Datasets:

LLukas22

/

nq

like 0

what is a geneticist and what do they do

Geneticist - wikipedia A geneticist is a biologist who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms. A geneticist can be employed as a scientist or lecturer. Geneticists perform general research on genetic processes as well as development of genetic technologies to aid in the medicine and agriculture industries. Some geneticists perform experiments in model organisms such as Drosophila, C. elegans, Zebrafish, rodents or Humans and analyze data to interpret the inheritance of biological traits. A geneticist can be a scientist who has earned a Ph. D in Genetics or a physician (who has earned any of the following medical degrees: MBBS / MBChB (non-U.S.), D.O. (U.S. - only), or M.D.) who has been trained in genetics as a specialization. They evaluate, diagnose, and manage patients with hereditary conditions or congenital malformations, genetic risk calculations, and mutation analysis as well as refer patients to other medical specialties. The geneticist carries out studies, tests and counsels patients with genetic disorders. Geneticists participate in courses from many areas, such as biology, chemistry, physics, microbiology, cell biology, bioinformatics, and mathematics. They also participate in more specific genetics courses such as molecular genetics, transmission genetics, population genetics, quantitative genetics, ecological genetics, and genomics. Geneticists can work in many different fields, doing a variety of jobs. There are many careers for geneticists in medicine, agriculture, wildlife, general sciences, or many other fields. Listed below are a few examples of careers a geneticist may pursue.

would ribose react with benedict's reagent as glucose does

Benedict 's reagent - wikipedia Benedict 's reagent (often called Benedict 's qualitative solution or Benedict 's solution) is a chemical reagent named after American chemist Stanley Rossiter Benedict. It is a complex mixture of sodium carbonate, sodium citrate and copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate. It is often used in place of Fehling 's solution to detect the presence of reducing sugars. The presence of other reducing substances also gives a positive reaction. Such tests that use this reagent are called the Benedict 's tests. A positive test with Benedict 's reagent is shown by a color change from clear blue to a brick - red precipitate. Generally, Benedict 's test detects the presence of aldehydes and alpha - hydroxy - ketones, also by hemiacetal, including those that occur in certain ketoses. Thus, although the ketose fructose is not strictly a reducing sugar, it is an alpha - hydroxy - ketone, and gives a positive test because it is converted to the aldoses glucose and mannose by the base in the reagent. The principle of Benedict 's test is that when reducing sugars are heated in the presence of an alkali they are converted to powerful reducing species known as enediols. Enediols reduce the cupric compounds (Cu) present in the Benedict 's reagent to cuprous compounds (Cu) which are precipitated as insoluble red copper (I) oxide (Cu O). The color of the obtained precipitate gives an idea about the quantity of sugar present in the solution, hence the test is semi-quantitative. A greenish precipitate indicates about 0.5 g % concentration; yellow precipitate indicates 1 g % concentration; orange indicates 1.5 g % and red indicates 2 g % or higher concentration. To test for the presence of monosaccharides and reducing disaccharide sugars in food, the food sample is dissolved in water, and a small amount of Benedict 's reagent is added. During a water bath, which is usually 4 -- 10 minutes, the solution should progress in the colors of blue (with no reducing sugar present), green, yellow, orange, red, and then brick red precipitate or brown (with high reducing sugar present). A color change would signify the presence of a reducing sugar. The common disaccharides lactose and maltose are directly detected by Benedict 's reagent because each contains a glucose with a free reducing aldehyde moiety, after isomerization. Sucrose (table sugar) contains two sugars (fructose and glucose) joined by their glycosidic bond in such a way as to prevent the glucose isomerizing to aldehyde, or the fructose to alpha - hydroxy - ketone form. Sucrose is thus a non-reducing sugar which does not react with Benedict 's reagent. Sucrose indirectly produces a positive result with Benedict 's reagent if heated with dilute hydrochloric acid prior to the test, although after this treatment it is no longer sucrose. The acidic conditions and heat break the glycosidic bond in sucrose through hydrolysis. The products of sucrose decomposition are glucose and fructose, both of which can be detected by Benedict 's reagent, as described above. Starches do not react or react very poorly with Benedict 's reagent, due to the relatively small number of reducing sugar moieties, which occur only at the ends of carbohydrate chains. Inositol (myoinositol) is another carbohydrate which produces a negative test. Benedict 's reagent can be used to test for the presence of glucose in urine. Glucose in urine is called glucosuria and can be indicative of diabetes mellitus, but the test is not recommended or used for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. A false positive reaction can be due to the presence of other reducing substances in urine such as ascorbic acid (during intake of vitamin supplements), drugs (levodopa, contrast used in radiological procedures) and homogentisic acid (alkaptonuria). Benedict 's solution is a deep - blue solution used to test for the presence of the aldehyde functional group, - CHO. It is an aqueous alkaline mixture of CuSO and sodium citrate. Here sodium citrate is the complexing agent that keeps Cu in solution, which would otherwise precipitate as cupric carbonate. The substance to be tested is heated up to 95 ° C (for example, in a water bath) with Benedict 's solution; formation of a brick - red precipitate indicates presence of the aldehyde group in relatively high concentrations. Since simple sugars (e.g., glucose) give a positive test, the solution is used to test for the presence of glucose in urine, a symptom of diabetes. One litre of Benedict 's solution contains 173 grammes sodium citrate, 100 grammes sodium carbonate, and 17.3 grammes cupric sulphate pentahydrate. It reacts chemically similarly to Fehling 's solution; the cupric ion (complexed with citrate ions) is reduced to cuprous ion by the aldehyde group (which is oxidised), and precipitates as cuprous oxide, Cu O. Benedict 's quantitative reagent contains potassium thiocyanate and is used to determine how much reducing sugar is present. This solution forms a copper thiocyanate precipitate which is white and can be used in a titration. The titration should be repeated with 1 % glucose solution instead of the sample for calibration. Other oxidizing reagents Other reducing reagents (opposite)

whodini friends how many of us have them

Friends (Whodini song) - Wikipedia "Friends '' is a song by the American hip - hop group Whodini. The song reached # 4 on the U.S. Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart. The song was less successful on the Hot 100, spending 3 weeks on the chart and peaking at # 87. The Song was sampled on the Nickelodeon sitcom Taina on the song "Thought that we were friends '', which was sung by Christina Vidal who played the title character. The song was also sampled by Will Smith for the track "Potnas '' on his 1999 Album Willennium.

when will they find out that katherine is in elena's body

No Exit (the Vampire Diaries) - wikipedia "No Exit '' is the 14th episode of the fifth season of the American series The Vampire Diaries and the series ' 103rd episode overall. "No Exit '' was originally aired on February 27, 2014, on The CW. The episode was written by Brian Young and directed by Michael Allowitz. Enzo (Michael Malarkey) and Damon (Ian Somerhalder) turn people on vampires so that Damon can feed on since now, after Wes ' (Rick Cosnett) injection, he craves on vampire blood and not human. The two of them try to leave the last victim 's house when Wes appears with travelers who spell the house so vampires will not be able to get out. Wes informs them that he wants to make one last test; how long can Damon last before he attacks his friend to feed on. Katherine (Nina Dobrev), still pretending to be Elena, tries to get closer to Stefan (Paul Wesley) so they can be back together. When Caroline (Candice Accola) arrives and tells them about Damon, Stefan wants to find him and Katherine offers to go with him. Caroline warns him that it is weird for him to be so close to "Elena '' after everything that happened but he reassures her that they are just friends. Before Stefan and Katherine go, Caroline gets a phone call from Tyler (Michael Trevino) who tells her that he worries about Matt (Zach Roerig), who is vanished for two days, and that Nadia (Olga Fonda) was compelling him. Katherine hears Caroline 's conversation with Tyler and she calls Nadia to ask if everything is fine. When Nadia tells her that Matt found out that she is not Elena, Katherine asks her to kill him. Caroline leaves to go to Tyler 's while Katherine and Stefan leave to find Damon. Caroline gets to Tyler 's and they try to find out why Nadia would compel Matt and what does she want from him. The two of them feel awkward because of what happened between Caroline and Klaus (Joseph Morgan). At the same time, Matt tries to convince Nadia that she does not have to kill him and all he has to do is to convince his friends that he is fine. Matt returns home with Nadia and acts like everything is fine. He tells Tyler and Caroline that Nadia is not compelling him and that they just have fun together but Caroline is not really supportive of that. They both depart, leaving Matt and Nadia alone. Katherine and Stefan are on the road in search of Damon and Katherine tries to seduce Stefan. She breaks the car so they can stay at a hotel she had seen till the car is ready. While being there, Enzo calls Stefan to inform him about the situation he and Damon are but Katherine answers who asks him to text her the address. Stefan goes to get the car and Katherine calls Nadia to tell her that she plans to lead Stefan on killing Damon to save her. Stefan gets back and before they leave the hotel, Katherine gets closer to him and kisses him. He kisses her back but he stops because "Elena '' has just broken up with Damon and it is not right. Enzo chains Damon on a chair in an attempt to prevent him of attacking him. Wes shoots Enzo to make him bleed, so Damon will not be able to resist. Damon breaks the chains and attacks Enzo who tries to tell him to stop. Damon chokes at Enzo 's blood and Wes appears to tell him that it is because he had travelers to spell on it. He offers Enzo to go with him so he will not be killed by Damon since the spell will not last forever. Enzo does not want to go but Damon convinces him to do it because if he stays he will kill him. Enzo leaves with Wes and Damon stays alone, trapped in the house. Nadia checks that finally vervain is out of Matt 's system so she can compel him again but before she makes him forget, Matt tries to warn Caroline about Katherine taking over Elena 's body. He kisses Nadia who kisses him back and while they are kissing, he tries to text Caroline. He manages to write "Help K '' and send it to Caroline before Nadia sees him and stops him. She is hurt by his behavior and trying to fool her, so she compels him and starts to exit the house. Caroline, who got the text, meets Nadia at the door and asks her what is she planning and they start fighting. Tyler gets there in time to stop Nadia from killing Caroline and he fights Nadia who runs away. Katherine and Stefan arrive at the house where Damon is but Damon warns them to not get into the house because they will not be able to get out and he will attack them. They tell him that they do not afraid of him and they both enter the house. Katherine, to help Damon fight his urge, cuts her hand with a class and provokes him with her blood telling him that he can fight it. Damon starts feeding on her, Stefan tells him to stop and Katherine kicks a stake towards Stefan telling him that Damon is going to kill her. Stefan, instead of taking the stake, he takes a piece of class and cuts himself to distract Damon. Damon leaves Katherine and Stefan snaps his head. Katherine and Stefan bring Damon back to Mystic Falls and Katherine arranges immediately to meet Nadia. Katherine is happy because, despite that her plan to kill Damon did not work, she had a moment with Stefan. She stops smiling when Nadia tells her that she was bitten by Tyler Lockwood. Damon wakes up chained on the Salvatore house 's basement. Stefan is there and Damon tries to warn him that because of his cravings, one day he will kill him but Stefan tells him that they will find a solution. Damon points to Stefan that "Elena '' provoked him to feed on her and then she kicked a stake towards him so he will kill him. Stefan does not believe that Elena would want that, he locks Damon up and gets upstairs where Caroline is. The two of them discuss what happened between Stefan and "Elena '' and Caroline also tells him about Nadia and Matt and the text he sent to her. From Matt 's text, who used "K '' and not "E '', they put the pieces together and they realize that Katherine is in Elena 's body. In the "No Exit '' episode we can hear the songs: In its original American broadcast, "No Exit '' was watched by 2.03 million; down by 0.13 from the previous episode. "No Exit '' received mixed to negative reviews with many hoping that now that Katherine 's secret was revealed, the show will "kick in ''. Carrie Raisler from The A.V. Club gave a B rate to the episode saying that it was a filler episode: "this path to realization (finding out that Katherine is in Elena 's body) basically creates a filler episode, a way to move the story to the place it needs to be for the inevitable big confrontation in the future (...) Katherine taking over Elena 's life was an incredibly inspired storyline, and watching it unfold has been delightful, but sooner or later, someone had to figure out what was going on. To spend an episode almost solely focused on making that happen is a good thing. '' Alyse Wax of Fearnet writes: "I miss the bad - assery this show used to have. Julie Plec took it all with her and stuffed it into The Originals. (...) All of the awesome, violent, supernatural drama has been replaced with standard who 's - sleeping - with - who nonsense, ever since the original vampires got their own show. I guess Klaus really took the bad - assery with him. Well, now everyone knows that "Elena '' is really Katherine, so hopefully the crazy shit will kick in. '' Caroline Preece from Den of Geek gave a negative review saying that season five of the show has been the worst by far. "(The show) stopped being a fast - paced, well - written vampire show and became a long - running soap that happened to have mythical creatures in it. That 's not what any of us signed up for but, with the Katherine storyline presumably on its way out now that Stefan and Caroline have figured out the deceit and Nadia has a dreaded werewolf bite to contend with, maybe the next half - arsed arc will be better? Let 's hope so because, since we all know how fantastically entertaining this show can be at its best, there is always a glimmer of hope that it can return to form. '' Stephanie Hall from K Site TV said that overall the episode left her a feeling that this was an off week of the show. "'' No Exit '' was an uncharacteristically odd episode of The Vampire Diaries that primarily served to stall the impending solutions of this run of episodes ' two most pressing issues: Katherine and Damon. While it did bring our heroes a step closer to solving both of these problems, the ways in which it did so were not delivered with as much metaphoric bang as could be hoped. '' Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic rated the episode with only 1.3 / 5 saying that it was one boring hour of television and that the writers recycles scenes and stories from previous episodes / seasons. "We knew from the moment Katherine inhabited Elena 's body that she would eventually be found out. What other alternative possibly existed? So we 've been waiting and waiting and waiting for that moment for weeks and that 's exactly what tonight 's episode felt like. ''

