face, disclosed his code name, and revealed his FBI affiliation, Hanssen escaped arrest when the Bureau 's investigation into the incident did not advance.
Hanssen continued to take risks in 1993, when he hacked into the computer of a fellow FBI agent, Ray Mislock, printed out a classified document from Mislock 's computer, and took the document to Mislock, saying, "You did n't believe me that the system was insecure. '' His superiors were not amused and launched an investigation. In the end, officials believed Hanssen 's claim that he was merely demonstrating flaws in the FBI 's security system. Mislock has since theorized that Hanssen probably went onto his computer to see if his superiors were investigating him for espionage, and invented the document story to cover his tracks.
In 1994, Hanssen expressed interest in a transfer to the new National Counterintelligence Center, which coordinated counter-intelligence activities. When told that he would have to take a lie detector test to join, Hanssen changed his mind. Three years later, convicted FBI mole Earl Edwin Pitts told the Bureau that he suspected Hanssen was dirty due to the Mislock incident. Pitts was the second FBI agent to mention Hanssen by name as a possible mole, but superiors were still unconvinced. No action was taken.
IT personnel from the National Security Division 's IIS Unit were sent to investigate Hanssen 's desktop computer following a reported failure. NSD chief Johnnie Sullivan ordered the computer impounded after it appeared to have been tampered with. A digital investigation found that an attempted hacking had taken place using a password cracking program installed by Hanssen, which caused a security alert and lockup. Following confirmation by the FBI CART Unit, Sullivan filed a report with the Office of Professional Responsibility requesting further investigation of Hanssen 's attempted hack. Hanssen claimed that he was attempting to connect a color printer to his computer, but needed the password cracker to bypass the administrative password. The FBI believed his story and Hanssen was let off with a warning.
During the same time period, Hanssen would search the FBI 's internal computer case record to see if he was under investigation. He was indiscreet enough to type his own name into FBI search engines. Finding nothing, Hanssen decided to resume his spy career after eight years without contact with the Russians. He established contact with the SVR (the successor to the Soviet - era KGB) in the fall of 1999. He continued to perform highly incriminating searches of FBI files for his own name and address.
The existence of two Russian moles working in the U.S. security and intelligence establishment simultaneously -- Ames at the CIA and Hanssen at the FBI -- complicated counterintelligence efforts in the 1990s. Ames was arrested in 1994; his exposure explained many of the asset losses American intelligence suffered in the 1980s, including the arrest and execution of Martynov and Motorin. However, two cases -- the Bloch investigation and the embassy tunnel -- stood out and remained unsolved. Ames had been stationed in Rome at the time of the Bloch investigation, and could not have had knowledge of that case or of the tunnel under the embassy, as he did not work for the FBI.
The FBI and CIA formed a joint mole - hunting team in 1994 to find the suspected second intelligence leak. They formed a list of all agents known to have access to cases that were compromised. The FBI 's codename for the suspected spy was "Graysuit. '' Some promising suspects were cleared, and the mole hunt found other penetrations such as CIA officer Harold James Nicholson. But Hanssen escaped notice.
By 1998, using FBI criminal profiling techniques, the pursuers zeroed in on an innocent man: Brian Kelley, a CIA operative involved in the Bloch investigation. The CIA and FBI searched his house, tapped his phone and put him under surveillance, following him and his family everywhere. In November 1998, they had a man with a foreign accent come to Kelley 's door, warn him that the FBI knew he was a spy and tell him to show up at a Metro station the next day in order to escape. Kelley instead reported the incident to the FBI. In 1999, the FBI even interrogated Kelley, his ex-wife, two sisters and three children. All denied everything. He was eventually placed on administrative leave, where he remained falsely accused until after Hanssen was arrested.
FBI investigators later made progress when disaffected Russian intelligence officers brought forth files on "B. '' Among the information was an audiotape of a July 21, 1986, conversation between "B '' and KGB agent Aleksander Fefelov. FBI agent Michael Waguespack felt the voice was familiar, but could not remember who it was. Rifling through the rest of the files, they found notes of the mole using a quote from General George S. Patton about "the purple - pissing Japanese. '' FBI analyst Bob King remembered Hanssen using that same quote. Waguespack listened to the tape again and recognized the voice as belonging to Hanssen. With the mole finally identified, locations, dates and cases were matched with Hanssen 's activities during the time period. Two fingerprints collected from a trash bag in the file were analyzed and proved to be Hanssen 's.
The FBI placed Hanssen under surveillance and soon discovered that he was again in contact with the Russians. In order to bring him back to FBI headquarters, where he could be closely monitored and kept away from sensitive data, they promoted him in December 2000 and gave him a new job supervising FBI computer security. In January 2001, Hanssen was given an office and an assistant, Eric O'Neill, who in reality was a young FBI agent who had been assigned to watch Hanssen. O'Neill ascertained that Hanssen was using a Palm III PDA to store his information. When O'Neill was able to briefly obtain Hanssen 's PDA and have agents download and decode its encrypted contents, the FBI had its "smoking gun. ''
During his final days with the FBI, Hanssen began to suspect that something was wrong; in early February 2001 he asked his friend at a computer technology company for a job. He also believed he was hearing noises on his car radio which indicated that it was bugged, although the FBI was later unable to reproduce the noises Hanssen claimed to have heard. In the last letter he wrote to the Russians, which was picked up by the FBI when he was arrested, Hanssen said that he had been promoted to a "do - nothing job... outside of regular access to information, '' and that, "Something has aroused the sleeping tiger. ''
However, his suspicions did not stop him from making one more dead drop. After dropping his friend off at the airport on February 18, 2001, Hanssen drove to Virginia 's Foxstone Park. He placed a white piece of tape on a park sign, which was a signal to his Russian contacts that there was information at the dead drop site. He then followed his usual routine, taking a package consisting of a sealed garbage bag of classified material and taping it to the bottom side of a wooden footbridge over a creek. When FBI agents spotted this highly incriminating act they rushed in to catch Hanssen red - handed and arrest him. Upon being arrested, Hanssen asked, "What took you so long? '' The FBI waited two more days to see if any of Hanssen 's SVR handlers would show up at Foxstone Park. When they failed to appear, the Justice Department announced the arrest on February 20.
With the representation of Washington lawyer Plato Cacheris, Hanssen negotiated a plea bargain that enabled him to escape the death penalty in exchange for cooperating with authorities. On July 6, 2001, he pleaded guilty to fifteen counts of espionage in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. On May 10, 2002, he was sentenced to fifteen consecutive sentences of life in prison without the possibility of parole. "I apologize for my behavior. I am shamed by it, '' Hanssen told U.S. District Judge Claude Hilton. "I have opened the door for calumny against my totally innocent wife and children. I have hurt so many deeply. ''
Hanssen is Federal Bureau of Prisons prisoner # 48551 - 083. He is serving his sentence at the ADX Florence, a federal supermax prison near Florence, Colorado in solitary confinement for twenty - three hours a day.
Hanssen never told the KGB or GRU his identity and refused to meet them personally, with the exception of the abortive 1993 contact in the Russian embassy parking garage. The FBI believes the Russians never knew the name of their source. Going by the alias "Ramon '' or "Ramon Garcia, '' Hanssen exchanged intelligence and payments through an old - fashioned dead drop system in which he and his KGB handlers would leave packages in public, unobtrusive places. He refused to use the dead drop sites that his handler, Victor Cherkashin, suggested and instead picked his own. He also designated a code to be used when dates were exchanged. Six was to be added to the month, day, and time of a designated drop time, so that, for example, a drop scheduled for January 6 at 1 pm would be written as July 12 at 7 pm.
Despite these efforts at caution and security, he could at times be reckless. He once said in a letter to the KGB that it should emulate the management style of Mayor of Chicago Richard J. Daley -- a comment that easily could have led an investigator to look at people from Chicago. He took the risk of recommending to his handlers that they try to recruit his closest friend, a colonel in the United States Army. In an early letter to Cherkashin, he claims, "As far as the funds are concerned, I have little need or utility for more than the $100,000. ''
According to USA Today, those who knew the Hanssens described them as a close family. They attended Mass weekly and were very active in Opus Dei. Hanssen 's three sons attended The Heights School in Potomac, Maryland, an all - boys preparatory school. His daughters attended Oakcrest School for Girls in Vienna, Virginia, an independent Roman Catholic school. Both schools are associated with Opus Dei. Hanssen 's wife Bonnie still teaches theology at Oakcrest.
A priest at Oakcrest said that Hanssen had regularly attended a 6: 30 a.m. daily mass for more than a decade. Opus Dei member Father C. John McCloskey III said he also occasionally attended the daily noontime mass at the Catholic Information Center in downtown Washington. After going to prison, Hanssen claimed he periodically admitted his espionage to priests in confession. He urged fellow Catholics in the Bureau to attend mass more often and denounced the Russians, even though he was spying for them, as "godless ''.
However, at Hanssen 's suggestion, and without the knowledge of his wife, a friend named Jack Horschauer, a retired Army officer, would sometimes watch the Hanssens having sex through a bedroom window. Hanssen then began to secretly videotape his sexual encounters and shared the videotapes with Horschauer. Later, he hid a video camera in the bedroom that was connected via closed - circuit television line so that his friend could observe the Hanssens from his guest bedroom. He also explicitly described the sexual details of his marriage on Internet chat rooms, giving information sufficient for those who knew them to recognize the couple.
Hanssen frequently visited D.C. strip clubs, and spent a great deal of time with a Washington stripper named Priscilla Sue Galey. She went with Hanssen on a trip to Hong Kong, and on a visit to the FBI training facility in Quantico, Virginia. He gave her money, jewels, and a used Mercedes - Benz, but cut off contact with her before his arrest, when she fell into drug abuse and prostitution. Galey claims that although she offered to sleep with him, Hanssen declined, saying that he was trying to convert her to Catholicism.
The story is mentioned in Ronald Kessler 's book The Secrets of the FBI, both in Chapter 15, "Catching Hanssen, '' and Chapter 16, "Breach. ''
Eric O'Neill 's role in the capture of Robert Hanssen was dramatized in the 2007 film Breach, in which Chris Cooper played the role of Hanssen and Ryan Phillippe played O'Neill.
The 2007 documentary Superspy: The Man Who Betrayed the West describes the hunt to trap Robert Hanssen. Hanssen also was the subject of a 2002 made - for - television movie, Master Spy: The Robert Hanssen Story, with the teleplay by Norman Mailer and starring William Hurt as Hanssen. Robert Hanssen 's jailers allowed him to watch this movie but Hanssen was so angered by the film that he turned it off.
Hanssen is mentioned in chapter 5 of Dan Brown 's book The Da Vinci Code as being an FBI spy and Opus Dei member but also a sexual deviant.
Hanssen 's story is reviewed on season 2, episode 4 of Mysteries at the Museum. Actual footage of his arrest by FBI agents is included. His story is the last segment of four included in this episode.
The American Court TV (now TruTV) television series Mugshots released an episode on the Robert Hanssen case titled Robert Hanssen - Hanssen and the KGB '.
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which of these industries is not related to natural resources answers.com | Natural resource economics - wikipedia
Natural resource economics deals with the supply, demand, and allocation of the Earth 's natural resources. One main objective of natural resource economics is to better understand the role of natural resources in the economy in order to develop more sustainable methods of managing those resources to ensure their availability to future generations. Resource economists study interactions between economic and natural systems, with the goal of developing a sustainable and efficient economy.
Natural resource economics is a transdisciplinary field of academic research within economics that aims to address the connections and interdependence between human economies and natural ecosystems. Its focus is how to operate an economy within the ecological constraints of earth 's natural resources. Resource economics brings together and connects different disciplines within the natural and social sciences connected to broad areas of earth science, human economics, and natural ecosystems. Economic models must be adapted to accommodate the special features of natural resource inputs. The traditional curriculum of natural resource economics emphasized fisheries models, forestry models, and minerals extraction models (i.e. fish, trees, and ore). In recent years, however, other resources, notably air, water, the global climate, and "environmental resources '' in general have become increasingly important to policy - making.
Academic and policy interest has now moved beyond simply the optimal commercial exploitation of the standard trio of resources to encompass management for other objectives. For example, natural resources more broadly defined have recreational, as well as commercial values. They may also contribute to overall social welfare levels, by their mere existence.
The economics and policy area focuses on the human aspects of environmental problems. Traditional areas of environmental and natural resource economics include welfare theory, land / location use, pollution control, resource extraction, and non-market valuation, and also resource exhaustibility, sustainability, environmental management, and environmental policy. Research topics could include the environmental impacts of agriculture, transportation and urbanization, land use in poor and industrialized countries, international trade and the environment, climate change, and methodological advances in non-market valuation, to name just a few.
Hotelling 's rule is a 1938 economic model of non-renewable resource management by Harold Hotelling. It shows that efficient exploitation of a nonrenewable and nonaugmentable resource would, under otherwise stable economic conditions, lead to a depletion of the resource. The rule states that this would lead to a net price or "Hotelling rent '' for it that rose annually at a rate equal to the rate of interest, reflecting the increasing scarcity of the resource. Nonaugmentable resources of inorganic materials (i.e. minerals) are uncommon; most resources can be augmented by recycling and by the existence and use of substitutes for the end - use products (see below).
Vogely has stated that the development of a mineral resource occurs in five stages: (1) The current operating margin (rate of production) governed by the proportion of the reserve (resource) already depleted. (2) The intensive development margin governed by the trade - off between the rising necessary investment and quicker realization of revenue. (3) The extensive development margin in which extraction is begun of known but previously uneconomic deposits. (4) The exploration margin in which the search for new deposits (resources) is conducted and the cost per unit extracted is highly uncertain with the cost of failure having to be balanced against finding usable resources (deposits) that have marginal costs of extraction no higher than in the first three stages above. (5) The technology margin which interacts with the first four stages. The Gray - Hotelling (exhaustion) theory is a special case, since it covers only Stages 1 -- 3 and not the far more important Stages 4 and 5.
Simon has stated that the supply of natural resources is infinite (i.e. perpetual)
These conflicting views will be substantially reconciled by considering resource - related topics in depth in the next section, or at least minimized.
Furthermore, Hartwick 's rule provides insight to the sustainability of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable resources.
The perpetual resource concept is a complex one because the concept of resource is complex and changes with the advent of new technology (usually more efficient recovery), new needs, and to a lesser degree with new economics (e.g. changes in prices of the material, changes in energy costs, etc.). On the one hand, a material (and its resources) can enter a time of shortage and become a strategic and critical material (an immediate exhaustibility crisis), but on the other hand a material can go out of use, its resource can proceed to being perpetual if it was not before, and then the resource can become a paleoresource when the material goes almost completely out of use (e.g. resources of arrowhead - grade flint). Some of the complexities influencing resources of a material include the extent of recyclability, the availability of suitable substitutes for the material in its end - use products, plus some other less important factors.
The Federal Government suddenly became compellingly interested in resource issues on December 7, 1941, shortly after which Japan cut the U.S. off from tin and rubber and made some other materials very difficult to obtain, such as tungsten. This was the worst case for resource availability, becoming a strategic and critical material. After the war a government stockpile of strategic and critical materials was set up, having around 100 different materials which were purchased for cash or obtained by trading off U.S. agricultural commodities for them. In the longer term, scarcity of tin later led to completely substituting aluminum foil for tin foil and polymer lined steel cans and aseptic packaging substituting for tin electroplated steel cans.
Resources change over time with technology and economics; more efficient recovery leads to a drop in the ore grade needed. The average grade of the copper ore processed has dropped from 4.0 % copper in 1900 to 1.63 % in 1920, 1.20 % in 1940, 0.73 % in 1960, 0.47 % in 1980, and 0.44 % in 2000.
Cobalt had been in an iffy supply status ever since the Belgian Congo (world 's only significant source of cobalt) was given a hasty independence in 1960 and the cobalt - producing province seceded as Katanga, followed by several wars and insurgencies, local government removals, railroads destroyed, and nationalizations. This was topped off by an invasion of the province by Katangan rebels in 1978 that disrupted supply and transportation and caused the cobalt price to briefly triple. While the cobalt supply was disrupted and the price shot up, nickel and other substitutes were pressed into service.
Following this, the idea of a "Resource War '' by the Soviets became popular. Rather than the chaos that resulted from the Zairean cobalt situation, this would be planned, a strategy designed to destroy economic activity outside the Soviet bloc by the acquisition of vital resources by noneconomic means (military?) outside the Soviet bloc (Third World?), then withholding these minerals from the West.
An important way of getting around a cobalt situation or a "Resource War '' situation is to use substitutes for a material in its end - uses. Some criteria for a satisfactory substitute are (1) ready availability domestically in adequate quantities or availability from contiguous nations, or possibly from overseas allies, (2) possessing physical and chemical properties, performance, and longevity comparable to the material of first choice, (3) well - established and known behavior and properties particularly as a component in exotic alloys, and (4) an ability for processing and fabrication with minimal changes in existing technology, capital plant, and processing and fabricating facilities. Some suggested substitutions were alunite for bauxite to make alumina, molybdenum and / or nickel for cobalt, and aluminum alloy automobile radiators for copper alloy automobile radiators. Materials can be eliminated without material substitutes, for example by using discharges of high tension electricity to shape hard objects that were formerly shaped by mineral abrasives, giving superior performance at lower cost, or by using computers / satellites to replace copper wire (land lines).
An important way of replacing a resource is by synthesis, for example, industrial diamonds and many kinds of graphite, although a certain kind of graphite could be almost replaced by a recycled product. Most graphite is synthetic, for example, graphite electrodes, graphite fiber, graphite shapes (machined or unmachined), and graphite powder.
Another way of replacing or extending a resource is by recycling the material desired from scrap or waste. This depends on whether or not the material is dissipated or is available as a no longer usable durable product. Reclamation of the durable product depends on its resistance to chemical and physical breakdown, quantities available, price of availability, and the ease of extraction from the original product. For example, bismuth in stomach medicine is hopelessly scattered (dissipated) and therefore impossible to recover, while bismuth alloys can be easily recovered and recycled. A good example where recycling makes a big difference is the resource availability situation for graphite, where flake graphite can be recovered from a renewable resource called kish, a steelmaking waste created when carbon separates out as graphite within the kish from the molten metal along with slag. After it is cold, the kish can be processed.
Several other kinds of resources need to be introduced. If strategic and critical materials are the worst case for resources, unless mitigated by substitution and / or recycling, one of the best is an abundant resource. An abundant resource is one whose material has so far found little use, such as using high - aluminous clays or anorthosite to produce alumina, and magnesium before it was recovered from seawater. An abundant resource is quite similar to a perpetual resource. The reserve base is the part of an identified resource that has a reasonable potential for becoming economically available at a time beyond when currently proven technology and current economics are in operation. Identified resources are those whose location, grade, quality, and quantity are known or estimated from specific geologic evidence. Reserves are that part of the reserve base that can be economically extracted at the time of determination; reserves should not be used as a surrogate for resources because they are often distorted by taxation or the owning firm 's public relations needs.
Harrison Brown and associates stated that humanity will process lower and lower grade "ore ''. Iron will come from low - grade iron - bearing material such as raw rock from anywhere in an iron formation, not much different from the input used to make taconite pellets in North America and elsewhere today. As coking coal reserves decline, pig iron and steel production will use non-coke - using processes (i.e. electric steel). The aluminum industry could shift from using bauxite to using anorthosite and clay. Magnesium metal and magnesia consumption (i.e. in refractories), currently obtained from seawater, will increase. Sulfur will be obtained from pyrites, then gypsum or anhydrite. Metals such as copper, zinc, nickel, and lead will be obtained from manganese nodules or the Phosphoria formation (sic!). These changes could occur irregularly in different parts of the world. While Europe and North America might use anorthosite or clay as raw material for aluminum, other parts of the world might use bauxite, and while North America might use taconite, Brazil might use iron ore. New materials will appear (note: they have), the result of technological advances, some acting as substitutes and some with new properties. Recycling will become more common and more efficient (note: it has!). Ultimately, minerals and metals will be obtained by processing "average '' rock. Rock, 100 tonnes of "average '' igneous rock, will yield eight tonnes of aluminum, five tonnes of iron, and 0.6 tonnes of titanium.
The USGS model based on crustal abundance data and the reserve - abundance relationship of McKelvey, is applied to several metals in the Earth 's crust (worldwide) and in the U.S. crust. The potential currently recoverable (present technology, economy) resources that come closest to the McKelvey relationship are those that have been sought for the longest time, such as copper, zinc, lead, silver, gold and molybdenum. Metals that do not follow the McKelvey relationship are ones that are byproducts (of major metals) or have n't been vital to the economy until recently (titanium, aluminum to a lesser degree). Bismuth is an example of a byproduct metal that does n't follow the relationship very well; the 3 % lead reserves in the western U.S. would have only 100 ppm bismuth, clearly too low - grade for a bismuth reserve. The world recoverable resource potential is 2,120 million tonnes for copper, 2,590 million tonnes for nickel, 3,400 million tonnes for zinc, 3,519 BILLION tonnes for aluminum, and 2,035 BILLION tonnes for iron.
Diverse authors have further contributions. Some think the number of substitutes is almost infinite, particularly with the flow of new materials from the chemical industry; identical end products can be made from different materials and starting points. Plastics can be good electrical conductors. Since all materials are 100 times weaker than they theoretically should be, it ought to be possible to eliminate areas of dislocations and greatly strengthen them, enabling lesser quantities to be used. To summarize, "mining '' companies will have more and more diverse products, the world economy is moving away from materials towards services, and the population seems to be levelling, all of which implies a lessening of demand growth for materials; much of the materials will be recovered from somewhat uncommon rocks, there will be much more coproducts and byproducts from a given operation, and more trade in minerals and materials.
As radical new technology impacts the materials and minerals world more and more powerfully, the materials used are more and more likely to have perpetual resources. There are already more and more materials that have perpetual resources and less and less materials that have nonrenewable resources or are strategic and critical materials. Some materials that have perpetual resources such as salt, stone, magnesium, and common clay were mentioned previously. Thanks to new technology, synthetic diamonds were added to the list of perpetual resources, since they can be easily made from a lump of another form of carbon. Synthetic graphite, is made in large quantities (graphite electrodes, graphite fiber) from carbon precursors such as petroleum coke or a textile fiber. A firm named Liquidmetal Technologies, Inc. is utilizing the removal of dislocations in a material with a technique that overcomes performance limitations caused by inherent weaknesses in the crystal atomic structure. It makes amorphous metal alloys, which retain a random atomic structure when the hot metal solidifies, rather than the crystalline atomic structure (with dislocations) that normally forms when hot metal solidifies. These amorphous alloys have much better performance properties than usual; for example, their zirconium - titanium Liquidmetal alloys are 250 % stronger than a standard titanium alloy. The Liquidmetal alloys can supplant many high performance alloys.
Exploration of the ocean bottom in the last fifty years revealed manganese nodules and phosphate nodules in many locations. More recently, polymetallic sulfide deposits have been discovered and polymetallic sulfide "black muds '' are being presently deposited from "black smokers '' The cobalt scarcity situation of 1978 has a new option now: recover it from manganese nodules. A Korean firm plans to start developing a manganese nodule recovery operation in 2010; the manganese nodules recovered would average 27 % to 30 % manganese, 1.25 % to 1.5 % nickel, 1 % to 1.4 % copper, and 0.2 % to 0.25 % cobalt (commercial grade) Nautilus Minerals Ltd. is planning to recover commercial grade material averaging 29.9 % zinc, 2.3 % lead, and 0.5 % copper from massive ocean - bottom polymetallic sulfide deposits using an underwater vacuum cleaner - like device that combines some current technologies in a new way. Partnering with Nautilus are Tech Cominco Ltd. and Anglo - American Ltd., world - leading international firms.
There are also other robot mining techniques that could be applied under the ocean. Rio Tinto is using satellite links to allow workers 1500 kilometers away to operate drilling rigs, load cargo, dig out ore and dump it on conveyor belts, and place explosives to subsequently blast rock and earth. The firm can keep workers out of danger this way, and also use fewer workers. Such technology reduces costs and offsets declines in metal content of ore reserves. Thus a variety of minerals and metals are obtainable from unconventional sources with resources available in huge quantities.
Finally, what is a perpetual resource? The ASTM definition for a perpetual resource is "one that is virtually inexhaustible on a human time - scale ''. Examples given include solar energy, tidal energy, and wind energy, to which should be added salt, stone, magnesium, diamonds, and other materials mentioned above. A study on the biogeophysical aspects of sustainability came up with a rule of prudent practice that a resource stock should last 700 years to achieve sustainability or become a perpetual resource, or for a worse case, 350 years.
If a resource lasting 700 or more years is perpetual, one that lasts 350 to 700 years can be called an abundant resource, and is so defined here. How long the material can be recovered from its resource depends on human need and changes in technology from extraction through the life cycle of the product to final disposal, plus recyclability of the material and availability of satisfactory substitutes. Specifically, this shows that exhaustibility does not occur until these factors weaken and play out: the availability of substitutes, the extent of recycling and its feasibility, more efficient manufacturing of the final consumer product, more durable and longer - lasting consumer products, and even a number of other factors.
The most recent resource information and guidance on the kinds of resources that must be considered is covered on the Resource Guide - Update (1)
Perpetual resources can transition to being a paleoresource. A paleoresource is one that has little or no demand for the material extracted from it; an obsolescent material, humans no longer need it. The classic paleoresource is an arrowhead - grade flint resource; no one makes flint arrowheads or spearheads anymore -- making a sharpened piece of scrap steel and using it is much simpler. Obsolescent products include tin cans, tin foil, the schoolhouse slate blackboard, and radium in medical technology. Radium has been replaced by much cheaper cobalt - 60 and other radioisotopes in radiation treatment. Noncorroding lead as a cable covering has been replaced by plastics.
Pennsylvania anthracite is another material where the trend towards obsolescence and becoming a paleoresource can be shown statistically. Production of anthracite was 70.4 million tonnes in 1905, 49.8 million tonnes in 1945, 13.5 million tonnes in 1965, 4.3 million tonnes in 1985, and 1.5 million tonnes in 2005. The amount used per person was 84 kg per person in 1905, 7.1 kg in 1965, and 0.8 kg in 2005. (2) Compare this to the USGS anthracite reserves of 18.6 billion tonnes and total resources of 79 billion tonnes; the anthracite demand has dropped so much that these resources are more than perpetual.
Since anthracite resources are so far into the perpetual resource range and demand for anthracite has dropped so far, is it possible to see how anthracite might become a paleoresource? Probably by customers continuing to disappear (i.e. convert to other kinds of energy for space heating), the supply network atrophy as anthracite coal dealers ca n't retain enough business to cover costs and close, and mines with too small a volume to cover costs also close. This is a mutually reinforcing process: customers convert to other forms of cleaner energy that produce less pollution and carbon dioxide, then the coal dealer has to close because of lack of enough sales volume to cover costs. The coal dealer 's other customers are then forced to convert unless they can find another nearby coal dealer. Finally the anthracite mine closes because it does n't have enough sales volume to cover its costs.
Nitrogen Cycle
Water Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Oxygen Cycle
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who sings in the diet dr. pepper commercial | Justin Guarini - wikipedia
Justin Guarini (born Justin Eldrin Bell; October 28, 1978) is an American singer / musician, actor, host and producer, who in 2002 was the runner - up on the first season of American Idol.
Guarini was born in Columbus, Georgia. His father, Eldrin Bell, is African - American and is a former Atlanta, Georgia, Chief of Police, and former Chairperson of Clayton County Commission (Georgia). His mother, Kathy Pepino Guarini is Italian American, and was a journalist for WTVM TV in Columbus, and later for CNN. Guarini was primarily raised by his mother and stepfather, physicist Jerry Guarini, in Philadelphia 's suburb of Doylestown, Pennsylvania. He attended Central Bucks High School East.
Guarini 's musical experience started at age four when he was accepted by the Atlanta Boy Choir. After moving to Pennsylvania in 1985, he joined the Archdiocese of Philadelphia Boys Choir. Throughout his school years Guarini sang in school choirs, and from 1996 to 2000 was the lead soloist in an award - winning a cappella group named The Midnight Voices. The group released an independent album in 1999 with proceeds benefiting a music scholarship fund at Guarini 's alma mater, Central Bucks High School East in Buckingham, Pennsylvania. He was a director / performer at the Riverside Haunted Woods in Bridgeton, Pennsylvania, in 2001.
His high school and college theatre credits include the lead roles in The Mystery of Edwin Drood, The Little Prince, The Pirates of Penzance, The Taming of the Shrew, and Once on This Island. In addition to singing and stage performing, Guarini plays the piano, guitar, and banjo.
After studying vocal performance and theater studies at the University of the Arts in Philadelphia, Guarini later moved to New York City where he attended the School for Film and Television. He worked in New York nightclubs, and auditioned for New York Theatre before successfully auditioning for American Idol in April 2002. Shortly after being chosen for American Idol, he was offered a role in the Broadway production of The Lion King. Guarini wrote about his decision between the two offers in his exclusive 2008 blog for the television site, Fancast, stating, "I had attended master classes... I learned Zulu and Sotho phrases, as well as the music from the show. It was a dream almost come true at the time. But, now I knew I was onto something, and I was n't letting go. I politely declined the offer of a role... ''. He was also considering a contract offer from an independent record label, but the show 's rules prohibited participants from having existing record contracts.
Idol judge Simon Cowell praised Guarini 's performance in the show 's first season, at one early audition telling him "Justin, you know, occasionally you 're very privileged when you do a competition like this to hear somebody undiscovered who has a voice like yours '', with Guarini ultimately becoming the runner - up to winner Kelly Clarkson in September 2002. Soon after, Guarini signed with American Idol 's 19 Management and secured a record deal with RCA. Prior to the American Idol Tour, he was the only contestant asked to appear on The Oprah Winfrey Show, on which Oprah Winfrey told him, "Justin, you have it. ''
Reviews during the American Idol Tour described Guarini as a "revelation '' (Los Angeles Times), and "easily the best performer '' (Boston Herald).
His self - titled album, Justin Guarini, debuted in June 2003, coinciding with the single releases of the current second season American Idol top two finalists and the movie From Justin to Kelly, in which Guarini co-starred with Kelly Clarkson. The film was critically panned, while the album sold 146,000 copies. In December 2003 Guarini was dropped from RCA Records.
Guarini had a role in the 2004 pre-Broadway New York Stage and Film Powerhouse Theater workshop / presentation of the musical Good Vibrations at Vassar College. His performance (which included singing, dancing, acting, and playing guitar) landed Guarini an offer to continue the role in the original Broadway production, which he eventually declined.
Guarini co-produced his second album Stranger Things Have Happened, independently released in December 2005 through his own production company, Justice Entertainment, Ltd... The album of reinvented jazz standards was described by Allmusic as "a successful reinvention... where his natural skills shine '', The Philadelphia Inquirer said that "Guarini displays an agile, attractive voice with good phrasing, supported by a sophisticated and funky backing ensemble. ''
Guarini wrote, co-arranged and recorded a benefit song released with H.H. Gayuna Cealo, and a song for the documentary series Project Everlasting, in August 2006 and featured on the Today Show. The title track from his album Stranger Things Have Happened was also used in the documentary.
From 2007 to 2011, TV Guide Network signed Guarini as permanent co-host for Idol Wrap and Idol Tonight. On - air duties with the network expanded to include guest hosting / appearances on other TV Guide Network shows, hosting movie premiere specials, and serving as a member of TV Guide Network 's awards show team with on - air coverage of awards shows such as the Grammy Awards and Emmy Awards.
In May 2008, Guarini released an acoustic EP titled Revolve comprising three songs ("Sweet Time '', "Rock Bottom '', and "When She Cries '') co-written and co-produced with Shaun Ingram. Versions of the songs are planned to be included on a future solo album.
While stepping out to support the opening of The American Idol Experience at Disney 's Hollywood Studios in February 2009, Guarini confirmed his impending marriage to his fiancée, Reina Capodici. In an exclusive pictorial of the wedding, People reported that the couple married on September 26, 2009.
Guarini became a part of the Broadway community with his 2010 Broadway debut as Carlos in a musical adaptation of Pedro Almodovar 's film, Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown. Critics called Guarini 's debut "surprisingly charming '', "captivating '' and "extremely likeable ''.
Guarini played Will, one of the three male leads in Green Day 's rock musical American Idiot performing March 1, 2011, through the show 's closing night, April 24, 2011.
On April 26, 2011, his first child with Capodici, William Neko Bell Guarini, was born. His second child, Asher, was born on February 25, 2013.
In 2013, Guarini was cast in a modern Broadway production of William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet as Paris. After its Broadway run, the live - filmed stage play was released in movie theaters. Guarini joined the Broadway production of Wicked, in the role of Fiyero from February 25 to December 14, 2014.
Other stage work includes lead roles in regional reproductions of Rent, Chicago, Company and Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. Original regional productions include Ghost Brothers of Darkland County as one of two feuding brothers in 2012 at the Alliance Theatre in Atlanta, Georgia. In It 's a Wonderful Life, A Live Radio Play Guarini voiced George Bailey in a 2015 on - stage comedic production.
In 2015, he starred in the New York City Center Encores presentation Paint Your Wagon. Praised by critics, Guarini played the outcast Mexican miner. Guarini starred in the 2015 original musical "Moonshine: The Hee Haw Musical '' premiering at the Dallas Theater Center on September 2 through October 11, and Mamma Mia! in 2016. Also in 2016, Guarini was cast in Broadway 's new In Transit, the first a cappella musical with book, music and lyrics by Kristen Anderson - Lopez.
Guarini participates in Equity staged readings of The Awakening of Angel DeLuna, hosts and / or performs for various Broadway and stage - related benefits, and other industry - related events including Broadway on the Hudson, the Times Square Tony Awards Simulcast in 2014 and 2015, adding executive producer duties in 2015. He was an executive producer for the 2015 revival of the musical Side Show.
In 2016 Guarini attended the Tony Awards, and co-hosted backstage coverage of the live broadcast in conjunction with BroadwayHD.com.
He 's also acted in independent film projects such as the drama and action film Fast Girl, The Unknown: Frankie The Squirrel, Mafioso II: The Son and short film Tilt - a-Whirl for the Dances With Films festival.
Since 2015, Guarini has been starring as Lil ' Sweet in Diet Dr Pepper television commercials, and web marketing. In 2016, Dr Pepper "promoted '' tunes for a Lil ' Sweet "album '' with video clips, promotional pictures of the character, and the character 's own Twitter page. All commercials and clips are available on Dr Pepper 's YouTube channel.
Guarini has been a recurring commentator for Today, MSNBC, Fox News Channel, Style Channel, Comcast and Larry King Live.
An EP of original music will be released by Guarini approximately July 30, 2016.
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when did the giants go to the superbowl | New York Giants - wikipedia
National Football League (1925 -- present)
Dark Blue, Red, White
League championships (8)
Conference championships (11)
Division championships (16)
The New York Giants are a professional American football team based in the New York metropolitan area. The Giants compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) East division. The team plays its home games at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey, which it shares with the New York Jets in a unique arrangement. The Giants hold their summer training camp at the Quest Diagnostics Training Center at the Meadowlands Sports Complex.
The Giants were one of five teams that joined the NFL in 1925, and is the only one of that group still existing, as well as the league 's longest - established team in the Northeastern United States. The team ranks third among all NFL franchises with eight NFL championship titles: four in the pre -- Super Bowl era (1927, 1934, 1938, 1956) and four since the advent of the Super Bowl (Super Bowls XXI (1986), XXV (1990), XLII (2007), and XLVI (2011)), along with more championship appearances than any other team, with 19 overall appearances. Their championship tally is surpassed only by the Green Bay Packers (13) and Chicago Bears (9). Throughout their history, the Giants have featured 28 Hall of Fame players, including NFL Most Valuable Player (MVP) award winners Mel Hein, Frank Gifford, Y.A. Tittle, and Lawrence Taylor.