who is the scottish actor in our girl

Our Girl - wikipedia Our Girl is a British television military drama series, written and created by Tony Grounds, first broadcast on BBC One on 24 March 2013. The series initially starred Lacey Turner as Molly Dawes, a young woman from a working - class background who joins the British Army after deciding her life is going nowhere. Following the feature - length pilot episode, a full series of five episodes was commissioned, commencing broadcast on 21 September 2014. For the series, Iwan Rheon and Ben Aldridge joined the main cast as Private Dylan "Smurf '' Smith and Captain Charles James respectively. Turner left her role after the first series, and was replaced Michelle Keegan as the series ' new lead, Lance Corporal Georgie Lane. Ben Aldridge returned to the cast, with newcomers Luke Pasqualino and Royce Pierreson amongst the new cast members. The second five - episode series began airing on 7 September 2016. An extended third series, comprising twelve episodes, was commissioned in 2017. Initially due to be broadcast in three blocks of four episodes, filming for this series took place in Nepal, South Africa and Malaysia. Keegan, Pasqualino and Aldridge all returned for this series, with Shalom Brune - Franklin and Rudi Dharmalingam amongst the new cast members for this series. The first four episodes, known as the Nepal Tour, began broadcasting on 10 October 2017. The remaining eight episodes aired consecutively from 5 June 2018, with Olly Rix joining the cast as new special forces Captain "Bones '' McClyde. 18 - year - old Molly Dawes (Lacey Turner), who lives in the East End of London, decides to join the army, deciding her life has no purpose on discovering that her boyfriend has been cheating on her. Encouraged only by the manager of the recruitment office, Sergeant Lamont (Paul Fox), she initially keeps her decision a secret from her family, which consists of her controlling father Dave (Sean Gallagher) and doting mother Belinda (Kerry Godliman). When the truth is exposed, Dave demands she changes her mind, threatening to disown her if she does not; leaving her to make the heartbreaking decision to step away as she heads off to training camp. Here, Corporal Geddings (Matthew McNulty) initially doubts Molly 's merits as a potential soldier, but she strives to prove herself and eventually earns the respect of her peers, even reuniting with her mother Belinda when she visits her to apologise for Dave 's actions. Molly has completed training as a Combat Medical Technician. She is deployed to Afghanistan attached to a British Army infantry section based from a small UK / ANA shared FOB somewhere in Helmand. She arrives at Camp Bastion in Afghanistan alongside her new team, 2 Section, who are all males. She is disconcerted when she discovers that an ex-flame, Dylan "Smurf '' Smith (Iwan Rheon), belongs to her new section, and gets off on the wrong foot with haughty team leader Captain Charles James (Ben Aldridge), a hailed war hero. On arrival in Afghanistan, Molly fights to prove herself to the men around her while also offering compassion to the locals, including 11 - year - old Afghan girl Bashira (Becky Eggersglusz), giving herself an understanding of what it is like to be a civilian caught up in the Taliban 's war. Lance Corporal Georgie Lane (Michelle Keegan) is dispatched on a humanitarian tour to Kenya with 2 Section, and she quickly becomes involved in the activities of a terrorist group. Georgie 's ex-fiancé, Elvis (Luke Pasqualino), a special forces officer in the Special Air Service, frequently attempts to regain her trust after jilting her at the altar on their wedding day several years previously. However, Georgie now has a new boyfriend, Dr. Jamie Cole (Royce Pierreson). Molly has been written out of the story, having returned to Afghanistan for a short tour off - screen. It is briefly mentioned by Captain James that he and Molly are now married. Georgie, now a Corporal, is dispatched alongside 2 Section on a humanitarian mission to Nepal following an earthquake. 2 Section discover a group responsible for trafficking children, connected to the Taliban, which sends them on a covert mission in the heart of Afghanistan supporting special forces. Captain James struggles with the point of British involvement in Afghanistan, and Elvis is desperate to get Georgie back. However, she is uninterested and meets a Nepalese engineer, Milan (Rudi Dharmalingam), whom she takes a shine to. Meanwhile, romance between the two new privates of 2 Section, Maisie (Shalom Brune - Franklin) and Rab (Harki Bhambra), blossoms. Following Elvis ' death, Georgie returns to duty as 2 Section are deployed to Nigeria to help the Nigerian Army in the fight against Boko Haram. But when she goes in search of a group of missing children, who are suspected of having been trafficked out of the country, she is kidnapped and held hostage by a group of Boko Haram rebels. Undercover Special Forces Captain "Bones '' McClyde (Olly Rix), who has spent the last six months infiltrating Boko Haram, is forced to break cover in order to save Georgie. Later, 2 Section find themselves in Belize for a jungle training exercise. But when Captain James is severely injured by a bandit trap, Georgie is forced to put her all her skills into action in a desperate attempt to save him. In Bangladesh, 2 Section are called to assist local police inspector Chowdrey (Navin Chowdhry) and his wife Barsha (Farzana Dua Elahe) who are running a refugee camp for thousands forced to flee from their war - torn villages, but Georgie soon begins to suspect the inspector of being involved in the trafficking of prostitutes and drug smuggling. The feature - length pilot episode first broadcast on BBC One on 24 March 2013 at 9: 00pm. Based on official overnight figures, it gained an audience of 5.34 million viewers. Consolidated viewing increased this figure to 6.31 million. The pilot received mixed to positive reviews, with Dan Owen of MSN praising Turner 's acting and the moving storyline, while criticising some of the characterisation and "weird shortcuts in the storyline ''. Sarah Crompton of The Telegraph found the pilot "compelling '' but argued that "the depiction of the army -- which became too obviously her surrogate family -- would be better suited to a glossy advertising campaign than a television drama, glamorising both its methods and its personnel ''. Audience reaction on social media website Twitter was overall positive. The series premiered in Australia on ABC on 16 April 2015. In New Zealand, the series premiered on TVNZ on 3 May 2015. In Sweden, the series premiered on SVT on 15 June 2015. In Finland, the series premiered on Yle on 20 March 2017. On 7 April 2016 the series premiered in Germany under the title Eine Frau an der Front (A Woman on the Frontline) and in France and Belgium under the title Molly, une femme au combat (Molly: A Woman In Battle).

who was the first chairman of the drafting committee

Constituent Assembly of India - Wikipedia An idea for a Constituent Assembly of India was proposed in 1934 by M.N. Roy, a pioneer of the Communist movement in India and an advocate of radical democracy. It became an official demand of the Indian National Congress in 1935, C. Rajagopalachari voiced the demand for a constituent Assembly on 15th November 1939 based on adult franchise, and was accepted by the British in August 1940. On 8 August 1940, a statement was made by Viceroy Lord Linlithgow about the expansion of the Governor - General 's Executive Council and the establishment of a War Advisory Council. This offer, known as the August Offer, included giving full weight to minority opinions and allowing Indians to draft their own constitution. Under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946, elections were held for the first time for the Constituent Assembly. The Constitution of India was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, and it was implemented under the Cabinet Mission Plan on 16 May 1946. The members of the Constituent Assembly were elected by the provincial assemblies by a single, transferable - vote system of proportional representation. The total membership of the Constituent Assembly was 389: 292 were representatives of the states, 93 represented the princely states and four were from the chief commissioner provinces of Delhi, Ajmer - Merwara, Coorg (Near Madikeri) and British Baluchistan. The elections for the 296 seats assigned to the British Indian provinces were completed by August 1946. Congress won 208 seats, and the Muslim League 73. After this election, the Muslim League refused to cooperate with the Congress, and the political situation deteriorated. Hindu - Muslim riots began, and the Muslim League demanded a separate constituent assembly for Muslims in India. On 3 June 1947 Lord Mountbatten, the last British Governor - General of India, announced his intention to scrap the Cabinet Mission Plan; this culminated in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and the separate nations of India and Pakistan. The Indian Independence Act was passed on 18 July 1947 and, although it was earlier declared that India would become independent in June 1948, this event led to independence on 15 August 1947. The Constituent Assembly (elected for an undivided India) met for the first time on 9 December 1946, reassembling on 14 August 1947 as a sovereign body and successor to the British parliament 's authority in India. As a result of the partition, under the Mountbatten plan a separate constituent assembly was established in Pakistan on 3 June 1947. The representatives of the areas incorporated into Pakistan ceased to be members of the Constituent Assembly of India. New elections were held for the West Punjab and East Bengal (which became part of Pakistan, although East Bengal later seceded to become Bangladesh); the membership of the Constituent Assembly was 299 after the reorganization, and it met on 31 December 1947. The Constituent Assembly, consisting of indirectly elected representatives, was established to draft a constitution for India (including the now - separate countries of Pakistan and Bangladesh). It existed for almost three years, the first parliament of India after independence in 1947. The Assembly was not elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage, and Muslims and Sikhs received special representation as minorities. The Muslim League boycotted the Assembly after failing to prevent its creation. Although a large part of the Constituent Assembly was drawn from the Congress Party in a one - party environment, the Congress Party included a wide diversity of opinions -- from conservative industrialists and radical Marxists to Hindu revivalists -- all of whom participated in the process. The Assembly met for the first time in New Delhi on 9 December 1946, and its last session was held on 24 January 1950. During this period (two years, eleven months and eighteen days) the Assembly held eleven sessions, sitting for a total of 166 days. The hope of the Assembly was expressed by Jawaharlal Nehru: The first task of this Assembly is to free India through a new constitution, to feed the starving people, and to clothe the naked masses, and to give every Indian the fullest opportunity to develop himself according to his capacity. This is certainly a great task. Look at India today. We, are sitting here and there in despair in many places, and unrest in many cities. The atmosphere is surcharged with these quarrels and feuds which are called communal disturbances, and unfortunately we sometimes can not avoid them. But at present the greatest and most important question in India is how to solve the problem of the poor and the starving. Wherever we turn, we are confronted with this problem. If we can not solve this problem soon, all our paper constitutions will become useless and purposeless. Keeping this aspect in view, who could suggest to us to postpone and wait? The Constituent Assembly was established while India was still under British rule, following negotiations between Indian leaders and members of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India from the United Kingdom. Provincial assembly elections were held early in 1946. Constituent Assembly members were elected indirectly by members of the newly elected provincial assemblies, and initially included representatives for those provinces which formed part of Pakistan (some of which are now in Bangladesh). The Constituent Assembly had 299 representatives, including nine women. The Interim Government of India was formed on 2 September 1946 from the newly elected Constituent Assembly. The Congress held a large majority in the Assembly (69 percent of the seats), and the Muslim League held nearly all the seats reserved in the Assembly for Muslims. There were also members of smaller parties, such as the Scheduled Caste Federation, the Communist Party of India and the Unionist Party. In June 1947 delegations from Sindh, East Bengal, Baluchistan, West Punjab and the North West Frontier Province withdrew to form the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, meeting in Karachi. On 15 August 1947 the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan became independent nations, and members of the Constituent Assembly who had not withdrawn to Karachi became India 's Parliament. Twenty - eight members of the Muslim League joined the Indian Assembly, and 93 members were later nominated from the princely states; the Congress Party secured a majority of 82 percent. At 11 am on 9 December 1946 the Assembly began its first session, with 208 members attending. By early 1947, representatives of the Muslim League and princely states joined, and the Assembly approved the draft constitution on 26 November 1949. On 26 January 1950 the constitution took effect (commemorated as Republic Day), and the Constituent Assembly became the Provisional Parliament of India (continuing until after the first elections under the new constitution in 1952). Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the first chairman (temporary) of Constituent Assembly. Later Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the president and Its vice-president was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a Christian from Bengal and former vice-chancellor of Calcutta University. Also chairing the assembly 's Minorities Committee, Mookerjee was appointed governor of West Bengal after India became a republic. Jurist B.N. Rau was appointed constitutional adviser to the assembly; Rau prepared the original draft of the constitution, and was later appointed a judge in the Permanent Court of International Justice in The Hague. The assembly 's work had five stages: The assembly was chaired by Dr. Rajendra Prasad when it met as a constituent body, and by G.V. Mavlankar when it met as a legislative body. It completed the task of drafting a constitution in two years, eleven months and eighteen days, at a total expenditure of ₹ 6.4 million. The Constituent Assembly appointed a total of 22 committees to deal with different tasks of constitution - making. Out of these, eight were major committees and the others were minor committees. Major Committees Madras: Annie mascarene, O.V. Alagesan, Mrs. Ammu Swaminathan, M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar, Moturi Satyanarayana, Mrs. Dakshayani Velayudhan, Mrs. G. Durgabai, Kala Venkatarao, N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar, D. Govinda Das, Revd. Jerome D'Souza, P. Kakkan, T.M. Kaliyannan Gounder, K. Kamaraj, V.C. Kesava Rao, T.T. Krishnamachari, Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer L. Krishnaswami Bharathi, P. Kunhiraman, Mosalikanti Thirumala Rao, V.I. Munuswamy Pillai, M.A. Muthiah Chettiar, V. Nadimuthu Pillai, S. Nagappa, P.L. Narasimha Raju, B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya, C. Perumalswamy Reddy, T. Prakasam, S.H. Prater, Raja Swetachalapati Ramakrishna Renga Roa of Bobbili, R.K. Shanmukham Chetty, T.A. Ramalingam Chettiar, Ramnath Goenka, O.P. Ramaswamy Reddiar, N.G. Ranga, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy, Sheik Galib Sahib, K. Santhanam, B. Shiva Rao, Kallur Subba Rao, U. Srinivasa Mallya, P. Subbarayan, C. Subramaniam, V Subramaniam, M.C. Veerabahu Pillai, P.M. Velayudapani, A.K. Menon, T.J.M. Wilson, Mohamed Ismail Sahib, K.T.M. Ahmed Ibrahim, Mahboob Ali Baig Sahib Bahadur, B. Pocker Sahib Bahadur, pattam Tanupillai Bombay: Balchandra Maheshwar Gupte, Hansa Mehta, Hari Vinayak Pataskar, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Joseph Alban D'Souza, Kanayalal Nanabhai Desai, Keshavrao Marutirao Jedhe, Khandubhai Kasanji Desai, Bal Gangadhar Kher, M.R. Masani, K.M. Munshi, Narahar Vishnu Gadgil, S. Nijalingappa, S.K. Patil, Ramchandra Manohar Nalavade, R.R. Diwakar, Shankarrao Deo, G.V. Mavalankar, Vallabhbhai Patel, Abdul Kadar Mohammad Shaikh, A.A. Khan West Bengal: Monomohan Das, Arun Chandra Guha, Lakshmi Kanta Maitra, Mihir Lal Chattopadhyay, Satis Chandra Samanta, Suresh Chandra Majumdar, Upendranath Barman, Prabhudayal Himatsingka, Basanta Kumar Das, Renuka Ray, H.C. Mukherjee, Surendra Mohan Ghose, Syama Prasad Mookerjee, Ari Bahadur Gurung, R.E. Platel, K.C. Neogy, Raghib Ahsan, Somnath Lahiri, Jasimuddin Ahmad, Naziruddin Ahmad, Abdul Hamid, Abdul Halim Ghuznavi United Provinces: Ajit Prasad Jain, Algu Rai Shastri, Balkrishna Sharma, Banshi Dhar Misra, Bhagwan Din, Damodar Swarup Seth, Dayal Das Bhagat, Dharam Prakash, A. Dharam Dass, R.V. Dhulekar, Feroz Gandhi, Gopal Narain, Krishna Chandra Sharma, Govind Ballabh Pant, Govind Malviya, Har Govind Pant, Harihar Nath Shastri, Hriday Nath Kunzru, Jaspat Roy Kapoor, Jagannath Baksh Singh, Jawaharlal Nehru, Jogendra Singh, Jugal Kishore, Jwala Prasad Srivastava, B.V. Keskar, Kamala Chaudhry, Kamalapati Tripathi, J.B. Kripalani, Mahavir Tyagi, Khurshed Lal, Masurya Din, Mohan Lal Saksena, Padampat Singhania, Phool Singh, Paragi Lal, Purnima Banerjee, Purushottam Das Tandon, Hira Vallabha Tripathi, Ram Chandra Gupta, Shibban Lal Saxena, Satish Chandra, John Matthai, Sucheta Kripalani, Sunder Lall, Venkatesh Narayan Tiwari, Mohanlal Gautam, Vishwambhar Dayal Tripathi, Vishnu Sharan Dublish, Begum Aizaz Rasul, Hyder Hussain, Hasrat Mohani, Abul Kalam Azad, Muhammad Ismail Khan, Rafi Ahmad Kidwai, Mohd. Hifzur Rahman, ZH Lari East Punjab: Bakshi Tek Chand, Jairamdas Daulatram, Thakurdas Bhargava, Bikramlal Sondhi, Yashwant Rai, Ranbir Singh Hooda, Lala Achint Ram, Nand Lal, Baldev Singh, Giani Gurmukh Singh Musafir, Sardar Hukam Singh, Sardar Bhopinder Singh Mann, Sardar Rattan Singh Lohgarh Chaudhry Suraj Mal Bihar: Nasif Arafat, Amiyo Kumar Ghosh, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Banarsi Prasad Jhunjhunwala, Bhagwat Prasad, Boniface Lakra, Brajeshwar Prasad, Chandika Ram, K.T. Shah, Devendra Nath Samanta, Dip Narain Sinha, Guptanath Singh, Jadubans Sahay, Jagat Narain Lal, Jagjivan Ram, Jaipal Singh Munda, Kameshwar Singh of Darbhanga, Kamaleshwari Prasad Yadav, Mahesh Prasad Sinha, Krishna Ballabh Sahay, Raghunandan Prasad, Rajendra Prasad, Rameshwar Prasad Sinha, Ramnarayan Singh, Sachchidananda Sinha, Sarangdhar Sinha, Satyanarayan Sinha, Binodanand Jha, P.K. Sen, Sri Krishna Sinha, Sri Narayan Mahtha, Syamanandan Sahaya, Hussain Imam, Syed Jafar Imam, Latifur Rahman, Mohammad Tahir, Tajamul Hussain, Choudhry Abid Hussain. Hargovind Mishra Central Provinces and Berar: Ambica Charan Shukla, Raghu Vira, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, B.A. Mandloi, Brijlal Nandlal Biyani, Thakur Cheedilal, Seth Govind Das, Hari Singh Gour, Hari Vishnu Kamath, Hemchandra Jagobaji Khandekar, Ghanshyam Singh Gupta, Lakshman Shrawan Bhatkar, Panjabrao Shamrao Deshmukh, Ravi Shankar Shukla, R.K. Sidhva, Shankar Trimbak Dharmadhikari, Frank Anthony, Kazi Syed Karimuddin, Ganpatrao Dani Assam: Nibaran Chandra Laskar, Dharanidhar Basu - Matari, Gopinath Bardoloi, J.J.M. Nichols - Roy, Kuladhar Chaliha, Rohini Kumar Chaudhury, Muhammad Saadulla, Abdur Rouf Orissa: Biswanath Das, Krishna Chandra Gajapati Narayana Dev, Harekrushna Mahatab, Laxminarayan Sahu Lokanath Mishra, Nandkishore Das, Rajkrishna Bose, Santanu Kumar Das, Yudhishir Mishra Delhi: Deshbhandhu Gupta Ajmer - Merwara: Mukut Bihari Lal Bhargava Coorg: C.M. Poonacha Mysore: K.C. Reddy, T. Siddalingaiya, H.R. Guruv Reddy, S.V. Krishnamurthy Rao, K. Hanumanthaiya, H. Siddaveerappa, T. Channiah Jammu and Kashmir: Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah, Motiram Baigra, Mirza Mohammad Afzal Beg, Maulana Mohammad Sayeed Masoodi Travancore - Cochin: Pattom A. Thanu Pillai, R. Sankar, P.T. Chacko, Panampilly Govinda Menon, Annie Mascarene, P.S. Nataraja Pillai, K.A. Mohamed Madhya Bharat: Vinayak Sitaram Sarwate, Brijraj Narain, Gopikrishna Vijayavargiya, Ram Sahai, Kusum Kant Jain, Radhavallabh Vijayavargiya, Sitaram S. Jajoo Saurashtra: Balwant Rai Gopalji Mehta, Jaisukhlal Hathi, Amritlal Vithaldas Thakkar, Chimanlal Chakubhai Shah, Samaldas Laxmidas Gandhi Rajasthan: V.T. Krishnamachari, Hiralal Shastri, Sardar Singhjhi of Khetri, Jaswant Singhji, Raj Bhadur, Manikya Lal Varma, Gokul Lal Asava, Ramchandra Upadhyaya, Balwant Sinha Mehta, Dalel Singh, Jainarain Vyas Patiala and East Punjab States Union: Ranjit Singh, Sochet Singh, Bhagwant Roy Bombay States: Vinayakrao Balshankar Vaidya, B.N. Munavalli, Gokulbhai Daulatram Bhatt, Jivraj Narayan Mehta, Gopaldas A. Desai, Paranlal Thakurlal Munshi, B.H. Khardekar, Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar Orissa States: Lal Mohan Pati, N. Madhava Rau, Raj Kunwar, Sarangadhar Das, Yudhishthir Mishra Central Provinces States: R.L. Malaviya, Kishorimohan Tripathi, Ramprasad Potai United Provinces States: B.H. Zaidi, Krishna Singh Madras States: V. Ramaiah, Ramakrishna Ranga Rao Vindhya Pradesh: Avdesh Pratap Singh, Shambu Nath Shukla, Ram Sahai Tiwari, Mannulalji Dwidedi Cooch Behar: Himmat Singh K. Maheshwari Tripura and Manipur: Girja Shankar Guha Bhopal: Lal Singh Kutch: Bhawani Arjun Khimji Himachal Pradesh: Yashwant Singh Parmar East Bengal: Abdullah al Mahmood, Maulana Mohd Abdullah el Baqui, Abdul Hamid, Abdul Kasem Khan, Mohammad Akram Khan, A. Hamid, Azizuddin Ahmad, Muhammad Habibullah Bahar, Prem Hari Barma, Raj Kumar Chakraverty, Sris Chandra Chattopadhyaya, Abdul Matin Chaudhary, Murtaza Raza Choudhry, Hamidul Haq Chowdhury, Akhay Kumar Das, Dhirendra Nath Datta, Bhupendra Kumar Datta, Ebrahim Khan, Fazlul Huq, Fazlur Rahman, Ghayasuddin Pathan, Begum Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah, Liaquat Ali Khan, Mafizuddin Ahmad, Mahmud Hussain, Jnanendra Chandra Majumdar, A.M. Malik, Birat Chandra Mandal, Jogendra Nath Mandal, Mohammed Ali, Khwaja Nazimuddin, M.A.B.L. Nur Ahmed, Nurul Amin, Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, Sri Dhananjoy M.A.B.L. Roy, Maudi Bhakesh Chanda, B.L. Serajul Islam, Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Osmani, Shahabudin Khwaja, H.S. Suhrawardy, Harendra Kumar Sur, Tamizuddin Khan, Kawivi Kerwar Datta, Ghulam Mohammed West Punjab: Mian Mumtaz Mohammad Khan Daultana, Ganga Saran, Zafarullah Khan, Iftikhar Hussain Khan, Mian Muhammad Iftikharuddin, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Sheikh Karamat Ali, Nazir Ahmad Khan, Sardar Abdur Rab Nistar, Feroz Khan Noon, Omar Hayat Malik, Shah Nawaz Begum Jahan Ara, Sardar Shaukat Hyat Khan, Northwest Frontier Province: Khan Abdul Ghafar Khan, Khan Sardar Bahadur Khan, Sardar Asad Ullah Jan Khan Sindh: Abdus Sattar Abdur Rahman, Alhajj Muhammad Hashim Gazder, M.A. Khuhro Balochistan: S.B. Nawab Mohammad Khan Jogezai Jawaharlal Nehru and other members taking pledge during the midnight session of the Constituent Assembly of India held on 14 and 15 August 1947. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Chairman, Drafting Committee of the Indian Constitution with other members on Aug. 29, 1947. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, chairman of the Drafting Committee, presenting the final draft of the Indian Constitution to Dr. Rajendra Prasad on 25 November, 1949. B.R. Ambedkar in Constituent Assembly of India. Jawaharlal Nehru addressing the constituent assembly in 1946.