To distinguish themselves from the professional baseball team of the same name, the football team was incorporated as the "New York National League Football Company, Inc. '' in 1929 and changed to "New York Football Giants, Inc. '' in 1937. While the baseball team moved to San Francisco after the 1957 season, the football team continues to use "New York Football Giants, Inc. '' as its legal corporate name, and is often referred to by fans and sportscasters as the "New York Football Giants ''. The team has also acquired several nicknames, including "Big Blue '', the "G - Men '', and the "Jints '', an intentionally mangled contraction seen frequently in the New York Post and New York Daily News, originating from the baseball team when they were based in New York. Additionally, the team as a whole is occasionally referred to as the "Big Blue Wrecking Crew '', even though this moniker primarily and originally refers to the Giants defensive unit during the 80s and early 90s (and before that to the Los Angeles Dodgers baseball teams of the late 1970s and early 1980s).
The team 's heated rivalry with the Philadelphia Eagles is the oldest of the NFC East rivalries, dating all the way back to 1933, and has been called the best rivalry in the NFL in the 21st century.
The Giants played their first game as an away game against All New Britain in New Britain, Connecticut, on October 4, 1925. They defeated New Britain 26 -- 0 in front of a crowd of 10,000. The Giants were successful in their first season, finishing with an 8 -- 4 record.
In its third season, the team finished with the best record in the league at 11 -- 1 -- 1 and was awarded the NFL title. After a disappointing fourth season (1928) owner Mara bought the entire squad of the Detroit Wolverines, principally to acquire star quarterback Benny Friedman, and merged the two teams under the Giants name.
In 1930, there were still many who questioned the quality of the professional game, claiming the college "amateurs '' played with more intensity than professionals. In December 1930, the Giants played a team of Notre Dame All Stars at the Polo Grounds to raise money for the unemployed of New York City. It was also an opportunity to establish the skill and prestige of the pro game. Knute Rockne reassembled his Four Horsemen along with the stars of his 1924 Championship squad and told them to score early, then defend. Rockne, like much of the public, thought little of pro football and expected an easy win. But from the beginning it was a one - way contest, with Friedman running for two Giant touchdowns and Hap Moran passing for another. Notre Dame failed to score. When it was all over, Coach Rockne told his team, "That was the greatest football machine I ever saw. I am glad none of you got hurt. '' The game raised $100,000 for the homeless, and is often credited with establishing the legitimacy of the professional game for those who were critical. It also was the last game the legendary Rockne ever coached; he was killed in an airplane crash on March 31, 1931.
In a 14 - year span from 1933 to 1947, the Giants qualified to play in the NFL championship game 8 times, winning twice. During this period the Giants were led by Hall of Fame coach Steve Owen, and Hall of Fame players Mel Hein, Red Badgro and Tuffy Leemans. The period also featured the 1944 Giants, which are ranked as the # 1 defensive team in NFL history, "... a truly awesome unit ''. They gave up only 7.5 points per game (a record that still stands) and shut out five of their 10 opponents, though they lost 14 - 7 to the Green Bay Packers in the 1944 NFL Championship Game. The famous "Sneakers Game '' was played in this era where the Giants defeated the Chicago Bears on an icy field in the 1934 NFL Championship Game, while wearing sneakers for better traction. The Giants played the Detroit Lions to a scoreless tie on November 7, 1943. To this day, no NFL game played since then has ended in a scoreless tie. The Giants were particularly successful from the latter half of the 1930s until the United States entry into World War II. They added their third NFL championship in 1938 with a 23 -- 17 win over the Green Bay Packers.
They did not win another league title until 1956, aided by a number of future Pro Football Hall of Fame players such as running back Frank Gifford, linebacker Sam Huff, and offensive tackle Roosevelt Brown, as well as all - pro running back Alex Webster. The Giants ' 1956 championship team not only included players who would eventually find their way to the Pro Football Hall of Fame, but a Hall of Fame coaching staff, as well. Head coach Jim Lee Howell 's staff had Vince Lombardi coaching the offense and Tom Landry coaching the defense. From 1958 to 1963, the Giants played in the NFL Championship Game five times, but failed to win. Most significantly, the Giants played the Colts in the 1958 NFL Championship Game, which is considered a watershed event in the history of the NFL. The game, which the Giants lost in overtime 23 -- 17, is often called "The Greatest Game Ever Played '' and is considered one of the most important events in furthering the NFL 's popularity. The following year, they lost the championship to the Colts again, giving up a 9 - 7 4th quarter lead en route to a 31 -- 16 loss. Both the 1961 and 1962 championship game matched the Giants up against the Green Bay Packers, with the Giants losing both 37 - 0 and 16 - 7 respectively. In 1963, led by league MVP quarterback Y.A. Tittle, who threw a then - NFL record 36 touchdown passes, the Giants advanced to the NFL Championship Game, where they lost to the Bears 14 -- 10 for their third consecutive championship loss, as well as their fifth loss in the title game in 6 years.
From 1964 to 1978, the Giants registered only two winning seasons and no playoff appearances. With players, such as Tittle and Gifford approaching their mid 30s, the team declined rapidly, finishing 2 -- 10 -- 2 in 1964. They rebounded with a 7 -- 7 record in 1965, before compiling a league - worst 1 -- 12 -- 1 record, and allowing more than 500 points on defense in 1966. During the 1969 preseason, the Giants lost their first meeting with the New York Jets, 37 -- 14, in front of 70,874 fans at the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut. Following the game, Wellington Mara fired coach Allie Sherman, and replaced him with former Giants fullback Alex Webster.
In 1967, the team acquired quarterback Fran Tarkenton from the Minnesota Vikings. Despite having several respectable seasons with Tarkenton at quarterback, including a 7 -- 7 finish in 1967 and 9 -- 5 in 1970, the Giants traded him back to the Vikings after a 4 -- 10 finish in 1971. Tarkenton would go on to lead the Vikings to three Super Bowls and earn a place in the Hall of Fame, while the Giants suffered through one of the worst stretches in their history, winning only 23 games from 1973 to 1979. Before the 1976 season, the Giants tried to revive a weak offense by replacing retired RB Ron Johnson with future Hall of Fame fullback Larry Csonka, but Csonka was often injured and ineffective during his 3 years in New York. The 1977 season featured a roster that included three rookie quarterbacks.
The Giants were allowed to play their home games at the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut in 1973 and 1974, and at Shea Stadium (home of the Mets and Jets) in 1975, due to the renovation of Yankee Stadium. They finally moved into their own dedicated state - of - the - art stadium in 1976, when they moved into Giants Stadium at the Meadowlands in East Rutherford, New Jersey. One of the low points during this period was the play known as the "Miracle at the Meadowlands '', which occurred in 1978. With the Giants trying to kill the clock and secure a win against the Philadelphia Eagles, offensive coordinator, Bob Gibson, chose to call a running play. This resulted in "The Fumble '' by QB Joe Pisarcik that was returned for a game - winning touchdown by the Eagles ' Herman Edwards.
The Giants ' front office operations were complicated by a long - standing feud between Wellington Mara and his nephew, Tim Mara. Jack Mara had died in 1965, leaving his share of the club to his son Tim. Wellington and Tim 's personal styles and their visions for the club clashed, and eventually they stopped talking to each other. Commissioner Rozelle intervened and appointed a neutral general manager, George Young, allowing the club to operate more smoothly. The feud became moot on February 20, 1991, when Tim Mara sold his shares in the club to Preston Robert Tisch.
In 1979, the Giants began the steps that would, in time, return them to the pinnacle of the NFL. These included the drafting of quarterback Phil Simms in 1979, and linebacker Lawrence Taylor in 1981. In 1981, Taylor won the NFL 's Defensive Rookie of the Year and Defensive Player of the Year awards and the Giants made the playoffs for the first time since 1963. One of the few bright spots during this time was the team 's excellent linebackers, who were known as the Crunch Bunch. After the strike - shortened 1982 season, in which they finished 4 -- 5, head coach Ray Perkins resigned to take over the same position at the University of Alabama. In a change that would prove crucial in the coming years, he was replaced by the team 's defensive coordinator, Bill Parcells.
In 1983, Bill Parcells was promoted to head coach from defensive coordinator. One of his first moves was to change his starting quarterback, sitting the injury - prone and struggling Phil Simms (who had missed the entire 1982 season with an injury) and electing instead to go with Scott Brunner, who had gone 4 - 5 as the starter in place of Simms in the strike - shortened previous season. Parcells went as far as to demote Simms to the third string position, promoting Jeff Rutledge over Simms to be Brunner 's backup. Parcells later said the move was a mistake and one he "nearly paid for dearly '' as the team finished with a 3 -- 12 -- 1 record and his job security was called into question.
In the offseason the Giants released Brunner and named Simms the starter. The move paid off as the team won nine games and returned to the playoffs. After beating the Los Angeles Rams in the Wild Card Round, the Giants prepared for a showdown against top - seeded San Francisco. The 49ers defeated the Giants 21 -- 10 in the Divisional Round.
The 1985 Giants compiled a 10 -- 6 record and avenged their loss against San Francisco by beating them in the Wild Card round 17 -- 3. However, they again lost in the Divisional Round, this time to the Bears, by a score of 21 -- 0. However, the following season would end with the Giants winning their first Super Bowl championship.
After 9 -- 7 and 10 -- 6 finishes in 1984 and 1985 respectively, the Giants compiled a 14 -- 2 record in 1986 led by league MVP and Defensive Player of the Year Lawrence Taylor and the Big Blue Wrecking Crew defense. As of 2015, this is the Giants ' best regular season record since the NFL began playing 16 - game seasons in 1978. After clinching the top seed in the NFC, the Giants defeated the 49ers 49 -- 3 in the divisional round of the NFC playoffs and the Redskins 17 -- 0 in the NFC championship game, advancing to their first Super Bowl, Super Bowl XXI, against the Denver Broncos at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena. Led by MVP Simms who completed 22 of 25 passes for a Super Bowl record 88 % completion percentage, they defeated the Broncos 39 -- 20, to win their first championship since 1956. In addition to Phil Simms and Lawrence Taylor, the team was led during this period by head coach Bill Parcells, tight end Mark Bavaro, running back Joe Morris, and Hall of Fame linebacker Harry Carson.
The Giants struggled to a 6 -- 9 record in the strike - marred 1987 season, due largely to a decline in the running game, as Morris managed only 658 yards behind an injury - riddled offensive line. The early portion of the 1988 season was marred by a scandal involving Lawrence Taylor. Taylor had abused cocaine and was suspended for the first four games of the season for his second violation of the league 's substance abuse policy. Despite the controversy, the Giants finished 10 -- 6, and Taylor recorded 15.5 sacks after his return from the suspension. They surged to a 12 -- 4 record in 1989, but lost to the Los Angeles Rams in their opening playoff game when Flipper Anderson caught a 47 - yard touchdown pass to give the Rams a 19 -- 13 overtime win.
In 1990, the Giants went 13 -- 3 and, at the time, set an NFL record for fewest turnovers in a season (14). They defeated the San Francisco 49ers, who were attempting to win the Super Bowl for an unprecedented third straight year, 15 -- 13 at San Francisco and then defeated the Buffalo Bills 20 -- 19 in Super Bowl XXV.
Following the 1990 season, Parcells resigned as head coach and was replaced by the team 's offensive - line coach Ray Handley. Handley served as coach for two disappointing seasons (1991 and 1992), which saw the Giants fall from Super Bowl champions to an 8 -- 8 record in 1991 and a 6 -- 10 record in 1992. He was fired following the 1992 season, and replaced by former Denver Broncos ' coach Dan Reeves. In the early 1990s, Simms and Taylor, two of the stars of the 1980s, played out the last seasons of their careers with steadily declining production. The Giants experienced a resurgent season with Reeves at the helm in 1993 however, and Simms and Taylor ended their careers as members of a playoff team.
The Giants initially struggled in the post Simms - Taylor era. After starting 3 -- 7 in 1994, the Giants won their final six games to finish 9 -- 7 but missed the playoffs. Quarterback Dave Brown received heavy criticism throughout the season. Brown performed poorly the following two seasons, and the Giants struggled to 5 -- 11 and 6 -- 10 records. Reeves was fired following the 1996 season.
In 1997, the Giants named Jim Fassel, who had spent the previous season as offensive coordinator of the Arizona Cardinals, as their 16th head coach. Fassel named Danny Kanell the team 's starting quarterback. The Giants finished the 1997 season with a record of 10 -- 5 -- 1 and qualified for the playoffs for the first time in four years. However, they lost in the Wild Card round to the Vikings at home. The following year, the Giants began the season 4 -- 8 before rallying to finish the season 8 -- 8. One of the notable games of that season was a win over the eventual Super Bowl champion Denver Broncos in week 15, giving the Broncos their first loss of the season after starting 13 -- 0.
Before the 1999 season, the Giants signed ex-Carolina Panthers quarterback Kerry Collins. Collins was the first - ever draft choice of the expansion Carolina Panthers in 1995, and led the Panthers to the NFC Championship game in his second season. However, problems with alcohol, conflicts with his teammates and questions about his character led to his release from the Panthers. The Giants finished the season with a 7 -- 9 record, Fassel 's first losing season as head coach.
In 2000, the Giants were looking to make the playoffs for the first time in three seasons. The Giants started the season 7 -- 2, but suffered back - to - back home losses to St. Louis and Detroit to make their record 7 -- 4 and call their playoff prospects into question. At a press conference following the Giants ' loss to Detroit, Fassel guaranteed that "this team is going to the playoffs ''. The Giants responded, winning the rest of their regular season games to finish the season 12 -- 4 and clinch the top seed in the NFC. In the Divisional Round, the Giants beat the Philadelphia Eagles 20 -- 10 at home to qualify for the NFC Championship Game, in which they defeated the Minnesota Vikings 41 -- 0. They advanced to play the Baltimore Ravens in Super Bowl XXXV. Though the Giants went into halftime down only 10 -- 0, the Ravens dominated the second half. Their defense harassed Kerry Collins all game long, resulting in Collins completing only 15 of 39 passes for 112 yards and 4 interceptions. The Ravens won the game 34 -- 7.
After a disappointing 7 -- 9 record in 2001, the Giants finished the 2002 season with a record of 10 -- 6, qualifying for the playoffs as a wild card. This set up a meeting with the San Francisco 49ers in Candlestick Park in the Wild Card round. The Giants built up a sizable lead throughout the game, and led 38 -- 14 with 4: 27 left in the third quarter. However, San Francisco rallied to win the game by one point, with the final score of 39 -- 38.
After a dismal 2003 season in which the Giants finished with a 4 -- 12 record, Jim Fassel was released by the Giants. His head coaching record with the Giants during this time was 58 -- 53 -- 1.
In 2004, three years after their last Super Bowl appearance, Fassel was replaced by Tom Coughlin. Although Collins had several solid seasons as the Giants quarterback, he experienced his share of struggles. In 2004, the Giants completed a draft day trade for University of Mississippi quarterback Eli Manning. Manning became the team 's starting quarterback in the middle of the 2004 season, taking over for Kurt Warner. During the three - year period from 2004 to 2006, Tom Coughlin 's Giants compiled a 25 -- 23 regular season record and two appearances in the Wild Card Round -- both losses (to the Carolina Panthers in 2005 and to the Philadelphia Eagles in 2006.) and spawned intense media scrutiny concerning the direction of the team. During this period in their history, standout players included defensive end Michael Strahan, who set the NFL single season record in sacks in 2001, and running back Tiki Barber, who set a team record for rushing yards in a season in 2005. Barber retired at the end of the 2006 season.
Going into 2007, the Giants had made the playoffs in back - to - back seasons. In 2007, the Giants became the third NFL franchise to win at least 600 games when they defeated the Atlanta Falcons 31 -- 10 on Monday Night Football. For the 2007 season, the NFL scheduled the Giants ' road game against the Miami Dolphins on October 28 in London 's Wembley Stadium; this was the first NFL regular - season game to be played outside of North America. The Giants defeated the Dolphins, 13 -- 10. The Giants finished 10 -- 6, and became NFC Champions after defeating the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Dallas Cowboys, and Green Bay Packers in the NFC Playoffs. They set a record for most consecutive road wins in a single season with 10 (a streak which ended with a loss to the Cleveland Browns during week 6 of the 2008 season).
The Patriots (18 -- 0) entered the Super Bowl undefeated and were 12 point favorites going into game weekend. The Giants defeated the Patriots 17 -- 14 in Super Bowl XLII, aided by the famous "Manning to Tyree '' pass. On this famous play, Manning escaped the grip of several Patriots defensive linemen, stepped up in the pocket, and heaved the ball down the middle of the field to a double covered David Tyree. With Rodney Harrison, a Patriots defensive back, all over Tyree, David managed to hold on to the ball by holding it on his helmet until he fell to the ground. This catch set up a Manning to Plaxico Burress touchdown pass in the back of the end zone to put the Giants in the lead. It was the third biggest upset by betting line in Super Bowl history (the Baltimore Colts were favored by 17 over the New York Jets in Super Bowl III, and the St. Louis Rams were favored by 14 over the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XXXVI). Co-owner John Mara described it as "the greatest victory in the history of this franchise, without question ''.
The Giants began the 2008 NFL season with a record of 11 -- 1, but lost three of their last four regular season games partially due to a self - inflicted gunshot wound to wide receiver Plaxico Burress. However, the Giants still won the NFC East with a record of 12 -- 4, and clinched the number one seed in the NFC after beating the Carolina Panthers for home field advantage and a first - round bye. In the Divisional Round of the playoffs, the Giants lost 23 -- 11 to the Philadelphia Eagles at home.
In 2009, the Giants opened a new training complex, the Timex Performance Center, also located in the Meadowlands. After starting 5 -- 0 in the 2009 season, New York lost to the likewise undefeated New Orleans Saints at the Superdome 48 -- 27, beginning a four - game losing streak, in which they lost to the Arizona Cardinals 24 -- 17, the San Diego Chargers 21 -- 20 and the Philadelphia Eagles 40 -- 17. The streak was broken with a 34 -- 31 overtime victory against the Falcons. On Thanksgiving night, they lost to the Denver Broncos 26 -- 6. The Giants next beat the division leading Cowboys. A week later, with a record of 7 -- 5, they lost to the Philadelphia Eagles, 45 -- 38. On December 27, the Giants lost to the Carolina Panthers 41 -- 9 in their final game at Giants Stadium, and were eliminated from playoff eligibility. The Giants finished the season 8 -- 8.
Following the season, the Giants fired first - year defensive coordinator Bill Sheridan, and replaced him with the former Buffalo Bills interim head coach, Perry Fewell. The Giants defense finished 13th overall under Sheridan, giving up 324.9 yards per game, and the final two losses of the season against Carolina and Minnesota, in which the Giants gave up 85 points, ultimately led to the firing.
In 2010, the Giants moved from Giants Stadium into MetLife Stadium, then known as the "New Meadowlands Stadium ''. They won against the Panthers in the very first game at the New Meadowlands, but then lost to the Colts in the second "Manning Bowl '', so - called due to Eli Manning 's brother Peyton playing for the Colts. The Giants dropped one game to the Tennessee Titans before going on a five - game winning streak, beating the Bears, Houston Texans, Lions, Cowboys, and Seattle Seahawks. Before long, the Giants were 6 -- 2, but lost two straight to division foes: to the Cowboys 33 -- 20 at home, and to the Eagles on the road, putting the G - Men in 2nd place in the NFC East at 6 -- 4. In first place was the Eagles, but at December 19 they were both tied for first place at 8 -- 4, setting up a match for first place. The Giants were at home, and led 24 -- 3 over the Eagles at halftime. The score was 31 -- 10 with 5: 40 left in the game, but Michael Vick led the Eagles to three touchdown drives to tie the game up at 31 with 40 seconds left. After a Giants three - and - outs, Matt Dodge punted the ball to DeSean Jackson, who returned it for a touchdown, concluding the Giants ' epic collapse. The next game, the Giants lost to the eventual Super Bowl Champion Green Bay Packers 45 -- 17, and at 9 -- 6, they faced the Redskins. They had to win and have the Packers lose in order to get into the playoffs. The Giants won 17 -- 14, but the Packers beat the Bears 10 -- 3, so the Giants missed out on the playoffs again, ending a collapse in which the Giants went 4 -- 4 in their last eight games.
During the 2011 preseason, the Giants lost Kevin Boss, Steve Smith, Rich Seubert, Keith Bulluck, Derek Hagan, and Pro Bowl center Shaun O'Hara to free agency. However, the season also saw the emergence of second - year wide receiver Victor Cruz and second - year tight end Jake Ballard. The Giants opened their season with a 28 -- 14 loss to the Washington Redskins at FedEx Field on the 10th anniversary of the September 11th attacks. However, the Giants secured a 6 -- 2 record by the midpoint of the season, including road victories over the Philadelphia Eagles and the New England Patriots. The latter victory ended the Patriots ' NFL record home - game winning streak, after a touchdown pass from Manning to Jake Ballard with 15 seconds left in the game.
However, the Giants then suffered a four - game losing streak, including road losses against the resurgent San Francisco 49ers and the New Orleans Saints and home losses to the Eagles and the then - undefeated Green Bay Packers, to make their record 6 -- 6 entering December. The Giants broke their losing streak with a tightly contested 37 -- 34 road victory over the Cowboys on December 11, but lost at home to the Washington Redskins the following week to make their record 7 -- 7 with a Christmas Eve showdown against their crosstown rival New York Jets the following week. The Giants won, 29 -- 14, and knocked the Eagles out of playoff contention, to set up a Week 17 home game against the Cowboys in which the winner would clinch the NFC East while the loser would be eliminated from playoff contention. The game was flexed into Sunday Night Football. The Giants defeated the Cowboys, 31 -- 14, and clinched the NFC East title and the fourth seed in the playoffs. Wide receiver Victor Cruz finished the regular season with 1,536 receiving yards, breaking the Giants franchise record previously held by Amani Toomer.
On January 8, 2012 in the first round of the playoffs the Giants defeated the Atlanta Falcons 24 -- 2. After giving up an early safety in the first half, QB Eli Manning threw for three consecutive touchdowns. RBs Ahmad Bradshaw and Brandon Jacobs combined for 172 yards rushing, a season - high for the Giants. With the victory, the Giants advanced to the second round against the top - ranked Green Bay Packers.
On January 15, 2012, the Giants defeated the Green Bay Packers 37 -- 20. Eli Manning threw for 330 yards and 3 touchdowns, two of which to wide receiver Hakeem Nicks. This earned the Giants a spot in the NFC Championship Game on January 22, 2012, against the San Francisco 49ers. They won this game 20 -- 17, in overtime, with Tynes scoring the winning field goal as he did four years earlier in the same game against the Packers.
The New York Giants won Super Bowl XLVI against the New England Patriots with a score of 21 -- 17. The winning touchdown was preceded by a 38 - yard reception by receiver Mario Manningham. As in Super Bowl XLII, Eli Manning was Super Bowl MVP, defeating the New England Patriots for a second time in the Super Bowl.
Ahmad Bradshaw scored the game - winning touchdown by falling into the end zone. The Patriots were allowing Bradshaw to get the touchdown so they would get the ball with some time remaining. When Eli Manning handed the ball to Bradshaw, he told him not to score. Bradshaw was about to fall down at the 1 - yard line but his momentum carried him in, thus the "reluctant touchdown. ''
As was the case in each of their four previous Super Bowl appearances, the Giants trailed at halftime. They are the only team in NFL history to have more than two second half, come - from - behind, Super Bowl victories (4). The Pittsburgh Steelers, who accomplished the feat in Super Bowl X and Super Bowl XIV, are the only other team to do it more than once.
The Giants began the 2012 season with a home loss to the Cowboys, but rebounded to finish October with a 6 -- 2 record and on a four - game winning streak that included a 26 -- 3 road victory against the eventual NFC champion San Francisco 49ers. Following the arrival of Hurricane Sandy in the Northeastern United States, the Giants lost back - to - back games against the Steelers and Bengals to fall to 6 -- 4. Despite impressive blowout home victories over the Packers, Saints and Eagles, the Giants finished the season 9 -- 7 and out of the playoffs. The Redskins won the division with a 10 -- 6 record, only to lose to the Seahawks 24 -- 14 in Wild Card Weekend. QB Eli Manning, DE Jason Pierre - Paul, WR Victor Cruz, and G Chris Snee represented the Giants at the Pro Bowl.
The 2013 New York Giants season began with hope that the Giants could become the first team to play in the Super Bowl in their home stadium, as MetLife Stadium was scheduled to host Super Bowl XLVIII that February. However, the Giants ' playoff hopes took a massive hit when they lost the first six games of the season. They rebounded to win the next four games in a row to improve to 4 -- 6, but lost a critical home game to the Cowboys on a last - minute field goal. They finished the season 7 -- 9 and with a losing record for the first time since 2004. The Giants drafted rookie wide receiver Odell Beckham Jr. in the 2014 NFL Draft, who would later go on to win the AP Offensive Rookie of the Year award. However, the Giants missed the playoffs for a third straight season, finishing with a 6 -- 10 record. The 2015 New York Giants season was another disappointing campaign, as the Giants showcased a struggling defense and several late - game collapses. The Giants finished the season with a 6 -- 10 record and missed the playoffs.
On January 14, 2016, the Giants announced that Ben McAdoo would become the team 's head coach. He replaced Tom Coughlin, who had resigned the previous week. The Giants turned it around in 2016, ending their five - year playoff drought. The Giants later lost to the Green Bay Packers 38 -- 13 in the Wild Card round.
After having high expectations due to their 11 -- 5 record in 2016, the Giants had an unexpected 0 -- 5 start to the season, before pulling a massive upset versus the Broncos at Sports Authority Field at Mile High for their first win of the season. However, during the Week 5 game against the Los Angeles Chargers, Odell Beckham Jr. fractured his fibula, an injury that ended his season. During the same game, the Giants also lost WRs Brandon Marshall and Dwayne Harris to season ending injuries. The season was also marred by suspensions to Dominique Rodgers - Cromartie and Janoris Jenkins.
Season by season timeline of the New York Giants franchise including the team name, changes of Home Field, Postseason Championships Seasons, and coaches throughout the years.
The Giants have won a total of eight League Championships: 1927, 1934, 1938, 1956, 1986, 1990, 2007 and 2011. The first four of those championships came in the pre-Super Bowl era. New York 's eight championships put them third among all active and defunct NFL teams, trailing only the Green Bay Packers (13) and the Chicago Bears (9).
Before the Super Bowl was instituted, the Giants won four officially recognized NFL Championships.
The Giants have won four Super Bowls, tied with Green Bay for the fifth most behind only Dallas, San Francisco and New England (all with 5), and Pittsburgh (6).
The Giants have won five NFC Championship Games, including two in overtime in 2007 and 2011.
With over 80 years of team history, the Giants have used numerous uniforms and logos, while maintaining a consistent identity. The Giants ' logos include several incarnations of a giant quarterback preparing to throw a football, a lowercase "ny '', and stylized versions of the team nickname.
Giants ' jerseys are traditionally blue or red (or white with blue or red accents), and their pants alternate between white and gray. Currently, the Giants wear home jerseys that are solid blue with white block numbering, white pants with five thin blue / gray / red / gray / blue stripes on the pant legs, and solid blue socks. For this they gained their most renowned nickname, "Big Blue ''. For road uniforms, they wear a white jersey with red block numbering and red "Northwestern '' stripes on the sleeves, gray pants with three thin non-contiguous red / blue / red stripes on the pant legs, and solid red socks. The Giants ' current helmet is metallic blue with white block numbers, which are frontally mounted and base mounted on either side of a red stripe running down the center or frontally mounted and base mounted on the red center stripe itself. The Giants, along with the Pittsburgh Steelers, are one of only two teams in the National Football League to have the players ' uniform numbers on both the front and back of the helmets. The helmet is adorned on both sides with the stylized white lower case "ny '' logo and features a gray facemask. The home uniforms are generally similar to the design used from 1966 to 1974, but with some slight elements from the 1956 -- 1961 uniforms. The road uniforms are essentially a modernization of the design used from 1956 to 1961. Additionally, the Giants had a third jersey until the 2009 season, which recalled the Giants ' solid red home jerseys from the early 1950s: a solid red alternate with white block numbers. These jerseys were used a total of four times, but have since been retired. They were used once in 2004 against the Philadelphia Eagles and in three consecutive years -- 2005, 2006, and 2007 -- against the Dallas Cowboys.
The Giants have had a long and, at times, turbulent financial history. The team was founded by Tim Mara with an investment of US $ 500 in 1925 and became one of the first teams in the then five - year - old NFL. To differentiate themselves from the baseball team of the same name, they took the name "New York Football Giants '', which they still use as their legal corporate name.
Although the Giants were successful on the field in their initial seasons, their financial status was a different story. Overshadowed by baseball, boxing, and college football, professional football was not a popular sport in 1925. The Giants were in dire financial straits until the 11th game of the season when Red Grange and the Chicago Bears came to town, attracting over 73,000 fans. This gave the Giants a much needed influx of revenue, and perhaps altered the history of the franchise. The following year, Grange and his agent formed a rival league and stationed a competing team, led by Grange, in New York. Though the Giants lost $50,000 that season, the rival league folded and was subsumed into the NFL. Following the 1930 season, Mara transferred ownership of the team over to his two sons to insulate the team from creditors, and by 1946, he had given over complete control of the team to them. Jack, the older son, controlled the business aspects, while Wellington controlled the on - field operations. After their initial struggles the Giants financial status stabilized, and they led the league in attendance several times in the 1930s and 1940s.
By the early 1960s, the Giants had firmly established themselves as one of the league 's biggest attractions. However, rather than continuing to receive their higher share of the league television revenue, the Mara sons pushed for equal sharing of revenue for the benefit of the entire league. Revenue sharing is still practiced in the NFL today, and is credited with strengthening the league. After their struggles in the latter half of the 1960s and the entire 1970s, the Giants hired an outsider, George Young, to run the football operations for the first time in franchise history. The Giants ' on - field product and business aspects improved rapidly following the move.
In 1991, Tim Mara, grandson of the founder, was struggling with cancer and sold his half of the team to Bob Tisch for a reported $80 million. This marked the first time in franchise history the team had not been solely owned by the Mara family. In 2005, Wellington Mara, who had been with the team since its inception in 1925 when he worked as a ball boy, died at the age of 89. His death was followed two weeks later by the death of Tisch. In 2015, Wellington 's widow and Giants co-owner Ann died due to complications from a head injury suffered in a fall. She was 85 years old.
In 2010, MetLife Stadium opened, replacing Giants Stadium. The new stadium is a 50 / 50 partnership between the Giants and Jets, and while the stadium is owned by the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority on paper, the two teams jointly built the stadium using private funds, and administer it jointly through New Meadowlands Stadium Corporation. The Giants had previously planned a $300 million renovation to the Meadowlands, before deciding in favor of the new stadium which was originally estimated to cost approximately $600 million, before rising to an estimated cost of one billion dollars. One advantage gained by owning the stadium is that the teams saved considerable money in tax payments. The teams leased the land from the state at a cost of $6.3 million per year. The state paid for all utilities, including the $30 million needed to install them.
The Giants are owned and operated by John Mara and Steve Tisch. Forbes magazine estimated the value of the team in 2012 to be $1.3 billion. This ranks the New York Giants as the fourth most valuable franchise in the NFL and the ninth most valuable professional sports franchise in the world. The value has steadily increased from $288 million in 1998, to their current value. The magazine estimated their revenue in 2006 at $182 million, of which $46 million came from gate receipts. Operating income was $26.9 million, and player salary was $102 million. Current major sponsors include Gatorade, Anheuser Busch, Toyota, and Verizon Wireless. Recent former sponsors include Miller Brewing and North Fork Bank. Luxury suites, retail and game day concessions at the new stadium are provisioned and operated by global hospitality giant Delaware North Companies. Giants average ticket price is $72.
The Giants draw their fans from the New York metropolitan area. Since their move to New Jersey in 1976, fans from each state have claimed the team as their own. In January 1987, shortly before the team won Super Bowl XXI, then New York City mayor Ed Koch labeled the team "foreigners '' and said they were not entitled to a ticker - tape parade in New York City. On February 5, 2008, the city, under mayor Michael Bloomberg, threw a ticker tape parade in honor of the Giants ' Super Bowl XLII victory at the Canyon of Heroes in lower Manhattan. New York City held another ticker tape parade on February 7, 2012, in honor of the Giants ' Super Bowl XLVI victory. According to a team spokesman, in 2001, 52 percent of the Giants ' season ticket - holders lived in New Jersey. Most of the remaining ticket holders lived in New York State with some coming from other states.
Through the lean years of the 1960s and 1970s the Giants, in spite of a 17 - year - long playoff drought, still accumulated a 20 - year - long waiting list for season tickets. It has been estimated that the Giants have a waiting list of 135,000 people, the largest of any North American professional sports franchise.
The rivalry between the New York Giants and the Philadelphia Eagles is one of the oldest in the NFL, dating back to 1933. The two teams have frequently fought for playoff contention, NFC East titles, and respect. While the Giants have dominated this rivalry throughout most of its history, the series began to even in the 1980s, with the series lead to the Eagles 22 -- 21 through the 1990s and 2000s. The Giants lead the series 85 -- 81 -- 2. The two teams have met four times in the postseason, with each team winning two games. Three of those four playoff meetings were held in the 2000s decade. New York City and Philadelphia have a strong geographic rivalry, as seen in other professional sports such as the Mets - Phillies rivalry in Major League Baseball, and the Flyers - Rangers and Devils - Flyers rivalries in the National Hockey League.
The Giants have an old and storied rivalry with the Redskins, dating back to 1932. While this rivalry is typically given less significance than the rivalries with the Eagles and Cowboys, there have been periods of great competition between the two. In the 1980s the Giants and Redskins clashed as both struggled against each other for division titles and even Super Bowl Championships. Most notable among these is the 1986 NFC Championship game in which the Giants defeated the Redskins 17 -- 0 to earn their first ever trip to the Super Bowl. Wellington Mara always felt this was the Giants oldest and truest rival, and after passing away in 2005, the Giants honored their longtime owner by defeating the Redskins 36 -- 0 at home. The Giants lead this series 98 -- 66 -- 4. The Giants 98 wins against the Redskins are tied for most wins against another franchise in NFL history, along with the Chicago Bears defeating the Detroit Lions 98 times.
The Giants have maintained a fierce divisional rivalry with the Dallas Cowboys since the Cowboys first began play in 1960. The two teams have a combined nine Super Bowl victories between them, and have played many games in which the NFC East title was at stake. The rivalry is unique among professional sports as it is the only divisional rivalry between sports teams from New York City and Dallas, partially due to the large distance between the two cities. The Cowboys lead the regular season series 62 -- 43 -- 2, while the Giants hold the lone playoff victory between the two teams, held at the conclusion of the 2007 season.
Despite never being in the same division, the Giants and 49ers have developed a heated rivalry over the years. The two teams have met eight times in the playoffs (including two NFC Championship Games, both won by New York) since 1982, which is the most of any two teams in that span. The Giants lead the overall series 20 -- 19, but the postseason series is tied, 4 -- 4.