who had the most subscribers on youtube 2017

List of Most - Subscribed YouTube Channels - wikipedia This article lists the fifty most - subscribed channels on the video platform YouTube. The ability to "subscribe '' to a user 's channel was added to YouTube by late October 2005, and the "most subscribed '' list on YouTube began as a chart by May 2006, at which time Smosh was number one with fewer than three thousand subscribers. Since December 22, 2013, the most subscribed user has been PewDiePie, whose channel has over 59 million subscribers as of January 4, 2018. The following table lists the fifty most subscribed channels on YouTube, with each total rounded down to the nearest million subscribers, as well as the network, country of origin and language of each channel. Channels marked as "Auto - generated by YouTube '' (such as Music, Gaming, Sports and Movies) are not included. As of December 26, 2017, 39 of these channels produce content in English; 22 of them are American or originate from the United States. The following table lists the most subscribed YouTube channel from each of 58 countries and territories according to social media statistics aggregator VidStatsX. The following table lists the last 16 channels to become YouTube 's most subscribed channel, from May 2006 to present. Timeline of Most Subscribed Channels (May 2006 -- Dec 2017) In late 2006, when Peter Oakley, also known as Geriatric1927, became most subscribed, a number of TV channels wanted to interview him on his rise to fame. The Daily Mail and TechBlog published an article about him and his success. In 2009, the FRED channel was the first to have over one million subscribers. Following the third time that Smosh became most subscribed, Ray William Johnson collaborated with the duo. A flurry of top YouTubers including Ryan Higa, Shane Dawson, Felix Kjellberg, Michael Buckley, Kassem Gharaibeh, The Fine Brothers, and Johnson himself, congratulated the duo shortly after they surpassed Johnson as the most subscribed channel.

when was the stone of destiny returned to scotland

Stone of Scone - wikipedia The Stone of Scone (/ ˈskuːn /; Scottish Gaelic: An Lia Fàil, Scots: Stane o Scuin) -- also known as the Stone of Destiny, and often referred to in England as The Coronation Stone -- is an oblong block of red sandstone that was used for centuries in the coronation of the monarchs of Scotland, and later the monarchs of England and those of the United Kingdom. Historically, the artefact was kept at the now - ruined Scone Abbey in Scone, near Perth, Scotland. It is also known as Jacob 's Pillow Stone and the Tanist Stone, and in Scottish Gaelic, clach - na - cinneamhain. Its size is approximately 660 mm (26 in) by 425 mm (16.7 in) by 267 mm (10.5 in) and its weight is approximately 152 kg (335 lb). A roughly incised cross is on one surface, and an iron ring at each end aids with transport. The Stone of Scone was last used in 1953 for the coronation of Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. In the 14th century, the English cleric and historian Walter Hemingford described the previous location of the Scottish coronation stone as the monastery of Scone, 3km north of Perth: Apud Monasterium de Scone positus est lapis pergrandis in ecclesia Dei, juxta magnum altare, concavus quidem ad modum rotundae cathedrae confectus, in quo futuri reges loco quasi coronationis ponebantur ex more. At the monastery of Scone, in the church of God, near to the high altar, was placed a large stone, hollowed out as a round chair, on which future kings were placed for their coronation, according to custom. Various theories and legends exist about the stone 's history prior to its placement in Scone: Geologists proved that the stone taken by Edward I of England to Westminster is a "lower Old Red Sandstone '', which was quarried in the vicinity of Scone. Doubts over the authenticity of the stone have existed for a long time: a blog post by retired Scottish academic and writer of historical fiction Marie MacPherson shows that they date back at least two hundred years. A letter to the editor of the Morning Chronicle, dated 2 January 1819, states: On the 19th of November, as the servants belonging to the West Mains of Dunsinane - house, were employed in carrying away stones from the excavation made among the ruins that point out the site of Macbeth 's castle here, part of the ground they stood on suddenly gave way, and sank down about six feet, discovering a regularly built vault, about six feet long and four wide. None of the men being injured, curiosity induced them to clear out the subterranean recess, when they discovered among the ruins a large stone, weighing about 500lb (230 kg), which is pronounced to be of the meteoric or semi-metallic kind. This stone must have lain here during the long series of ages since Macbeth 's reign. Beside it were also found two round tablets, of a composition resembling bronze. On one of these two lines are engraved, which a gentleman has thus deciphered. -- ' The sconce (or shadow) of kingdom come, until Sylphs in air carry me again to Bethel. ' These plates exhibit the figures of targets for the arms. From time immemorial it has been believed among us here, that unseen hands brought Jacob 's pillow from Bethel and dropped it on the site where the palace of Scoon now stands. A strong belief is also entertained by many in this part of the country that it was only a representation of this Jacob 's pillow that Edward sent to Westminster, the sacred stone not having been found by him. The curious here, aware of such traditions, and who have viewed these venerable remains of antiquity, agree that Macbeth may, or rather must, have deposited the stone in question at the bottom of his Castle, on the hill of Dunsinane (from the trouble of the times), where it has been found by the workmen. This curious stone has been shipped for London for the inspection of the scientific amateur, in order to discover its real quality. In 1296, the stone was captured by Edward I as spoils of war and taken to Westminster Abbey, where it was fitted into a wooden chair -- known as King Edward 's Chair -- on which most subsequent English and then British sovereigns have been crowned. Edward I sought to claim his status as the "Lord Paramount '' of Scotland, with the right to oversee its King. Some doubt exists over the stone captured by Edward I. The Westminster Stone theory posits that the monks at Scone Palace hid the real stone in the River Tay, or buried it on Dunsinane Hill, and that the English troops were tricked into taking a substitute. Some proponents of the theory claim that historic descriptions of the stone do not match the present stone. In The Treaty of Northampton 1328, between the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England, England agreed to return the captured stone to Scotland; riotous crowds prevented it from being removed from Westminster Abbey. The stone remained in England for another six centuries, even after James VI of Scotland assumed the English throne as James I of England. For the next century, the Stuart kings and queens of Scotland once again sat on the stone but at their coronation as kings and queens of England. On Christmas Day 1950, a group of four Scottish students (Ian Hamilton, Gavin Vernon, Kay Matheson, and Alan Stuart) removed the stone from Westminster Abbey for return to Scotland. During the removal process, the stone broke into two pieces. After burying the greater part of the Stone in a Kent field, where they camped for a few days, they uncovered the buried stone and returned to Scotland, along with a new accomplice, John Josselyn. According to one US diplomat who was posted in Edinburgh at the time, the stone was hidden for a short time in a trunk in the basement of the Consulate 's Public Affairs Officer, unknown to him, before it was removed. Although English, Josselyn, who was then a student at the University of Glasgow, was a Scottish Nationalist. Edward I was Josselyn 's 21st great - grandfather. The smaller piece was similarly brought north at a later time. The entire stone was passed to a senior Glasgow politician, who arranged for it to be professionally repaired by Glasgow stonemason Robert Gray. A major search for the stone was ordered by the British Government, but proved unsuccessful. The custodians left the stone on the altar of Arbroath Abbey on 11 April 1951, in the safekeeping of the Church of Scotland. Once the London police were informed of its whereabouts, the stone was returned to Westminster four months after it was removed. Afterwards, rumours circulated that copies had been made of the stone, and that the returned stone was not the original. In 1996, in a symbolic response to growing dissatisfaction among Scots at the prevailing constitutional settlement, the British Government decided that the stone should be kept in Scotland when not in use at coronations. On 3 July 1996, it was announced in the House of Commons that the stone would be returned to Scotland, and on 15 November 1996, after a handover ceremony at the border between representatives of the Home Office and of the Scottish Office, it was transported to Edinburgh Castle. The stone arrived in the Castle on 30 November 1996, St Andrew 's Day, where the official handover ceremony occurred. Prince Andrew, Duke of York, representing Queen Elizabeth II, formally handed over the Royal Warrant transferring the stone into the safekeeping of the Commissioners for the Regalia. It currently remains alongside the crown jewels of Scotland, the Honours of Scotland, in the Crown Room.