The Giants and Jets for many years had the only intracity rivalry in the NFL, made even more unusual by sharing a stadium. They have met annually in the preseason since 1969. Since 2011, this meeting has been known as the "MetLife Bowl '', after the naming sponsor of the teams ' stadium. Regular season matchups between the teams occur once every four years, as they follow the NFL scheduling formula for interconference games. Since the two teams play each other so infrequently in the regular season, some, including players on both teams, have questioned whether the Giants and Jets have a real rivalry. A memorable regular season game was in 1988, when the Giants faced off against the Jets in the last game of the season, needing a victory to make the playoffs. The Jets played spoiler, however, beating the Giants 27 -- 21 and ruining the latter 's playoff hopes. A different scenario unfolded during the penultimate regular season game of 2011 as the "visiting '' Giants defeated the Jets 29 -- 14. The victory simultaneously helped eliminate the Jets from playoff contention and propel the Giants to their own playoff run and eventual win in Super Bowl XLVI. The Giants lead the overall regular season series 8 -- 5 and have won five of the past six meetings.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated December 17, 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 19 Inactive, 9 Practice squad
In the Pro Football Hall of Fame, the Giants boast the second-most enshrined members with 29. Tim Mara, Mel Hein, Pete Henry, Cal Hubbard and Jim Thorpe were a part of the original class of inductees in 1963, while Defensive End Michael Strahan, the most recent Giant inducted, was a part of the Class of 2014. Numerous members, including Larry Csonka, Ray Flaherty, Joe Guyon, Pete Henry, Arnie Herber, Cal Hubbard, Tom Landry, Don Maynard, Hugh McElhenny, and Jim Thorpe were at one time associated with the New York Giants, but they were inducted largely based on their careers with other teams.
The New York Giants unveiled their own Ring of Honor on October 3, 2010 during halftime of their Sunday Night Football matchup with the Chicago Bears. John Mara had long wished to create a Giants Ring of Honor and Hall of Fame to honor Giants who helped the franchise achieve each of their championships, and the building of MetLife Stadium resulted in the realization of that ambition. The organization had an inaugural induction class of 30 including players, coaches, owners and executives that have had a great impact on the organization. While the entire list of inductees was not revealed until the actual induction, the organization did confirm about a week before the ceremony that Phil Simms, Bill Parcells, Michael Strahan, Tiki Barber, Frank Gifford and Pete Gogolak would all be inducted.
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As of 2010, the Giants ' flagship radio station is WFAN, with games simulcast on WFAN - FM as of November 2012. Beginning in 2012, the Giants became WFAN 's top priority during the entire football season; prior to that, games that conflicted with late season New York Mets baseball games in September and early October were moved to other CBS Radio owned stations. This arrangement only lasted for 2012, and the Mets received priority again in 2013. WFAN acquired the rights to New York Yankees games for 2014, and thus the Giants ' schedule will be in conflict with them for the foreseeable future. When there is an overlap, Giants games are carried by WFAN 's sister station, WCBS - AM.
Bob Papa on play - by - play and Carl Banks on color commentary are the Giants ' radio broadcast team, with Howard Cross as the sideline reporter. When Papa is unavailable to call games Chris Carrino, WFAN 's lead broadcaster for the Brooklyn Nets, substitutes for him. Games are carried over the New York Giants Radio Network over various stations in New York, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and (as of 2010) Mississippi.
Preseason telecasts not seen nationally air in the area on WNBC, with WWOR - TV serving as an overflow station for when WNBC is airing other programming such as the Summer Olympic Games. Papa and Banks call these games on television, with studio host Paul Dottino as Papa 's substitute. WPIX - TV or WABC - TV will also air any Giants broadcast that is carried by ESPN, as per the local carriage rules (WABC - TV corporate parent, The Walt Disney Company, holds an 80 % majority ownership stake in ESPN, and has a right of first refusal for these telecasts). Thursday Night Football games exclusive to NFL Network are carried locally by the producing network 's O&O, either WCBS - TV or WNBC.
The Giants ' public address announcer at MetLife Stadium is Jim Hall, who for years was Bob Sheppard 's substitute at Yankee Stadium due to their very similar voices. Hall took over the Giants PA job after Sheppard elected to leave the position in 2005 to focus solely on his Yankee Stadium duties.
WFAN has produced the Giants ' radio broadcasts since 1995, but has not always aired them on the station. For 1995, then - Giants flagship WOR continued to carry the games as they had for the previous two seasons. In 1996 the games were simulcast on WFAN and WOR, which caused some conflict as at the time, WFAN was the radio flagship of the New York Jets as well. To remedy the situation, beginning the next year WFAN moved the Giants ' radio broadcasts to the FM dial and sister station WNEW - FM, where they remained until the end of the 1999 season. In 2000 WFAN lost the Jets ' radio contract to WABC and the Giants moved back to WFAN where they have been ever since.
The Giants ' longtime radio home was WNEW, where games aired from the mid-1950s until 1993 when the station was bought by Bloomberg L.P. and changed its format. Marty Glickman teamed with Al DeRogatis for a long stretch beginning in the early 1960s on WNEW. Chip Cipolla and later Sam Huff joined Glickman after DeRogatis left to join Curt Gowdy on NBC. After the WNEW split, games began airing on WOR. Glickman moved to the crosstown Jets in 1973 and was succeeded by Marv Albert. Jim Gordon succeeded Albert in 1977, beginning an 18 - year tenure as the Giants ' play - by - play voice. Meanwhile, Dick Lynch took over as color analyst in 1976 and continued in that role through 2007, with his last game being Super Bowl XLII, and retired following the season due to his advancing leukemia, which took his life in September 2008.
Eventually Gordon and Lynch were joined by Karl Nelson, a former lineman for the Giants. Gordon and Nelson were fired after the 1994 season, after which Papa took over the play - by - play (after being studio host) and led a two - man booth with Lynch. Dave Jennings joined the broadcast team in 2002 following his firing by the Jets, with whom he had worked since his 1987 retirement from the NFL. Jennings was moved to the pregame show after the 2006 season and was replaced by Carl Banks, leaving broadcasting altogether in 2008 due to his ongoing battle with Parkinson 's disease that he lost in 2013.
After WFAN began airing games Richard Neer served as pregame and postgame host. He was replaced by Sid Rosenberg, who was in turn fired by the station due to troubles and replaced by Chris Carlin. Carlin left in 2008 to focus full - time on his duties as SNY studio host and Rutgers athletics radio voice and was replaced by WWOR sports reporter and former WFAN host Russ Salzberg, who cohosted with Roman Oben after Jennings left. WEPN Giants beat reporter Paul Dottino was hired by WFAN to host the pregame show for 2009 and continues to be a part of the program. Anita Marks has hosted the pre - and post - game shows since 2010, co-hosting with Dottino for home games and Oben for away games.
The Giants were carried on the DuMont Network, then CBS (New York 's Channel 2) in the early TV days of the NFL, when home games were blacked out within a 75 - mile radius of New York City. Chris Schenkel was their play - by - play announcer in that early era when each team was assigned its own network voice on its regional telecasts. At the time, there were few if any true national telecasts until the NFL championship game, which was carried by NBC. Schenkel was joined by Jim McKay, later Johnny Lujack through the 1950s and the early 1960s. As Giants players retired to the broadcast booth in the early and 1960s, first Pat Summerall, then Frank Gifford took the color analyst slot next to Schenkel. As the 1970 merger of the NFL and AFL approached, CBS moved to a more generic announcer approach and Schenkel was off the broadcasts.
Giants regular - season Sunday telecasts moved to Fox when that network took over NFC telecasts in 1994 and are carried locally by WNYW.
WCBS - TV and WPIX were previously home to Giants preseason telecasts in the 1990s, with WPIX serving as the Giants ' (and Jets ') long time preseason home. After the NFC rights were lost by CBS, the Giants followed the conference 's broadcast rights to WNYW. WWOR became the Giants ' flagship TV station in the late ' 90s, and stayed so up until WNBC took over rights in 2005.
When the Giants first moved to WNYW, Mike Breen was their preseason play - by - play man. Sam Rosen was the television voice for some time afterward, except for two years when Curt Menefee (then of WNYW) was the voice. When the games moved to WWOR, Rosen regained the position and held it until 2004. Former Giant receiver Phil McConkey became the early season analyst after his retirement and stayed in the booth for many years.
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what was life like when the first fleet arrived in australia | First Fleet - wikipedia
The First Fleet was the 11 ships that departed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787 to found the penal colony that became the first European settlement in Australia. The Fleet consisted of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and six convict transports, carrying between 1,000 and 1,500 convicts, marines, seamen, civil officers and free people (accounts differ on the numbers), and a large quantity of stores. From England, the Fleet sailed southwest to Rio de Janeiro, then east to Cape Town and via the Great Southern Ocean to Botany Bay, arriving over the period of 18 to 20 January 1788, taking 250 to 252 days from departure to final arrival.
Convicts were originally transported to the Thirteen Colonies in North America, but after the American War of Independence ended in 1783, the newly formed United States refused to accept further convicts. On 6 December 1785, Orders in Council were issued in London for the establishment of a penal colony in New South Wales, on land claimed for Britain by explorer James Cook in his first voyage to the Pacific in 1770.
The First Fleet was commanded by Commodore Arthur Phillip, who was given instructions authorising him to make regulations and land grants in the colony. The ships arrived at Botany Bay between 18 January and 20 January 1788: HMS Supply arrived on 18 January, Alexander, Scarborough and Friendship arrived on 19 January, and the remaining ships on 20 January.
The cost to Britain of outfitting and despatching the Fleet was £ 84,000 (about £ 9.6 million as of 2015).
The First Fleet included two Royal Navy escort ships, the ten - gun sixth - rate vessel HMS Sirius under the command of Captain John Hunter, and the armed tender HMS Supply commanded by Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball.
Ropes, crockery, agricultural equipment and a miscellany of other stores were needed. Items transported included tools, agricultural implements, seeds, spirits, medical supplies, bandages, surgical instruments, handcuffs, leg irons and a prefabricated wooden frame for the colony 's first Government House. The party had to rely on its own provisions to survive until it could make use of local materials, assuming suitable supplies existed, and grow its own food and raise livestock.
Scale models of all the ships are on display at the Museum of Sydney. The models were built by ship makers Lynne and Laurie Hadley, after researching the original plans, drawings and British archives. The replicas of the Supply, Charlotte, Scarborough, Friendship, Prince of Wales, Lady Penrhyn, Borrowdale, Alexander, Sirius (1786), Fishburn and Golden Grove are made from Western Red or Syrian Cedar.
Nine Sydney harbour ferries built in the mid-1980s are named after First Fleet vessels. The unused names are Lady Penrhyn and Prince of Wales.
The people of the fleet included seamen, marines and their families, government officials, and a large number of convicts, including women and children. The majority were British, but there were also African, American and French convicts on board. The convicts had committed a variety of crimes, including theft, perjury, fraud, assault, and robbery, for which they had variously been sentenced to penal transportation for 7 years, 14 years, or the term of their natural life.
The six convict transports each had a detachment of marines on board. Most of the families of the marines traveled aboard the Prince of Wales. A number of people on the First Fleet kept diaries and journals of their experiences, including the surgeons. There are twelve known journals in existence as well as some letters.
The exact number of people directly associated with the First Fleet will likely never be established, as accounts of the event vary slightly. A total of 1,420 people have been identified as embarking on the First Fleet in 1787, and 1,373 are believed to have landed at Sydney Cove in January 1788. In her biographical dictionary of the First Fleet, Mollie Gillen gives the following statistics:
While the names of all crew members of Sirius and Supply are known, the six transports and three storeships may have carried as many as 110 more seamen than have been identified -- no complete musters have survived for these ships. The total number of persons embarking on the First Fleet would, therefore, be approximately 1,530 with about 1,483 reaching Sydney Cove.
Other sources indicate that the passengers consisted of 10 civil officers, 212 marines, including officers, 28 wives and 17 children of the marines, 81 free people, 504 male convicts and 192 female convicts; making the total number of free people 348 and the total number of prisoners 696, coming to a grand total of 1,044 people.
According to the first census of 1788 as reported by Governor Phillip to Lord Sydney, the white population of the colony was 1,030 and the colony also consisted of 7 horses, 29 sheep, 74 swine, 6 rabbits, and 7 cattle.
The following statistics were provided by Governor Phillip:
David Collins ' book An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales gives the following details:
The Alexander, of 453 tons, had on board 192 male convicts; 2 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1 drummer, and 29 privates, with 1 assistant surgeon to the colony.
The Scarborough, of 418 tons, had on board 205 male convicts; 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1 drummer, and 26 privates, with 1 assistant surgeon to the colony.
The Charlotte, of 346 tons, had on board 89 male and 20 female convicts; 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 3 corporals, 1 drummer, and 35 privates, with the principal surgeon of the colony.
The Lady Penrhyn, of 338 tons, had on board 101 female convicts; 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, and 3 privates, with a person acting as a surgeon 's mate.
The Prince of Wales, of 334 tons, had on board 2 male and 50 female convicts; 2 lieutenants, 3 sergeants, 2 corporals, 1 drummer, and 24 privates, with the surveyor - general of the colony.
The Friendship,... of 228 tons, had on board 76 male and 21 female convicts; 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 3 corporals, 1 drummer, and 36 privates, with 1 assistant surgeon to the colony.
There were on board, beside these, 28 women, 8 male and 6 female children, belonging to the soldiers of the detachment, together with 6 male and 7 female children belonging to the convicts.
The Fishburn store - ship was of 378 tons; the Borrowdale of 272 tons; and the Golden Grove of 331 tons. Golden Grove carried the chaplain for the colony, with his wife and a servant.
Not only these store - ships, but the men of war and transports were laden with provisions, implements of agriculture, camp equipage, clothing for the convicts, baggage, etc.
The Sirius carried as supernumeraries, the major commandant of the corps of marines embarked in the transports * (* This officer was also lieutenant - governor of the colony), the adjutant and quarter - master, the judge - advocate of the settlement, and the commissary; with one sergeant, three drummers, seven privates, four women, and a few artificers.
The chief surgeon for the First Fleet, John White, reported a total of 48 deaths and 28 births during the voyage. The deaths during the voyage included one marine, one marine 's wife, one marine 's child, 36 male convicts, four female convicts, and five children of convicts.
The First Fleet left Portsmouth, England on 13 May 1787. The journey began with fine weather, and thus the convicts were allowed on deck. The Fleet was accompanied by the armed frigate Hyena until it left English waters. On 20 May 1787, one convict on the Scarborough reported a planned mutiny; those allegedly involved were flogged and two were transferred to Prince of Wales. In general, however, most accounts of the voyage agree that the convicts were well behaved. On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz at Tenerife. Here, fresh water, vegetables and meat were brought on board. Phillip and the chief officers were entertained by the local governor, while one convict tried unsuccessfully to escape. On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents.
The weather became increasingly hot and humid as the Fleet sailed through the tropics. Vermin, such as rats, and parasites such as bedbugs, lice, cockroaches and fleas, tormented the convicts, officers and marines. Bilges became foul and the smell, especially below the closed hatches, was over-powering. While Phillip gave orders that the bilge - water was to be pumped out daily and the bilges cleaned, these orders were not followed on the Alexander and a number of convicts fell sick and died. Tropical rainstorms meant that the convicts could not exercise on deck as they had no change of clothes and no method of drying wet clothing. Consequently, they were kept below in the foul, cramped holds. On the female transports, promiscuity between the convicts, the crew and marines was rampant, despite punishments for some of the men involved. In the doldrums, Phillip was forced to ration the water to three pints a day.
The Fleet reached Rio de Janeiro on 5 August and stayed for a month. The ships were cleaned and water taken on board, repairs were made, and Phillip ordered large quantities of food. The women convicts ' clothing had become infested with lice and was burnt. As additional clothing for the female convicts had not arrived before the Fleet left England, the women were issued with new clothes made from rice sacks. While the convicts remained below deck, the officers explored the city and were entertained by its inhabitants. A convict and a marine were punished for passing forged quarter - dollars made from old buckles and pewter spoons.
The Fleet left Rio de Janeiro on 4 September to run before the westerlies to the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa, which it reached on 13 October. This was the last port of call, so the main task was to stock up on plants, seeds and livestock for their arrival in Australia. The livestock taken on board from the Cape of Good Hope destined for the new colony included two bulls, seven cows, one stallion, three mares, 44 sheep, 32 pigs, four goats and "a very large quantity of poultry of every kind ''. Women convicts on the Friendship were moved to other transports to make room for livestock purchased there. The convicts were provided with fresh beef and mutton, bread and vegetables, to build up their strength for the journey and maintain their health. The Dutch colony of Cape Town was the last outpost of European settlement which the fleet members would see for years, perhaps for the rest of their lives. "Before them stretched the awesome, lonely void of the Indian and Southern Oceans, and beyond that lay nothing they could imagine. ''
Assisted by the gales in the "Roaring Forties '' latitudes below the 40th parallel, the heavily laden transports surged through the violent seas. In the last two months of the voyage, the Fleet faced challenging conditions, spending some days becalmed and on others covering significant distances; the Friendship travelled 166 miles one day, while a seaman was blown from the Prince of Wales at night and drowned. Water was rationed as supplies ran low, and the supply of other goods including wine ran out altogether on some vessels. Van Diemen 's Land was sighted from the Friendship on 4 January 1788. A freak storm struck as they began to head north around the island, damaging the sails and masts of some of the ships.
On 25 November, Phillip had transferred to the Supply. With Alexander, Friendship and Scarborough, the fastest ships in the Fleet, which were carrying most of the male convicts, the Supply hastened ahead to prepare for the arrival of the rest. Phillip intended to select a suitable location, find good water, clear the ground, and perhaps even have some huts and other structures built before the others arrived. This was a planned move, discussed by the Home Office and the Admiralty prior to the Fleet 's departure. However, this "flying squadron '' reached Botany Bay only hours before the rest of the Fleet, so no preparatory work was possible. Supply reached Botany Bay on 18 January 1788; the three fastest transports in the advance group arrived on 19 January; slower ships, including Sirius, arrived on 20 January.
This was one of the world 's greatest sea voyages -- eleven vessels carrying about 1,487 people and stores had travelled for 252 days for more than 15,000 miles (24,000 km) without losing a ship. Forty - eight people died on the journey, a death rate of just over three per cent.
It was soon realised that Botany Bay did not live up to the glowing account that the explorer Captain James Cook had provided. The bay was open and unprotected, the water was too shallow to allow the ships to anchor close to the shore, fresh water was scarce, and the soil was poor. First contact was made with the local indigenous people, the Eora, who seemed curious but suspicious of the newcomers. The area was studded with enormously strong trees. When the convicts tried to cut them down, their tools broke and the tree trunks had to be blasted out of the ground with gunpowder. The primitive huts built for the officers and officials quickly collapsed in rainstorms. The marines had a habit of getting drunk and not guarding the convicts properly, whilst their commander, Major Robert Ross, drove Phillip to despair with his arrogant and lazy attitude. Crucially, Phillip worried that his fledgling colony was exposed to attack from Aborigines or foreign powers. Although his initial instructions were to establish the colony at Botany Bay, he was authorised to establish the colony elsewhere if necessary.
On 21 January, Phillip and a party which included John Hunter, departed the Bay in three small boats to explore other bays to the north. Phillip discovered that Port Jackson, about 12 kilometres to the north, was an excellent site for a colony with sheltered anchorages, fresh water and fertile soil. Cook had seen and named the harbour, but had not entered it. Phillip 's impressions of the harbour were recorded in a letter he sent to England later: "the finest harbour in the world, in which a thousand sail of the line may ride in the most perfect security... ''. The party returned to Botany Bay on 23 January.
On the morning of 24 January, the party was startled when two French ships were seen just outside Botany Bay. This was a scientific expedition led by Jean - François de La Pérouse. The French had expected to find a thriving colony where they could repair ships and restock supplies, not a newly arrived fleet of convicts considerably more poorly provisioned than themselves. There was some cordial contact between the French and British officers, but Phillip and La Pérouse never met. The French ships remained until 10 March before setting sail on their return voyage. They were not seen again and were later discovered to have been shipwrecked off the coast of Vanikoro in the present - day Solomon Islands.
On 26 January 1788, the Fleet weighed anchor and sailed to Port Jackson. The site selected for the anchorage had deep water close to the shore, was sheltered, and had a small stream flowing into it. Phillip named it Sydney Cove, after Lord Sydney the British Home Secretary. This date is celebrated as Australia Day, marking the beginning of British settlement. The British flag was planted and formal possession taken. This was done by Phillip and some officers and marines from the Supply, with the remainder of Supply 's crew and the convicts observing from on board ship. The remaining ships of the Fleet did not arrive at Sydney Cove until later that day.
The First Fleet encountered indigenous Australians when they landed at Botany Bay. The Cadigal people of the Botany Bay area witnessed the Fleet arrive and six days later the two ships of French explorer La Pérouse sailed into the bay. When the Fleet moved to Sydney Cove seeking better conditions for establishing the colony, they encountered the Eora people, including the Bidjigal clan. A number of the First Fleet journals record encounters with Aboriginal people.
Although the official policy of the British Government was to establish friendly relations with Aboriginal people, and Arthur Phillip ordered that the Aboriginal people should be well treated, it was not long before conflict began. The colonists did not sign treaties with the original inhabitants of the land. Between 1790 and 1810, Pemulwuy of the Bidjigal clan led the local people in a series of attacks against the British colonisers.
The ships of the First Fleet mostly did not remain in the colony. Some returned to England, while others left for other ports. Some remained at the service of the Governor of the colony for some months: some of these were sent to Norfolk Island where a second penal colony was established.
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On 26 January 1842, the Colonial Government in Sydney awarded a life pension of 1 shilling a day to three surviving members of the First Fleet. The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser reported, on Saturday 29 January 1842: "The Government have ordered a pension of one shilling per diem to be paid to the survivors of those who came by the first vessel into the Colony. The number of these really ' old hands ' is now reduced to three, of whom, two are now in the Benevolent Asylum, and the other is a fine hale old fellow, who can do a day 's work with more spirit than many of the young fellows lately arrived in the Colony. '' The names of the three recipients are not given.
William Hubbard: Hubbard was convicted in the Kingston Assizes in Surrey, England, on 24 March 1784 for theft. He was transported to Australia on the Scarborough in the First Fleet. He married Mary Goulding on 19 December 1790 in Rose Hill. In 1803 he received a land grant of 70 acres at Mulgrave Place. He died on 18 May 1843 at the Sydney Benevolent Asylum. His age was given as 76 when he was buried at Christ Church St. Lawrence, Sydney on 22 May 1843.
John McCarthy: McCarthy was a Marine who sailed on the Friendship. McCarthy was born in Killarney, County Kerry, Ireland, circa Christmas 1745. He first served in the colony of New South Wales, then at Norfolk Island where he took up a land grant of 60 acres (Lot 110). He married the first fleet convict Ann Beardsley on Norfolk Island in November 1791 after his discharge a month earlier. In 1808, on the close of Norfolk Island settlement, he resettled in Van Diemen 's Land and later took a land grant (80 acres at Melville) in lieu of the one forfeited on Norfolk Island. The last few years of his life were spent at the home of his granddaughter and her husband, Mr. and Mrs. William H. Budd, at a place called Kinlochewe Inn near Donnybrook, Victoria. McCarthy died on 24 July 1846, six months past his 100 birthday.
John Limeburner: The South Australian Register reported, in an article dated Wednesday 3 November 1847: "John Limeburner, the oldest colonist in Sydney, died in September last, at the advanced age of 104 years. He helped to pitch the first tent in Sydney, and remembered the first display of the British flag there, which was hoisted on a swamp oak - tree, then growing on a spot now occupied as the Water - Police Court. He was the last of those called the ' first - fleeters ' (arrivals by the first convict ships) and, notwithstanding his great age, retained his faculties to the last. '' John Limeburner was a convict on the Charlotte. He was convicted on 9 July 1785 at New Sarum, Wiltshire of theft of a waistcoat, a shirt and stockings. He married Elizabeth Ireland in 1790 at Rosehill and together they establish a 50 - acre farm at Prospect. He died at Ashfield in September 1847 and is buried at St John 's, Ashfield.
John Jones: Jones was a Marine on the First Fleet and sailed on the Alexander. He is listed in the N.S.W. 1828 Census as aged 82 and living at the Sydney Benevolent Asylum. He is said to have died at the Benevolent Asylum in 1848.
Samuel King: King was a scribbler (a worker in a scribbling mill) before he became a Marine. He was a Marine with the First Fleet on board the flagship Sirius (1786). He shipped to Norfolk Island on Golden Grove in September 1788, where he lived with Mary Rolt, a convict who arrived with the First Fleet on the Prince of Wales. He received a grant of 60 acres (Lot No. 13) at Cascade Stream in 1791. Mary Rolt returned to England on the Britannia in October 1796. King was resettled in Van Diemen 's Land, boarding the City of Edinburgh on 3 September 1808, and landed in Hobart on 3 October. He married Elizabeth Thackery on 28 January 1810. He died on 21 October 1849 at 86 years of age and was buried in the Wesleyan cemetery at Lawitta Road, Back River.
John Small: Convicted 14 March 1785 at the Devon Lent Assizes held at Exeter for Robbery King 's Highway. Sentenced to hang, reprieved to 7 years transportation. Arrived on the Charlotte in First Fleet 1788. Certificate of freedom 1792. Land Grant 1794, 30 acre "Small 's Farm '' at Eastern Farms (Ryde). Married October 1788 Mary Parker also a First Fleet convict who arrived on Lady Penrhyn. John Small died on 2 October 1850 at age of 90 years.
Elizabeth Thackery: Elizabeth "Betty '' King (née Thackery) was tried and convicted of theft on 4 May 1786 at Manchester Quarter Sessions, and sentenced to seven years transportation. She sailed on the Friendship, but was transferred to the Charlotte at the Cape of Good Hope. She was shipped to Norfolk Island on the Sirius (1786) in 1790 and lived there with James Dodding. In August 1800 she bought 10 acres of land from Samuel King at Cascade Stream. Elizabeth and James were relocated to Van Diemen 's Land in December 1807 but parted company sometime afterwards. On 28 January 1810 Elizabeth married "First Fleeter '' Private Samuel King (above) and lived with him until his death in 1849. Betty King died in New Norfolk, Tasmania on 7 August 1856, aged 89 years. She is buried in the churchyard of the Methodist Chapel, Lawitta Road, Back River, next to her husband, and the marked grave bears a First Fleet plaque. She was one of the first British women to land in Australia and was the last "First Fleeter '' to die.
Historians have disagreed over whether those aboard the First Fleet were responsible for introducing smallpox to Australia 's indigenous population, and if so, whether this was the consequence of deliberate action.
In 1914, J. H. L. Cumpston, director of the Australian Quarantine Service put forward the hypothesis that smallpox arrived with British settlers. Some researchers have argued that any such release may have been a deliberate attempt to decimate the indigenous population. Others have suggested that live smallpox virus may have been introduced accidentally, when Aboriginal people came into contact with variolous matter brought by the First Fleet for use in anti-smallpox inoculations. Hypothetical scenarios for such an action might have included: an act of revenge by an aggrieved individual, a response to attacks by indigenous people, or part of an orchestrated assault by the New South Wales Marine Corps, intended to clear the path for colonial expansion.
Other historians have disputed the idea that there was a deliberate release of smallpox virus and / or suggest that it arrived with visitors to Australia other than the First Fleet. In 2002, historian Judy Campbell suggested that smallpox had arrived in Australia through contact with fishermen from Makassar in Indonesia, where smallpox was endemic. In 2011, Macknight stated: "The overwhelming probability must be that it (smallpox) was introduced, like the later epidemics, by (Indonesian) trepangers... and spread across the continent to arrive in Sydney quite independently of the new settlement there. ''
There is a third theory, that the 1789 epidemic was not smallpox but chickenpox -- to which indigenous Australians also had no inherited resistance -- that happened to be affecting, or was carried by, members of the First Fleet. This theory has also been disputed.
After Ray Collins, a stonemason, completed years of research into the First Fleet, he sought approval from about nine councils to construct a commemorative garden in recognition of these immigrants. Liverpool Plains Shire Council was ultimately the only council to accept his offer to supply the materials and construct the garden free of charge. The site chosen was a disused caravan park on the banks of Quirindi Creek at Wallabadah, New South Wales. In September 2002 Collins commenced work on the project. Additional support was later provided by Neil McGarry in the form of some signs and the council contributed $28,000 for pathways and fencing. Collins hand - chiseled the names of all those who came to Australia on the eleven ships in 1788 on stone tablets along the garden pathways. The stories of those who arrived on the ships, their life, and first encounters with the Australian country are presented throughout the garden. On 26 January 2005, the First Fleet Garden was opened as the major memorial to the First Fleet immigrants. Previously the only other specific memorial to the First Fleeters was an obelisk at Brighton - Le - Sands, New South Wales. The surrounding area has a barbecue, tables, and amenities.
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magnus chase the ship of the dead wiki | Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard - wikipedia
Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard is a trilogy of fantasy novels by Rick Riordan and published by Disney - Hyperion. It is based on Norse mythology and is set in the same universe as the Camp Half - Blood Chronicles, and The Kane Chronicles series. The first book, The Sword of Summer, was released on October 6, 2015. The second book, The Hammer of Thor, was released on October 4, 2016.
The main protagonist Magnus Chase, son of the Vanir god of fertility Frey, narrates the novel in first person. He is a cousin of Annabeth Chase, a main character of the Percy Jackson and the Olympians and The Heroes of Olympus series, who links the two series together.
The Sword of Summer is the first book in the series, released on October 6, 2015 as a hardcover, ebook, and audiobook. The novel is narrated by Magnus Chase, a homeless Bostonian orphan, who learns he is the son of a Norse god. On the same day, he is confronted by a fire giant named Surt, who wishes to claim a sword called "Sumarbrander '' (the "Sword of Summer ''). In the fight, Magnus is killed and carried to a modernized interpretation of the Norse afterlife by a valkyrie named Samirah al - Abbas (Sam). With the help of Sam, a dwarf named Blitz, and an elf named Hearth; Magnus foils the giant 's plans to free the Fenris Wolf and hasten the end of the world.
The novel has been well - received since its publication, but was not a "big front - runner '' among other bestselling books in 2015. It debuted at # 1 on the New York Times Children 's Middle Grade Hardcover Best Sellers list, and rose to # 3 on Amazon 's best - selling Children 's Books list for 2015. It also won the Goodreads Choice Award for Middle Grade & Children 's books in 2015. The Sword of Summer has been especially praised as an excellent continuation of author Rick Riordan 's writing style, although some critics have expressed regret that the book only meets the expectations of fans, rather than surpassing them.
The Sword of Summer was later published in several foreign - language editions, as well as UK edition with the same title (published by Puffin Books). Its foreign - language editions include ones in Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Turkish, Dutch, German, Bulgarian, Finnish, Polish, French, Norwegian, Chinese, Czech, Russian, Romanian, Indonesian and Hebrew. While the U.S. editions have cover art by illustrator John Rocco, most foreign editions have unique art created by other artists and illustrators. In the U.S., several unique promotional editions were released by different booksellers during the initial publication; the mass - merchandiser Target, for example, released its books with an included poster of the Nine Worlds of Norse mythology.
The Hammer of Thor is the second book in the Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard series and was released on October 4, 2016. In this book, Magnus receives a warning and discovers that the hammer of Thor, Mjolnir, is missing. He embarks on a quest with Samirah, Hearthstone, Blitzen, and Alex Fierro, a genderfluid child of Loki to retrieve it. However, Loki reveals that the giant Thrym has the hammer, and forces the group to retrieve the Skofnung Sword, the only sword which can free him. He arranges a marriage between Samirah and the giant so as to obtain the hammer and the sword as wedding presents. At the wedding, Alex takes Samirah 's place and tries to prevent Magnus 's Uncle Randolph from freeing Loki. However, they fail to do so, and Loki is freed. The group is honoured for recovering Mjolnir, but are given another mission to recapture Loki.
The novel was awarded the 2017 Stonewall Book Award for children 's literature.
The Ship of the Dead is the third book in the ' Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard ' series and was released on October 3, 2017.
Hotel Valhalla: Guide to the Norse Worlds is a supplementary work for the Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard series. It was published as a hardcover on August 16, 2016.
Publishers Weekly 's review of The Sword of Summer stated that, "ten years after The Lightning Thief... (Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard 's) sensibility is right in line with the Percy Jackson novels, and the audience will be just as large. ''
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who acts as draco malfoy in harry potter | Tom Felton - wikipedia
Thomas Andrew Felton (born September 22, 1987) is an English actor. Felton began appearing in commercials when he was eight years old for companies such as Commercial Union and Barclaycard. He made his screen debut in the role of Peagreen Clock in The Borrowers (1997) and he portrayed Louis T. Leonowens in Anna and the King (1999). He rose to prominence for his role as Draco Malfoy in the film adaptions of the best - selling Harry Potter fantasy novels by J.K. Rowling. His performances in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 won him two consecutive MTV Movie Awards for Best Villain in 2010 and 2011.
Following the conclusion of the series in 2011, Felton appeared in the 2011 film Rise of the Planet of the Apes, a reboot of the Planet of the Apes series. He had roles in the minor films From the Rough (2011) and The Apparition (2012), starred as James Ashford in the critically acclaimed period drama film Belle (2013), followed by roles in In Secret (2014) and Against the Sun (2014). Felton 's 2016 films include the epic biblical drama Risen, alongside Joseph Fiennes, and the period biopic A United Kingdom, alongside David Oyelowo and Rosamund Pike. He portrays Julian Albert / Doctor Alchemy on The Flash.
Felton was born in Epsom, the son of Sharon and Peter Felton. He was educated at West Horsley 's Cranmore School until the age of thirteen, after which time he attended The Howard of Effingham School. Felton is a singer and was part of a choir at the age of seven. He was a member of four school choirs and was given the chance to be part of the Guildford Cathedral Choir. He has three older brothers; Ashley, Jonathan and Chris.
Felton began acting in adverts for companies such as Commercial Union and Barclaycard. In 1998, he performed the voice of James in the television series Bugs and landed his first feature film role in 1997 when he played the role of Peagreen Clock in Peter Hewitt 's film The Borrowers. Felton played witness Thomas Ingham opposite Clive Owen in Second Sight in 1999. Felton 's role of Louis T. Leonowens in the film Anna and the King, starring Jodie Foster, was also filmed in 1999 in Malaysia. Felton made an appearance in the episode "Hide and Seek '' of Second Sight 2 followed in 2000. The Guildford Cathedral Choir also offered him a position.
On 11 November 2005, he and Rupert Grint presented Liz Carnell with the Daily Mirror 's Pride of Britain Award for all of her work to raise awareness of the dangers of bullying. Felton worked on Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix throughout 2006. Having read more of the Harry Potter books, Felton reflected: "I have had input into Draco. If they give me a line and I do not think it is something he would say, I suggest changing it. They do listen to you and you do feel a part of it. ''
In July 2007, Felton visited Children 's Hospital in Denver, Colorado in a pre-screening charitable event of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. He was also present at Leicester Square for the premiere of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix on 3 July 2007.
On 12 November 2008, Felton appeared alongside Jack Osbourne on Adrenaline Junkie as he participated in various challenges in South Africa, including a 200ft bungee jump on Bloukrans Bridge, took a ride in a helicopter, followed by a parachute freefall and came face - to - face with Great White sharks.
Felton also appeared in Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, the sixth film of the series.
When asked whether he was looking forward to playing a good guy in the future he answered: "No. Well, I do n't know. I suppose for now I 'm happy with sticking to what he is. But after the Potter legacy is over I look forward to playing a good guy, or someone different anyway; someone not so spiteful. '' Felton also played the character Simon in the 2009 horror / thriller movie The Disappeared.
Felton posted three music videos on YouTube under an account called "Feltbeats '', in which he performs fragments of original songs. Nine songs have been re-recorded and are now available on iTunes: "Time Well Spent, '' "Time Is n't Healing '', "One of These Days '', "Under Stars, '' "Right Place, Right Time, '' "In My Arms, '' "All I Need, '' and "I Will Be There '' join the instrumental "Silhouettes in Sunsets. '' He also recorded an album titled In Good Hands. It includes the six songs "If You Could Be Anywhere '', "We Belong '', "When Angels Come '', "Convinced '', "Father of Mine '', and "If That 's Alright with You ''.