state and explain the use of first law and second law of thermodynamics

Second law of thermodynamics - Wikipedia The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy can never decrease over time for an isolated system, that is, a system in which neither energy nor matter can enter nor leave. The total entropy can remain constant in ideal cases where the system is in a steady state (equilibrium), or is undergoing a reversible process. In all other real cases, the total entropy always increases and the process is irreversible. The increase in entropy accounts for the irreversibility of natural processes, and the asymmetry between future and past. Historically, the second law was an empirical finding that was accepted as an axiom of thermodynamic theory. Statistical thermodynamics, classical or quantum, explains the microscopic origin of the law. The second law has been expressed in many ways. Its first formulation is credited to the French scientist Sadi Carnot, who in 1824 showed that there is an upper limit to the efficiency of conversion of heat to work, in a heat engine. The first law of thermodynamics provides the basic definition of internal energy, associated with all thermodynamic systems, and states the rule of conservation of energy. The second law is concerned with the direction of natural processes. It asserts that a natural process runs only in one sense, and is not reversible. For example, heat always flows spontaneously from hotter to colder bodies, and never the reverse, unless external work is performed on the system. Its modern definition is in terms of entropy. Total entropy (S) can never decrease over time for an isolated system because the entropy of an isolated system spontaneously evolves toward thermodynamic equilibrium: the entropy should stay the same or increase. In a fictive reversible process, an infinitesimal increment in the entropy (dS) of a system is defined to result from an infinitesimal transfer of heat (δQ) to a closed system (which allows the entry or exit of energy - but not matter) divided by the common temperature (T) of the system and the surroundings which supply the heat: Different notations are used for infinitesimal amounts of heat (δ) and infinitesimal amounts of entropy (d) because entropy is a function of state, while heat, like work, is not. For an actually possible infinitesimal process without exchange of matter with the surroundings, the second law requires that the increment in system entropy be greater than that: This is because a general process for this case may include work being done on the system by its surroundings, which must have frictional or viscous effects inside the system, and because heat transfer actually occurs only irreversibly, driven by a finite temperature difference. The zeroth law of thermodynamics in its usual short statement allows recognition that two bodies in a relation of thermal equilibrium have the same temperature, especially that a test body has the same temperature as a reference thermometric body. For a body in thermal equilibrium with another, there are indefinitely many empirical temperature scales, in general respectively depending on the properties of a particular reference thermometric body. The second law allows a distinguished temperature scale, which defines an absolute, thermodynamic temperature, independent of the properties of any particular reference thermometric body. The second law of thermodynamics may be expressed in many specific ways, the most prominent classical statements being the statement by Rudolf Clausius (1854), the statement by Lord Kelvin (1851), and the statement in axiomatic thermodynamics by Constantin Carathéodory (1909). These statements cast the law in general physical terms citing the impossibility of certain processes. The Clausius and the Kelvin statements have been shown to be equivalent. The historical origin of the second law of thermodynamics was in Carnot 's principle. It refers to a cycle of a Carnot heat engine, fictively operated in the limiting mode of extreme slowness known as quasi-static, so that the heat and work transfers are between subsystems that are always in their own internal states of thermodynamic equilibrium. The Carnot engine is an idealized device of special interest to engineers who are concerned with the efficiency of heat engines. Carnot 's principle was recognized by Carnot at a time when the caloric theory of heat was seriously considered, before the recognition of the first law of thermodynamics, and before the mathematical expression of the concept of entropy. Interpreted in the light of the first law, it is physically equivalent to the second law of thermodynamics, and remains valid today. It states The efficiency of a quasi-static or reversible Carnot cycle depends only on the temperatures of the two heat reservoirs, and is the same, whatever the working substance. A Carnot engine operated in this way is the most efficient possible heat engine using those two temperatures. The German scientist Rudolf Clausius laid the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics in 1850 by examining the relation between heat transfer and work. His formulation of the second law, which was published in German in 1854, is known as the Clausius statement: Heat can never pass from a colder to a warmer body without some other change, connected therewith, occurring at the same time. The statement by Clausius uses the concept of ' passage of heat '. As is usual in thermodynamic discussions, this means ' net transfer of energy as heat ', and does not refer to contributory transfers one way and the other. Heat can not spontaneously flow from cold regions to hot regions without external work being performed on the system, which is evident from ordinary experience of refrigeration, for example. In a refrigerator, heat flows from cold to hot, but only when forced by an external agent, the refrigeration system. Lord Kelvin expressed the second law as Suppose there is an engine violating the Kelvin statement: i.e., one that drains heat and converts it completely into work in a cyclic fashion without any other result. Now pair it with a reversed Carnot engine as shown by the figure. The net and sole effect of this newly created engine consisting of the two engines mentioned is transferring heat Δ Q = Q (1 η − 1) (\ displaystyle \ Delta Q = Q \ left ((\ frac (1) (\ eta)) - 1 \ right)) from the cooler reservoir to the hotter one, which violates the Clausius statement. Thus a violation of the Kelvin statement implies a violation of the Clausius statement, i.e. the Clausius statement implies the Kelvin statement. We can prove in a similar manner that the Kelvin statement implies the Clausius statement, and hence the two are equivalent. Planck offered the following proposition as derived directly from experience. This is sometimes regarded as his statement of the second law, but he regarded it as a starting point for the derivation of the second law. It is almost customary in textbooks to speak of the "Kelvin - Planck statement '' of the law, as for example in the text by ter Haar and Wergeland. One text gives a statement very like Planck 's proposition, but attributes it to Kelvin without mention of Planck. One monograph quotes Planck 's proposition as the "Kelvin - Planck '' formulation, the text naming Kelvin as its author, though it correctly cites Planck in its references. The reader may compare the two statements quoted just above here. The Kelvin -- Planck statement (or the heat engine statement) of the second law of thermodynamics states that Planck stated the second law as follows. Rather like Planck 's statement is that of Uhlenbeck and Ford for irreversible phenomena. Constantin Carathéodory formulated thermodynamics on a purely mathematical axiomatic foundation. His statement of the second law is known as the Principle of Carathéodory, which may be formulated as follows: In every neighborhood of any state S of an adiabatically enclosed system there are states inaccessible from S. With this formulation, he described the concept of adiabatic accessibility for the first time and provided the foundation for a new subfield of classical thermodynamics, often called geometrical thermodynamics. It follows from Carathéodory 's principle that quantity of energy quasi-statically transferred as heat is a holonomic process function, in other words, δ Q = T d S (\ displaystyle \ delta Q = TdS). Though it is almost customary in textbooks to say that Carathéodory 's principle expresses the second law and to treat it as equivalent to the Clausius or to the Kelvin - Planck statements, such is not the case. To get all the content of the second law, Carathéodory 's principle needs to be supplemented by Planck 's principle, that isochoric work always increases the internal energy of a closed system that was initially in its own internal thermodynamic equilibrium. In 1926, Max Planck wrote an important paper on the basics of thermodynamics. He indicated the principle This formulation does not mention heat and does not mention temperature, nor even entropy, and does not necessarily implicitly rely on those concepts, but it implies the content of the second law. A closely related statement is that "Frictional pressure never does positive work. '' Using a now - obsolete form of words, Planck himself wrote: "The production of heat by friction is irreversible. '' Not mentioning entropy, this principle of Planck is stated in physical terms. It is very closely related to the Kelvin statement given just above. It is relevant that for a system at constant volume and mole numbers, the entropy is a monotonic function of the internal energy. Nevertheless, this principle of Planck is not actually Planck 's preferred statement of the second law, which is quoted above, in a previous sub-section of the present section of this present article, and relies on the concept of entropy. A statement that in a sense is complementary to Planck 's principle is made by Borgnakke and Sonntag. They do not offer it as a full statement of the second law: Differing from Planck 's just foregoing principle, this one is explicitly in terms of entropy change. Of course, removal of matter from a system can also decrease its entropy. The second law has been shown to be equivalent to the internal energy U being a weakly convex function, when written as a function of extensive properties (mass, volume, entropy,...). Before the establishment of the second law, many people who were interested in inventing a perpetual motion machine had tried to circumvent the restrictions of first law of thermodynamics by extracting the massive internal energy of the environment as the power of the machine. Such a machine is called a "perpetual motion machine of the second kind ''. The second law declared the impossibility of such machines. Carnot 's theorem (1824) is a principle that limits the maximum efficiency for any possible engine. The efficiency solely depends on the temperature difference between the hot and cold thermal reservoirs. Carnot 's theorem states: In his ideal model, the heat of caloric converted into work could be reinstated by reversing the motion of the cycle, a concept subsequently known as thermodynamic reversibility. Carnot, however, further postulated that some caloric is lost, not being converted to mechanical work. Hence, no real heat engine could realise the Carnot cycle 's reversibility and was condemned to be less efficient. Though formulated in terms of caloric (see the obsolete caloric theory), rather than entropy, this was an early insight into the second law. The Clausius theorem (1854) states that in a cyclic process The equality holds in the reversible case and the ' < ' is in the irreversible case. The reversible case is used to introduce the state function entropy. This is because in cyclic processes the variation of a state function is zero from state functionality. For an arbitrary heat engine, the efficiency is: where W is for the net work done per cycle. Thus the efficiency depends only on q / q. Carnot 's theorem states that all reversible engines operating between the same heat reservoirs are equally efficient. Thus, any reversible heat engine operating between temperatures T and T must have the same efficiency, that is to say, the efficiency is the function of temperatures only: q C q H = f (T H, T C) (2). (\ displaystyle (\ frac (q_ (C)) (q_ (H))) = f (T_ (H), T_ (C)) \ qquad (2).) In addition, a reversible heat engine operating between temperatures T and T must have the same efficiency as one consisting of two cycles, one between T and another (intermediate) temperature T, and the second between T andT. This can only be the case if Now consider the case where T 1 (\ displaystyle T_ (1)) is a fixed reference temperature: the temperature of the triple point of water. Then for any T and T, Therefore, if thermodynamic temperature is defined by then the function f, viewed as a function of thermodynamic temperature, is simply and the reference temperature T will have the value 273.16. (Of course any reference temperature and any positive numerical value could be used -- the choice here corresponds to the Kelvin scale.) According to the Clausius equality, for a reversible process That means the line integral ∫ L δ Q T (\ displaystyle \ int _ (L) (\ frac (\ delta Q) (T))) is path independent. So we can define a state function S called entropy, which satisfies With this we can only obtain the difference of entropy by integrating the above formula. To obtain the absolute value, we need the third law of thermodynamics, which states that S = 0 at absolute zero for perfect crystals. For any irreversible process, since entropy is a state function, we can always connect the initial and terminal states with an imaginary reversible process and integrating on that path to calculate the difference in entropy. Now reverse the reversible process and combine it with the said irreversible process. Applying Clausius inequality on this loop, Thus, where the equality holds if the transformation is reversible. Notice that if the process is an adiabatic process, then δ Q = 0 (\ displaystyle \ delta Q = 0), so Δ S ≥ 0 (\ displaystyle \ Delta S \ geq 0). An important and revealing idealized special case is to consider applying the Second Law to the scenario of an isolated system (called the total system or universe), made up of two parts: a sub-system of interest, and the sub-system's surroundings. These surroundings are imagined to be so large that they can be considered as an unlimited heat reservoir at temperature T and pressure P -- so that no matter how much heat