In 2010, Felton released his original song "Hawaii '' on Six String Productions -- an independent record label run by Felton, David Proffitt and Philip Haydn - Slater promoting creative independence and ownership of artists ' material and musical talent.
In November 2010, the film White Other, which Tom played the main character, Ray Marsden, was released. Tom 's character Ray is a troubled youth in the "ends '' of England and Imelda Staunton, who played Dolores Umbridge in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1, also makes an appearance as one of the other main roles in the film.
Felton had a cameo role in Get Him to the Greek, released on 4 June 2010. He portrayed the human character Dodge Landon in the 2011 science - fiction film Rise of the Planet of the Apes, and played a paranormal investigator in the thriller film The Apparition (2012).
On 18 March 2011, Felton appeared in a comedy sketch on Red Nose Day 2011 alongside James Corden, Rupert Grint, George Michael, Justin Bieber, Paul McCartney, Ringo Starr, Gordon Brown MP, Professor Robert Winston and Keira Knightley.
In 2016 and 2017, Felton appeared as CSI Julian Albert / Doctor Alchemy on The Flash. It is unknown whether he will reprise this role.
In 2003, Felton and his brother Chris worked with Joe Babbitt, the St. Lawrence County Angler 's Association, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Region 6, the Chamber of Commerce, and a diverse group of other organisations to form the World Junior Carp Tournament, which involves competitive fishing for ages 11 to 18.
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where are the arctic and antarctic circles located | Antarctic Circle - wikipedia
The Antarctic Circle is the most southerly of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the Earth. The region south of this circle is known as the Antarctic, and the zone immediately to the north is called the Southern Temperate Zone. South of the Antarctic Circle, the sun is above the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and therefore visible at midnight) and (at least partially) below the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and therefore not fully visible at noon); this is also true within the equivalent polar circle in the Northern Hemisphere, the Arctic Circle.
The position of the Antarctic Circle is not fixed; as of 11 August 2018, it runs 66 ° 33 ′ 47.3 '' south of the Equator. Its latitude depends on the Earth 's axial tilt, which fluctuates within a margin of 2 ° over a 40,000 - year period, due to tidal forces resulting from the orbit of the Moon. Consequently, the Antarctic Circle is currently drifting southwards at a speed of about 15 m (49 ft) per year.
The Antarctic Circle is the northernmost latitude in the Southern Hemisphere at which the sun can remain continuously above or partially below the horizon for twenty - four hours; as a result, at least once each year at any location within the Antarctic Circle the sun is visible at local midnight, and at least once it is partially obscured at local noon.
Directly on the Antarctic Circle these events occur, in principle, exactly once per year: at the December and June solstices, respectively. However, because of atmospheric refraction and mirages, and because the sun appears as a disk and not a point, part of the midnight sun may be seen on the night of the southern summer solstice up to about 50 minutes (′) (90 km (56 mi)) north of the Antarctic Circle; similarly, on the day of the southern winter solstice, part of the sun may be seen up to about 50 ′ south of the Antarctic Circle. That is true at sea level; those limits increase with elevation above sea level, although in mountainous regions there is often no direct view of the true horizon. Mirages on the Antarctic continent tend to be even more spectacular than in Arctic regions, creating, for example, a series of apparent sunsets and sunrises while in reality the sun remains under the horizon.
There is no permanent human population south of the Antarctic Circle, but there are several research stations in Antarctica operated by various nations that are inhabited by teams of scientists who rotate on a seasonal basis. In previous centuries some semi-permanent whaling stations were established on the continent, and some whalers would live there for a year or more. At least three children have been born in Antarctica, albeit in stations north of the Antarctic Circle.
The Antarctic Circle is roughly 17,662 kilometres (10,975 mi) long. The area south of the Circle is about 20,000,000 km (7,700,000 sq mi) and covers roughly 4 % of Earth 's surface. The continent of Antarctica covers much of the area within the Antarctic Circle.
Starting at the prime meridian and heading eastwards, the Antarctic Circle passes through:
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true story of a part time indian summary | The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian - wikipedia
The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian is a novel by Sherman Alexie and illustrated by Ellen Forney. The book won several awards, and was the first young adult fiction work by Alexie, a stand - up comedian, screenwriter, film producer, and songwriter who has previously written adult novels, short stories, poems, and screenplays. Alexie stated, "I (wrote the book) because so many librarians, teachers, and teenagers kept asking me to write one. ''
Despite the novel 's high acclaim and several achievements, The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian has also received a lot of objections and has consistently appeared on the annual list of frequently challenged books since 2008. The controversy stems from the novel 's discussion of alcohol, poverty, bullying, violence, sexuality, profanity and slurs related to homosexuality and mental disability. As a result, some schools have banned the book from school libraries or inclusion in curricula.
The Absolutely True Diary is a first - person narrative from the perspective of Native American teenager Arnold Spirit Jr., also known as "Junior '', a 14 - year - old budding cartoonist. The book is a coming of age story, detailing Junior 's life on the Spokane Indian Reservation, and his decision to go to an all - white public high school off the reservation. The graphic novel includes 65 comic illustrations that help further the plot.
The book follows Junior, a fourteen - year - old boy living with his family on the Spokane Indian Reservation near Wellpinit, Washington for a school year. It is told in episodic diary style, moving from the start of the school year to the beginning of summer. It includes both Junior 's written record of his life and his cartoon drawings, some of them comically commenting on his situations, and others more seriously depicting important people in his life.
The Absolutely True Diary begins by introducing Junior 's birth defects, including the fact that he was born with hydrocephalus and therefore is small for his age and suffers from seizures, poor eyesight, stuttering, and a lisp. As a result, Junior has always been picked on by other people on the reservation. Junior 's family is extremely poor and have limited access to opportunities. When Junior 's dog Oscar gets heat stroke, his father must put him down because they can not afford to take him to a veterinarian. Junior 's only child friend is Rowdy, a classmate who is abused at home and is known as a bully on the reservation. Despite his intimidating role, Rowdy often stands up for Junior and they bond by enjoying kids ' comics.
Junior 's first day of high school is pivotal to the plot of the novel. When Mr. P, his geometry teacher, passes him his textbook, he sees his mother 's name in it, realizing that the book must be at least 30 years old. Angered and saddened by the fact that the reservation is so poor that it can not afford new textbooks, Junior violently throws the book, which hits Mr. P 's face, breaking his nose. When he visits Junior at home, Mr. P convinces Junior to transfer to Reardan High School, sensing a degree of precociousness in the young teenager. The town of Reardan is far wealthier than Wellpinit -- Junior is the only Indian at Reardan besides the team mascot. Although Junior 's family is poor, and although the school is 22 miles away and transportation is unreliable, they support him and do what they can to make it possible for him to stay in the new school. Rowdy, however, is upset by Junior 's decision to transfer, and the once - best friends have very little contact during the year.
Junior develops a crush on the school 's most popular white girl, Penelope, and becomes study friends with an intelligent student named Gordy. His interactions with the white students give him a better perspective both on white culture and his own. He realizes how much stronger his family ties are than those of his white classmates, noticing that many of the white fathers never come to their children 's school events. Junior also realizes that the white students have different rules than those he grew up with, which is evident when he reacts to an insult from the school 's star athlete, Roger, by punching him in the face. Junior hit him, as he would have been expected to do on the reservation, and he expects Roger to get revenge. But Roger never does; in fact, Roger and his friends show Junior more respect. Junior also gets closer to Penelope, which makes him more popular with the other girls at the school.
Roger suggests that Junior try out for the basketball team, and to Junior 's surprise, he makes the varsity team, which pits him against his former school, Wellpinit, and specifically Rowdy, who is Wellpinit 's star freshman. Their first match demonstrates to Junior just how angry the reservation people are at him for transferring: when he enters the court, they boo and insult him. During the game, Rowdy elbows Junior in the head and knocks him unconscious. While suffering some injuries from the game, Junior and his coach become closer as Coach tells him that he admires Junior 's commitment to the team. Later on, his grandmother, who Junior looks up to the most on the reservation, is hit and killed by a drunk driver. After his grandmother 's funeral, a family friend, Eugene, is shot in the face by his friend Bobby after fighting over alcohol. After grieving and reflecting on his loved ones ' deaths, Junior plays in his basketball team 's second match against Wellpinit. Reardan wins and Junior gets to block Rowdy. Junior feels triumphant until he sees the Wellpinit players ' faces after their defeat and remembers the difficulties they face at home and their lack of hope for a future; ashamed, he runs to the locker room, where he vomits and then breaks down in tears. Later, Junior receives news of the death of his sister and her husband who were killed in a fire at their trailer.
In the course of the year, Junior and his family suffered many tragedies, many related to alcohol abuse. These events test Junior 's sense of hope for a better future and make him wonder about the darker aspects of reservation culture. Furthermore, the protagonist is torn between the need to fit in his new, all - white school and holding on to his Indian heritage, leading him to face criticism from his own community. Despite these challenges, they also help him see how much his family and his new friends love him, and he learns to see himself as both Indian and American. Meanwhile, Rowdy realizes that Junior is the only nomad on the reservation, which makes him more of a "traditional '' Indian than everyone else in town. In the end, Junior and Rowdy reconcile while playing basketball and resolve to correspond no matter where the future takes them.
The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian is semi-autobiographical. The novel started as a section of Sherman Alexie 's family memoir, but after the persistence of a young adult editor, he decided to use it as a basis for his first young adult novel. Sherman Alexie commented, "If I were to guess at the percentage, it would be about seventy - eight percent true. '' Like Arnold, Sherman Alexie grew up on the Spokane Reservation in Wellpinit with an alcoholic father. He was also born with hydrocephalus, but Alexie did not have any speech impediments. Alexie was also teased for his government - issued, horn - rimmed glasses and nicknamed "The Globe '' by fellow students because of his giant head. Another similarity between Alexie and his character Arnold is that Alexie also left the reservation to attend high school at Reardan High, but Alexie chose to go to Reardan to achieve the required credits he needed to go to college. Alexie became the star player of Reardan 's basketball team, and was the only Indian on the team besides the school 's team mascot. The scene where Arnold finds that he is using the same textbook his mother did thirty years before him is drawn from Alexie 's own experiences. The only difference from Alexie 's life and the novel is that Alexie threw the book against the wall out of anger, and did not hit anyone like Junior did.
In his own writing, Alexie unapologetically describes himself as "kind of mixed up, kind of odd, not traditional. I 'm a rez kid who 's gone urban, and that 's what I write about. I have never pretended to be otherwise. '' "A smart Indian is a dangerous person, '' Alexie states in a personal essay, "(a smart Indian is) widely feared and ridiculed by Indians and non-Indians alike. '' Junior encapsulates this type of experience when he receives strong censure both from his tribal community and from his peers and teachers at his new school, Reardan. In the personal story, Alexie 's continued explanation of his own experience is reflected in Junior 's. Alexie recalls, "I fought with my classmates on a daily basis. They wanted me to stay quiet when the non-Indian teacher asked for answers.... (W) e were Indian children who were expected to be stupid.... (W) e were expected to fail in the non-Indian world. '' Through Junior 's success at Reardan and his realizations about life on the reservation, Alexie represents a possibility for the success of Native American children -- by defeating the expectation that he is doomed to fail, Junior crosses social boundaries and defeats unfavorable odds. Alexie 's reflections again demonstrate that Junior 's experiences are semi-autobiographical.
Throughout the novel, Junior shares his dreams with the readers. In the first chapter, he dreams of becoming a cartoon artist in order to get rich and escape the cycles of poverty and abuse on the reservation. The idea that hope exists off the rez is echoed in later chapters, where Junior finds himself caught between home on the reservation and pursuing his dreams in the outside world. Junior asks his parents, "Who has the most hope? '' to which they answer "White people ''. The rez is characterized by lack of opportunity and poor education, the solution to which appears to lie in the Western world. Hence, the novel explores the theme of hope and dreams through Junior 's struggles to find a path to break free of his seemingly doomed fate on the reservation.
Junior admits to being a target of bullying due to his appearance and medical history (lisp, seizures, water on the brain). He reveals this information in a way that is both comical and sympathetic; he invites readers to share and relate to his experience being bullied. After transferring to Reardan High School, Junior must also deal with being the only poor Native American student in a school full of rich white people, and he must deal with the pressures of keeping up appearances for fear of losing his peers ' social acceptance.
Junior lives under the constant threat of physical violence. Although he attempts to assuage the threat through his drawings and light - hearted approach to the problem, he is nevertheless subjected to regular beatings by members of the reservation, including the adults. Violence serves as a form of communication in the reservation; Junior believes it is the Native Americans ' acknowledgement that they are going nowhere that fuels their violence. Thus, as is true with Rowdy, physical violence is also communicative.
Poverty is a theme that is introduced by the main character at the very beginning on the book. Junior knows that his family is poor, just as every other family who lives on the reservation. Junior and his family often go without meals for extended periods of time, and therefore savor the meals that they do get. The death of Oscar, the canine best friend of Junior, is shot by his father because their family ca n't afford to pay the veterinarian bills. The poverty disparity is also evident when Junior transfers schools to Reardan and notices the difference in quality of clothing between him and his rich, white peers. He even, on occasion, walks to and from school because his family does n't have the gas or transportation to get him there and home. Ashamed of economic status, Junior does everything in his power to ensure that none of his peers find out that his family is poor, such as making excuses, lying, and borrowing money.
The novel uses humorous narratives and comics to convey the theme of race. It explores racial issues such as stereotyping of Native and White people, the use of indigenous culture as sports mascots, interracial friendships, and cultural tokenization. For example, Junior notes that the only other "Indian '' at Reardan was its school mascot, calling attention to the ubiquitous use of indigenous symbols in sports (see "List of sports team names and mascots derived from indigenous peoples ''). Although Junior often dichotomizes Whites and Indians, Alexie reveals the stereotyping that occurs while still blurring the lines between races. Junior eventually establishes friendship with many of the White Reardan students, who see past race and accept him for his caring nature, his intelligence, and his basketball talents.
Alcohol abuse is an issue salient to the Spokane reservation. It is directly responsible for the character deaths in the novel and the deaths of most of the Indians on the reservation. The novel highlights the destructive nature of alcohol abuse and its major contribution to the stagnation of progression at the reservation and dysfunction of the family. Junior voices his disapproval for its widespread use and considers it to be directly responsible for much of the disarray in his own family.
The portrayal of alcoholism in the novel is representative of the problem Native Americans have with the use of alcohol. Much of Alexie 's desire to explore and address the issue of alcoholism derives from his own experiences with alcohol on the reservation. When asked if he feels the need to address alcoholism as a Native American, he replied "the whole race is filled with alcoholics. For those Indians who try to pretend it 's a stereotype, they 're in deep, deep denial, '' and by addressing it that "with the social hope that by writing about it, maybe it 'll help people get sober, and it has. ''
The centerpiece of the novel is the friendship between Junior and Rowdy, which frames the novel. In the first chapter, Junior says, "Rowdy might be the most important person in my life. Maybe more important than my family. '' In the absence of his drunk, emotionally - distant father and eccentric mother, Junior finds solace in Rowdy. But as the novel progresses, Junior begins to make friends at Reardan High and learns just how crucial it is to build new relationships with different people, as they each serve an important role or function in his life.
Writing and literature play important roles in the lives of Junior, Rowdy, and Mary. Rowdy reads comics as a way to escape from his abusive, dysfunctional home: "He likes to pretend he lives in comic books, '' Alexie reveals. Similarly, Mary reads and writes romance novels in order to escape (and run away) from her equally harsh reality. In contrast, Junior draws cartoons and writes because it makes him feel important and is his way of communicating with the world. Alexie furthers the distinction between Junior on Mary on page 46 -- he writes, "My sister is running away to get lost, but I am running away because I want to find something. '' Alexie 's commentary on Junior 's perspective (through drawings, dialogue, and Junior 's own views on literature) highlights Junior 's ambitiousness, curiosity, and drive. In essence, writing, drawing, and reading are activities that are cathartic to Rowdy, Mary, and Junior. These outlets function as coping mechanisms to make the dysfunction, violence, and abuse in the characters ' lives more bearable.
Oscar is Junior 's stray mutt, best friend, and "the only living thing he can depend on. '' He is euthanized by Junior 's father at the beginning of the novel because they are unable to afford to take him to a vet. Oscar is a symbol of the struggles and consequences of being poor. Junior 's inability to aid his friend reminds him of the poverty he believes he is destined to inherit. However, Oscar 's death is also a turning point for Junior, as it acts as a catalyst for his realization and change.
In the novel, basketball is a symbol of improvement. Before his arrival to Reardan, Junior was, by his own words, "a decent player. '' While at Reardan, Junior improves because of the expectations set by his coach and teammates, and becomes a valuable asset to the team. By the end of the novel, Junior believes he will be able to beat Rowdy someday. The transformation Junior undergoes through the sport is a testament of his will - power and dedication to better himself.
Family takes significance part in this book. Even Junior 's family are poor, they always supported him and he mentioned that they are the only people who listen to him. His sister sends letters and gives him hope. His dad, who is alcoholic, saved five dollars for him. Junior knows that it is easy for his father to spend that five dollars on alcohol but the fact that he saved it for him made him feel special. This shows that money is not everything to become happy.
Bruce Barcott of The New York Times said in a 2007 review, "For 15 years now, Sherman Alexie has explored the struggle to survive between the grinding plates of the Indian and white worlds. He 's done it through various characters and genres, but The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian may be his best work yet. Working in the voice of a 14 - year - old forces Alexie to strip everything down to action and emotion, so that reading becomes more like listening to your smart, funny best friend recount his day while waiting after school for a ride home. ''
The New York Times opined that this was Alexie 's "first foray into the young adult genre, and it took him only one book to master it. '' The San Francisco Chronicle praised it as "(a) great book full of pain, but luckily, the pain is spiked with joy and humor. ''
Reviewers also commented on Alexie 's treatment of difficult issues. Delia Santos, a publisher for the civilrights.org page, noted, "Alexie fuses words and images to depict the difficult journey many Native Americans face.... Although Junior is a young adult, he must face the reality of living in utter poverty, contend with the discrimination of those outside of the reservation, cope with a community and a family ravaged and often killed by alcoholism, break cultural barriers at an all - White high school, and maintain the perseverance needed to hope and work for a better future. '' Andrew Fersch, a publisher for Vail Daily, commented, "most folks block out most of their teenage memory, (while) Alexie embraced it with humor. ''
In another review published in November 2016 by Dakota Student website, author Breanna Roen says that she has never seen the way that this book, The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian, conveys so much happiness, love, and grief. Alexie 's work in this novel ca n't be compared to other Native American books; it is "a whole different ball game, '' Roen asserts. The review continues to state that the theme regarding identity, home, race, poverty, tradition, friendship, hope and success is seen throughout the entire book, leaving the readers on the edge of their seats and wanting more. Roen says that she could hardly put the book down and is avidly looking for something similar.
In the review, "A Brave Life: The Real Struggles of a Native American Boy make an Uplifting Story '' published in The Guardian, author Diane Samuels says that Alexie 's book has a "combination of drawings, pithy turns of phrase, candor, tragedy, despair and hope... (that) makes this more than an entertaining read, more than an engaging story about a North American Indian kid who makes it out of a poor, dead - end background without losing his connection with who he is and where he 's from. '' In some areas, Samuels criticizes Alexie 's stylistic reliance on the cartoons. However, she continues to say that for the most part, Sherman Alexie has a talent for capturing the details and overview in a well - developed and snappy way. Samuels finishes her review by stating that: "Opening this book is like meeting a friend you 'd never make in your actual life and being given a piece of his world, inner and outer. It 's humane, authentic and, most of all, it speaks. ''
In the review "Using The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian to Teach About Racial Formation '', Miami University professor Kevin Talbert says that Alexie chose to narrate the story through the eyes of fourteen - year - old Junior to transport his readers into "uncomfortable or incongruent spaces. '' He continues to say that the novel 's writing allows for topics about class and racial struggles to be intertwined with more common adolescent struggles like sexual desires, controlling hormones, and managing relationships with friends and family. Furthermore, Talbert believes that, unlike other Young Adult novels, this book captures issues of race and class in a way that reaches a wider audience. The article also states that Junior 's narration in the novel sends a message to society, "that adolescents have important things to say, that being fourteen years old matters. ''
Dr. Bryan Ripley Crandall, director of the Connecticut Writing Project at Fairfield University, posits in his critical essay "Adding a Disability Perspective When Reading Adolescent Literature: Sherman Alexie 's The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian '' that the book presents a progressive view of disability. Arnold has what he calls "water on the brain '', which would correctly be referred to as hydrocephalus. Crandall points out that Arnold is never held back by his disability, but in fact laughs at himself: "With my big feet and pencil body, I looked like a capital L walking down the road. '' According to Crandall, the illustrations by Ellen Forney, which are meant to be the cartoons that Arnold draws, represent a new way for the disabled narrator to communicate with the readers: they "initiate further interpretations and conversations about how students perceive others who are not like them, especially individuals with disabilities. '' Arnold 's hydrocephaly does n't prevent him from becoming a basketball star at his new school. His disability fades as a plot device as the book progresses.
David Goldstein, in his paper "Sacred Hoop Dreams: Basketball in the Work of Sherman Alexie '', analyses the importance of basketball in the novel. He suggests that it represents "the tensions between traditional lifeways and contemporary social realities. '' According to Goldstein, Junior / Arnold sees losing at basketball as "losing at life. '' The Reardan kids are eternal winners because of their victories on the court: "Those kids were magnificent. '' Goldstein notes how basketball is also a sport of poverty in America -- "it costs virtually nothing to play, and so is appropriate for the reservation. ''
Nerida Weyland 's article, "Representations of Happiness in Comedic Young Adult Fiction: Happy Are the Wretched '' describes how Junior / Arnold is an example of the complex, not - innocent child often presented in modern young adult literature. As detailed in Alyson Miller 's "Unsuited to Age Group: The Scandals of Children 's Literature, '' society has created an "innocence of the idealized child ''; Alexie 's protagonist is the opposite of this figure.
According to Weyland, Alexie does n't play by the rules -- the use of humor in the book is directed at established "power hierarchies, dominant social ideologies or topics deemed taboo ''. Weyland suggests that the outsized effect of this feature of the book is revealed in the controversy its publication caused, as it was banned and challenged in schools all over the country. Weyland states that Alexie 's book with Forney 's black - comedy illustrations explore themes of "racial tension, domestic violence, and social injustice '' in a never - before - done way. As an example, Alexie uses the anecdote of the killing of Junior 's dog, Oscar, to expand on the idea of social mobility, or lack thereof -- Junior states that he understood why the dog had to be killed rather than taken to the vet, because his parents were poor and they "came from poor people who came from poor people who came from poor people, all the way back to the very first poor people. '' Weyland notes how readers are likely to be uncomfortable with Junior / Arnold / Alexie making light of topics of such importance (racism, poverty, alcoholism) through the use of dark comedy.
Alexie won three major "year 's best '' awards for Diary, a biannual award for books by and about Native Americans, and a California award that annually covers the last four years. The awards are listed below:
Diary was also named to several annual lists including three by the United States ' library industry (not including being banned).
The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian has been at the center of many controversies due to the book 's themes and content and its target audience of young adults. The book has both fervent supporters and concerned protesters: "some people thought it was the greatest book ever, and some people thought it was the most perverted book ever, '' said Shawn Tobin, a superintendent of a Georgia school district.
The topics addressed in the book that have been controversial include cultural insensitivity, provocative and explicit language, scenes that are sexually explicit or anti-family, anti-Christian content, alcoholism and depictions of bullying and violence, among others.
Local parents caught wind of the book 's references to alcoholism, sensitive cultural topics, and sexual innuendos: at the beginning of June, seven Antioch parents attended a 117th District School Board meeting to request that the book be removed from the curriculum. However, the novel was not banned from Antioch High School 's curriculum following the controversy. Instead, the English Department introduced an alternative option for summer reading -- students who preferred to read John Hart 's Down River were permitted to do so.
In Prineville, Oregon one parent raised objections to the school board about how the book contains references to masturbation and is generally inappropriate. In response, the Crook County School District temporarily removed the book from classrooms. The removal was upheld, but the book remained available to students in school libraries.
A parent complained about the violence, language, and sexual content in The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian, and the Stockton School District Board voted to ban the book from school libraries. The decision was voted upon multiple times, but ultimately the ban was upheld.
In 2010, Wyoming 's Newcastle Middle School attempted to include Diary in its 8th grade English curriculum. At first, the district allowed it under the premise that children who were not allowed to read it would bring a signed paper allowing them to read the alternate book Tangerine. About two weeks after the announcement was made to the 8th graders, the school board banned teaching it in a curriculum, but still allowed it in the library for those who wished to read it.
In 2011, one parent in the Helena School District objected to the book 's "obscene, vulgar, and pornographic language. '' However, the school district voted to retain the book in schools.
In 2011, a 9th grade Language Arts teacher at the Richland Public High School piloted Diary in his curriculum, and with the help of his students, reported to the school 's board on the inclusion of the book in a high school curriculum. Parents of students in the class were notified ahead of time that the teacher was interested in the book, as a result, parents were able to opt their student out of reading the novel if they so chose.
In June 2011, the school board voted 3 - 2 to remove the book from the school entirely. Board members had not read the book but cited the split Instructional Materials Committee vote as the reason to ban the novel.
The board members later learned that some members of the Instructional Materials Committee had not read the book, and so the board members agreed to vote again, but read it for themselves before the vote. On July 11, 2011, the school board voted 4 - 1 to reverse its earlier decision.
In 2012, the book was removed from the Dade County school libraries and required high school reading lists due to complaints about "vulgarity, racism, and anti-Christian content ''.
In 2012 in the Old Rochester Regional Junior High School, the book was challenged as an 8th grade English assignment, but ultimately retained by the school.
In 2012, the book was challenged in 9th grade English classes in Westfield High School for "very sensitive material in the book including excerpts on masturbation amongst other explicit sexual references, encouraging pornography, racism, religious irreverence, and strong language. '' However, the school board decided to retain the book as part of the curriculum.
Sherman Alexie 's Diary was challenged in his home state of Washington, only a few hours drive away from where the semi-autobiographical work is set. This means that various people have objected to certain content, theme, or language in this book. The dispute over the book 's appropriateness for high school students took place in the West Valley School District in 2013. Specifically, many parents claimed that the book contains inappropriate and sexual content and language that are unsuitable for high school students.
As of now, there have been four official complaints about the book that have been recorded. Resultantly, Alexie 's book was removed from 10th - grade classes and made supplemental literature for 11th and 12th grades, instead of required reading.
A middle school in Queens removed Diary from required reading due to the references to masturbation, which the school considered inappropriate for middle schoolers.
The book was challenged on the 10th grade reading list at Skyview High School, where a parent complained "(t) his book is, shockingly, written by a Native American who reinforces all the negative stereotypes of his people and does it from the crude, obscene, and unfiltered viewpoint of a 9th - grader growing up on the reservation. '' The book was not removed from the school list.
A Jefferson County parent complained about the novel 's graphic nature, resulting in the book being pulled from all county schools.
Some parents of students of a Sweet Home Junior High English class voiced concerns about the book 's content, specifically the objectification of women and young girls. The concerns resulted in the book being officially challenged, but nothing more.
In April 2014, Diary was pulled from the Meridian district 's supplemental reading list after significant parental disapproval of the novel 's subject matter. The book had been a part of its curriculum since 2010. Students protested to remove the ban but were unsuccessful.
According to Marshall University Libraries, in 2015 the text was banned from the Meridian (ID) school districts ' required texts due to parents complaining that it "discusses masturbation, contains profanity, and has been viewed as anti-Christian. ''
On July 1, 2014, a grandmother in Brunswick, North Carolina, filed a complaint against Diary at Cedar Grove Middle School. Two weeks later, the school 's Media Advisory Committee met and unanimously agreed to keep the book in its curriculum because the committee saw the value in "the realistic depiction of bullying and racism, as well as a need for tolerance and awareness of cultural differences. '' The grandmother, Frances Wood, appealed the decision, remaining adamant that "(t) his book is not morally acceptable... Everything in it is degrading. There 's nothing uplifting in it. ''
One year later, Wood challenged the book yet again, this time at West Brunswick High School. Wood lost this protest against the book when the principal of West Brunswick High School responded a few days later that the county school board 's policy was that their decision on a book held for all schools in the county, and that those decisions could not be revisited for two years.
In 2015, the superintendent of the Highland Park Independent School District suspended Diary from the school approved book list. The suspension was very brief, and the superintendent reinstated the book soon after.
Although, The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian, has been met with a lot of criticism, it has also been wildly praised by teachers, students, and Alexie himself.
Alexie refutes these arguments by emphasizing the positive learning opportunities readers gain from exposure to these harsh aspects of contemporary life. He describes his own experience of adults trying to hide and protect him from suffering:
"all during my childhood, would - be saviors tried to rescue my fellow tribal members. They wanted to rescue me. But, even then, I could only laugh at their platitudes. In those days, the cultural conservatives thought that KISS and Black Sabbath were going to impede my moral development. They wanted to protect me from sex when I had already been raped. They wanted to protect me from evil though a future serial killer had already abused me. They wanted me to profess my love for God without considering that I was the child and grandchild of men and women who 'd been sexually and physically abused by generations of clergy. ''
Alexie explains not only did students love the book, but they were also able to connect his story to their own difficult experiences "depression, attempted suicide, gang warfare, sexual and physical abuse, absentee parents, poverty, racism, and learning disabilities '' -- and he notes:
"I have yet to receive a letter from a child somehow debilitated by the domestic violence, drug abuse, racism, poverty, sexuality, and murder contained in my book. To the contrary, kids as young as ten have sent me autobiographical letters written in crayon, complete with drawings inspired by my book, that are just as dark, terrifying, and redemptive as anything I 've ever read. ''
By shielding inappropriate topics and hardships, many children who suffer with these issues feel even more marginalized and isolated. The book has been credited as being a book that discusses the experiences and issues faced by Native American students in the public school system.
Other defenders of the novel discuss the benefits of showing the consequences of consuming alcohol, which overall gives an anti-alcohol message.
Some have even discussed the merits of the book while also mentioning the risks of exposing children to the harsher scenes. Young Adult Fiction author Raquel Rivera wrote in an essay on censorship:
"It is an excellent book and happens to have much useful material for a boy entering his teens... But there is a scene in Part - Time Indian in which a racist joke is told, and the protagonist is compelled to fight. For me, the joke was nothing more than a tool to propel the plot. In the story it is duly vanquished and forgotten. But the joke stayed with my son, and he continued to be bothered by it. ''
The autobiographical nature of the novel reflects the internal struggle for identity that Alexie dealt with as a child. His personal experiences then tie into the idea of the trauma that Native American tribes live with as they still struggle to balance assimilation with identity. This phenomenon has been explored and analyzed since the publication of the novel.
Jan Johnson, clinical assistant professor of American Indian and African American Literatures at the University of Idaho, utilizes Alexie 's novel to explore the idea of marginalization and oppression in Native American communities in her article, "Healing The Soul Wound, ''. Johnson identifies the "soul wound, '' the deep - seated trauma Native Americans have endured since colonization and continue to struggle with. This term explains how the consistent depiction of Native American people as suffering and helpless has become ingrained into their identity. Johnson writes, "Alexie feels that -- as a result of this grim history -- suffering and trauma are fundamental to the experience of being Native American. Ceaseless suffering attains an epistemological status. '' Johnson uses the novel to illustrate her thoughts about the future of the Native American culture. The Spokane Indians, and tribes like them, face the trauma of searching for an identity in a world that attempts to envelop one 's culture. Johnson, argues that Alexie uses Diary to represent the potential for healing the traumas that Native American tribes have faced throughout history.
In Sherman Alexie, A Collection of Critical Essays, critics Jeff Burglund and Jan Roush interpret Jan Johnson 's definition of the soul wound as "intergenerational suffering. '' On pages 10 and 11 of Diary, Alexie elaborates on the concept of generational poverty when he reveals that Junior 's family is too poor to care for the family 's sick dog: "My parents came from poor people who came from poor people who came from poor people, all the way back to the very first poor people, '' he writes. Junior is "wounded, '' which Alexie shows through Junior 's alcoholic father, his misguided sister, and his defeating social life. Through Diary, Alexie aims to make a larger statement about the need for change in both the internal structure and the external perception of Native American communities in the United States. Columbus and his men colonized the new land they encountered in horrid ways that diminished Native people of anything they had. Violent invasions by Columbus and his crew left the Indians with nothing to call their own. Sacred land, animals, plants, and relatives were all lost during the time of what Maria Yellow Brave Heart and Lemyra DeBruyn called the "American Indian Holocaust. '' The ones that were somewhat fortunate enough to stay alive were brainwashed of everything they knew, and were forced to believe and follow the religious practices of the Christian faith despite the fact it was not what they believed in. The Indians were also forced to relocate and leave everything, which led to many of them dying due to illness or unbearable conditions they had to walk in. Some Native peoples are still affected by this trauma. Many argue that "historical unresolved grief '' is the cause of high crime rates and mental health issues among Native American people today. Maria Yellow Horse Brave Heart and Lemyra DeBruyn explain the meaning behind "historical disenfranchised grief '' and how it is overlooked by Americans. American Indians are experiencing disenfranchised grief because of how this group of people was and still is seen as savage, emotionless, and lacking of right or reason to mourn and grieve.
There are many arguments for why Sherman Alexie 's The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian is an example of multicultural literature. A textbook called Sherman Alexie in the Classroom was recently published in order to help teachers and educators explore how multicultural texts can impact the learning outcome of students -- -- especially for Native Americans in the modern times. This text explores the significance and the message behind the works of Sherman Alexie, including poetry, novels, films strips, and much more.
Sherman Alexie 's novel, The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian, is a multicultural text that many English teachers use in order to educate their students about the Native American heritage. The author, Alexie, himself is of the Spokane heritage, and as a result, he uses his own background and personal experiences to write this specific novel in a semi-autobiographical format. Teachers refer to the textbook, Sherman Alexie in the Classroom, to claim that the book provides an opportunity to educate non-Native American students to "work through their white guilt and develop anti-racist perspectives. ''
In an interview, Alexie stated that, "The primary audience is college - educated white women, so that 's who reads everything. If you want to talk about an indication of that -- certainly this book is geared towards young adults, but I was at the American Library Association convention in DC a couple of weeks ago, and there were something like 15,000 librarians there and 99 percent of them were white women so... Thank God... they seem to be the people most willing to ignore barriers and boundaries and to reach across, so that 's who my audience is in reality. In this book, specifically, I 'm really hoping it reaches a lot of native kids certainly, but also poor kids of any variety who feel trapped by circumstance, by culture, by low expectations, I 'm hoping it helps them get out. ''
Alexie also wants his "literature to concern the daily lives of Indians. (He) think (s) most Native American literature is so obsessed with nature that (he does n't) think it has any useful purpose ''. Alexis was quoted saying, "There 's a kid out there, some boy or girl who will be that great writer, and hopefully they 'll see what I do and get inspired by that ''.
Furthermore, Alexie 's texts encourage educators to initiate discussions in their classrooms about the Native American culture as a whole. Many stereotypes of Native Americans exist in the United States; therefore, many people have erroneous views of what modern Native Americans ' lives are like. 11th and 12th grade English teacher, Bryan Ripley Crandall, believes that learning about different cultural backgrounds creates a diverse learning environment. Crandall also states that the Native American narrative of Alexie 's book is a way of giving minority students an access to their own background and heritage within an American education. Therefore, Alexie 's multicultural literature of The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian provides an expanded perspective of the daily lives of Native Americans living on the reservation in today 's world.
The author Sherman Alexie himself narrates the audiobook of The Absolutely True Diary Of A Part - Time Indian, which has won many awards for its creation of an idiosyncratic, first - person voice. "Alexie is the perfect choice to read his own story, '' notes critic Kristi Jemtegaard. Alexie is able to convey the messages that the missing cartoons, caricatures, and sketches reveal in the printed text. Alexie, who has experience as an orator, won the Taos Poetry Circus World Heavyweight Championship award three years in a row for his oratorical virtuosity.
According to The Hollywood Reporter, in December 2016, Fox 2000 studios acquired the rights to produce The Absolutely True Diary of a Part - Time Indian. The producing team consists of Hugh Jackman, Wyck Godfrey, Isaac Klausner, and Lauren Shuler Donner. The film is currently under development, and a set release date has not been announced as of yet.
The Absolutely True Diary
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who plays patrick in perks of being a wallflower | The Perks of Being a Wallflower (film) - wikipedia
The Perks of Being a Wallflower is a 2012 American coming - of - age drama film. An adaptation of the 1999 epistolary novel of the same name, it was written and directed by the novel 's author, Stephen Chbosky. Filmed in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the film was released on September 21, 2012, to positive critical response and commercial success, earning $33.4 million to a budget of $13 million. The film stars Logan Lerman, Emma Watson and Ezra Miller. Two or three years after the release of film, Chbosky began to speak more openly concerning the mental health care aspects of the film which were of significance to him in the original writing of the book and the production of the film as he conceived it. This is one of the three films from John Malkovich, Lianne Halfon and Russell Smith 's Mr. Mudd Productions that feature struggling teenagers; the other two are Ghost World and Juno.
The film is set against the background of a young student, Charlie (Logan Lerman), who has been suffering from clinical depression from childhood setbacks and has recently been discharged from a mental health care institution to begin his adaptation to a normal lifestyle as a young high school student. Charlie is uneasy about beginning his freshman year of high school; he is shy and finds difficulty in making friends, but he connects with his English teacher, Mr. Anderson (Paul Rudd).
When he sits with two seniors, Sam (Emma Watson) and her stepbrother Patrick (Ezra Miller), at a football game, they invite him to tag along to several social activities with them. At a party, Charlie unwittingly eats a cannabis brownie, gets high and discloses to Sam that the year before, his best friend committed suicide. He also walks in on Patrick and Brad (Johnny Simmons), a popular athlete, kissing. Sam realizes that Charlie has no other friends so she and Patrick make a special effort to bring Charlie into their group. Sam needs to improve her SAT scores to be accepted to Pennsylvania State University, so Charlie offers to tutor her. On the way home from the party, when the three hear a song with which they are unfamiliar, Sam instructs Patrick to drive through a tunnel so she can stand up in the back of the pickup while the music blasts.
At Christmas, Sam gives Charlie a vintage typewriter to help his aspirations of being a writer. The two discuss relationships, and Charlie reveals he has never been kissed. Sam, though already involved with someone else, tells Charlie she wants his first kiss to be from someone who loves him, and kisses him. Charlie, in love with Sam, begins to try to find ways to show her how he feels.
At a regular Rocky Horror Picture Show performance, Charlie is asked to fill in for Sam 's boyfriend Craig, who is unavailable. Their friend Mary Elizabeth (Mae Whitman) is impressed and asks Charlie to the Sadie Hawkins dance. The two enter into a desultory relationship. Finally, at a party, when Charlie is dared to kiss the most beautiful girl in the room, he chooses Sam, upsetting both her and Mary Elizabeth. Patrick recommends Charlie stay away from the group for a while, and the isolation causes him to sink back into depression. He experiences flashbacks of his Aunt Helen (Melanie Lynskey), who died in a car accident when he was seven years old.
When Brad shows up at school with a black eye having been caught by his father having sex with Patrick, he lies, saying that he was jumped and beaten up. Brad distances himself from Patrick, calling him a "faggot ''. Brad 's friends begin beating Patrick, but Charlie forcefully intervenes, then blacks out. He recovers to find he has bruised knuckles and Brad 's friends are on the floor, incapacitated. Charlie threatens, "Touch my friends again, and I 'll blind you, '' then leaves. Sam and Patrick express their gratitude to Charlie, and the three become friends again.
Sam is accepted into Penn State, and breaks up with Craig on prom night after learning he has been cheating on her. The night before she departs, she brings Charlie to her room and asks him "Why do I and everyone I love pick people who treat us like we 're nothing? '' to which he repeats advice he received from Mr. Anderson, "We accept the love we think we deserve. '' They confide in each other and kiss, but when Sam touches Charlie 's thigh, he experiences a momentary flashback of his Aunt Helen, which he passes off as nothing, and they continue to kiss. After she leaves for college, though, his emotional state deteriorates and his flashbacks worsen. He calls his sister blaming himself for Helen 's death, and admits he may have wished it upon her. His sister realizes he is in trouble and calls the police. Charlie passes out as they burst through the door and wakes up in a hospital, where psychiatrist Dr. Burton (Joan Cusack) manages to bring out Charlie 's repressed memories of his aunt sexually abusing him.
Charlie then is later visited by Sam and Patrick. Sam explains what college life is like, and how she has found "The Tunnel Song '' -- "Heroes '' by David Bowie. The three revisit the tunnel, where Charlie kisses Sam again and stands up in the back of the truck. Charlie acknowledges that he feels alive and in that moment -- "We are infinite. ''
John Hughes read the novel and attempted to write a screenplay after he got the rights from Chbosky; however, he never finished this screenplay. Hughes was going to use the project as a directorial comeback with more of a black comedy style. He had in mind particular actors while writing the screenplay, namely, Shia LaBeouf as Charlie; Kirsten Dunst (The Virgin Suicides) as Sam; and Patrick Fugit (Almost Famous) as Patrick.
Other filmmakers who were interested in the project were Ron Howard, Richard Linklater, Josh Schwartz, McG, Joel Schumacher, Ryan Murphy and British filmmaker Danny Boyle.
Mr. Mudd Productions (producers of Juno) became interested in the project and wanted Chbosky to adapt the film. The producers -- John Malkovich, Lianne Halfon, and Russell Smith -- hired Chbosky to write a screenplay adaptation (instead of Hughes) and to direct the film. Chbosky found value in half of Hughes ' screenplay, so he negotiated for the rights from Hughes ' heirs and added his own touches. In January 2011, Summit acquired distribution rights. The following month, Summit sought a buyer for the project at the European Film Market held simultaneously with the Berlin International Film Festival.
In May 2010, actors Logan Lerman and Emma Watson were reported as in talks for the project and confirmed the following year. In April 2011, Mae Whitman signed on as Mary Elizabeth and Nina Dobrev was cast as Candace. Paul Rudd was cast as Mr Anderson later that month. On May 9, 2011, Kate Walsh announced that she was cast in the film as Charlie 's mother and had begun filming.
The film was shot in the Pittsburgh metropolitan area from May 9 to June 29, 2011. Initial filming began in Pittsburgh 's South Hills, including South Park, Upper St. Clair, and Peters Township High School.
The Rocky Horror Picture Show scenes were filmed at The Hollywood Theater in Dormont after Chbosky learned that the theater was re-opening; he had seen The Rocky Horror Picture Show there when younger.
The film also has scenes within Pittsburgh city limits inside the Fort Pitt Tunnel, Fort Pitt Bridge on Interstate 376 and on Mount Washington.
The Perks of Being a Wallflower (Soundtrack) is the official music for the book turned film, The Perks of Being a Wallflower (2012). The soundtrack was selected by music supervisor, Alexandra Patsavas and the score was composed Michael Brook. The film itself follows the main characters Charlie, and step brother and sister combo Patrick and Sam, as they grow throughout high school.
Screenwriter and director Stephen Chbosky writes in the album 's liner notes. "I 've shared them with friends. And they have shared their favourites with me. Some of the songs are popular. Some of them are not known by a whole lot of people. But they are all great in their own way. And since these songs have meant a lot to me, I just wanted you to have them as a soundtrack for whatever you need them to be for your life. ''
The soundtrack, with a run time of 1hr and 48mins, was released Aug 1st, 2012 by Atlantic Records. The cover of the soundtrack shows the three main characters with a green backdrop behind them. The character Sam (Emma Watson) is leaning her head on the main character Charlie 's (Logan Lerman) shoulder. The third member of the famous trio, Patrick (Ezra Miller), stands on the other side of Sam looking straight forward. Written above their heads are the words, "The Perks of being a Wallflower: The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ''.
Helping the film in its advertisement was the song It 's Time by the Las Vegas native band Imagine Dragons. This song found its way on the trailer for the movie, however, it was not in the film itself.
The score was composed by Michael Brook and released Sep 25, 2012. The official time of the score in its entirety is 23: 41 minutes long. The cover shows five people on the border of a bridge looking out, with two characters having their arms up cheerfully.
The film was scheduled to be released on September 14, 2012, but it was announced in August 2012 that it would be released a week later, on September 21, 2012, in selected cities. The film continued to expand on September 28, 2012, with a nationwide release on October 12, 2012. The UK premiere was on September 23 at the Cambridge Film Festival.
The film originally received an R rating for "teen drug and alcohol use, and some sexual references ''. The filmmakers appealed and the MPAA changed it to PG - 13 for "mature thematic material, drug and alcohol use, sexual content including references, and a fight -- all involving teens ''.
The Perks of Being a Wallflower received a limited release of four theaters in the United States on September 21, 2012, and grossed $228,359 on its limited opening weekend, averaging $57,089 per theater. The film earned $17,742,948 in North America and $15,641,179 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $33,384,127.
The film received mainly positive reviews. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a "Certified Fresh '' score of 86 %, based on reviews from 151 critics, with an average score of 7.4 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "The Perks of Being a Wallflower is a heartfelt and sincere adaptation that 's bolstered by strong lead performances. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 based on reviews from critics, the film has a score of 67 based on 36 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The lead cast also received positive notices. Ian Buckwalter of The Atlantic said "The primary trio of actors delivers outstanding performances, starting with Watson, who sheds the memory of a decade playing Hermione in the Harry Potter series with an about - face as a flirtatious but insecure free spirit. Miller also plays against his most recent performance, which was as the tightly wound eponymous teenage psychopath in We Need to Talk About Kevin, to deliver a giddy, scene - stealing turn as Patrick. Lerman, best known from the Percy Jackson series, shines as Charlie, a role that demands he be immediately likeable while still holding onto some deep darkness that ca n't be fully revealed until the end. ''
John Anderson of Newsday also praised the cast saying "As Sam, the quasi-bad girl trying to reinvent herself before college, she (Emma Watson) brings honesty and a lack of cliche to a character who might have been a standard - issue student. But equally fine are her co-stars: Ezra Miller, who plays the gay character Patrick as something messy and unusual; Paul Rudd, as their English teacher, is refreshingly thoughtful. And Charlie is portrayed by Lerman as quietly observant, yearning and delicate in a way that will click with audiences regardless of age ''.
Allison M. Lyzenga of My Film Habit praised the film saying "This movie especially recognizes that even while high - school can be a battlefield of insecurity and bullying, you can find allies to help you through the struggle. It also shows that we all have a brighter future ahead if we let ourselves reach for it. ''
Some critics had a less positive response to the film, with the main criticism being that the portrayal of teenage issues is idealized and the casting uninspired. The Miami Herald critic Connie Ogle notes that "the suicide of Charlie 's best friend, which takes place before the film opens, seems glossed over too quickly '' despite the event being Charlie 's main character motivation in the film. Jack Wilson of The Age writes, "the script is transparently fake at almost every moment, congratulating the gang on their non-conformity while soft - pedalling any aspect of adolescent behaviour -- drug use, sex, profanity -- that might upset the American mainstream. '' Richard Corliss of Time criticized the casting of actors in their twenties to play teenagers, unlike the film Heathers where the cast were actually teenagers.
MTV, Us Weekly and Complex named The Perks of Being a Wallflower one of the best films of the year.
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who does daenerys marry in game of thrones | Daenerys Targaryen - wikipedia
Daenerys Targaryen is a fictional character in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels, as well as the television adaptation, Game of Thrones, where she is portrayed by Emilia Clarke. In the novels, she is a prominent point of view character. She is one of the most popular characters in the series, and The New York Times cites her as one of the author 's finest creations.
Introduced in 1996 's A Game of Thrones, Daenerys is one of the last two surviving members (along with her older brother, Viserys) of House Targaryen, who, until fourteen years before the events of the first novel, had ruled Westeros from the Iron Throne for nearly three hundred years. She subsequently appeared in A Clash of Kings (1998) and A Storm of Swords (2000). Daenerys was one of a few prominent characters not included in 2005 's A Feast for Crows, but returned in the next novel A Dance with Dragons (2011). Overall, she has the 4th most number of point - of - view chapters in the currently published books of the series.
In the story, Daenerys is a young woman in her early teens living in Essos across the Narrow Sea. Knowing no other life than one of exile, she remains dependent on her abusive older brother, Viserys. The timid and meek girl finds herself married to Dothraki horselord Khal Drogo, in exchange for an army for Viserys which is to return to Westeros and recapture the Iron Throne. Despite this, her brother loses the ability to control her as Daenerys finds herself adapting to life with the khalasar and emerges as a strong, confident and courageous woman. She becomes the heir of the Targaryen dynasty after her brother 's death and plans to reclaim the Iron Throne herself, seeing it as her birthright. A pregnant Daenerys loses her husband and child, but soon helps hatch three dragons from their eggs, which regard her as their mother, providing her with a tactical advantage and prestige. Over time, she struggles to maintain control of her dragons, which grow dangerous. She also acquires an army with which she conquers the cities of Yunkai, Astapor and Meereen, determined to end slavery and injustice there. Despite her strong moral compass, she is capable of dealing ruthlessly with her enemies, particularly the slave masters. After establishing herself as a powerful and relentless ruler, she sails for her homeland of Westeros, bent on reclaiming the Seven Kingdoms.
Well received by critics and fans alike, Clarke received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her performance as Daenerys in the HBO series in 2013, 2015, and 2016. She has also earned numerous other nominations and accolades for her portrayal.
Daenerys Targaryen is the daughter of King Aerys II Targaryen (also referred to as "The Mad King '') and his sister - wife Queen Rhaella, and is one of the last survivors of House Targaryen. She serves as the third - person narrator of thirty - one chapters throughout A Game of Thrones, A Clash of Kings, A Storm of Swords, and A Dance with Dragons. She is the only monarch or claimant to a throne given point of view chapters in the novels. Thirteen years before the events of the series (sixteen in the television series), after her father and eldest brother Rhaegar were killed during Robert 's Rebellion, Daenerys was born in the midst of a great storm, earning her the nickname "Stormborn ''. Rhaella died in childbirth and Daenerys was whisked away to Braavos with her older brother Viserys by the Master of Arms of the Red Keep, Ser Willem Darry. Darry died when Daenerys was five and she and Viserys spent the following years wandering the Free Cities. By the beginning of A Game of Thrones, Daenerys has been a guest of Illyrio Mopatis in Pentos for half a year.
In A Game of Thrones (1996), Daenerys is sold off by her brother Viserys and Illyrio Mopatis to marry Khal Drogo, a Dothraki warlord, in exchange for an army for Viserys. At that time, Daenerys befriends Jorah Mormont, an exiled Westerosi knight, and is given three petrified dragon eggs as a wedding gift. Though initially terrified of Drogo, the marriage turns out to be a happy one, and Daenerys grew to love him and began to take to Dothraki customs, finding strength and determination for the first time. This leads her to stand up to Viserys 's attempts to bully her into coercing Drogo. After Drogo kills Viserys by pouring molten gold atop his head for threatening his wife, Daenerys sees herself as the heir to the Targaryen dynasty, and responsible for reclaiming the throne for her family. Shortly thereafter, Drogo is wounded in a fight, and the cut festers. With Drogo ill, his warriors mutiny and abandon him. In desperation, Daenerys recruits an enslaved Lhazareen priestess, Mirri Maz Duur, to save Drogo with blood magic. However, despite being saved by Daenerys from being raped by the tribe 's warriors, the priestess betrays her trust, and the magic ritual leads to the stillbirth of Daenerys 's unborn child and leaves Drogo in a catatonic state. Daenerys does not want her husband to suffer any longer, and euthanizes him with a pillow. She burns the priestess in Drogo 's funeral pyre and climbs into the flame with her three dragon eggs. When the pyre dies out the following morning, Daenerys emerges alive and unburnt from the ashes with three hatched dragons.
Leading the remnants of Drogo 's khalasar through the Red Waste, Daenerys arrives in the city of Qarth. There she begins appealing to the rulers of the city for aid in reclaiming the Iron Throne, and meets little success. She eventually accepts an invitation from a group of warlocks to discover her future. At the warlocks temple, the House of the Undying, Daenerys sees several visions and is told prophecies about her destiny as the "child of three '' who will experience "three fires must you light '', "three mounts must you ride '' and "three treasons will you know '', as well as the "daughter of death '', the "slayer of lies '' and the "bride of fire ''. When the Undyings attack her and intend to hold her prisoner, Drogon kills the Undying Ones with dragon flame and burns down the whole temple, allowing Daenerys to escape. Before departing Qarth, Daenerys is nearly assassinated with a venomous manticore but is saved by Arstan Whitebeard, who is sent by Illyrio Morpatis along with the eunuch fighter Strong Belwas and three ships as a gift to take Daenerys back to Pentos.
Seeking an army, Daenerys sails to Astapor in Slaver 's Bay to purchase an army of ' Unsullied ' slave soldiers, in exchange for a dragon; but she betrays the slavers and uses the Unsullied to sack the city. She later conquers the city of Yunkai and gains the service of Daario Naharis, who commands a large mercenary company. As she marches on Meereen, she learns that one of her companions is actually Barristan Selmy, a knight of Robert the Usurper 's Kingsguard, and that Jorah had spied on her earlier. Disgusted, she sends the pair on a suicide mission to capture Meereen. When the mission is successful, Barristan asks to be forgiven for his deception; but Jorah refuses to ask forgiveness, so Daenerys banishes him. Unwilling to abandon the slaves she freed, fearing they would return to bondage, Dany decides to stay in Meereen.
Throughout A Dance with Dragons (2011), Daenerys struggles to maintain order in the city in the face of growing unrest as well as the chaos she left behind in the other cities she conquered. Furthermore, Yunkai has rebelled and is gathering forces to besiege Meereen. When Drogon kills a child, Daenerys feels compelled to chain her dragons Rhaegal and Viserion, but Drogon escapes. Her advisers suggest she marry Hizdahr zo Loraq to bring peace and she agrees, but also takes Daario as a lover. Hizdahr successfully negotiates an end to the violence, so she marries him. At her wedding feast, the blood and noise of the fighting pits attract Drogon, who is immediately attacked; Daenerys 's attempt to control her dragon fails initially but she eventually flies off with him. After several days in Drogon 's lair, she falls ill after eating some berries and begins to hallucinate. She is later found by Khal Jhaqo, formerly a captain of her Khalasar who betrayed her late husband.
Martin said that the character was aged in the television series because of child pornography regulations. The role of Daenerys was originally played by Tamzin Merchant in the pilot, but the first episode was re-shot with Emilia Clarke. Clarke, in reflection of the character 's evolution in the television series, stated: "Throughout the season she 's had an insane transformation from someone who barely even spoke and timidly did everything her brother said into a mother of dragons and a queen of armies and a killer of slave masters. She 's a very Joan of Arc - style character. '' Clarke said she accepts acting nude if "a nude scene forwards a story or is shot in a way that adds insight into characters ''. She added that "sometimes explicit scenes are required and make sense for the characters / story, as they do in Westeros '' and that she can discuss with a director how to make a gratuitously nude scene more subtle. Clarke, however, has used a body double in past cameo appearances, particularly Rosie Mac in season 5.
In October 2014, Clarke and several other key cast members, all contracted for six seasons of the series, renegotiated their deals to include a potential seventh season and salary increases for seasons five, six, and seven. The Hollywood Reporter called the raises "huge '', noting that the deal would make the performers "among the highest - paid actors on cable TV ''. Deadline.com put the number for season five at "close to $300,000 an episode '' for each actor, and The Hollywood Reporter wrote in June 2016 that the performers would each be paid "upward of $500,000 per episode '' for seasons seven and the potential eight. In 2017, Clarke became one of the highest paid actors on television and will earn £ 2 million per episode for the show.
Daenerys Targaryen is the exiled princess of the Targaryen dynasty. Also called "Stormborn '', she and her brother Viserys were smuggled to Essos during the end of Robert 's Rebellion. For most of her life, she has been under the care of Viserys, whom she fears, as he is abusive to her whenever she displeases him.
Viserys marries Daenerys to the powerful Dothraki warlord Khal Drogo in exchange for his military support in an invasion of Westeros, making Daenerys a Khaleesi, a queen of the Dothraki. During the wedding, exiled knight Ser Jorah Mormont pledges his loyalty to Daenerys, and her benefactor Ilyrio Mopatis gifts her three petrified dragon eggs. Daenerys is at first afraid of her new husband, but after learning the Dothraki language, she begins to understand him and genuinely falls in love with him after learning Drogo is a smart leader and a kind man. After embracing the Dothraki culture, she becomes stronger and rebels against her brother. She later becomes pregnant with Drogo 's son, who is prophesied by the Dothraki to be the "Stallion Who Mounts the World ''. Viserys grows jealous of Daenerys 's popularity and becomes infuriated with Drogo 's lack of urgency in launching an invasion, prompting him to threaten to cut Daenerys 's unborn son from her womb. Drogo responds by killing Viserys with molten gold, to which Daenerys declares that he was no dragon, because fire can not kill a dragon.
After an unsuccessful assassination attempt on behalf of Robert Baratheon, Drogo vows to Daenerys that he will conquer the Seven Kingdoms for her and their unborn son. However, during their journey Drogo becomes comatose due to an infected wound incurred during a fight with one of his men. Daenerys is forced to seek the help of healer Mirri Maz Duur to save his life using blood magic. Mirri tricks Daenerys by using her unborn son 's life as a sacrifice to heal Drogo but leave him in a permanent catatonic state, forcing Daenerys to end her husband 's life. Daenerys punishes Mirri by having her tied to Drogo 's funeral pyre. She also lays the three dragon eggs onto Drogo 's body and steps into the fire herself. At daybreak, after the fire is burned down, Daenerys emerges with three baby dragons, whom she names Drogon, Rhaegal, and Viserion.
Daenerys and the remnants of Drogo 's khalasar wander the Red Waste before being accepted into the city of Qarth. She is hosted by merchant Xaro Xhoan Daxos, a member of Qarth 's ruling council the Thirteen. Daenerys tries to appeal to the Thirteen to support her invasion of Westeros, without success. She returns to Xaro 's manse to find half of her men and servants killed and her dragons gone. Meeting with the Thirteen again to ask for their help in retrieving her dragons, the warlock Pyat Pree claims responsibility and declares that her dragons are being kept in his temple, the House of the Undying. Daenerys travels to the temple, but Pree 's magic separates her from Jorah and leaves her chained with her dragon. Daenerys orders her dragons to immolate Pree. Daenerys then confronts Xaro, who had conspired with Pree and Daenerys 's servant Doreah to seize control of Qarth. Daenerys has Xaro and Doreah sealed in Xaro 's vault, and has her remaining loyalists raid his manse, using the funds to buy a ship.
Daenerys travels to Astapor, a city in Slaver 's Bay. As she arrives, the warlocks of Qarth attempt to assassinate her, but are thwarted by Ser Barristan Selmy, who was Kingsguard to Aerys Targaryen; Daenerys accepts him into her service. Daenerys negotiates with Astapori slaver Kraznys mo Nakloz to purchase an army of Unsullied, elite eunuch soldiers, in exchange for Drogon, also obtaining the services of Kraznys 's translator Missandei. Upon the completion of the transaction, she has Drogon burn Kraznys alive and orders the Unsullied to sack the city, kill Astapor 's masters and free its slaves. Daenerys and her army then march on the neighbouring slave city of Yunkai, who hire the sellsword company the Second Sons to defend the city. The commanders of the Second Sons order their lieutenant, Daario Naharis, to kill Daenerys; however, he is smitten by her beauty and instead brings her the heads of his superiors, pledging the Second Sons ' allegiance. Daario, Jorah, and the Unsullied commander Grey Worm infiltrate Yunkai, opening the gates for the Targaryen army to conquer the city. Daenerys is received by Yunkai 's freed slaves, who hail her as their "mhysa '' (mother).
Daenerys marches on the last city in Slaver 's Bay, Meereen, and seizes control of the city by instigating a slave revolt. She decides to execute 163 Meereenese masters as "justice '' for 163 slave children crucified on the road to Meereen. After becoming aware that her council in Astapor has been overthrown and that Yunkai has reverted to slavery, Daenerys decides to stay in Meereen to practice ruling. She also begins a sexual relationship with Daario. After discovering that Jorah was previously spying on her on House Baratheon 's behalf, she is enraged and orders him exiled from the city. Daenerys is later horrified to discover that Drogon has killed a farmer 's child; although Drogon is unable to be captured, she has Rhaegal and Viserion locked up in Meereen 's catacombs.
Daenerys faces a new threat to her rule in the form of the Sons of the Harpy, a resistance movement made of agitated former masters. Her popularity with the freedmen also begins to wane after she publicly executes one of her councillors, Mossador, for killing a captive Son. After the Sons kill Ser Barristan, Daenerys decides that she will attempt to restore peace by reopening Meereen 's fighting pits and taking the Meereenese noble Hizdhar zo Loraq as her husband. While attending a gladiator demonstration, she is confronted by Jorah, who has brought her the fugitive Tyrion Lannister to appease her. Daenerys accepts Tyrion onto her council, but orders Jorah exiled again.
At the reopening of the fighting pits, Jorah saves Daenerys 's life by killing a Son of the Harpy trying to assassinate her. The Sons then launch a massive attack, killing Hizdhar and many other Meereenese noblemen and freedmen. As the Sons corner Daenerys and her councillors, Drogon appears and kills or scares off most of the Sons. As the Unsullied begin to overwhelm the Sons, some begin throwing spears at Drogon, prompting Daenerys to climb onto his back and order him to fly away. Drogon eventually leaves her in the Dothraki Sea, where she is captured by a khalasar.
Daenerys is taken to Khal Moro, the leader of the Dothraki horde. Learning that she is the widow of Khal Drogo, Moro tells her she must live out her days among the widows of the Dosh Khaleen in Vaes Dothrak. Once there, Daenerys is told that she is to be judged by the khals for defying tradition and going out into the world following Drogo 's death. During the meeting with the khals, Daenerys declares that only she has enough ambition to lead the Dothraki; when the outraged khals threaten to gang - rape her, Daenerys sets fire to the temple, killing everyone inside but emerging unscathed. Awed, the Dothraki accept her as their Khaleesi. After discovering that Jorah, who had followed her to Vaes Dothrak with Daario, is infected with the terminal disease greyscale, Daenerys orders him to find a cure and return to her services, before marching on Meereen with Drogon, Daario and the Dothraki.
Daenerys returns to Meereen to find it under siege by the joint fleets of Yunkai, Astapor, and Volantis, who have reneged on an agreement with Tyrion to free their slaves and are trying to reclaim the city. Daenerys deploys all three of her dragons, burning most of the slaver fleet and seizing the ships that survive. The slavers agree to surrender. Soon after, Theon and Yara Greyjoy arrive to offer the Iron Fleet in exchange for Daenerys giving the Iron Islands their independence and installing Yara as queen of the Iron Islands over their uncle Euron, who had been planning to marry Daenerys (and likely kill her as soon as possible). Daenerys agrees to Theon and Yara 's alliance. Varys, meanwhile, secures the support of Ellaria Sand and Olenna Tyrell, who have lost family members to the Lannisters and want vengeance. Daenerys leaves Daario and the Second Sons in Meereen to keep the peace, and sets sail for Westeros at last.
Daenerys arrives at the island fortress of Dragonstone, the ancient Targaryen stronghold once held by the late Stannis Baratheon, and finds it abandoned. She sends the Unsullied to take Casterly Rock, and her Greyjoy fleet, along with ships from Dorne, to blockade King 's Landing. The Lannister forces, however, have left Casterly Rock and seized Highgarden and its wealth, and Euron Greyjoy overcomes Yara Greyjoy 's ships. In an effort to gain allies, Daenerys summons the newly named the King in the North Jon Snow to pledge his fealty to her. Jon refuses, insisting that the White Walkers and their wight army present a more immediate threat than the Lannisters. Receiving word of Highgarden 's fall, Daenerys leads Drogon and the Dothraki to decimate the Lannister caravan. Drogon is injured by a ballista designed specifically to wound dragons, but Daenerys is victorious. The remaining forces submit to her after she commands the dragon to roast a resistant Randyll and Dickon Tarly alive.
Jon and a cured Jorah lead an expedition beyond the Wall to capture a wight, which they will use to convince Cersei Lannister, the self - declared Queen of Westeros, that the threat is real. They are saved from the army of the dead by Daenerys and her dragons, but the Night King kills Viserion with an ice spear. A distraught Daenerys vows to Jon that she will help fight the White Walkers, and Jon accepts her as his queen. Meanwhile, the Night King resurrects Viserion as a wight. They bring a wight to King 's Landing; Cersei ultimately agrees to a truce, and to aid in the fight against the undead army. Jon and Daenerys finally succumb to their growing attraction and fall into bed together, neither aware of the revelation that Jon is her nephew. In the North, the Night King rides an undead Viserion, who breaches the Wall with dragonfire.
Daenerys is one of the most popular characters of the book series. The New York Times called Daenerys, together with Tyrion Lannister and Jon Snow, one of Martin 's "finest creations ''. Rolling Stone ranked Daenerys Targaryen at No. 1 on a list of "Top 40 Game of Thrones Characters '', calling her story a "non-stop confrontation with complex ideas about sex, war, gender, race, politics and morality ''. Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe called her scenes "mesmerizing ''. Salon 's Andrew Leonard, in his review of A Dance with Dragons, called Daenerys one of the series ' three strongest characters, and bemoaned her lack of inclusion in A Feast for Crows. The website Mashable recognized her as one of the five most popular characters on the series, while The Daily Beast referred to her as the "closest thing the series has to a protagonist ''.
Emilia Clarke 's performance has garnered critical acclaim. Her acting, as she closed Daenerys 's arc initiated in the first episode from a frightened girl to an empowered woman, was praised. Gilbert said that "Clarke does n't have a lot of emotional variety to work with as Daenerys, aside from fierce determination, and yet she is riveting. '' In his review for "A Golden Crown, '' Todd VanDerWerff for The A.V. Club commented on the difficulty of adapting such an evolution from page to screen, but concluded that "Clarke (...) more than seal (s) the deal here. IGN 's Matt Fowler also praised Clarke and noted that Daenerys 's choice to watch Viserys die was "powerful '' and an important shift in her character. Time 's reviewer James Poniewozik complimented Daenerys 's storyline, while other reviewers complimented Clarke 's acting. Clarke 's performance, and the character 's final scene, in "Baelor '' was praised, and the final scene of the season received widespread acclaim.
Kate Arthur of the website BuzzFeed criticized the character 's story line in the television show 's second season, stating that she was too "weak - seeming ''. Arthur, however, praised the character 's "purpose coupled with humanity and even some humor '' during the third season, opining that Clarke was "eating the screen alive as a result ''. Nate Hopper of Esquire magazine, when speaking of the television series, argued that the character did not face enough conflict, characterizing her conquering of cities as "cut and dry '', stating that "She needs to be emancipated from her own easy, comfortable, mundane victory. ''
From the beginning, Clarke 's performance has been praised by critics. She received an EWwy Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama in 2011, as well as a Scream Award for Breakout Performance by a Female. She also earned a Gracie Allen Award for Outstanding Female Rising Star in a Drama Series or Special in 2012, and a SFX Award for Best Actress in 2013.
Clarke received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2013, 2015, and 2016. She was also nominated for a Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for the role in 2013 and 2016. Other nominations include the Golden Nymph Award for Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series in 2012, the Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries or Television Film in 2013, the People 's Choice Award for Favorite Sci - Fi / Fantasy TV Actress in 2014, 2016 and 2017, the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television in 2015, the Gold Derby TV Award for Best Drama Supporting Actress in 2013 and 2014, and the MTV Movie & TV Award for Best Actor In A Show in 2017. IGN also nominated Clarke for Best TV Actress in 2011.
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where did the dodo bird live before it was extinct | Dodo - wikipedia
The dodo (Raphus cucullatus) is an extinct flightless bird that was endemic to the island of Mauritius, east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. The dodo 's closest genetic relative was the also extinct Rodrigues solitaire, the two forming the subfamily Raphinae of the family of pigeons and doves. The closest living relative of the dodo is the Nicobar pigeon. A white dodo was once thought to have existed on the nearby island of Réunion, but this is now thought to have been confusion based on the Réunion ibis and paintings of white dodos.
Subfossil remains show the dodo was about 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) tall and may have weighed 10.6 -- 17.5 kg (23 -- 39 lb) in the wild. The dodo 's appearance in life is evidenced only by drawings, paintings, and written accounts from the 17th century. Because these vary considerably, and because only some illustrations are known to have been drawn from live specimens, its exact appearance in life remains unresolved, and little is known about its behaviour. Though the dodo has historically been considered fat and clumsy, it is now thought to have been well - adapted for its ecosystem. It has been depicted with brownish - grey plumage, yellow feet, a tuft of tail feathers, a grey, naked head, and a black, yellow, and green beak. It used gizzard stones to help digest its food, which is thought to have included fruits, and its main habitat is believed to have been the woods in the drier coastal areas of Mauritius. One account states its clutch consisted of a single egg. It is presumed that the dodo became flightless because of the ready availability of abundant food sources and a relative absence of predators on Mauritius.
The first recorded mention of the dodo was by Dutch sailors in 1598. In the following years, the bird was hunted by sailors and invasive species, while its habitat was being destroyed. The last widely accepted sighting of a dodo was in 1662. Its extinction was not immediately noticed, and some considered it to be a mythical creature. In the 19th century, research was conducted on a small quantity of remains of four specimens that had been brought to Europe in the early 17th century. Among these is a dried head, the only soft tissue of the dodo that remains today. Since then, a large amount of subfossil material has been collected on Mauritius, mostly from the Mare aux Songes swamp. The extinction of the dodo within less than a century of its discovery called attention to the previously unrecognised problem of human involvement in the disappearance of entire species. The dodo achieved widespread recognition from its role in the story of Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, and it has since become a fixture in popular culture, often as a symbol of extinction and obsolescence.
The dodo was variously declared a small ostrich, a rail, an albatross, or a vulture, by early scientists. In 1842, Danish zoologist Johannes Theodor Reinhardt proposed that dodos were ground pigeons, based on studies of a dodo skull he had discovered in the collection of the Natural History Museum of Denmark. This view was met with ridicule, but was later supported by English naturalists Hugh Edwin Strickland and Alexander Gordon Melville in their 1848 monograph The Dodo and Its Kindred, which attempted to separate myth from reality. After dissecting the preserved head and foot of the specimen at the Oxford University Museum and comparing it with the few remains then available of the extinct Rodrigues solitaire (Pezophaps solitaria) they concluded that the two were closely related. Strickland stated that although not identical, these birds shared many distinguishing features of the leg bones, otherwise known only in pigeons.