is transferred to (or from) the sub-system, the temperature of the surroundings will remain T; and no matter how much the volume of the sub-system expands (or contracts), the pressure of the surroundings will remain P. Whatever changes to dS and dS occur in the entropies of the sub-system and the surroundings individually, according to the Second Law the entropy S of the isolated total system must not decrease: According to the first law of thermodynamics, the change dU in the internal energy of the sub-system is the sum of the heat δq added to the sub-system, less any work δw done by the sub-system, plus any net chemical energy entering the sub-system d ∑ μ N, so that: where μ are the chemical potentials of chemical species in the external surroundings. Now the heat leaving the reservoir and entering the sub-system is where we have first used the definition of entropy in classical thermodynamics (alternatively, in statistical thermodynamics, the relation between entropy change, temperature and absorbed heat can be derived); and then the Second Law inequality from above. It therefore follows that any net work δw done by the sub-system must obey It is useful to separate the work δw done by the subsystem into the useful work δw that can be done by the sub-system, over and beyond the work p dV done merely by the sub-system expanding against the surrounding external pressure, giving the following relation for the useful work (exergy) that can be done: It is convenient to define the right - hand - side as the exact derivative of a thermodynamic potential, called the availability or exergy E of the subsystem, The Second Law therefore implies that for any process which can be considered as divided simply into a subsystem, and an unlimited temperature and pressure reservoir with which it is in contact, i.e. the change in the subsystem 's exergy plus the useful work done by the subsystem (or, the change in the subsystem 's exergy less any work, additional to that done by the pressure reservoir, done on the system) must be less than or equal to zero. In sum, if a proper infinite - reservoir - like reference state is chosen as the system surroundings in the real world, then the Second Law predicts a decrease in E for an irreversible process and no change for a reversible process. This expression together with the associated reference state permits a design engineer working at the macroscopic scale (above the thermodynamic limit) to utilize the Second Law without directly measuring or considering entropy change in a total isolated system. (Also, see process engineer). Those changes have already been considered by the assumption that the system under consideration can reach equilibrium with the reference state without altering the reference state. An efficiency for a process or collection of processes that compares it to the reversible ideal may also be found (See second law efficiency.) This approach to the Second Law is widely utilized in engineering practice, environmental accounting, systems ecology, and other disciplines. The first theory of the conversion of heat into mechanical work is due to Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824. He was the first to realize correctly that the efficiency of this conversion depends on the difference of temperature between an engine and its environment. Recognizing the significance of James Prescott Joule 's work on the conservation of energy, Rudolf Clausius was the first to formulate the second law during 1850, in this form: heat does not flow spontaneously from cold to hot bodies. While common knowledge now, this was contrary to the caloric theory of heat popular at the time, which considered heat as a fluid. From there he was able to infer the principle of Sadi Carnot and the definition of entropy (1865). Established during the 19th century, the Kelvin - Planck statement of the Second Law says, "It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work. '' This was shown to be equivalent to the statement of Clausius. The ergodic hypothesis is also important for the Boltzmann approach. It says that, over long periods of time, the time spent in some region of the phase space of microstates with the same energy is proportional to the volume of this region, i.e. that all accessible microstates are equally probable over a long period of time. Equivalently, it says that time average and average over the statistical ensemble are the same. There is a traditional doctrine, starting with Clausius, that entropy can be understood in terms of molecular ' disorder ' within a macroscopic system. This doctrine is obsolescent. In 1856, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius stated what he called the "second fundamental theorem in the mechanical theory of heat '' in the following form: where Q is heat, T is temperature and N is the "equivalence - value '' of all uncompensated transformations involved in a cyclical process. Later, in 1865, Clausius would come to define "equivalence - value '' as entropy. On the heels of this definition, that same year, the most famous version of the second law was read in a presentation at the Philosophical Society of Zurich on April 24, in which, in the end of his presentation, Clausius concludes: The entropy of the universe tends to a maximum. This statement is the best - known phrasing of the second law. Because of the looseness of its language, e.g. universe, as well as lack of specific conditions, e.g. open, closed, or isolated, many people take this simple statement to mean that the second law of thermodynamics applies virtually to every subject imaginable. This, of course, is not true; this statement is only a simplified version of a more extended and precise description. In terms of time variation, the mathematical statement of the second law for an isolated system undergoing an arbitrary transformation is: where The equality sign applies after equilibration. An alternative way of formulating of the second law for isolated systems is: with S _̇ i (\ displaystyle (\ dot (S)) _ (i)) the sum of the rate of entropy production by all processes inside the system. The advantage of this formulation is that it shows the effect of the entropy production. The rate of entropy production is a very important concept since it determines (limits) the efficiency of thermal machines. Multiplied with ambient temperature T a (\ displaystyle T_ (a)) it gives the so - called dissipated energy P d i s s = T a S _̇ i (\ displaystyle P_ (diss) = T_ (a) (\ dot (S)) _ (i)). The expression of the second law for closed systems (so, allowing heat exchange and moving boundaries, but not exchange of matter) is: Here The equality sign holds in the case that only reversible processes take place inside the system. If irreversible processes take place (which is the case in real systems in operation) the > - sign holds. If heat is supplied to the system at several places we have to take the algebraic sum of the corresponding terms. For open systems (also allowing exchange of matter): Here S _̇ (\ displaystyle (\ dot (S))) is the flow of entropy into the system associated with the flow of matter entering the system. It should not be confused with the time derivative of the entropy. If matter is supplied at several places we have to take the algebraic sum of these contributions. Statistical mechanics gives an explanation for the second law by postulating that a material is composed of atoms and molecules which are in constant motion. A particular set of positions and velocities for each particle in the system is called a microstate of the system and because of the constant motion, the system is constantly changing its microstate. Statistical mechanics postulates that, in equilibrium, each microstate that the system might be in is equally likely to occur, and when this assumption is made, it leads directly to the conclusion that the second law must hold in a statistical sense. That is, the second law will hold on average, with a statistical variation on the order of 1 / √ N where N is the number of particles in the system. For everyday (macroscopic) situations, the probability that the second law will be violated is practically zero. However, for systems with a small number of particles, thermodynamic parameters, including the entropy, may show significant statistical deviations from that predicted by the second law. Classical thermodynamic theory does not deal with these statistical variations. The first mechanical argument of the Kinetic theory of gases that molecular collisions entail an equalization of temperatures and hence a tendency towards equilibrium was due to James Clerk Maxwell in 1860; Ludwig Boltzmann with his H - theorem of 1872 also argued that due to collisions gases should over time tend toward the Maxwell - Boltzmann distribution. Due to Loschmidt 's paradox, derivations of the Second Law have to make an assumption regarding the past, namely that the system is uncorrelated at some time in the past; this allows for simple probabilistic treatment. This assumption is usually thought as a boundary condition, and thus the second Law is ultimately a consequence of the initial conditions somewhere in the past, probably at the beginning of the universe (the Big Bang), though other scenarios have also been suggested. Given these assumptions, in statistical mechanics, the Second Law is not a postulate, rather it is a consequence of the fundamental postulate, also known as the equal prior probability postulate, so long as one is clear that simple probability arguments are applied only to the future, while for the past there are auxiliary sources of information which tell us that it was low entropy. The first part of the second law, which states that the entropy of a thermally isolated system can only increase, is a trivial consequence of the equal prior probability postulate, if we restrict the notion of the entropy to systems in thermal equilibrium. The entropy of an isolated system in thermal equilibrium containing an amount of energy of E (\ displaystyle E) is: where Ω (E) (\ displaystyle \ Omega \ left (E \ right)) is the number of quantum states in a small interval between E (\ displaystyle E) and E + δ E (\ displaystyle E+ \ delta E). Here δ E (\ displaystyle \ delta E) is a macroscopically small energy interval that is kept fixed. Strictly speaking this means that the entropy depends on the choice of δ E (\ displaystyle \ delta E). However, in the thermodynamic limit (i.e. in the limit of infinitely large system size), the specific entropy (entropy per unit volume or per unit mass) does not depend on δ E (\ displaystyle \ delta E). Suppose we have an isolated system whose macroscopic state is specified by a number of variables. These macroscopic variables can, e.g., refer to the total volume, the positions of pistons in the system, etc. Then Ω (\ displaystyle \ Omega) will depend on the values of these variables. If a variable is not fixed, (e.g. we do not clamp a piston in a certain position), then because all the accessible states are equally likely in equilibrium, the free variable in equilibrium will be such that Ω (\ displaystyle \ Omega) is maximized as that is the most probable situation in equilibrium. If the variable was initially fixed to some value then upon release and when the new equilibrium has been reached, the fact the variable will adjust itself so that Ω (\ displaystyle \ Omega) is maximized, implies that the entropy will have increased or it will have stayed the same (if the value at which the variable was fixed happened to be the equilibrium value). Suppose we start from an equilibrium situation and we suddenly remove a constraint on a variable. Then right after we do this, there are a number Ω (\ displaystyle \ Omega) of accessible microstates, but equilibrium has not yet been reached, so the actual probabilities of the system being in some accessible state are not yet equal to the prior probability of 1 / Ω (\ displaystyle 1 / \ Omega). We have already seen that in the final equilibrium state, the entropy will have increased or have stayed the same relative to the previous equilibrium state. Boltzmann 's H - theorem, however, proves that the quantity H increases monotonically as a function of time during the intermediate out of equilibrium state. The second part of the Second Law states that the entropy change of a system undergoing a reversible process is given by: where the temperature is defined as: See here for the justification for this definition. Suppose that the system has some external parameter, x, that can be changed. In general, the energy eigenstates of the system will depend on x. According to the adiabatic theorem of quantum mechanics, in the limit of an infinitely slow change of the system 's Hamiltonian, the system will stay in the same energy eigenstate and thus change its energy according to the change in energy of the energy eigenstate it is in. The generalized force, X, corresponding to the external variable x is defined such that X d x (\ displaystyle Xdx) is the work performed by the system if x is increased by an amount dx. E.g., if x is the volume, then X is the pressure. The generalized force for a system known to be in energy eigenstate E r (\ displaystyle E_ (r)) is given by: Since the system can be in any energy eigenstate within an interval of δ E (\ displaystyle \ delta E), we define the generalized force for the system as the expectation value of the above expression: To evaluate the average, we partition the Ω (E) (\ displaystyle \ Omega \ left (E \ right)) energy eigenstates by counting how many of them have a value for d E r d x (\ displaystyle (\ frac (dE_ (r)) (dx))) within a range between Y (\ displaystyle Y) and Y + δ Y (\ displaystyle Y+ \ delta Y). Calling this number Ω Y (E) (\ displaystyle \ Omega _ (Y) \ left (E \ right)), we have: The average defining the generalized force can now be written: We can relate this to the derivative of the entropy with respect to x at constant energy E as follows. Suppose we change x to x + dx. Then Ω (E) (\ displaystyle \ Omega \ left (E \ right)) will change because the energy eigenstates depend on x, causing energy eigenstates to move into or out of the range between E (\ displaystyle E) and E + δ E (\ displaystyle E+ \ delta E). Let 's focus again on the energy eigenstates for which d E r d x (\ displaystyle (\ frac (dE_ (r)) (dx))) lies within the range between Y (\ displaystyle Y) and Y + δ Y (\ displaystyle Y+ \ delta Y). Since these energy eigenstates increase in energy by Y dx, all such energy eigenstates that are in the interval ranging from E -- Y dx to E move from below E to above