Strickland and Melville established that the dodo was anatomically similar to pigeons in many features. They pointed to the very short keratinous portion of the beak, with its long, slender, naked basal part. Other pigeons also have bare skin around their eyes, almost reaching their beak, as in dodos. The forehead was high in relation to the beak, and the nostril was located low on the middle of the beak and surrounded by skin, a combination of features shared only with pigeons. The legs of the dodo were generally more similar to those of terrestrial pigeons than of other birds, both in their scales and in their skeletal features. Depictions of the large crop hinted at a relationship with pigeons, in which this feature is more developed than in other birds. Pigeons generally have very small clutches, and the dodo is said to have laid a single egg. Like pigeons, the dodo lacked the vomer and septum of the nostrils, and it shared details in the mandible, the zygomatic bone, the palate, and the hallux. The dodo differed from other pigeons mainly in the small size of the wings and the large size of the beak in proportion to the rest of the cranium.
Throughout the 19th century, several species were classified as congeneric with the dodo, including the Rodrigues solitaire and the Réunion solitaire, as Didus solitarius and Raphus solitarius, respectively (Didus and Raphus being names for the dodo genus used by different authors of the time). An atypical 17th - century description of a dodo and bones found on Rodrigues, now known to have belonged to the Rodrigues solitaire, led Abraham Dee Bartlett to name a new species, Didus nazarenus, in 1852. Based on solitaire remains, it is now a synonym of that species. Crude drawings of the red rail of Mauritius were also misinterpreted as dodo species; Didus broeckii and Didus herberti.
For many years the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire were placed in a family of their own, the Raphidae (formerly Dididae), because their exact relationships with other pigeons were unresolved. Each was also placed in its own monotypic family (Raphidae and Pezophapidae, respectively), as it was thought that they had evolved their similarities independently. Osteological and DNA analysis has since led to the dissolution of the family Raphidae, and the dodo and solitaire are now placed in their own subfamily, Raphinae, within the family Columbidae.
In 2002, American geneticist Beth Shapiro and colleagues analysed the DNA of the dodo for the first time. Comparison of mitochondrial cytochrome b and 12S rRNA sequences isolated from a tarsal of the Oxford specimen and a femur of a Rodrigues solitaire confirmed their close relationship and their placement within the Columbidae. The genetic evidence was interpreted as showing the Southeast Asian Nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica) to be their closest living relative, followed by the crowned pigeons (Goura) of New Guinea, and the superficially dodo - like tooth - billed pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris) from Samoa (its scientific name refers to its dodo - like beak). This clade consists of generally ground - dwelling island endemic pigeons. The following cladogram shows the dodo 's closest relationships within the Columbidae, based on Shapiro et al., 2002:
Goura victoria (Victoria crowned pigeon)
Caloenas nicobarica (Nicobar pigeon)
Pezophaps solitaria (Rodrigues solitaire)
Raphus cucullatus (dodo)
Didunculus strigirostris (tooth - billed pigeon)
A similar cladogram was published in 2007, inverting the placement of Goura and Dicunculus and including the pheasant pigeon (Otidiphaps nobilis) and the thick - billed ground pigeon (Trugon terrestris) at the base of the clade. The DNA used in these studies was obtained from the Oxford specimen, and since this material is degraded, and no usable DNA has been extracted from subfossil remains, these findings still need to be independently verified. Based on behavioural and morphological evidence, Jolyon C. Parish proposed that the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire should be placed in the subfamily Gourinae along with the Groura pigeons and others, in agreement with the genetic evidence. In 2014, DNA of the only known specimen of the recently extinct spotted green pigeon (Caloenas maculata) was analysed, and it was found to be a close relative of the Nicobar pigeon, and thus also the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire.
The 2002 study indicated that the ancestors of the dodo and the solitaire diverged around the Paleogene - Neogene boundary. The Mascarene Islands (Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodrigues), are of volcanic origin and are less than 10 million years old. Therefore, the ancestors of both birds probably remained capable of flight for a considerable time after the separation of their lineage. The Nicobar and spotted green pigeon were placed at the base of a lineage leading to the Raphinae, which indicates the flightless raphines had ancestors that were able to fly, were semi-terrestrial, and inhabited islands. This in turn supports the hypothesis that the ancestors of those birds reached the Mascarene islands by island hopping from South Asia. The lack of mammalian herbivores competing for resources on these islands allowed the solitaire and the dodo to attain very large sizes and flightlessness. Despite its divergent skull morphology and adaptations for larger size, many features of its skeleton remained similar to those of smaller, flying pigeons. Another large, flightless pigeon, the Viti Levu giant pigeon (Natunaornis gigoura), was described in 2001 from subfossil material from Fiji. It was only slightly smaller than the dodo and the solitaire, and it too is thought to have been related to the crowned pigeons.
One of the original names for the dodo was the Dutch "Walghvogel '', first used in the journal of Vice Admiral Wybrand van Warwijck, who visited Mauritius during the Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia in 1598. Walghe means "tasteless '', "insipid '', or "sickly '', and vogel means "bird ''. The name was translated into German as Walchstök or Walchvögel, by Jakob Friedlib. The original Dutch report titled Waarachtige Beschryving was lost, but the English translation survived:
On their left hand was a little island which they named Heemskirk Island, and the bay it selve they called Warwick Bay... Here they taried 12. daies to refresh themselues, finding in this place great quantity of foules twice as bigge as swans, which they call Walghstocks or Wallowbirdes being very good meat. But finding an abundance of pigeons & popinnayes (parrots), they disdained any more to eat those great foules calling them Wallowbirds, that is to say lothsome or fulsome birdes.
Another account from that voyage, perhaps the first to mention the dodo, states that the Portuguese referred to them as penguins. The meaning may not have been derived from penguin (the Portuguese referred to them as "fotilicaios '' at the time), but from pinion, a reference to the small wings. The crew of the Dutch ship Gelderland referred to the bird as "Dronte '' (meaning "swollen '') in 1602, a name that is still used in some languages. This crew also called them "griff - eendt '' and "kermisgans '', in reference to fowl fattened for the Kermesse festival in Amsterdam, which was held the day after they anchored on Mauritius.
The etymology of the word dodo is unclear. Some ascribe it to the Dutch word dodoor for "sluggard '', but it is more probably related to Dodaars, which means either "fat - arse '' or "knot - arse '', referring to the knot of feathers on the hind end. The first record of the word Dodaars is in Captain Willem Van West - Zanen 's journal in 1602. The English writer Sir Thomas Herbert was the first to use the word dodo in print in his 1634 travelogue, claiming it was referred to as such by the Portuguese, who had visited Mauritius in 1507. Another Englishman, Emmanuel Altham, had used the word in a 1628 letter, in which he also claimed the origin was Portuguese. The name "dodar '' was introduced into English at the same time as dodo, but was only used until the 18th century. As far as is known, the Portuguese never mentioned the bird. Nevertheless, some sources still state that the word dodo derives from the Portuguese word doudo (currently doido), meaning "fool '' or "crazy ''. It has also been suggested that dodo was an onomatopoeic approximation of the bird 's call, a two - note pigeon - like sound resembling "doo - doo ''.
The Latin name cucullatus ("hooded '') was first used by Juan Eusebio Nieremberg in 1635 as Cygnus cucullatus, in reference to Carolus Clusius 's 1605 depiction of a dodo. In his 18th - century classic work Systema Naturae, Carl Linnaeus used cucullatus as the specific name, but combined it with the genus name Struthio (ostrich). Mathurin Jacques Brisson coined the genus name Raphus (referring to the bustards) in 1760, resulting in the current name Raphus cucullatus. In 1766, Linnaeus coined the new binomial Didus ineptus (meaning "inept dodo ''). This has become a synonym of the earlier name because of nomenclatural priority.
As no complete dodo specimens exist, its external appearance, such as plumage and colouration, is hard to determine. Illustrations and written accounts of encounters with the dodo between its discovery and its extinction (1598 -- 1662) are the primary evidence for its external appearance. According to most representations, the dodo had greyish or brownish plumage, with lighter primary feathers and a tuft of curly light feathers high on its rear end. The head was grey and naked, the beak green, black and yellow, and the legs were stout and yellowish, with black claws. A study of the few remaining feathers on the Oxford specimen head showed that they were pennaceous rather than plumaceous (downy) and most similar to those of other pigeons.
Subfossil remains and remnants of the birds that were brought to Europe in the 17th century show that dodos were very large birds, up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) tall. The bird was sexually dimorphic; males were larger and had proportionally longer beaks. Weight estimates have varied from study to study. In 1993, Bradley C. Livezey proposed that males would have weighed 21 kilograms (46 lb) and females 17 kilograms (37 lb). Also in 1993, Andrew C. Kitchener attributed a high contemporary weight estimate and the roundness of dodos depicted in Europe to these birds having been overfed in captivity; weights in the wild were estimated to have been in the range of 10.6 -- 17.5 kg (23 -- 39 lb), and fattened birds could have weighed 21.7 -- 27.8 kg (48 -- 61 lb). A 2011 estimate by Angst and colleagues gave an average weight as low as 10.2 kg (22 lb). This has also been questioned, and there is still controversy over weight estimates. A 2016 study estimated the weight at 10.6 to 14.3 kg (23 to 32 lb), based on CT scans of composite skeletons. It has also been suggested that the weight depended on the season, and that individuals were fat during cool seasons, but less so during hot.
The skull of the dodo differed much from those of other pigeons, especially in being more robust, the bill having a hooked tip, and in having a short cranium compared to the jaws. The upper bill was nearly twice as long as the cranium, which was short compared to those of its closest pigeon relatives. The openings of the bony nostrils were elongated along the length of the beak, and they contained no bony septum. The cranium (excluding the beak) was wider than it was long, and the frontal bone formed a dome - shape, with the highest point above the hind part of the eye sockets. The skull sloped downwards at the back. The eye sockets occupied much of the hind part of the skull. The sclerotic rings inside the eye were formed by eleven ossicles (small bones), similar to the amount in other pigeons. The mandible was slightly curved, and each half had a single fenestra (opening), as in other pigeons.
The dodo had about nineteen presynsacral vertebrae (those of the neck and thorax, including three fused into a notarium), sixteen synsacral vertebrae (those of the lumbar region and sacrum), six free tail (caudal) vertebrae, and a pygostyle. The neck had well - developed areas for muscle and ligament attachment, probably to support the heavy skull and beak. On each side, it had six ribs, four of which articulated with the sternum through sternal ribs. The sternum was large, but small in relation to the body compared to those of much smaller pigeons that are able to fly. The sternum was highly pneumatic, broad, and relatively thick in cross-section. The bones of the pectoral girdle, shoulder blades, and wing bones were reduced in size compared to those of flighted pigeon, and were more gracile compared to those of the Rodrigues solitaire, but none of the individual skeletal components had disappeared. The carpometacarpus of the dodo was more robust than that of the solitaire, however. The pelvis was wider than that of the solitaire and other relatives, yet was comparable to the proportions in some smaller, flighted pigeons. Most of the leg bones were more robust than those of extant pigeons and the solitaire, but the length proportions were little different.
Many of the skeletal features that distinguish the dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire, its closest relative, from pigeons have been attributed to their flightlessness. The pelvic elements were thicker than those of flighted pigeons to support the higher weight, and the pectoral region and the small wings were paedomorphic, meaning that they were underdeveloped and retained juvenile features. The skull, trunk and pelvic limbs were peramorphic, meaning that they changed considerably with age. The dodo shared several other traits with the Rodrigues solitaire, such as features of the skull, pelvis, and sternum, as well as their large size. It differed in other aspects, such as being more robust and shorter than the solitaire, having a larger skull and beak, a rounded skull roof, and smaller orbits. The dodo 's neck and legs were proportionally shorter, and it did not possess an equivalent to the knob present on the solitaire 's wrists.
Most contemporary descriptions of the dodo are found in ship 's logs and journals of the Dutch East India Company vessels that docked in Mauritius when the Dutch Empire ruled the island. These records were used as guides for future voyages. Few contemporary accounts are reliable, as many seem to be based on earlier accounts, and none were written by scientists. One of the earliest accounts, from van Warwijck 's 1598 journal, describes the bird as follows:
Blue parrots are very numerous there, as well as other birds; among which are a kind, conspicuous for their size, larger than our swans, with huge heads only half covered with skin as if clothed with a hood. These birds lack wings, in the place of which 3 or 4 blackish feathers protrude. The tail consists of a few soft incurved feathers, which are ash coloured. These we used to call ' Walghvogel ', for the reason that the longer and oftener they were cooked, the less soft and more insipid eating they became. Nevertheless their belly and breast were of a pleasant flavour and easily masticated.
One of the most detailed descriptions is by Sir Thomas Herbert in A Relation of Some Yeares Travaille into Afrique and the Greater Asia from 1634:
First here only and in Dygarrois (Rodrigues) is generated the Dodo, which for shape and rareness may antagonize the Phoenix of Arabia: her body is round and fat, few weigh less than fifty pound. It is reputed more for wonder than for food, greasie stomackes may seeke after them, but to the delicate they are offensive and of no nourishment. Her visage darts forth melancholy, as sensible of Nature 's injurie in framing so great a body to be guided with complementall wings, so small and impotent, that they serve only to prove her bird. The halfe of her head is naked seeming couered with a fine vaile, her bill is crooked downwards, in midst is the thrill (nostril), from which part to the end tis a light green, mixed with pale yellow tincture; her eyes are small and like to Diamonds, round and rowling; her clothing downy feathers, her train three small plumes, short and inproportionable, her legs suiting her body, her pounces sharpe, her appetite strong and greedy. Stones and iron are digested, which description will better be conceived in her representation.
The travel journal of the Dutch ship Gelderland (1601 -- 1603), rediscovered in the 1860s, contains the only known sketches of living or recently killed specimens drawn on Mauritius. They have been attributed to the professional artist Joris Joostensz Laerle, who also drew other now - extinct Mauritian birds, and to a second, less refined artist. Apart from these sketches, it is unknown how many of the twenty or so 17th - century illustrations of the dodos were drawn from life or from stuffed specimens, which affects their reliability.
All post-1638 depictions appear to be based on earlier images, around the time reports mentioning dodos became rarer. Differences in the depictions led authors such as Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans and Masauji Hachisuka to speculate about sexual dimorphism, ontogenic traits, seasonal variation, and even the existence of different species, but these theories are not accepted today. Because details such as markings of the beak, the form of the tail feathers, and colouration vary from account to account, it is impossible to determine the exact morphology of these features, whether they signal age or sex, or if they even reflect reality. Dodo specialist Julian Hume argued that the nostrils of the living dodo would have been slits, as seen in the Gelderland, Cornelis Saftleven, Crocker Art Gallery, and Ustad Mansur images. According to this claim, the gaping nostrils often seen in paintings indicate that taxidermy specimens were used as models. Most depictions show that the wings were held in an extended position, unlike flighted pigeons, but similar to ratites such as the ostrich and kiwi.
The traditional image of the dodo is of a very fat and clumsy bird, but this view may be exaggerated. The general opinion of scientists today is that many old European depictions were based on overfed captive birds or crudely stuffed specimens. It has also been suggested that the images might show dodos with puffed feathers, as part of display behaviour. The Dutch painter Roelant Savery was the most prolific and influential illustrator of the dodo, having made at least ten depictions, often showing it in the lower corners. A famous painting of his from 1626, now called Edwards 's Dodo as it was once owned by the ornithologist George Edwards, has since become the standard image of a dodo. It is housed in the Natural History Museum, London. The image shows a particularly fat bird and is the source for many other dodo illustrations.
An Indian Mughal painting rediscovered in St. Petersburg in the 1950s shows a dodo along with native Indian birds. It depicts a slimmer, brownish bird, and its discoverer A. Iwanow and dodo specialist Julian Hume regard it as one of the most accurate depictions of the living dodo; the surrounding birds are clearly identifiable and depicted with appropriate colouring. It is believed to be from the 17th century and has been attributed to artist Ustad Mansur. The bird depicted probably lived in the menagerie of Mughal Emperor Jahangir, located in Surat, where English traveller Peter Mundy also claimed to have seen two dodos sometime between 1628 and 1633. In 2014, another Indian illustration of a dodo was reported, but it was found to be derivative of an 1836 German illustration.
Little is known of the behaviour of the dodo, as most contemporary descriptions are very brief. Based on weight estimates, it has been suggested the male could reach the age of 21, and the female 17. Studies of the cantilever strength of its leg bones indicate that it could run quite fast. The legs were robust and strong to support the bulk of the bird, and also made it agile and manoeuvrable in the dense, pre-human landscape. Though the wings were small, well - developed muscle scars on the bones show that they were not completely vestigial, and may have been used for display behaviour and balance; extant pigeons also use their wings for such purposes. Unlike the Rodrigues solitaire, there is no evidence that the dodo used its wings in intraspecific combat. Though some dodo bones have been found with healed fractures, it had weak pectoral muscles and more reduced wings in comparison. The dodo may instead have used its large, hooked beak in territorial disputes. Since Mauritius receives more rainfall and has less seasonal variation than Rodrigues, which would have affected the availability of resources on the island, the dodo would have less reason to evolve aggressive territorial behaviour. The Rodrigues solitaire was therefore probably the more aggressive of the two.
The preferred habitat of the dodo is unknown, but old descriptions suggest that it inhabited the woods on the drier coastal areas of south and west Mauritius. This view is supported by the fact that the Mare aux Songes swamp, where most dodo remains have been excavated, is close to the sea in south - eastern Mauritius. Such a limited distribution across the island could well have contributed to its extinction. A 1601 map from the Gelderland journal shows a small island off the coast of Mauritius where dodos were caught. Julian Hume has suggested this island was l'île aux Benitiers in Tamarin Bay, on the west coast of Mauritius. Subfossil bones have also been found inside caves in highland areas, indicating that it once occurred on mountains. Work at the Mare aux Songes swamp has shown that its habitat was dominated by tambalacoque and Pandanus trees and endemic palms. The near - coastal placement and wetness of the Mare aux Songes led to a high diversity of plant species, whereas the surrounding areas were drier.
Many endemic species of Mauritius became extinct after the arrival of humans, so the ecosystem of the island is badly damaged and hard to reconstruct. Before humans arrived, Mauritius was entirely covered in forests, but very little remains of them today, because of deforestation. The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened. The dodo lived alongside other recently extinct Mauritian birds such as the flightless red rail, the broad - billed parrot, the Mascarene grey parakeet, the Mauritius blue pigeon, the Mauritius owl, the Mascarene coot, the Mauritian shelduck, the Mauritian duck, and the Mauritius night heron. Extinct Mauritian reptiles include the saddle - backed Mauritius giant tortoise, the domed Mauritius giant tortoise, the Mauritian giant skink, and the Round Island burrowing boa. The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Mauritius and Réunion, but vanished from both islands. Some plants, such as Casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid, have also become extinct.
A 1631 Dutch letter (long thought lost, but rediscovered in 2017) is the only account of the dodo 's diet, and also mentions that it used its beak for defence. The document uses word - play to refer to the animals described, with dodos presumably being an allegory for wealthy mayors:
The mayors are superb and proud. They presented themselves with an unyielding, stern face and wide open mouth, very jaunty and audacious of gait. They did not want to budge before us; their war weapon was the mouth, with which they could bite fiercely. Their food was raw fruit; they were not dressed very well, but were rich and fat, therefore we brought many of them on board, to the contentment of us all.
In addition to fallen fruits, the dodo probably subsisted on nuts, seeds, bulbs, and roots. It has also been suggested that the dodo might have eaten crabs and shellfish, like their relatives the crowned pigeons. Its feeding habits must have been versatile, since captive specimens were probably given a wide range of food on the long sea journeys. Oudemans suggested that as Mauritius has marked dry and wet seasons, the dodo probably fattened itself on ripe fruits at the end of the wet season to survive the dry season, when food was scarce; contemporary reports describe the bird 's "greedy '' appetite. France Staub suggested that they mainly fed on palm fruits, and he attempted to correlate the fat - cycle of the dodo with the fruiting regime of the palms.
Skeletal elements of the upper jaw appear to have been rhynchokinetic (movable in relation to each other), which must have affected its feeding behaviour. In extant birds, such as frugivorous (fruit - eating) pigeons, kinetic premaxillae help with consuming large food items. The beak also appears to have been able to withstand high force loads, which indicates a diet of hard food. In 2016, the first 3D endocast was made from the brain of the dodo; examination found that though the brain was similar to that of other pigeons in most respects, the dodo had a comparatively large olfactory bulb. This gave the dodo a good sense of smell, which may have aided in locating fruit and small prey.
Several contemporary sources state that the dodo used Gastroliths (gizzard stones) to aid digestion. The English writer Sir Hamon L'Estrange witnessed a live bird in London and described it as follows:
About 1638, as I walked London streets, I saw the picture of a strange looking fowle hung out upon a clothe and myselfe with one or two more in company went in to see it. It was kept in a chamber, and was a great fowle somewhat bigger than the largest Turkey cock, and so legged and footed, but stouter and thicker and of more erect shape, coloured before like the breast of a young cock fesan, and on the back of a dunn or dearc colour. The keeper called it a Dodo, and in the ende of a chymney in the chamber there lay a heape of large pebble stones, whereof hee gave it many in our sight, some as big as nutmegs, and the keeper told us that she eats them (conducing to digestion), and though I remember not how far the keeper was questioned therein, yet I am confident that afterwards she cast them all again.
It is not known how the young were fed, but related pigeons provide crop milk. Contemporary depictions show a large crop, which was probably used to add space for food storage and to produce crop milk. It has been suggested that the maximum size attained by the dodo and the solitaire was limited by the amount of crop milk they could produce for their young during early growth.
In 1973, the tambalacoque, also known as the dodo tree, was thought to be dying out on Mauritius, to which it is endemic. There were supposedly only 13 specimens left, all estimated to be about 300 years old. Stanley Temple hypothesised that it depended on the dodo for its propagation, and that its seeds would germinate only after passing through the bird 's digestive tract. He claimed that the tambalacoque was now nearly coextinct because of the disappearance of the dodo. Temple overlooked reports from the 1940s that found that tambalacoque seeds germinated, albeit very rarely, without being abraded during digestion. Others have contested his hypothesis and suggested that the decline of the tree was exaggerated, or seeds were also distributed by other extinct animals such as Cylindraspis tortoises, fruit bats or the broad - billed parrot. According to Wendy Strahm and Anthony Cheke, two experts in the ecology of the Mascarene Islands, the tree, while rare, has germinated since the demise of the dodo and numbers several hundred, not 13 as claimed by Temple, hence discrediting Temple 's view as to the dodo and the tree 's sole survival relationship.
It has been suggested that the broad - billed parrot may have depended on dodos and Cylindraspis tortoises to eat palm fruits and excrete their seeds, which became food for the parrots. Anodorhynchus macaws depended on now - extinct South American megafauna in the same way, but now rely on domesticated cattle for this service.
As it was flightless and terrestrial and there were no mammalian predators or other kinds of natural enemy on Mauritius, the dodo probably nested on the ground. The account by François Cauche from 1651 is the only description of the egg and the call:
I have seen in Mauritius birds bigger than a Swan, without feathers on the body, which is covered with a black down; the hinder part is round, the rump adorned with curled feathers as many in number as the bird is years old. In place of wings they have feathers like these last, black and curved, without webs. They have no tongues, the beak is large, curving a little downwards; their legs are long, scaly, with only three toes on each foot. It has a cry like a gosling, and is by no means so savoury to eat as the Flamingos and Ducks of which we have just spoken. They only lay one egg which is white, the size of a halfpenny roll, by the side of which they place a white stone the size of a hen 's egg. They lay on grass which they collect, and make their nests in the forests; if one kills the young one, a grey stone is found in the gizzard. We call them Oiseaux de Nazaret. The fat is excellent to give ease to the muscles and nerves.
Cauche 's account is problematic, since it also mentions that the bird he was describing had three toes and no tongue, unlike dodos. This led some to believe that Cauche was describing a new species of dodo ("Didus nazarenus ''). The description was most probably mingled with that of a cassowary, and Cauche 's writings have other inconsistencies. A mention of a "young ostrich '' taken on board a ship in 1617 is the only other reference to a possible juvenile dodo. An egg claimed to be that of a dodo is stored in the museum of East London, South Africa. It was donated by Marjorie Courtenay - Latimer, whose great aunt had received it from a captain who claimed to have found it in a swamp on Mauritius. In 2010, the curator of the museum proposed using genetic studies to determine its authenticity. It may instead be an aberrant ostrich egg.
Because of the possible single - egg clutch and the bird 's large size, it has been proposed that the dodo was K - selected, meaning that it produced a low number of altricial offspring, which required parental care until they matured. Some evidence, including the large size and the fact that tropical and frugivorous birds have slower growth rates, indicates that the bird may have had a protracted development period. The fact that no juvenile dodos have been found in the Mare aux Songes swamp may indicate that they produced little offspring, that they matured rapidly, that the breeding grounds were far away from the swamp, or that the risk of miring was seasonal.
A 2017 study examined the histology of thin - sectioned dodo bones, modern Mauritian birds, local ecology, and contemporary accounts, to recover information about the life history of the dodo. The study suggested that dodos bred around August, after having potentially fattened themselves, corresponding with the fat and thin cycles of many vertebrates of Mauritius. The chicks grew rapidly, reaching robust, almost adult, sizes, and sexual maturity before Austral summer or the cyclone season. Adult dodos which had just bred moulted after Austral summer, around March. The feathers of the wings and tail were replaced first, and the moulting would have completed at the end of July, in time for the next breeding season. Different stages of moulting may also account for inconsistencies in contemporary descriptions of dodo plumage.
Mauritius had previously been visited by Arab vessels in the Middle Ages and Portuguese ships between 1507 and 1513, but was settled by neither. No records of dodos by these are known, although the Portuguese name for Mauritius, "Cerne (swan) Island '', may have been a reference to dodos. The Dutch Empire acquired Mauritius in 1598, renaming it after Maurice of Nassau, and it was used for the provisioning of trade vessels of the Dutch East India Company henceforward. The earliest known accounts of the dodo were provided by Dutch travelers during the Second Dutch Expedition to Indonesia, led by admiral Jacob van Neck in 1598. They appear in reports published in 1601, which also contain the first published illustration of the bird. Since the first sailors to visit Mauritius had been at sea for a long time, their interest in these large birds was mainly culinary. The 1602 journal by Willem Van West - Zanen of the ship Bruin - Vis mentions that 24 -- 25 dodos were hunted for food, which were so large that two could scarcely be consumed at mealtime, their remains being preserved by salting. An illustration made for the 1648 published version of this journal, showing the killing of dodos, a dugong, and possibly Mascarene grey parakeets, was captioned with a Dutch poem, here in Hugh Strickland 's 1848 translation:
For food the seamen hunt the flesh of feathered fowl, They tap the palms, and round - rumped dodos they destroy, The parrot 's life they spare that he may peep and howl, And thus his fellows to imprisonment decoy.
Some early travellers found dodo meat unsavoury, and preferred to eat parrots and pigeons; others described it as tough but good. Some hunted dodos only for their gizzards, as this was considered the most delicious part of the bird. Dodos were easy to catch, but hunters had to be careful not to be bitten by their powerful beaks.
The appearance of the dodo and the red rail led Peter Mundy to speculate, 230 years before Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution:
Of these 2 sorts off fowl afforementionede, For oughtt wee yett know, Not any to bee Found out of this Iland, which lyeth aboutt 100 leagues From St. Lawrence. A question may bee demaunded how they should bee here and Not elcewhere, beeing soe Farer From other land and can Neither fly or swymme; whither by Mixture off kindes producing straunge and Monstrous formes, or the Nature of the Climate, ayer and earth in alltring the First shapes in long tyme, or how.
The dodo was found interesting enough that living specimens were sent to Europe and the East. The number of transported dodos that reached their destinations alive is uncertain, and it is unknown how they relate to contemporary depictions and the few non-fossil remains in European museums. Based on a combination of contemporary accounts, paintings, and specimens, Julian Hume has inferred that at least eleven transported dodos reached their destinations alive.
Hamon L'Estrange's description of a dodo that he saw in London in 1638 is the only account that specifically mentions a live specimen in Europe. In 1626 Adriaen van de Venne drew a dodo that he claimed to have seen in Amsterdam, but he did not mention if it were alive, and his depiction is reminiscent of Savery 's Edwards 's Dodo. Two live specimens were seen by Peter Mundy in Surat, India, between 1628 and 1634, one of which may have been the individual painted by Ustad Mansur around 1625. In 1628, Emmanuel Altham visited Mauritius and sent a letter to his brother in England:
Right wo and lovinge brother, we were ordered by ye said councell to go to an island called Mauritius, lying in 20d. of south latt., where we arrived ye 28th of May; this island having many goates, hogs and cowes upon it, and very strange fowles, called by ye portingalls Dodo, which for the rareness of the same, the like being not in ye world but here, I have sent you one by Mr. Perce, who did arrive with the ship William at this island ye 10th of June. (In the margin of the letter) Of Mr. Perce you shall receive a jarr of ginger for my sister, some beades for my cousins your daughters, and a bird called a Dodo, if it live.
Whether the dodo survived the journey is unknown, and the letter was destroyed by fire in the 19th century. The earliest known picture of a dodo specimen in Europe is from a c. 1610 collection of paintings depicting animals in the royal menagerie of Emperor Rudolph II in Prague. This collection includes paintings of other Mauritian animals as well, including a red rail. The dodo, which may be a juvenile, seems to have been dried or embalmed, and had probably lived in the emperor 's zoo for a while together with the other animals. That whole stuffed dodos were present in Europe indicates they had been brought alive and died there; it is unlikely that taxidermists were on board the visiting ships, and spirits were not yet used to preserve biological specimens. Most tropical specimens were preserved as dried heads and feet.
One dodo was reportedly sent as far as Nagasaki, Japan in 1647, but it was long unknown whether it arrived. Contemporary documents first published in 2014 proved the story, and showed that it had arrived alive. It was meant as a gift, and, despite its rarity, was considered of equal value to a white deer and a bezoar stone. It is the last recorded live dodo in captivity.
Like many animals that evolved in isolation from significant predators, the dodo was entirely fearless of humans. This fearlessness and its inability to fly made the dodo easy prey for sailors. Although some scattered reports describe mass killings of dodos for ships ' provisions, archaeological investigations have found scant evidence of human predation. Bones of at least two dodos were found in caves at Baie du Cap that sheltered fugitive slaves and convicts in the 17th century, which would not have been easily accessible to dodos because of the high, broken terrain. The human population on Mauritius (an area of 1,860 km or 720 sq mi) never exceeded 50 people in the 17th century, but they introduced other animals, including dogs, pigs, cats, rats, and crab - eating macaques, which plundered dodo nests and competed for the limited food resources. At the same time, humans destroyed the forest habitat of the dodos. The impact of the introduced animals on the dodo population, especially the pigs and macaques, is today considered more severe than that of hunting. Rats were perhaps not much of a threat to the nests, since dodos would have been used to dealing with local land crabs.
It has been suggested that the dodo may already have been rare or localised before the arrival of humans on Mauritius, since it would have been unlikely to become extinct so rapidly if it had occupied all the remote areas of the island. A 2005 expedition found subfossil remains of dodos and other animals killed by a flash flood. Such mass mortalities would have further jeopardised a species already in danger of becoming extinct. Yet the fact that the dodo survived hundreds of years of volcanic activity and climactic changes shows the bird was resilient within its ecosystem.
Some controversy surrounds the date of their extinction. The last widely accepted record of a dodo sighting is the 1662 report by shipwrecked mariner Volkert Evertsz of the Dutch ship Arnhem, who described birds caught on a small islet off Mauritius, now suggested to be Amber Island:
These animals on our coming up to them stared at us and remained quiet where they stand, not knowing whether they had wings to fly away or legs to run off, and suffering us to approach them as close as we pleased. Amongst these birds were those which in India they call Dod - aersen (being a kind of very big goose); these birds are unable to fly, and instead of wings, they merely have a few small pins, yet they can run very swiftly. We drove them together into one place in such a manner that we could catch them with our hands, and when we held one of them by its leg, and that upon this it made a great noise, the others all on a sudden came running as fast as they could to its assistance, and by which they were caught and made prisoners also.
The dodos on this islet may not necessarily have been the last members of the species. The last claimed sighting of a dodo was reported in the hunting records of Isaac Johannes Lamotius in 1688. Statistical analysis of these records by Roberts and Solow gives a new estimated extinction date of 1693, with a 95 % confidence interval of 1688 -- 1715. The authors also pointed out that because the last sighting before 1662 was in 1638, the dodo was probably already quite rare by the 1660s, and thus a disputed report from 1674 by an escaped slave can not be dismissed out of hand.
Cheke pointed out that some descriptions after 1662 use the names "Dodo '' and "Dodaers '' when referring to the red rail, indicating that they had been transferred to it after the disappearance of the dodo itself. Cheke therefore points to the 1662 description as the last credible observation. A 1668 account by English traveller John Marshall, who used the names "Dodo '' and "Red Hen '' interchangeably for the red rail, mentioned that the meat was "hard '', which echoes the description of the meat in the 1681 account. Even the 1662 account has been questioned by the writer Errol Fuller, as the reaction to distress cries matches what was described for the red rail. Until this explanation was proposed, a description of "dodos '' from 1681 was thought to be the last account, and that date still has proponents. Recently accessible Dutch manuscripts indicate that no dodos were seen by settlers in 1664 -- 1674. It is unlikely the issue will ever be resolved, unless late reports mentioning the name alongside a physical description are rediscovered. The IUCN Red List accepts Cheke 's rationale for choosing the 1662 date, taking all subsequent reports to refer to red rails. In any case, the dodo was probably extinct by 1700, about a century after its discovery in 1598. The Dutch left Mauritius in 1710, but by then the dodo and most of the large terrestrial vertebrates there had become extinct.
Even though the rareness of the dodo was reported already in the 17th century, its extinction was not recognised until the 19th century. This was partly because, for religious reasons, extinction was not believed possible until later proved so by Georges Cuvier, and partly because many scientists doubted that the dodo had ever existed. It seemed altogether too strange a creature, and many believed it a myth. The bird was first used as an example of human - induced extinction in Penny Magazine in 1833, and have since been referred to as an "icon '' of extinction.
The only extant remains of dodos taken to Europe in the 17th century are a dried head and foot in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, a foot once housed in the British Museum but now lost, a skull in the University of Copenhagen Zoological Museum, and an upper jaw and leg bones in the National Museum, Prague. The last two were rediscovered and identified as dodo remains in the mid-19th century. Several stuffed dodos were also mentioned in old museum inventories, but none are known to have survived. Apart from these remains, a dried foot, which belonged to the Dutch professor Pieter Pauw, was mentioned by Carolus Clusius in 1605. Its provenance is unknown, and it is now lost, but it may have been collected during the Van Neck voyage.
The only known soft tissue remains, the Oxford head (specimen OUM 11605) and foot, belonged to the last known stuffed dodo, which was first mentioned as part of the Tradescant collection in 1656 and was moved to the Ashmolean Museum in 1659. It has been suggested that this might be the remains of the bird that Hamon L'Estrange saw in London, the bird sent by Emanuel Altham, or a donation by Thomas Herbert. Since the remains do not show signs of having been mounted, the specimen might instead have been preserved as a study skin. In 2018, it was reported that scans of the Oxford dodo 's head showed that its skin and bone contained lead shot, pellets which were used to hunt birds in the 17th century. This indicates that the Oxford dodo was shot either before being transported to Britain, or some time after arriving. The circumstances of its killing are unknown, and the pellets are to be examined to identify where the lead was mined from.
Many sources state that the Ashmolean Museum burned the stuffed dodo around 1755 because of severe decay, saving only the head and leg. Statute 8 of the museum states "That as any particular grows old and perishing the keeper may remove it into one of the closets or other repository; and some other to be substituted. '' The deliberate destruction of the specimen is now believed to be a myth; it was removed from exhibition to preserve what remained of it. This remaining soft tissue has since degraded further; the head was dissected by Strickland and Melville, separating the skin from the skull in two halves. The foot is in a skeletal state, with only scraps of skin and tendons. Very few feathers remain on the head. It is probably a female, as the foot is 11 % smaller and more gracile than the London foot, yet appears to be fully grown. The specimen was exhibited at the Oxford museum from at least the 1860s and until 1998, where - after it was mainly kept in storage to prevent damage. Casts of the head can today be found in many museums worldwide.
The dried London foot, first mentioned in 1665, and transferred to the British Museum in the 18th century, was displayed next to Savery 's Edwards 's Dodo painting until the 1840s, and it too was dissected by Strickland and Melville. It was not posed in a standing posture, which suggests that it was severed from a fresh specimen, not a mounted one. By 1896 it was mentioned as being without its integuments, and only the bones are believed to remain today, though its present whereabouts are unknown.
The Copenhagen skull (specimen ZMUC 90 - 806) is known to have been part of the collection of Bernardus Paludanus in Enkhuizen until 1651, when it was moved to the museum in Gottorf Castle, Schleswig. After the castle was occupied by Danish forces in 1702, the museum collection was assimilated into the Royal Danish collection. The skull was rediscovered by J.T. Reinhardt in 1840. Based on its history, it may be the oldest known surviving remains of a dodo brought to Europe in the 17th century. It is 13 mm (0.51 in) shorter than the Oxford skull, and may have belonged to a female. It was mummified, but the skin has perished.
The front part of a skull (specimen NMP P6V - 004389, a syntype of this species) in the National Museum of Prague was found in 1850 among the remains of the Böhmisches Museum. Other elements supposedly belonging to this specimen have been listed in the literature, but it appears only the partial skull was ever present. It may be what remains of one of the stuffed dodos known to have been at the menagerie of Emperor Rudolph II, possibly the specimen painted by Hoefnagel or Savery there.
Until 1860, the only known dodo remains were the four incomplete 17th - century specimens. Philip Burnard Ayres found the first subfossil bones in 1860, which were sent to Richard Owen at the British Museum, who did not publish the findings. In 1863, Owen requested the Mauritian Bishop Vincent Ryan to spread word that he should be informed if any dodo bones were found. In 1865, George Clark, the government schoolmaster at Mahébourg, finally found an abundance of subfossil dodo bones in the swamp of Mare aux Songes in Southern Mauritius, after a 30 - year search inspired by Strickland and Melville 's monograph. In 1866, Clark explained his procedure to The Ibis, an ornithology journal: he had sent his coolies to wade through the centre of the swamp, feeling for bones with their feet. At first they found few bones, until they cut away herbage that covered the deepest part of the swamp, where they found many fossils. The swamp yielded the remains of over 300 dodos, but very few skull and wing bones, possibly because the upper bodies were washed away or scavenged while the lower body was trapped. The situation is similar to many finds of moa remains in New Zealand marshes. Most dodo remains from the Mare aux Songes have a medium to dark brown colouration.
Clark 's reports about the finds rekindled interest in the bird. Sir Richard Owen and Alfred Newton both wanted to be first to describe the post-cranial anatomy of the dodo, and Owen bought a shipment of dodo bones originally meant for Newton, which led to rivalry between the two. Owen described the bones in Memoir on the Dodo in October 1866, but erroneously based his reconstruction on the Edwards 's Dodo painting by Savery, making it too squat and obese. In 1869 he received more bones and corrected its stance, making it more upright. Newton moved his focus to the Réunion solitaire instead. The remaining bones not sold to Owen or Newton were auctioned off or donated to museums. In 1889, Théodor Sauzier was commissioned to explore the "historical souvenirs '' of Mauritius and find more dodo remains in the Mare aux Songes. He was successful, and also found remains of other extinct species.
In 2005, after a hundred years of neglect, a part of the Mare aux Songes swamp was excavated by an international team of researchers (International Dodo Research Project). To prevent malaria, the British had covered the swamp with hard core during their rule over Mauritius, which had to be removed. Many remains were found, including bones of at least 17 dodos in various stages of maturity (though no juveniles), and several bones obviously from the skeleton of one individual bird, which have been preserved in their natural position. These findings were made public in December 2005 in the Naturalis museum in Leiden. 63 % of the fossils found in the swamp belonged to turtles of the extinct genus Cylindraspis, and 7.1 % belonged to dodos, which had been deposited within several centuries, 4,000 years ago. Subsequent excavations suggested that dodos and other animals became mired in the Mare aux Songes while trying to reach water during a long period of severe drought about 4,200 years ago. Furthermore, cyanobacteria thrived in the conditions created by the excrements of animals gathered around the swamp, which died of intoxication, dehydration, trampling, and miring. Though many small skeletal elements were found during the recent excavations of the swamp, few were found during the 19th century, probably owing to the employment of less refined methods when collecting.
Louis Etienne Thirioux, an amateur naturalist at Port Louis, also found many dodo remains around 1900 from several locations. They included the first articulated specimen, which is the first subfossil dodo skeleton found outside the Mare aux Songes, and the only remains of a juvenile specimen, a now lost tarsometatarsus. The former specimen was found in 1904 in a cave near Le Pouce mountain, and is the only known complete skeleton of an individual dodo. Thirioux donated the specimen to the Museum Desjardins (now Natural History Museum at Mauritius Institute). Thrioux 's heirs sold a second mounted composite skeleton (composed of at least two skeletons, with a mainly reconstructed skull) to the Durban Museum of Natural Science in South Africa in 1918. Together, these two skeletons represent the most completely known dodo remains, including bone elements previously unrecorded (such as knee - caps and various wing bones). Though some contemporary writers noted the importance of Thrioux 's specimens, they were not scientifically studied, and were largely forgotten until 2011, when sought out by a group of researchers. The mounted skeletons were laser scanned, from which 3 - D models were reconstructed, which became the basis of a 2016 monograph about the osteology of the dodo. In 2006, explorers discovered a complete skeleton of a dodo in a lava cave in Mauritius. This was only the second associated skeleton of an individual specimen everfound, and the only one in recent times.
Worldwide, 26 museums have significant holdings of dodo material, almost all found in the Mare aux Songes. The Natural History Museum, American Museum of Natural History, Cambridge University Museum of Zoology, the Senckenberg Museum, and others have almost complete skeletons, assembled from the dissociated subfossil remains of several individuals. In 2011, a wooden box containing dodo bones from the Edwardian era was rediscovered at the Grant Museum at University College London during preparations for a move. They had been stored with crocodile bones until then.
The supposed "white dodo '' (or "solitaire '') of Réunion is now considered an erroneous conjecture based on contemporary reports of the Réunion ibis and 17th - century paintings of white, dodo - like birds by Pieter Withoos and Pieter Holsteyn that surfaced in the 19th century. The confusion began when Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe, who visited Réunion around 1619, mentioned fat, flightless birds that he referred to as "Dod - eersen '' in his journal, though without mentioning their colouration. When the journal was published in 1646, it was accompanied by an engraving of a dodo from Savery 's "Crocker Art Gallery sketch ''. A white, stocky, and flightless bird was first mentioned as part of the Réunion fauna by Chief Officer J. Tatton in 1625. Sporadic mentions were subsequently made by Sieur Dubois and other contemporary writers.
Baron Edmond de Sélys Longchamps coined the name Raphus solitarius for these birds in 1848, as he believed the accounts referred to a species of dodo. When 17th - century paintings of white dodos were discovered by 19th - century naturalists, it was assumed they depicted these birds. Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans suggested that the discrepancy between the paintings and the old descriptions was that the paintings showed females, and that the species was therefore sexually dimorphic. Some authors also believed the birds described were of a species similar to the Rodrigues solitaire, as it was referred to by the same name, or even that there were white species of both dodo and solitaire on the island.
The Pieter Withoos painting, which was discovered first, appears to be based on an earlier painting by Pieter Holsteyn, three versions of which are known to have existed. According to Hume, Cheke, and Valledor de Lozoya, it appears that all depictions of white dodos were based on Roelant Savery 's 1611 painting Landscape with Orpheus and the animals, or on copies of it. The painting shows a whitish specimen and was apparently based on a stuffed specimen then in Prague; a walghvogel described as having a "dirty off - white colouring '' was mentioned in an inventory of specimens in the Prague collection of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, to whom Savery was contracted at the time (1607 -- 1611). Savery 's several later images all show greyish birds, possibly because he had by then seen another specimen. Cheke and Hume believe the painted specimen was white, owing to albinism. Valledor de Lozoya has instead suggested that the light plumage was a juvenile trait, a result of bleaching of old taxidermy specimens, or simply artistic license.
In 1987, scientists described fossils of a recently extinct species of ibis from Réunion with a relatively short beak, Borbonibis latipes, before a connection to the solitaire reports had been made. Cheke suggested to one of the authors, Francois Moutou, that the fossils may have been of the Réunion solitaire, and this suggestion was published in 1995. The ibis was reassigned to the genus Threskiornis, now combined with the specific epithet solitarius from the binomial R. solitarius. Birds of this genus are also white and black with slender beaks, fitting the old descriptions of the Réunion solitaire. No fossil remains of dodo - like birds have ever been found on the island.
The dodo 's significance as one of the best - known extinct animals and its singular appearance led to its use in literature and popular culture as a symbol of an outdated concept or object, as in the expression "dead as a dodo, '' which has come to mean unquestionably dead or obsolete. Similarly, the phrase "to go the way of the dodo '' means to become extinct or obsolete, to fall out of common usage or practice, or to become a thing of the past. "Dodo '' is also a slang term for a stupid, dull - witted person, as it was supposedly stupid and easily caught.
The dodo appears frequently in works of popular fiction, and even before its extinction, it was featured in European literature, as symbol for exotic lands, and of gluttony, due to its apparent fatness. In 1865, the same year that George Clark started to publish reports about excavated dodo fossils, the newly vindicated bird was featured as a character in Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland. It is thought that he included the dodo because he identified with it and had adopted the name as a nickname for himself because of his stammer, which made him accidentally introduce himself as "Do - do - dodgson '', his legal surname. Carroll and the girl who served as inspiration for Alice, Alice Liddell, had enjoyed visiting the Oxford museum to see the dodo remains there. The book 's popularity made the dodo a well - known icon of extinction.
The dodo is used as a mascot for many kinds of products, especially in Mauritius. It appears as a supporter on the coat of arms of Mauritius, on Mauritius coins, is used as a watermark on all Mauritian rupee banknotes, and features as the background of the Mauritian immigration form. A smiling dodo is the symbol of the Brasseries de Bourbon, a popular brewer on Réunion, whose emblem displays the white species once thought to have lived there.
The dodo is used to promote the protection of endangered species by environmental organisations, such as the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust and the Durrell Wildlife Park. The Center for Biological Diversity gives an annual ' Rubber Dodo Award ', to "those who have done the most to destroy wild places, species and biological diversity ''. In 2011, the nephiline spider Nephilengys dodo, which inhabits the same woods as the dodo once did, was named after the bird to raise awareness of the urgent need for protection of the Mauritius biota. Two species of ant from Mauritius have been named after the dodo: Pseudolasius dodo in 1946 and Pheidole dodo in 2013. A species of isopod from a coral reef off Réunion was named Hansenium dodo in 1991. The name dodo has been used by scientists naming genetic elements, honoring the dodo 's flightless nature. A fruitfly gene within a region of a chromosome required for flying ability was named "dodo ''. In addition, a defective transposable element family from Phytophthora infestans was named DodoPi as it contained mutations that eliminated the element 's ability to jump to new locations in a chromosome.
In 2009, a previously unpublished 17th - century Dutch illustration of a dodo went for sale at Christie 's and was expected to sell for £ 6,000. It is unknown whether the illustration was based on a specimen or on a previous image. It sold for £ 44,450.
The poet Hilaire Belloc included the following poem about the dodo in his Bad Child 's Book of Beasts from 1896:
The Dodo used to walk around, And take the sun and air. The sun yet warms his native ground -- The Dodo is not there!
The voice which used to squawk and squeak Is now for ever dumb -- Yet may you see his bones and beak All in the Mu - se - um.
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which city is called steel city of india | List of cities and towns in India by nicknames - Wikipedia
This partial list of city nicknames in India compiles the aliases, sobriquets and slogans that cities in India are known by (or have been known by) historically, officially, or unofficially, to locals, outsiders, or their tourism chambers of commerce.
Gorakhpur * Bowl of Sugar and Rice,
ALLHABAD * City of Education City of Sangam City of Kumbh Mela
Bardhaman - City of Peace
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when was blue eyes crying in the rain written | Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain - wikipedia
"Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain '' is a song written by songwriter Fred Rose. Originally performed by Roy Acuff, the song has been covered by many artist; such as Hank Williams Sr. and Charlie Pride. Also the song was later recorded by Willie Nelson as part of his 1975 album Red Headed Stranger. Both the song and album would become iconic in country music history, and jump start Nelson 's success as a singer and recording artist.
Originally recorded in 1947 by Acuff, "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain '' was recorded by Hank Williams in 1951 for the Mother 's Best Flour Hour. Other early remakes of the song were made by Donn Reynolds (MGM single - June 1957), Ferlin Husky (album Ferlin 's Favorites - November 1959), Slim Whitman (album Country Favorites - 1959), Gene Vincent (recorded October 15, 1958 / album Crazy Times! - 1960), Bill Anderson (album... Sings Country Heart Songs - January 15, 1962), John D. Loudermilk (album Country Love Songs Plain and Simply Sung Country Love Songs Plain and Simply Sung - August 1968), (Hank Snow)) (album, ' Greatest Hits '') and Conway Twitty (album Hello Darlin ' - June 1970).
The version by Willie Nelson, recorded for his 1975 concept album, Red Headed Stranger, which was about a fugitive preacher on the run from the law after killing his wife, was lauded by country music historian Bill Malone as "a fine example of clean, uncluttered country music, (with) a spare arrangement that could have come straight out of the 1940s. '' Rolling Stone noted the song was delivered with his "jazz - style phrasing '' and was "the beating heart of Red Headed Stranger. ''
A music video for the song was created in 1986 to promote the motion picture adaptation of the album.
Prior to the success of "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain, '' Nelson had enjoyed widespread success primarily as a songwriter, with such songs as "Crazy '' (Patsy Cline) and "Hello Walls '' (Faron Young). As a performer, meanwhile, Nelson had hit the Top 10 of the Billboard magazine Hot Country Singles chart just twice; it had happened in 1962, once as a solo artist ("Touch Me '') and again as part of a duet with Shirley Collie ("Willingly ''). Thereafter, Nelson had approached the Top 20 on occasion, but went 13 years without a Top 10 hit.
In October 1975, the song became Nelson 's first No. 1 hit as a singer, and at year 's end was the third - biggest song of 1975 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart. In addition, the song gained modest airplay on Top 40 radio, reaching number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100.
In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain '' # 302 on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
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when did hong kong revert to a chinese island who previously had a mandate on this area | Political status of Taiwan - wikipedia
The controversy regarding the political status of Taiwan, sometimes referred to as the Taiwan Issue or Taiwan Strait Issue, or from a Taiwanese perspective as the Mainland Issue, is a result of the Chinese Civil War and the subsequent split of China into the two present - day self - governing entities of the People 's Republic of China (PRC; commonly known as China) and the Republic of China (ROC; commonly known as Taiwan).
The issue hinges on whether Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, and Matsu should continue to remain effectively the territory of the democratic government of the ROC and maintain the "status quo '' of two self - governing entities; or become unified with the PRC under the existing communist government; or formally change the "Republic of China (ROC) '' national title to a new Republic of Taiwan; or become unified with the mainland (after the dissolution of the PRC by the Communist Party of China) under the ROC government.
This controversy also concerns whether the existence and legal status as a nation - state (country) of both the ROC and the PRC is legitimate as a matter of international law, and how much diplomatic recognition either country receives from the international community.
Currently, Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and some other minor islands effectively make up the jurisdiction of the country with the official name of the Republic of China (ROC) but commonly known as "Taiwan ''. The ROC, which took control of Taiwan (including Penghu and other nearby islands) in 1945, ruled mainland China and claimed sovereignty over Outer Mongolia (now Mongolia) and Tannu Uriankhai (part of which is present day Tuva, Russia) before losing the Chinese Civil War to the communist People 's Republic of China (PRC) and relocating its government to their new national capital city of Taipei in December 1949.
Since the ROC lost its United Nations seat as "China '' in 1971 (replaced by the PRC), most sovereign states have switched their diplomatic recognition to the PRC, recognizing or acknowledging the PRC to be the sole legitimate representative of all China, though the majority of countries deliberately avoid stating clearly what territories they believe China includes and maintain strategic ambiguity in order to associate with both the People 's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC) simultaneously. As of 24 May 2018, the ROC maintains official diplomatic relations with 17 UN member states and the Holy See, although informal relations are maintained with nearly all others. Agencies of foreign governments such as the American Institute in Taiwan operate as de facto embassies of their home countries in Taiwan, and Taiwan operates similar de facto embassies and consulates in most countries under such names as "Taipei Representative Office '' (TRO) or "Taipei Economic and Cultural (Representative) Office '' (TECO). In certain contexts, Taiwan is also referred to as Chinese Taipei.
The ROC (Taiwan) government has in the past actively pursued the claim as the sole legitimate government over mainland China and Taiwan. This position started to be largely adjusted in the early 1990s as democracy was introduced and new Taiwanese leaders were elected, changing to one that does not actively challenge the legitimacy of PRC rule over mainland China. However, with the election of the Kuomintang (KMT, "Chinese Nationalist Party '') back into executive power in 2008, the ROC government has changed its position back to that "mainland China is also part of the territory of the ROC. '' Both the PRC and the ROC carry out Cross-Strait relations through specialized agencies (such as the Mainland Affairs Council of the ROC), rather than through foreign ministries. Different groups have different concepts of what the current formal political situation of Taiwan is. (See also: Chinese reunification, Taiwan independence, and Cross-Strait relations)
In addition, the situation can be confusing because of the different parties and the effort by many groups to deal with the controversy through a policy of deliberate ambiguity. The political solution that is accepted by many of the current groups is the perspective of the status quo: to unofficially treat Taiwan as a state and at a minimum, to officially declare no support for the government of this state making a formal declaration of independence. What a formal declaration of independence would consist of is not clear and can be confusing given the fact that the People 's Republic of China has never controlled Taiwan and the Republic of China still exists, albeit on a decreased scale.
The status quo is accepted in large part because it does not define the legal or future status of Taiwan, leaving each group to interpret the situation in a way that is politically acceptable to its members. At the same time, a policy of status quo has been criticized as being dangerous precisely because different sides have different interpretations of what the status quo is, leading to the possibility of war through brinkmanship or miscalculation.
Taiwan (excluding Penghu) was first populated by Austronesian people and was colonized by the Dutch, who had arrived in 1623. The Kingdom of Tungning, lasting from 1661 to 1683, was the first Han Chinese government to rule Taiwan. From 1683, the Qing Dynasty ruled Taiwan as a prefecture and in 1875 divided the island into two prefectures. In 1885 the island was made into a separate Chinese province to speed up development in this region. In the aftermath of the First Sino - Japanese War, Taiwan and Penghu were ceded by the Qing Dynasty to Japan in 1895. Japanese troops in Taiwan surrendered to the Republic of China at end of World War II, putting Taiwan under a Chinese government again after 50 years of Japanese rule. The ROC would then claim sovereignty on the basis of the Qing dynasty 's administration, Cairo Declaration, Potsdam Declaration, and Japanese Instrument of Surrender, but this became contested by pro-independence groups in subsequent years due to different perceptions of the said documents ' legality. Upon losing the Chinese civil war in 1949, the ROC government retreated to Taipei, and kept control over a few islands along the coast of mainland China and in the South China Sea. The People 's Republic of China (PRC) was established in mainland China on 1 October 1949, claiming to be the successor to the ROC.
Quemoy, Matsu and Wuchiu on the coast of Fukien, Taiping and Pratas in the South China Sea, are part of the ROC 's present territory, but were not ceded to Japan. Some arguments supporting the independence of Taiwan do not apply to these islands.
China, during the Qing Dynasty, ceded the island of Taiwan, including Penghu, to Japan "in perpetuity '' at the end of the First Sino - Japanese War by signing the Treaty of Shimonoseki. In the Cairo Conference of 1943, the allied powers agreed to have Japan restore "all the territories Japan has stolen from the Chinese '', specifically listing "Formosa '' and Penghu, to the Republic of China after the defeat of Japan. According to both the People 's Republic of China and the Republic of China, this agreement was given legal force by the Instrument of Surrender of Japan in 1945. The PRC 's UN Ambassador, Wang Yingfan (Chinese 王英凡), has stated multiple times in the UN general committee: "Taiwan is an inseparable part of China 's territory since antiquity '' and "both the 1943 Cairo Declaration and the 1945 Potsdam Declaration have reaffirmed in unequivocal terms China 's sovereignty over Taiwan as a matter of international law. '' The PRC rejects arguments involving the lack of a specific treaty (San Francisco Peace Treaty) transferring Taiwan 's sovereignty to China by noting that neither PRC nor ROC was a signatory to any such treaty, making the treaties irrelevant with regard to Chinese claims. The ROC argues that the Treaty of Taipei implicitly transferred sovereignty of Taiwan to it, however the US State Dept. disagreed with such an interpretation in its 1971 Starr Memorandum
On the other hand, a number of supporters of Taiwan independence argue that Taiwan was only formally incorporated as a Chinese territory under the Qing Dynasty in 1683, and as a province in 1885. Subsequently, because of the Shimonoseki Treaty of 1895, Taiwan had been de jure part of Japan when the ROC was established in 1912 and thus was not part of the Chinese republic. Also, because the Cairo Declaration was an unsigned press communiqué, the independence advocates argue that the legal effectiveness of the Declaration is highly questionable. Furthermore, they point out that the Instrument of Surrender of Japan was no more than an armistice, a "modus vivendi '' in nature, which served as a temporary or provisional agreement that would be replaced with a peace treaty. Therefore, only a military occupation of Taiwan began on 25 October 1945, and both the Treaty of San Francisco and Treaty of Taipei hold legal supremacy over the surrender instrument. These treaties did not transfer the title of Taiwan from Japan to China. According to this argument, the sovereignty of Taiwan was returned to the people of Taiwan when Japan renounced sovereignty of Taiwan in the Treaty of San Francisco (also known as San Francisco Peace Treaty, SFPT) in 1951, based on the policy of self - determination which has been applied to "territories which detached from enemy states as a result of the Second World War '' as defined by article 76b and 77b of the United Nations Charter and also by the protocol of the Yalta Conference. The United Nations General Assembly has not been particularly receptive to this argument, and the ROC 's applications for admission to the United Nations have been rejected 15 times.
Although the interpretation of the peace treaties was used to challenge the legitimacy of the ROC on Taiwan before the 1990s, the introduction of popular elections in Taiwan has compromised this position. Except for the most extreme Taiwan independence supporters, most Taiwanese support the popular sovereignty theory and no longer see much conflict between this theory of sovereignty and the ROC position. In this sense, the ROC government currently administering Taiwan is not the same ROC which accepted Japanese surrender because the ruling authorities were given popular mandate by different pools of constituencies: one is the mainland Chinese electorate, the other is the Taiwanese constituencies. In fact, former president Chen Shui - bian has been frequently emphasizing the popular sovereignty theory in his speeches.
However, as of 2010, the conflict between these two theories still plays a role in internal Taiwanese politics. The popular sovereignty theory, which the pan-green coalition emphasizes, suggests that Taiwan could make fundamental constitutional changes by means of a popular referendum. The ROC legal theory, which is supported by the pan-blue coalition, suggests that any fundamental constitutional changes would require that the amendment procedure of the ROC constitution be followed.
From 2008, under the Ma Ying - Jeou administration, Taiwan has had an accommodating policy towards a One China Policy, with the Taipei Times quoting that Ma believes his administration is part of China.
Taiwan (Formosa) including the Pescadores were permanently ceded by Qing Dynasty China to Imperial Japan via Articles 2b and 2c of the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 8 May 1895 in one of what the Chinese term as an unequal treaty. Kinmen and Matsu Islands on the coast of Fukien, and the islands in the South China Sea currently administered by the Republic of China on Taiwan were not part of the cession.
In 1895, subsequent to the Treaty of Shimonoseki, officials in Taiwan declared independence in the hope of returning the island to Qing rule. The Republic of Taiwan (1895) collapsed after 12 days due to political infighting, but local leaders continued resistance in the hope of achieving self - rule. The incoming Japanese crushed the island 's independence bid in a five - month campaign.
The Chinese Qing Dynasty was subsequently overthrown and replaced by the Republic of China (ROC). Upon the outbreak of the Second Sino - Japanese War, the ROC declared the Treaty of Shimonoseki void in its declaration of war on Japan. The war soon merged with World War II, and Japan was subsequently defeated in 1945 by the Allied Powers, of which the ROC was a part.
The United States entered the War in December 1941. Most military attacks against Japanese installations and Japanese troops in Taiwan were conducted by United States military forces. At the Cairo Conference, the U.S., United Kingdom, and the ROC agreed that Taiwan was to be restored to the ROC after the war. This agreement was enunciated in the Cairo Declaration and the Potsdam Declaration, which outlined the terms of Japanese surrender, specified that the terms of the Cairo Declaration shall be carried out.
When Japan unconditionally surrendered, it accepted in its Instrument of Surrender the terms of the Potsdam Declaration. Japanese troops in Taiwan were directed to surrender to the representatives of the Supreme Allied Commander in the China Theater, Chiang Kai - shek (i.e. the Republic of China military forces) on behalf of the Allies, according to the directions of General Douglas MacArthur, head of the United States Military Government, in General Order No. 1, which was issued 2 September 1945. Chief Executive Chen Yi of Republic of China soon proclaimed "Taiwan Retrocession Day '' on 25 October 1945.
When the 228 Incident erupted on 28 February 1947, the U.S. Consulate - General in Taipei prepared a report in early March, calling for an immediate intervention in the name of the U.S. or the United Nations. Based on the argument that the Japanese surrender did not formally transfer sovereignty, Taiwan was still legally part of Japan and occupied by the United States (with administrative authority for the occupation delegated to the Chinese Nationalists), and a direct intervention was appropriate for a territory with such status. This proposed intervention, however, was rejected by the U.S. State Department. In a news report on the aftermath of the 228 Incident, some Taiwanese residents were reported to be talking of appealing to the United Nations to put the island under an international mandate, since China 's possession of Taiwan had not been formalized by any international treaties by that time and the island was therefore still under belligerent occupation. They later made a demand for a treaty role to be represented at the forthcoming peace conference on Japan, in the hope of requesting a plebiscite to determine the island 's political future.
At the start of 1950, U.S. President Harry S. Truman appeared to accept the idea that sovereignty over Taiwan was already settled when the United States Department of State stated that "In keeping with these (Cairo and Potsdam) declarations, Formosa was surrendered to Generalissimo Chiang - Kai Shek, and for the past 4 years, the United States and Other Allied Powers have accepted the exercise of Chinese authority over the Island. '' However, after the outbreak of the Korean War, Truman decided to "neutralize '' Taiwan claiming that it could otherwise trigger another world war. In June 1950, President Truman, who had previously given only passive support to Chiang Kai - shek and was prepared to see Taiwan fall into the hands of the Chinese Communists, vowed to stop the spread of communism and sent the U.S. Seventh Fleet into the Taiwan Strait to prevent the PRC from attacking Taiwan, but also to prevent the ROC from attacking mainland China. He then declared that "the determination of the future status of Formosa must await the restoration of security in the Pacific, a peace settlement with Japan, or consideration by the United Nations. '' President Truman later reaffirmed the position "that all questions affecting Formosa be settled by peaceful means as envisaged in the Charter of the United Nations '' in his special message to the Congress in July 1950. The PRC denounced his moves as flagrant interference in the internal affairs of China.
On 8 September 1950, President Truman ordered John Foster Dulles, then Foreign Policy Advisor to the U.S. Secretary of State, to carry out his decision on "neutralizing '' Taiwan in drafting the Treaty of Peace with Japan (San Francisco Peace Treaty) of 1951. According to George H. Kerr 's memoir Formosa Betrayed, Dulles devised a plan whereby Japan would first merely renounce its sovereignty over Taiwan without a recipient country to allow the sovereignty over Taiwan to be determined together by the United States, the United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and Republic of China on behalf of other nations on the peace treaty. The question of Taiwan would be taken into the United Nations (which the ROC was still part), if these four parties could not reach into an agreement within one year.
When Japan regained sovereignty over itself in 1952 with the conclusion of the Treaty of Peace with Japan (San Francisco Peace Treaty) with 48 nations, Japan renounced all claims and title over Taiwan and the Pescadores. Many claim that Japanese sovereignty only terminated at that point. Notably absent at the peace conference was the ROC which was expelled from mainland China in December 1949 as a result of the Chinese Civil War and had retreated to Taiwan. The PRC, which was proclaimed 1 October 1949, was also not invited. The lack of invitation was probably due to the dispute over which government was the legitimate government of China (which both governments claimed to be); however, Cold War considerations might have played a part as well. Some major governments represented in the San Francisco Conference, such as the UK and Soviet Union, had already established relations with the PRC, while others, such as the U.S. and Japan, still held relations with the ROC.
The UK at that time stated for the record that the San Francisco Peace Treaty "itself does not determine the future of these islands, '' and therefore the UK, along with Australia and New Zealand, was happy to sign the peace treaty. One of the major reasons that the delegate from the Soviet Union gave for not signing the treaty was that: "The draft contains only a reference to the renunciation by Japan of its rights to these territories (Taiwan) but intentionally omits any mention of the further fate of these territories. ''
Article 25 of this treaty officially stipulated that only the Allied Powers defined in the treaty could benefit from this treaty. China was not listed as one of the Allied Powers; however, article 21 still provided limited benefits from Articles 10 and 14 (a) 2 for China. Japan 's cession of Taiwan is unusual in that no recipient of Taiwan was stated as part of Dulles 's plan of "neutralizing '' Taiwan. The ROC protested its lack of invitation to the San Francisco Peace conference, to no avail.
Subsequently, the Treaty of Taipei was concluded between the ROC and Japan on 28 April 1952 (effective 5 August), where Japan basically re-affirmed the terms of the San Francisco Peace Treaty, and formalized the peace between the ROC and Japan. It also nullified all previous treaties made between China and Japan, implicitly repealing the Treaty of Shimonoseki. Article 10 of the treaty specifies:
"For the purposes of the present Treaty, nationals of the Republic of China shall be deemed to include all the inhabitants and former inhabitants of Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores) and their descendants who are of the Chinese nationality in accordance with the laws and regulations which have been or may hereafter be enforced by the Republic of China in Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the Pescadores). ''
However, the ROC Minister of Foreign Affairs George Kung - ch'ao Yeh told the Legislative Yuan after signing the treaty that: "The delicate international situation makes it that they (Taiwan and Penghu) do not belong to us. Under present circumstances, Japan has no right to transfer (Taiwan) to us; nor can we accept such a transfer from Japan even if she so wishes. '' In July 1971 the U.S. State Department 's position was, and remains: "As Taiwan and the Pescadores are not covered by any existing international disposition, sovereignty over the area is an unsettled question subject to future international resolution. ''
The position of the PRC is that the ROC ceased to be a legitimate government upon the founding of the former on 1 October 1949 and that the PRC is the successor of the ROC as the sole legitimate government of China, with the right to rule Taiwan under the succession of states theory.
The position of PRC is that the ROC and PRC are two different factions in the Chinese Civil War, which never legally ended. Therefore the PRC claims that both factions belong to the same sovereign country -- China. Since, as per the PRC, Taiwan 's sovereignty belongs to China, the PRC 's government and supporters believe that the secession of Taiwan should be agreed upon by the 1.3 billion Chinese citizens instead of just the 23 million ROC citizens who currently live in Taiwan. Furthermore, the position of PRC is that UN General Assembly Resolution 2758, which states "Recognizing that the representatives of the Government of the People 's Republic of China are the only lawful representatives of China to the United Nations '', means that the PRC is recognized as having the sovereignty of all of China, including Taiwan. Therefore, the PRC believes that it is within their legal rights to extend its jurisdiction to Taiwan, by military means if at all necessary.
In addition, the position of PRC is that the ROC does not meet the fourth criterion of the Montevideo Convention, as it is recognized by only 17 UN member states and has been denied access to international organizations such as the UN. The PRC points out the fact that the Montevideo Convention was only signed by 19 states at the Seventh International Conference of American States. Thus the authority of the United Nations as well as UN Resolutions should supersede the Montevideo Convention.
It is clear that the PRC still maintains that "there is only one China in the world '' and "Taiwan is an inalienable part of China '', however instead of "the Government of the People 's Republic of China is the sole legal government of China '', the PRC now emphasizes that "both Taiwan and the mainland belong to one and the same China ''. Although the current position allows for flexibility in terms of defining that "one China '', any departure from the One - China policy is deemed unacceptable by the PRC government. The PRC government is unwilling to negotiate with the ROC government under any formulation other than One - China policy, although a more flexible definition of "one China '' such as found in the 1992 consensus is possible under PRC policy. The PRC government considers the 1992 consensus a temporary measure to set aside sovereignty disputes and to enable talks.
The PRC government considers perceived violations of its "One - China policy '' or inconsistencies with it such as supplying the ROC with arms a violation of its rights to territorial integrity. International news organizations often report that "China considers Taiwan a renegade province that must be united with the mainland by force if necessary '', even though the PRC does not explicitly say that Taiwan is a "renegade province '' in any press releases. However, official PRC media outlets and officials often refer to Taiwan as "China 's Taiwan Province '' or simply "Taiwan, China '', and pressure international organizations to use the term.
The ROC argues that it maintains all the characteristics of a state and that it was not "replaced '' or "succeeded '' by the PRC because it has continued to exist long after the PRC 's founding.
According to the Montevideo Convention of 1933, the most cited source for the definition of statehood, a state must possess a permanent population, a defined territory, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. Many argues that the ROC meets all these criteria. But to make such an argument, one has to reject the PRC 's claim of sovereignty over the territory of the Taiwan island, a claim that has been recognized by most states in the world.
Both the original 1912 constitution and the 1923 ' Cao ' version failed to list Taiwan as a part of the ROC since the framers at the time considered Taiwan to be Japanese territory. It was only in the mid-1930s when both the CCP and KMT realised the future strategic importance of Taiwan that they altered their party positions to make a claim on Taiwan as a part of China. After losing the Civil War against the Communist Party in 1949, Chiang Kai - shek and the Nationalist Party fled to Taiwan, and continued to maintain that their government represented all of China, i.e. both Taiwan and the mainland.
The position of most supporters of Taiwan independence is that the PRC is the government of China and that Taiwan is not part of China. Regarding the ROC, some supporters of Taiwan independence claim that the ROC is an independent, sovereign state, and seek to amend the ROC 's existing name and constitution and make both something new that suit for an independent Taiwan state. While some other supporters of Taiwan independence regard the ROC as both a military government which has been administering the Taiwan island as a result of post-war military occupation on behalf of the allies of World War II since 1945 and a Chinese refugee regime currently being in - exile on Taiwan since 1949, and they seek to get rid of the ROC and establish an independent Taiwan state.
The Democratic Progressive Party states that Taiwan has never been under the jurisdiction of the PRC, and that the PRC does not exercise any hold over the 23 million Taiwanese on the island. On the other hand, the position of most Chinese reunification supporters is that the Chinese Civil War is still not concluded as no peace agreement has ever been signed. Therefore, the current political separation across the Taiwan strait is only temporary and a reunified China including both mainland China and Taiwan will be the result.
The position of the Republic of China had been that it was a de jure sovereign state. "Republic of China, '' according to the ROC government 's definition, extended to both mainland China (Including Hong Kong and Macau) and the island of Taiwan.