E. There are such energy eigenstates. If Y d x ≤ δ E (\ displaystyle Ydx \ leq \ delta E), all these energy eigenstates will move into the range between E (\ displaystyle E) and E + δ E (\ displaystyle E+ \ delta E) and contribute to an increase in Ω (\ displaystyle \ Omega). The number of energy eigenstates that move from below E + δ E (\ displaystyle E+ \ delta E) to above E + δ E (\ displaystyle E+ \ delta E) is, of course, given by N Y (E + δ E) (\ displaystyle N_ (Y) \ left (E+ \ delta E \ right)). The difference is thus the net contribution to the increase in Ω (\ displaystyle \ Omega). Note that if Y dx is larger than δ E (\ displaystyle \ delta E) there will be the energy eigenstates that move from below E to above E + δ E (\ displaystyle E+ \ delta E). They are counted in both N Y (E) (\ displaystyle N_ (Y) \ left (E \ right)) and N Y (E + δ E) (\ displaystyle N_ (Y) \ left (E+ \ delta E \ right)), therefore the above expression is also valid in that case. Expressing the above expression as a derivative with respect to E and summing over Y yields the expression: The logarithmic derivative of Ω (\ displaystyle \ Omega) with respect to x is thus given by: The first term is intensive, i.e. it does not scale with system size. In contrast, the last term scales as the inverse system size and will thus vanishes in the thermodynamic limit. We have thus found that: Combining this with Gives: If a system is in thermal contact with a heat bath at some temperature T then, in equilibrium, the probability distribution over the energy eigenvalues are given by the canonical ensemble: Here Z is a factor that normalizes the sum of all the probabilities to 1, this function is known as the partition function. We now consider an infinitesimal reversible change in the temperature and in the external parameters on which the energy levels depend. It follows from the general formula for the entropy: that Inserting the formula for P j (\ displaystyle P_ (j)) for the canonical ensemble in here gives: There are two principal ways of formulating thermodynamics, (a) through passages from one state of thermodynamic equilibrium to another, and (b) through cyclic processes, by which the system is left unchanged, while the total entropy of the surroundings is increased. These two ways help to understand the processes of life. This topic is mostly beyond the scope of this present article, but has been considered by several authors, such as Erwin Schrödinger, Léon Brillouin and Isaac Asimov. It is also the topic of current research. To a fair approximation, living organisms may be considered as examples of (b). Approximately, an animal 's physical state cycles by the day, leaving the animal nearly unchanged. Animals take in food, water, and oxygen, and, as a result of metabolism, give out breakdown products and heat. Plants take in radiative energy from the sun, which may be regarded as heat, and carbon dioxide and water. They give out oxygen. In this way they grow. Eventually they die, and their remains rot. This can be regarded as a cyclic process. Overall, the sunlight is from a high temperature source, the sun, and its energy is passed to a lower temperature sink, the soil. This is an increase of entropy of the surroundings of the plant. Thus animals and plants obey the second law of thermodynamics, considered in terms of cyclic processes. Simple concepts of efficiency of heat engines are hardly applicable to this problem because they assume closed systems. From the thermodynamic viewpoint that considers (a), passages from one equilibrium state to another, only a roughly approximate picture appears, because living organisms are never in states of thermodynamic equilibrium. Living organisms must often be considered as open systems, because they take in nutrients and give out waste products. Thermodynamics of open systems is currently often considered in terms of passages from one state of thermodynamic equilibrium to another, or in terms of flows in the approximation of local thermodynamic equilibrium. The problem for living organisms may be further simplified by the approximation of assuming a steady state with unchanging flows. General principles of entropy production for such approximations are subject to unsettled current debate or research. Nevertheless, ideas derived from this viewpoint on the second law of thermodynamics are enlightening about living creatures. In systems that do not require for their descriptions the general theory of relativity, bodies always have positive heat capacity, meaning that the temperature rises with energy. Therefore, when energy flows from a high - temperature object to a low - temperature object, the source temperature is decreased while the sink temperature is increased; hence temperature differences tend to diminish over time. This is not always the case for systems in which the gravitational force is important and the general theory of relativity is required. Such systems can spontaneously change towards uneven spread of mass and energy. This applies to the universe in large scale, and consequently it may be difficult or impossible to apply the second law to it. Beyond this, the thermodynamics of systems described by the general theory of relativity is beyond the scope of the present article. The theory of classical or equilibrium thermodynamics is idealized. A main postulate or assumption, often not even explicitly stated, is the existence of systems in their own internal states of thermodynamic equilibrium. In general, a region of space containing a physical system at a given time, that may be found in nature, is not in thermodynamic equilibrium, read in the most stringent terms. In looser terms, nothing in the entire universe is or has ever been truly in exact thermodynamic equilibrium. For purposes of physical analysis, it is often enough convenient to make an assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium. Such an assumption may rely on trial and error for its justification. If the assumption is justified, it can often be very valuable and useful because it makes available the theory of thermodynamics. Elements of the equilibrium assumption are that a system is observed to be unchanging over an indefinitely long time, and that there are so many particles in a system, that its particulate nature can be entirely ignored. Under such an equilibrium assumption, in general, there are no macroscopically detectable fluctuations. There is an exception, the case of critical states, which exhibit to the naked eye the phenomenon of critical opalescence. For laboratory studies of critical states, exceptionally long observation times are needed. In all cases, the assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium, once made, implies as a consequence that no putative candidate "fluctuation '' alters the entropy of the system. It can easily happen that a physical system exhibits internal macroscopic changes that are fast enough to invalidate the assumption of the constancy of the entropy. Or that a physical system has so few particles that the particulate nature is manifest in observable fluctuations. Then the assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium is to be abandoned. There is no unqualified general definition of entropy for non-equilibrium states. There are intermediate cases, in which the assumption of local thermodynamic equilibrium is a very good approximation, but strictly speaking it is still an approximation, not theoretically ideal. For non-equilibrium situations in general, it may be useful to consider statistical mechanical definitions of other quantities that may be conveniently called ' entropy ', but they should not be confused or conflated with thermodynamic entropy properly defined for the second law. These other quantities indeed belong to statistical mechanics, not to thermodynamics, the primary realm of the second law. Even though the applicability of the second law of thermodynamics is limited for non-equilibrium systems, the laws governing such systems are still being discussed. One of the guiding principles for systems which are far from equilibrium is the maximum entropy production principle. It states that a system away from equilibrium evolves in such a way as to maximize entropy production, given present constraints. The physics of macroscopically observable fluctuations is beyond the scope of this article. Thermodynamic Asymmetry in Time The second law of thermodynamics is a physical law that is not symmetric to reversal of the time direction. This does not conflict with notions that have been observed of the fundamental laws of physics, namely CPT symmetry, since the second law applies statistically, it is hypothesized, on time - asymmetric boundary conditions. The second law has been proposed to supply a partial explanation of the difference between moving forward and backwards in time, such as why the cause precedes the effect (the causal arrow of time). Irreversibility in thermodynamic processes is a consequence of the asymmetric character of thermodynamic operations, and not of any internally irreversible microscopic properties of the bodies. Thermodynamic operations are macroscopic external interventions imposed on the participating bodies, not derived from their internal properties. There are reputed "paradoxes '' that arise from failure to recognize this. Loschmidt 's paradox, also known as the reversibility paradox, is the objection that it should not be possible to deduce an irreversible process from the time - symmetric dynamics that describe the microscopic evolution of a macroscopic system. In the opinion of Schrödinger, "It is now quite obvious in what manner you have to reformulate the law of entropy -- or for that matter, all other irreversible statements -- so that they be capable of being derived from reversible models. You must not speak of one isolated system but at least of two, which you may for the moment consider isolated from the rest of the world, but not always from each other. '' The two systems are isolated from each other by the wall, until it is removed by the thermodynamic operation, as envisaged by the law. The thermodynamic operation is externally imposed, not subject to the reversible microscopic dynamical laws that govern the constituents of the systems. It is the cause of the irreversibility. The statement of the law in this present article complies with Schrödinger 's advice. The cause -- effect relation is logically prior to the second law, not derived from it. The Poincaré recurrence theorem considers a theoretical microscopic description of an isolated physical system. This may be considered as a model of a thermodynamic system after a thermodynamic operation has removed an internal wall. The system will, after a sufficiently long time, return to a microscopically defined state very close to the initial one. The Poincaré recurrence time is the length of time elapsed until the return. It is exceedingly long, likely longer than the life of the universe, and depends sensitively on the geometry of the wall that was removed by the thermodynamic operation. The recurrence theorem may be perceived as apparently contradicting the second law of thermodynamics. More obviously, however, it is simply a microscopic model of thermodynamic equilibrium in an isolated system formed by removal of a wall between two systems. For a typical thermodynamical system, the recurrence time is so large (many many times longer than the lifetime of the universe) that, for all practical purposes, one can not observe the recurrence. One might wish, nevertheless, to imagine that one could wait for the Poincaré recurrence, and then re-insert the wall that was removed by the thermodynamic operation. It is then evident that the appearance of irreversibility is due to the utter unpredictability of the Poincaré recurrence given only that the initial state was one of thermodynamic equilibrium, as is the case in macroscopic thermodynamics. Even if one could wait for it, one has no practical possibility of picking the right instant at which to re-insert the wall. The Poincaré recurrence theorem provides a solution to Loschmidt 's paradox. If an isolated thermodynamic system could be monitored over increasingly many multiples of the average Poincaré recurrence time, the thermodynamic behavior of the system would become invariant under time reversal. James Clerk Maxwell imagined one container divided into two parts, A and B. Both parts are filled with the same gas at equal temperatures and placed next to each other, separated by a wall. Observing the molecules on both sides, an imaginary demon guards a microscopic trapdoor in the wall. When a faster - than - average molecule from A flies towards the trapdoor, the demon opens it, and the molecule will fly from A to B. The average speed of the molecules in B will have increased while in A they will have slowed down on average. Since average molecular speed corresponds to temperature, the temperature decreases in A and increases in B, contrary to the second law of thermodynamics. One response to this question was suggested in 1929 by Leó Szilárd and later by Léon Brillouin. Szilárd pointed out that a real - life Maxwell 's demon would need to have some means of measuring molecular speed, and that the act of acquiring information would require an expenditure of energy. Maxwell 's demon repeatedly alters the permeability of the wall between A and B. It is therefore performing thermodynamic operations on a microscopic scale, not just observing ordinary spontaneous or natural macroscopic thermodynamic processes. The law that entropy always increases holds, I think, the supreme position among the laws of Nature. If someone points out to you that your pet theory of the universe is in disagreement with Maxwell 's equations -- then so much the worse for Maxwell 's equations. If it is found to be contradicted by observation -- well, these experimentalists do bungle things sometimes. But if your theory is found to be against the second law of thermodynamics I can give you no hope; there is nothing for it but to collapse in deepest humiliation. There have been nearly as many formulations of the second law as there have been discussions of it. Clausius is the author of the sibyllic utterance, "The energy of the universe is constant; the entropy of the universe tends to a maximum. '' The objectives of continuum thermomechanics stop far short of explaining the "universe '', but within that theory we may easily derive an explicit statement in some ways reminiscent of Clausius, but referring only to a modest object: an isolated body of finite size.