In 1991, President Lee Teng - hui unofficially claimed that the government would no longer challenge the rule of the Communists in mainland China, the ROC government under Kuomintang (KMT) rule actively maintained that it was the sole legitimate government of China. The Courts in Taiwan have never accepted President Lee 's statement, primarily due to the reason that the (now defunct) National Assembly never officially changed the acclaimed national borders. Notably, the People 's Republic of China claims that changing the national borders would be "a precursor to Taiwan independence ''. The task of changing the national borders now requires a constitutional amendment passed by the Legislative Yuan and ratified by a majority of all eligible ROC voters, which the PRC has implied would constitute grounds for military attack.
On the other hand, though the constitution of the Republic of China promulgated in 1946 does not state exactly what territory it includes, the draft of the constitution of 1925 did individually list the provinces of the Republic of China and Taiwan was not among them, since Taiwan was arguably de jure part of Japan as the result of the Treaty of Shimonoseki of 1895. The constitution also stipulated in Article I. 4, that "the territory of the ROC is the original territory governed by it; unless authorized by the National Assembly, it can not be altered. '' However, in 1946, Sun Fo, son of Sun Yat - Sen and the minister of the Executive Yuan of the ROC, reported to the National Assembly that "there are two types of territory changes: 1. renouncing territory and 2. annexing new territory. The first example would be the independence of Mongolia, and the second example would be the reclamation of Taiwan. Both would be examples of territory changes. '' Japan renounced all rights to Taiwan in the Treaty of San Francisco in 1951 and the Treaty of Taipei of 1952 without an explicit recipient. While the ROC continuously ruled Taiwan after the government was directed to Taiwan by the General Order No. 1 (1945) to receive Japanese surrender, there has never been a meeting of the ROC National Assembly in making a territory change according to the ROC constitution. The explanatory memorandum to the constitution explained the omission of individually listing the provinces as opposed to the earlier drafts was an act of deliberate ambiguity: as the ROC government does not recognize the validity of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, based on Chiang Kai - shek 's Denunciation of the treaty in the late 1930s, hence (according to this argument) the sovereignty of Taiwan was never disposed by China. A ratification by the ROC National Assembly is therefore unnecessary.
The Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China have mentioned "Taiwan Province, '' and the now defunct National Assembly passed constitutional amendments that give the people of the "Free Area of the Republic of China '', comprising the territories under its current jurisdiction, the sole right, until reunification, to exercise the sovereignty of the Republic through elections of the President and the entire Legislature as well as through elections to ratify amendments to the ROC constitution. Also, Chapter I, Article 2 of the ROC constitution states that "The sovereignty of the Republic of China shall reside in the whole body of citizens. '' This suggests that the constitution implicitly admits that the sovereignty of the ROC is limited to the areas that it controls even if there is no constitutional amendment that explicitly spells out the ROC 's borders.
In 1999, ROC President Lee Teng - hui proposed a two - state theory (兩 國 論) in which both the Republic of China and the People 's Republic of China would acknowledge that they are two separate countries with a special diplomatic, cultural and historic relationship. This however drew an angry reaction from the PRC who believed that Lee was covertly supporting Taiwan independence.
President Chen Shui - bian (2000 -- May 2008) fully supported the idea that the "Republic of China is an independent, sovereign country '' but held the view that the Republic of China is Taiwan and Taiwan does not belong to the People 's Republic of China. This is suggested in his Four - stage Theory of the Republic of China. Due to the necessity of avoiding war with the PRC however, President Chen had refrained from formally declaring Taiwan 's independence. Government publications have implied that Taiwan refers to the ROC, and "China '' refers to the PRC. After becoming chairman of the Democratic Progressive Party in July 2002, Chen appeared to move further than Lee 's special two - state theory and in early August 2002, by putting forward the "one country on each side '' concept, he stated that Taiwan may "go on its own Taiwanese road '' and that "it is clear that the two sides of the straits are separate countries. '' These statements essentially eliminate any "special '' factors in the relations and were strongly criticized by opposition parties in Taiwan. President Chen has repeatedly refused to endorse the One China Principle or the more "flexible '' 1992 Consensus the PRC demands as a precursor to negotiations with the PRC. During Chen 's presidency, there had not been any successful attempts to restart negotiations on a semi-official level.
In the 2008 ROC elections, the people delivered KMT 's Ma Ying - jeou with an election win as well as a sizable majority in the legislature. President Ma, throughout his election campaign, maintained that he would accept the 1992 consensus and promote better relations with the PRC. In respect of Taiwan political status, his policy was 1. he would not negotiate with the PRC on the subject of reunification during his term; 2. he would never declare Taiwan independence; and 3. he would not provoke the PRC into attacking Taiwan. He officially accepted the 1992 Consensus in his inauguration speech which resulted in direct semi-official talks with the PRC, and this later led to the commencement of weekend direct charter flights between mainland China and Taiwan. President Ma also interprets the cross-strait relations as "special '', "but not that between two nations ''. He later stated that mainland China is part of the territory of the Republic of China, and laws relating to international relations are not applicable to the relations between mainland China and Taiwan, as they are parts of a state.
Because of anti-communist sentiment at the start of the Cold War, the Republic of China was initially recognized as the sole legitimate government of China by the United Nations and most Western nations. On 9 January 1950, the Israeli government extended recognition to the People 's Republic of China. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 505, passed on 1 February 1952 considered the Chinese communists to be rebels against the Republic of China. However, the 1970s saw a switch in diplomatic recognitions from the ROC to the PRC. On 25 October 1971, Resolution 2758 was passed by the UN General Assembly, which "decides to restore all its rights to the People 's Republic of China and to recognize the representatives of its Government as the only legitimate representatives of China to the United Nations, and to expel forthwith the representatives of Chiang Kai - shek from the place which they unlawfully occupy at the United Nations and in all the organizations related to it. '' Multiple attempts by the Republic of China to rejoin the UN, no longer to represent all of China but just the people of the territories it governs, have not made it past committee, largely due to diplomatic maneuvering by the PRC, which claims Resolution 2758 has settled the matter. (See China and the United Nations.)
The PRC refuses to maintain diplomatic relations with any nation that recognizes the ROC, but does not object to nations conducting economic, cultural, and other such exchanges with Taiwan that do not imply diplomatic relation. Therefore, many nations that have diplomatic relations with Beijing maintain quasi-diplomatic offices in Taipei. Similarly, the government in Taiwan maintains quasi-diplomatic offices in most nations under various names, most commonly as the Taipei Economic and Cultural Office.
The United States of America is one of the main allies of Taiwan and, since the Taiwan Relations Act passed in 1979, the United States has sold arms and provided military training to the Republic of China Armed Forces. This situation continues to be a point of contention for China, which considers US involvement disruptive to the stability of the region. In January 2010, the Obama administration announced its intention to sell $6.4 billion worth of military hardware to Taiwan. As a consequence, China threatened the United States with economic sanctions and warned that their cooperation on international and regional issues could suffer. The official position of the United States is that China is expected to "use no force or threat (en) to use force against Taiwan '' and that Taiwan is to "exercise prudence in managing all aspects of Cross-Strait relations. '' Both are to refrain from performing actions or espousing statements "that would unilaterally alter Taiwan 's status. '' The United States maintains the American Institute in Taiwan.
The United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Republic of India, Pakistan and Japan have formally adopted the One China policy, under which the People 's Republic of China is theoretically the sole legitimate government of China. However, the United States and Japan acknowledge rather than recognize the PRC position that Taiwan is part of China. In the case of Canada and the UK, bilateral written agreements state that the two respective parties take note of Beijing 's position but do not use the word support. The UK government position that "the future of Taiwan be decided peacefully by the peoples of both sides of the Strait '' has been stated several times. Despite the PRC claim that the United States opposes Taiwanese independence, the United States takes advantage of the subtle difference between "oppose '' and "does not support ''. In fact, a substantial majority of the statements Washington has made says that it "does not support Taiwan independence '' instead of saying that it "opposes '' independence. Thus, the US currently does not take a position on the political outcome, except for one explicit condition that there be a peaceful resolution to the differences between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait. The United States bi-partisan position is that it does n't recognize the PRC 's claim over Taiwan, and considers Taiwan 's status as unsettled. All of this ambiguity has resulted in the United States constantly walking on a diplomatic tightrope with regard to cross strait relations.
The ROC maintains formal diplomatic relations with 17 UN member states, mostly in Central America and Africa. Additionally, the Holy See also recognizes the ROC, a largely non-Christian / Catholic state, due partly to the Catholic Church 's traditional opposition to communism, and also to protest what it sees as the PRC 's suppression of the Catholic faith in mainland China. However, Vatican diplomats were engaged in talks with PRC politicians at the time of Pope John Paul II 's death, with a view towards improving relations between the two countries. When asked, one Vatican diplomat suggested that relations with Taiwan might prove "expendable '' should PRC be willing to engage in positive diplomatic relations with the Holy See. Under Pope Benedict XVI the Vatican and PRC have shown greater interest in establishing ties, including the appointment of pro-Vatican bishops and the Pope canceling a planned visit from the Dalai Lama.
During the 1990s, there was a diplomatic tug of war in which the PRC and ROC attempted to outbid each other to obtain the diplomatic support of small nations. This struggle seems to have slowed as a result of the PRC 's growing economic power and doubts in Taiwan as to whether this aid was actually in the Republic of China 's interest. In March 2004, Dominica switched recognition to the PRC in exchange for a large aid package. However, in late 2004, Vanuatu briefly switched recognition from Beijing to Taipei, followed by a return to its recognition of Beijing. On 20 January 2005, Grenada switched its recognition from Taipei to Beijing, in return for millions in aid (US $1,500 for every Grenadian). However, on 14 May 2005, Nauru announced the restoration of formal diplomatic relations with Taipei after a three - year hiatus, during which it briefly recognized the People 's Republic of China.
On 26 October 2005, Senegal broke off relations with the Republic of China and established diplomatic contacts with Beijing. The following year, on 5 August 2006, Taipei ended relations with Chad when Chad established relations with Beijing. On 26 April 2007, however, Saint Lucia, which had previously severed ties with the Republic of China following a change of government in December 1996, announced the restoration of formal diplomatic relations with Taipei. On 7 June 2007, Costa Rica broke off diplomatic ties with the Republic of China in favour of the People 's Republic of China. In January 2008 Malawi 's foreign minister reported Malawi decided to cut diplomatic recognition of the Republic of China and recognize the People 's Republic of China.
The latest country to break off formal diplomatic relations with Taiwan was Burkina Faso on 24 May 2018. On 4 November 2013, the Government of Gambia announced its break up with Taiwan, but the Foreign Affairs Ministry of China denied any ties with this political movement, adding that they were n't considering on building a relation with this African nation.
Currently, the countries who maintain formal diplomatic relations with the ROC are:
Under continuing pressure from the PRC to bar any representation of the ROC that may imply statehood, international organizations have adopted different policies toward the issue of ROC 's participation. In cases where almost all UN members or sovereign states participate, such as the World Health Organization, the ROC has been completely shut out, while in others, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and International Olympic Committee (IOC) the ROC participates under unusual names: "Chinese Taipei '' in the case of APEC and the IOC, and the "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kimmen and Matsu '' (often shortened as "Chinese Taipei '') in the case of the WTO. The issue of ROC 's name came under scrutiny during the 2006 World Baseball Classic. The organizers of the 16 - team tournament intended to call Taiwan as such, but reverted to "Chinese Taipei '' under pressure from PRC. The ROC protested the decision, claiming that the WBC is not an IOC event, but did not prevail. The ISO 3166 directory of names of countries and territories registers Taiwan (TW) separately from and in addition to the People 's Republic of China (CN), but lists Taiwan as "Taiwan, Province of China '' based on the name used by the UN under PRC pressure. In ISO 3166 - 2: CN, Taiwan is also coded CN - 71 under China, thus making Taiwan part of China in ISO 3166 - 1 and ISO 3166 - 2 categories.
Naming issues surrounding Taiwan / ROC continue to be a contentious issue in non-governmental organizations such as the Lions Club, which faced considerable controversy naming its Taiwanese branch.
Today, the ROC is the de facto government of Taiwan; whereas the PRC is the de facto government over Mainland China. However, each government claims to be the legitimate government of all China de jure. The arguments below are frequently used by proponents and / or opponents of these claims.
Arguments common to both the PRC and ROC
The ROC and PRC both officially support the One China policy and thus share common arguments. In the arguments below, "Chinese '' is an ambiguous term that could mean the PRC and / or ROC as legal government (s) of China.
Arguments in support of ROC sovereignty claims
Arguments in support of PRC sovereignty claims
Arguments for Taiwan already being an independent, sovereign nation
Arguments by various groups that claim Taiwan should declare itself to be an independent sovereign nation
Some have argued that the United States holds in trust the sovereignty over Taiwan based on the San Francisco Peace Treaty 's cession of Taiwan without a recipient. Article 23 of the San Francisco Peace Treaty designated the United States as "the principal occupying power '' with respect to the territories covered by the geographical scope of the treaty, including "Formosa and the Pescadores. ''
The argument also states that the Republic of China troops were acting under the directions of the United States when taking over the administration of Taiwan after the completion of the 25 October 1945, Japanese surrender ceremonies. The principal - agent relationship between the United States and the Republic of China was argued to never have been formally terminated.
On 24 October 2006, Dr. Roger C.S. Lin led a group of Taiwanese residents, including members of the Taiwan Nation Party, to file a Complaint for Declaratory Relief in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. According to their lawyer, Mr. Charles Camp, "(t) he Complaint asks the Court to declare whether the Taiwanese plaintiffs, including members of the Taiwan Nation Party, have certain rights under the United States Constitution and other US laws ''. Their central argument is that, following Japanese renunciation of all rights and claims to Taiwan, Taiwan came under U.S. jurisdiction based on it being the principal occupying power as designated in the Treaty of Peace with Japan and remains so to this day. Moreover, the plaintiffs claimed that the United States has never recognized the incorporation of Taiwan into Chinese national territory. The defendant in this case was the United States government.
The District Court agreed with United States government on 18 March 2008 and ruled that the case presents a political question; as such, the court concluded that it had no jurisdiction to hear the matter and dismissed the complaint. This decision was appealed by plaintiffs. The appeals court unanimously upheld the district court ruling and dismissed the appeal.
Many political leaders who have maintained some form of One - China Policy have committed slips of the tongue in referring to Taiwan as a country or as the Republic of China. United States presidents Ronald Reagan and George W. Bush have been known to have referred to Taiwan as a country during their terms of office. Although near the end of his term as U.S. Secretary of State, Colin Powell said that Taiwan is not a state, he referred to Taiwan as the Republic of China twice during a testimony to the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee on 9 March 2001. In the People 's Republic of China Premier Zhu Rongji 's farewell speech to the National People 's Congress, Zhu accidentally referred to Mainland China and Taiwan as two countries. There are also those from the PRC who informally refer to Taiwan as a country. South Africa delegates once referred to Taiwan as the "Republic of Taiwan '' during Lee Teng - hui 's term as President of the ROC. In 2002, Michael Bloomberg, the mayor of New York City, referred to Taiwan as a country. Most recently, former US Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld stated in a local Chinese newspaper in California in July 2005 that Taiwan is "a sovereign nation ''. The People 's Republic of China discovered the statement about three months after it was made.
In a controversial speech on 4 February 2006, Japanese Foreign Minister Taro Aso called Taiwan a country with very high education levels because of previous Japanese colonial rule over the island. One month later, he told a Japanese parliamentary committee that "(Taiwan 's) democracy is considerably matured and liberal economics is deeply ingrained, so it is a law - abiding country. In various ways, it is a country that shares a sense of values with Japan. '' At the same time, he admitted that "I know there will be a problem with calling (Taiwan) a country ''. Later, the Japanese Foreign Ministry tried to downplay or reinterpret his remarks.
In February 2007, the Royal Grenada Police Band played the National Anthem of the Republic of China in an inauguration of the reconstructed St George 's Queen 's Park Stadium funded by the PRC. Grenada had broken off diplomatic relations with Taiwan just two years prior in favor of the PRC.
When the Kuomintang visited Mainland China in 2005, the government - controlled PRC media called this event a "visit, '' and called the KMT one of "Taiwan 's political parties '' even though the Kuomintang 's full name remains the "Chinese Nationalist Party. '' Interestingly in Mainland China, there is a legal party called the Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang that is officially one of the nine "consultative parties, '' according to the PRC 's Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference.
On the Foreign Missions page of the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Foreign Affairs for China, the embassy of the People 's Republic of China was referred to as the ' Republic of China '.
Taiwan was classified as a province of the People 's Republic of China in the Apple Maps application in 2013; searches for "Taiwan '' were changed automatically to "China Taiwan province '' in Simplified Chinese, prompting the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to demand a correction from Apple.
Until 1979, both sides intended to resolve the conflict militarily. Intermittent clashes occurred throughout the 1950s and 1960s, with escalations comprising the First and Second Taiwan Strait crises. In 1979, with the U.S. change of diplomatic recognition to the PRC, the ROC lost its ally needed to "recover the mainland. '' Meanwhile, the PRC 's desire to be accepted in the international community led it to promote peaceful unification under what would later be termed "one country, two systems '', rather than to "liberate Taiwan '' and to make Taiwan a Special Administrative Region.
Notwithstanding, the PRC government has issued triggers for an immediate war with Taiwan, most notably via its controversial Anti-Secession Law of 2005. These conditions are:
It has been interpreted that these criteria encompass the scenario of Taiwan developing nuclear weapons (see main article Taiwan and weapons of mass destruction also Timeline of the Republic of China 's nuclear program).
Much saber - rattling by the PRC has been done over this, with Jiang Zemin, after assuming the mantle of the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, becoming a leading voice.
The third condition has especially caused a stir in Taiwan as the term "indefinitely '' is open to interpretation. It has also been viewed by some as meaning that preserving the ambiguous status quo is not acceptable to the PRC, although the PRC stated on many occasions that there is no explicit timetable for reunification.
Concern over a formal declaration of de jure Taiwan independence is a strong impetus for the military buildup between Taiwan and mainland China. The former US Bush administration publicly declared that given the status quo, it would not aid Taiwan if it were to declare independence unilaterally.
According to the US Department of Defense report "Military and Security Developments Involving the People 's Republic of China 2011 '' conditions that mainland China has warned may cause the use of force have varied. They have included "a formal declaration of Taiwan independence; undefined moves "toward independence ''; foreign intervention in Taiwan 's internal affairs; indefinite delays in the resumption of cross-Strait dialogue on unification; Taiwan 's acquisition of nuclear weapons; and, internal unrest on Taiwan. Article 8 of the March 2005 "Anti-Secession Law '' states Beijing would resort to "non-peaceful means '' if "secessionist forces... cause the fact of Taiwan 's secession from China, '' if "major incidents entailing Taiwan 's secession '' occur, or if "possibilities for peaceful reunification '' are exhausted ".
The possibility of war, the close geographical proximity of ROC - controlled Taiwan and PRC - controlled mainland China, and the resulting flare - ups that occur every few years, conspire to make this one of the most watched focal points in the Pacific. Both sides have chosen to have a strong naval presence. However, naval strategies between both powers greatly shifted in the 1980s and 1990s, while the ROC assumed a more defensive attitude by building and buying frigates and missile destroyers, and the PRC a more aggressive posture by developing long - range cruise missiles and supersonic surface - to - surface missiles.
Although the People 's Liberation Army Air Force is considered large, most of its fleet consists of older generation J - 7 fighters (localized MiG - 21s and Mig - 21BIs), raising doubts over the PLAAF 's ability to control Taiwan 's airspace in the event of a conflict. Since mid-1990s PRC has been purchasing, and later localizing, SU - 27 based fighters. These Russian fighters, as well as their Chinese J11A variants, are currently over 170 in number, and have increased the effectiveness of PLAAF 's Beyond Visual Range (BVR) capabilities. The introduction of 60 new - generation J10A fighters is anticipated to increase the PLAAF 's firepower. PRC 's acquisition of Russian Su30MKKs further enhanced the PLAAF 's air - to - ground support ability. The ROC 's air force, on the other hand, relies on Taiwan 's fourth generation fighters, consisting of 150 US - built F - 16 Fighting Falcons, approximately 60 French - built Mirage 2000 - 5s, and approximately 130 locally developed IDFs (Indigenous Defense Fighters). All of these ROC fighter jets are able to conduct BVR combat missions with BVR missiles, but the level of technology in mainland Chinese fighters is catching up. Also the United States Defense Intelligence Agency has reported that few of Taiwan 's 400 total fighters are operationally capable.
In 2003, the ROC purchased four missile destroyers -- the former USS Kidd class, and expressed a strong interest in the Arleigh Burke class. But with the growth of the PRC navy and air force, some doubt that the ROC could withstand a determined invasion attempt from mainland China in the future. These concerns have led to a view in certain quarters that Taiwanese independence, if it is to be implemented, should be attempted as early as possible, while the ROC still has the capacity to defend itself in an all - out military conflict. Over the past three decades, estimates of how long the ROC can withstand a full - scale invasion from across the Strait without any outside help have decreased from three months to only six days. Given such estimates, the US Navy has continued practicing "surging '' its carrier groups, giving it the experience necessary to respond quickly to an attack on Taiwan. The US also collects data on the PRC 's military deployments, through the use of spy satellites, for example. For early surveillance may effectively identify PRC 's massive military movement, which may imply PRC 's preparation for a military assault against Taiwan.
However, numerous reports issued by the PRC, ROC and US militaries make mutually wild contradictory statements about the possible defense of Taiwan.
Naturally, war contingencies are not being planned in a vacuum. In 1979, the United States Congress passed the Taiwan Relations Act, a law generally interpreted as mandating U.S. defense of Taiwan in the event of an attack from the Chinese Mainland (the Act is applied to Taiwan and Penghu, but not to Jinmen or Matsu). The United States maintains the world 's largest permanent fleet in the Pacific Region near Taiwan. The Seventh Fleet, operating primarily out of various bases in Japan, is a powerful naval contingent built upon the world 's only permanently forward - deployed aircraft carrier USS George Washington. Although the stated purpose of the fleet is not Taiwanese defense, it can be safely assumed from past actions, that is one of the reasons why the fleet is stationed in those waters.
Starting in 2000, Japan renewed its defense obligations with the US and embarked on a rearmament program, partly in response to fears that Taiwan might be invaded. Some analysts believed that the PRC could launch preemptive strikes on military bases in Japan to deter US and Japanese forces from coming to the ROC 's aid. Japanese strategic planners also see an independent Taiwan as vital, not only because the ROC controls valuable shipping routes, but also because its capture by PRC would make Japan more vulnerable. During World War II, the US invaded the Philippines, but another viable target to enable direct attacks on Japan would have been Taiwan (then known as Formosa). However, critics of the preemptive strike theory assert that the PRC would be loath to give Japan and the US such an excuse to intervene.
The United States Department of Defense in a 2011 report stated that the primary mission of the PRC military is a possible military conflict with Taiwan, including also possible US military assistance. Although the risk of a crisis in the short - term is low, in the absence of new political developments, Taiwan will likely dominate future military modernization and planning. However, also other priorities are becoming increasingly prominent and possible due to increasing military resources. Many of mainland China 's most advanced military systems are stationed in areas opposite Taiwan. The rapid military modernization is continually changing the military balance of power towards mainland China.
A 2008 report by the RAND Corporation analyzing a theoretical 2020 attack by mainland China on Taiwan suggested that the US would likely not be able to defend Taiwan. Cruise missile developments may enable China to partially or completely destroy or make inoperative US aircraft carriers and bases in the Western Pacific. New Chinese radars will likely be able to detect US stealth aircraft and China is acquiring stealthy and more effective aircraft. The reliability of US beyond - visual - range missiles as a mean to achieve air superiority is questionable and largely unproven.
In 1996, the PRC began conducting military exercises near Taiwan, and launched several ballistic missiles over the island. The saber - rattling was done in response to the possible re-election of then President Lee Teng - hui. The United States, under President Clinton, sent two aircraft carrier battle groups to the region, reportedly sailing them into the Taiwan Strait. The PRC, unable to track the ships ' movements, and probably unwilling to escalate the conflict, quickly backed down. The event had little impact on the outcome of the election, since none of Lee 's contestants were strong enough to defeat him, but it is widely believed that the PRC 's aggressive acts, far from intimidating the Taiwanese population, gave Lee a boost that pushed his share of votes over 50 percent.
The possibility of war in the Taiwan Straits, even though quite low in the short - term, requires the PRC, ROC, and U.S. to remain wary and vigilant. The goal of the three parties at the moment seems to be, for the most part, to maintain the status quo.
On 24 October 2006, Dr. Roger C.S. Lin led a group of Taiwanese residents, including members of the Taiwan Nation Party, to file a Complaint for Declaratory Relief in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. According to their lawyer, Mr. Charles Camp, "the Complaint asks the Court to declare whether the Taiwanese plaintiffs, including members of the Taiwan Nation Party, have certain rights under the United States Constitution and other US laws ''. Their central argument is that, following Japanese renunciation of all rights and claims to Taiwan, Taiwan came under U.S. jurisdiction based on it being the principal occupying power as designated in the Treaty of Peace with Japan and remains so to this day. This case was opposed by the United States government.
The District Court agreed with United States government on 18 March 2008 and ruled that the case presents a political question; as such, the court concluded that it had no jurisdiction to hear the matter and dismissed the complaint. This decision has been appealed by plaintiffs and the appeals court unanimously upheld the district court ruling.
The PRC and Taiwan have agreed to increase cooperation in the area of law enforcement. Mainland police will begin staffing a liaison office in Taipei in 2010.
Although the situation is confusing, most observers believe that it is stable with enough understandings and gentlemen 's agreements to keep things from breaking out into open warfare. The current controversy is over the term one China, as the PRC insists that the ROC must recognize this term to begin negotiations. Although the Democratic Progressive Party has moderated its support for Taiwan independence, there is still insufficient support within that party for former President Chen Shui - bian to agree to one China. By contrast, the Kuomintang (KMT) and the People First Party (PFP) appear willing to agree to some variation of one China, and observers believed the position of the PRC was designed to sideline Chen until the 2004 presidential election where it was hoped that someone who was more supportive of Chinese reunification would come to power. Partly to counter this, Chen Shui - bian announced in July 2002 that if the PRC does not respond to Taiwan 's goodwill, Taiwan may "go on its own... road. ''
With Chen 's re-election in 2004, Beijing 's prospects for a speedier resolution were dampened, though they seemed strengthened again following the Pan-Blue majority in the 2004 legislative elections. However, public opinion in Taiwan reacted unfavorably towards the anti-secession law passed by the PRC in March 2005. Following two high profile visits by KMT and PFP party leaders to the PRC, the balance of public opinion appears to be ambiguous, with the Pan-Green Coalition gaining a majority in the 2005 National Assembly elections, but the Pan-Blue Coalition scoring a landslide victory in the 2005 municipal elections.
Legislative elections were held in Taiwan on January 12, 2008. The results gave the Kuomintang and the Pan-Blue Coalition an absolute majority (86 of the 113 seats) in the legislature, handing a heavy defeat to President Chen Shui - bian 's Democratic Progressive Party, which won the remaining 27 seats. The junior partner in the Pan-Green Coalition, the Taiwan Solidarity Union, won no seats.
The election for the 12th President of ROC was held on March 22, 2008. Kuomintang candidate Ma Ying - jeou won, with 58 % of the vote, ending eight years of Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) leadership. Along with the 2008 legislative election, Ma 's landslide victory brought the Kuomintang back to power in Taiwan. This new political situation has led to a decrease of tension between both sides of the Taiwan Strait and the increase of cross-strait relations, making a declaration of independence, or war, something unlikely.
Taiwan 's Straits Exchange Foundation (SEF) and its Chinese counterpart -- the Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Strait (ARATS) signed four agreements in Taipei on 4 November 2008. Both SEF and ARATS have agreed to address direct sea links, daily charter flights, direct postal service and food safety.
Public opinion in Taiwan regarding relations with the PRC is notoriously difficult to gauge, as poll results tend to be extremely sensitive to how the questions are phrased and what options are given, and there is a tendency by all political parties to spin the results to support their point of view.
According to a November 2005 poll from the Mainland Affairs Council, 37.7 % of people living in the ROC favor maintaining the status quo until a decision can be made in the future, 18.4 % favors maintaining the status quo indefinitely, 14 % favors maintaining the status quo until eventual independence, 12 % favors maintaining the status quo until eventual reunification, 10.3 % favors independence as soon as possible, and 2.1 % favors reunification as soon as possible. According to the same poll, 78.3 % are opposed to the "One Country, Two Systems '' model, which was used for Hong Kong and Macau, while 10.4 % is in favor.
According to a June 2008 poll from a Taiwanese mainstream media TVBS, 58 % of people living in Taiwan favor maintaining the status quo, 19 % favors independence, and 8 % favors unification. According to the same poll, if status quo is not an option and the ones who were surveyed must choose between "Independence '' or "Unification '', 65 % are in favor of independence while 19 % would opt for unification. The same poll also reveals that, in terms of self - identity, when the respondents are not told that a Taiwanese can also be a Chinese, 68 % of the respondents identify themselves as "Taiwanese '' while 18 % would call themselves "Chinese ''. However, when the respondents are told that duo identity is an option, 45 % of the respondents identify themselves as "Taiwanese only '', 4 % of the respondents call themselves "Chinese only '' while 45 % of the respondents call themselves "both Taiwanese as well as Chinese ''. Furthermore, when it comes to preference in which national identity to be used in international organizations, 54 % of people in the survey indicated that they prefer "Taiwan '' and only 25 % of the people voted for "Chinese Taipei ''.
According to an October 2008 poll from the Mainland Affairs Council, on the question of Taiwan 's status, 36.17 % of respondents favor maintaining the status quo until a decision can be made in the future, 25.53 % favors maintaining the status quo indefinitely, 12.49 % favors maintaining the status quo until eventual independence, 4.44 % favors maintaining the status quo until eventual reunification, 14.80 % favors independence as soon as possible, and 1.76 % favors reunification as soon as possible. In the same poll, on the question of the PRC government 's attitude towards the ROC government, 64.85 % of the respondents consider the PRC government hostile or very hostile, 24.89 consider the PRC government friendly or very friendly, while 10.27 % did not express an opinion. On the question of the PRC government 's attitude towards the people in Taiwan, 45.98 % of the respondents consider the PRC government hostile or very hostile, 39.6 % consider the PRC government friendly or very friendly, while 14.43 % did not express an opinion.
May 2009 Taiwan 's (Republic of China) Department of the Interior published a survey examining whether people in Taiwan see themselves as Taiwanese, Chinese or both. 64.6 % see themselves as Taiwanese, 11.5 % as Chinese, 18.1 % as both and 5.8 % were unsure.
According to a December 2009 poll from a Taiwanese mainstream media TVBS, if status quo is not an option and the ones who were surveyed must choose between "Independence '' or "Unification '', 68 % are in favor of independence while 13 % would opt for unification.
As of March 2012, a poll by the Global Views Monthly indicated that support for Taiwanese independence has risen. According to the survey 28.2 percent of respondents indicated that they support a formal declaration for Taiwan independence, a rise of 3.7 percent compared to a similar poll conducted earlier in 2012. Asked whether Taiwan would eventually declare itself a new and independent nation, 49.1 percent replied yes while 38 percent responded negatively, the Global Views Monthly said. Only 22.9 percent agreed that Taiwan should eventually unify with China, while 63.5 percent disagreed.
A June 2013 poll conducted by DPP showed an overwhelming 77.6 % consider themselves as Taiwanese. A) On the independence - unification issue, the survey found that 25.9 percent said they support unification, 59 percent support independence and 10.3 percent prefer the "status quo. '' B) When asked whether Taiwan and China are parts of one country, the party said the survey found 78.4 percent disagree, while 15 percent agreed. C) As for whether Taiwan and China are two districts in one country, 70.6 percent disagree, while 22.8 percent agree, the survey showed. D) When asked which among four descriptions -- "one country on each side, '' "a special state - to - state relationship, '' "one country, two areas, '' and "two sides are of one country '' -- they find the most acceptable, 54.9 percent said "one country on each side, '' 25.3 percent chose "a special state - to - state relationship, '' 9.8 percent said "one country, two areas '' and 2.5 percent favor "two sides are of one country, '' the survey showed.
From the perspective of the ROC constitution, which the mainstream political parties such as the KMT and DPP currently respect and recognize, changing the ROC 's governing status or completely clarifying Taiwan 's political status would at best require amending the ROC constitution. In other words, if reunification supporters wanted to reunify Taiwan with mainland China in such a way that would effectively abolish the ROC or affect the ROC 's sovereignty, or if independence supporters wanted to abolish the ROC and establish a Republic of Taiwan, they would also need to amend or abolish the ROC constitution and redraft a new constitution. Passing an amendment requires an unusually broad political consensus, which includes approval from three - quarters of a quorum of members of the Legislative Yuan. This quorum requires at least three - quarters of all members of the Legislature. After passing the legislature, the amendments need ratification from at least fifty percent of all eligible voters of the ROC, irrespective of voter turnout.
Given these harsh constitutional requirements, neither the pan-greens nor pan-blues can unilaterally change Taiwan 's political and legal status with respect to the ROC 's constitution. However, extreme Taiwan independence supporters view the ROC 's constitution as illegal and therefore believe that amendments to the ROC constitution are an invalid way to change Taiwan 's political status.
Some scholarly sources as well as political entities like the PRC refer to Taiwan 's controversial status as the "Taiwan question '', "Taiwan issue '', or "Taiwan problem ''. The ROC government does not like these terminologies, emphasizing that it should be called the "Mainland issue '' or "Mainland question '', because from the ROC 's point of view, the PRC is making an issue out of or creating a problem out of Taiwan. Others use the term "Taiwan Strait Issue '' because it implies nothing about sovereignty and because "Cross-Strait relations '' is a term used by both the ROC and the PRC to describe their interactions. However, this term is also objectionable to some because it still implies that there is an issue, which they feel is created only by the PRC.
The use of the terms de facto and de jure to describe Taiwan 's as well as the Republic of China 's status as a state is itself a contentious issue. This partially stems from the lack of precedents regarding derecognized, but still constitutionally functioning states. For instance, it is regularly argued that Taiwan satisfies the requirements of statehood at international law as stated in the Montevideo Convention. At the same time, there is continued debate on whether UN membership or recognition as a state by the UN is a decisive feature of statehood (since it represents broad recognition by the international community); the debate arises because non-state entities can often satisfy the Montevideo Convention factors, while the list of states recognised by the UN, for the most part, correlates well with entities recognised as states by customary international law. If the latter argument is accepted, then the Republic of China may have ceased to be a state post-1971 as a matter of international law ("de jure ''), yet continued to otherwise function as the state that it previously was recognised as ("de facto '').
From the 1990s onwards, media wire services sometimes describe Taiwan as having de facto independence, whereas the Republic of China has always considered itself as a continuously functioning de jure state.
Communist Party / People 's Republic of China (Red Army → 8th Route Army, N4A, etc. → People 's Liberation Army)
Control Yuan
Local governments
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who sings we could be heroes just for one day | Just for One Day (Heroes) - wikipedia
"Just for One Day (Heroes) '' is a house song performed by French DJ David Guetta, and featuring vocals from singer David Bowie. The song was released as the lead single from Guetta 's compilation album, Fuck Me I 'm Famous 2003 in June 2003, and was also credited as the fifth single from his debut studio album, Just a Little More Love. The song contains a sample from Bowie 's 1970s track, "' Heroes ' ''. The track was officially credited to ' David Guetta vs. Bowie '. It peaked at No. 73 on the UK Singles Chart in July 2003. The music video for "Just for One Day (Heroes) '' can be found on YouTube. It features a group of people partying at a rave, with Guetta performing the track in the background.
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