who used to host america's funniest home videos

America 's Funniest Home Videos - wikipedia America 's Funniest Home Videos (often simply abbreviated to AFHV or its on - air abbreviation AFV) is an American video clip television series on ABC, which features humorous homemade videos that are submitted by viewers. The most common videos feature unintentional physical comedy (arising from incidents, accidents, and mishaps), pets or children, and some staged practical jokes. Originally airing as a special in 1989, it debuted as a regular weekly series in 1990. It was hosted by Bob Saget for the 1989 special and the first eight seasons of the series incarnation, then by John Fugelsang and Daisy Fuentes for its ninth and tenth seasons. After two years of being shown as occasional specials, hosted by various actors and comedians such as D.L. Hughley and Richard Kind, ABC brought the series back on Friday nights in the summer of 2001 with new host Tom Bergeron, who has since become the series ' longest - serving host, hosting 15 seasons. Bergeron announced in 2014 that he would be departing as host of the show, and Alfonso Ribeiro took over as host in 2015. Executive produced by Vin Di Bona, Todd Thicke and Michele Nasraway, and created by Vin Di Bona, it is the longest - running primetime entertainment (non-news) program on ABC (both on the network 's current schedule and dating back to ABC 's incorporation as a television network in 1948). It is based on the Tokyo Broadcasting System program Fun TV with Kato - chan and Ken - chan, which featured a segment in which viewers were invited to send in video clips from their home movies; ABC, which owns half of the program, pays a royalty fee to the Tokyo Broadcasting System for the use of the format (although the original parent show left the air in 1992). A more similar concept in that a whole 30 - to - 45 - minute show consisted of nothing but short clips from amateur home videos with slapstick - like accidents presented by a host began broadcasting only two months after the start of Fun TV with Kato - chan and Ken - chan in Japan, under the title Pleiten, Pech und Pannen (lit., "Crashes, bad luck, and slip ups '') in Germany in March 1986, that program lasted until 2003. Contestants can send their videos in by uploading them as a digital file onto the show 's official website, AFV.com, which launched in 2012. From 2008 to 2012, viewers were able to upload their videos digitally to ABC 's website, ABC.com; after the separate website for the program went online, users trying to access the America 's Funniest Home Videos page on ABC 's website -- via the show page link on the site 's program menu -- are now automatically redirected to AFV.com and forwarded to the clip uploading process on that site. Videos can also be sent via conventional mail on VHS and other such home video formats (VHS - C, 8 mm video cassettes (to name a few)), and later as the format started to become common for home recording use in the early 2000s decade, DVD to a Hollywood, California post-office box address, with clips placed on USB flash drives and other forms of consumer flash memory formats also acceptable for physical submission as time has gone on. Due to its very low cost and universal appeal, the format has since been reproduced around the world and AFV - inspired television specials and series continue to emerge periodically in the United States. American television series inspired by AFV 's format that are not related to the series itself include The Planet 's Funniest Animals, The World 's Funniest!, The World 's Funniest Moments, Funniest Pets & People and It Only Hurts When I Laugh; however, most of the series inspired by AFV (with the minor exception of The Planet 's Funniest Animals) have not matched the success of America 's Funniest Home Videos and have not lasted as long. Several local television stations, even those not affiliated with ABC, also developed special funny home video segments in their newscasts during the early 1990s, inspired by the series. The majority of the video clips are short (5 -- 30 seconds) and are mostly related to the host 's monologues. Videos typically feature people and animals getting into humorous accidents caught on camera; while others include clever marriage proposals, people and animals displaying interesting talents (such as pets that sound like they speak certain words or phrases, or genius toddlers with the ability to name all past U.S. Presidents), and practical jokes. A group of screeners view the submitted tapes, giving them a grade (on a scale of 1 -- 10) based on that particular tape 's humor. The videos deemed the funniest by the screeners then go on to the show 's producers and then is turned over to Di Bona and another producer for final approval. Home video material that involves staged accidents, or / and adults, children, or babies getting seriously injured or the abuse of animals or overall does not meet ABC network standards and practices are generally not accepted and will not appear on the show. Every week, three of the videos seen (which are among those included in the episode) are chosen by the producers and voted on by the studio audience. The winner wins $10,000 and is in the running for the $100,000 prize at the end of a seven - or ten - show run, while the runner - up receives $3,000 and the third place video receives $2,000. In the show 's first season, the second and third prizes respectively were a new TV and VCR and a new camcorder. On the initial hour - long special, the grand prize was $5,000 with second and third places both winning a new camcorder; the producer picked the winner, with no audience voting. Periodically, beginning with the Tom Bergeron run of the series and continuing on into the Alfonso Ribiero run, the grand prize winner at each season 's final $100,000 contest will also win a free vacation package, supplied by either Adventures by Disney or Disney Vacation Club, in addition to the monetary prize. The program 's studio segments are taped in front of a studio audience (although the specials that aired in 1999 and 2000 only featured pre-recorded audience responses); audience members are asked to dress in "business casual or nicer ''. Show creator Vin Di Bona has produced two similar programs: America 's Funniest People (1990 -- 94) and World 's Funniest Videos (1996). Di Bona also created two series featuring home videos that were largely culled from those seen on AFHV and America 's Funniest People: the syndicated series That 's Funny (2004 -- 06) and the Fox Family Channel series Show Me The Funny (1998 -- 2000). Many of the clips have been used internationally in various comedy compilation programs, with changes such as dubbing and subtitling. The title of the show is usually changed and the studio segments are omitted. As noted in the closing credits of each episode, most of the videos have been edited for length due to time constraints. In addition, according to the contest plugs, family members (both immediate or relatives) of employees of Vin Di Bona Productions, ABC, Inc., its corporate parent The Walt Disney Company (and for a good portion of Saget 's hosting tenure, its legal predecessor, Capital Cities / ABC) and their related subsidiaries are ineligible for the show 's contests and prizes. On October 3, 2010, beginning with the season 21 premiere, America 's Funniest Home Videos began broadcasting in high definition. Many of the videos, which are largely shot using standard definition camcorders, began to be stretched horizontally to fit 16: 9 screens. However, since the 2012 -- 13 season, videos shot in 4: 3 standard definition began to be pillarboxed (particularly videos that are recorded on mobile devices that are shot at a vertical angle that would not even fit the 4: 3 safe area of many television sets entirely; since the conversion to HD, the series has featured advisories to viewers to tilt their mobile devices horizontally to when recording in order for their videos to fit 16: 9 screens). In 2014, all episodes of the show that were originally produced and aired in standard definition before both the season 21 premiere and the show 's initial conversion to HD capability simultaneously in 2010 and / or already airing in rerun syndication for almost over a decade or more (and still are) got stretched vertically downward with slightly re-edited graphics due to widescreen and HD broadcast capability and signals on more broadcast television stations (and cable) networks, AFV 's 25th anniversary, Tom Bergeron 's 15th and final year as host of the show, and Alfonso Ribiero 's entrance as the current host in season 26 that also included an almost - brand - new set, new version of the theme song, new graphics, and new logo among other things; while the funny video clips recorded with the use of camcorders before 2009 or the years preceding the invention of today 's mobile devices such as the iPhone or iPad (and especially the videos that were aired on episodes in the Bob Saget, John Fugelsang, Daisy Fuentes, and the early Tom Bergeron eras of AFV) continued (and still continue in the Alfonso Ribiero run of AFV) to be stretched horizontally to this day. The show debuted on November 26, 1989 as an hour - long special, produced by Vin Di Bona and Steve Paskay, with actor / comedian Bob Saget (then starring in the ABC sitcom Full House) as its host. Saget was assisted in hosting the special by actress Kellie Martin, then the star of fellow ABC series Life Goes On, a family drama which would serve as the lead - in program to AFHV for the latter show 's first four seasons. Prior to the airing of the initial special, during the fall of 1989, Vin Di Bona Productions took out ads in national magazines (such as TV Guide) asking people to send in their home videos featuring funny or amazing moments. John Ritter was Vin di Bona 's first choice as host of the program, but he proved to be unavailable. Originally intended as a one - off special, it became an unexpected hit, causing ABC to place an episode order for the show turning it into a regular weekly half - hour primetime series; it made its debut as a regular series on January 14, 1990, with Bob Saget hosting solo. Ernie Anderson served as the show 's first announcer; once Anderson became too ill to continue, Gary Owens took over as announcer in 1995 (though Anderson briefly returned until his death in 1997). Besides hosting the series, Saget also served as a member of its writing staff, alongside Todd Thicke and Bob Arnott. The success of AFHV led to a spinoff called America 's Funniest People, hosted by Saget 's Full House co-star Dave Coulier (and co-hosted by actress / producer Arleen Sorkin for the first two seasons, then model Tawny Kitaen for the final two), focusing on videos featuring people intentionally trying to be funny by doing celebrity impressions, committing pranks, and performing short amateur comedy routines, among other things. During the show 's first four seasons, America 's Funniest Home Videos aired on Sunday nights at 8: 00 p.m. Eastern Time; beginning with the fifth season, the show started the Sunday primetime lineup on ABC, airing at 7: 00 p.m. Eastern, followed by America 's Funniest People at 7: 30 p.m. Eastern as part of an hour - long block of funny home videos. Saget always ended each episode with the phrase "Keep those cameras safely rolling '', and saying something to his wife who was (implied to be) watching the show. Beginning about the middle of the first season, the show began featuring the "Assignment America '' segment, which called for a series of videos to be sent in (collected or made) pertaining to a specific theme. Another segment introduced during Saget 's tenure as host called "Backwards Classics, '' shows videos being played in reverse set to classical music. Since the show 's debut as a regular series, the show routinely includes two to three times per episode, a montage of themed videos set to a particular song, called the "Music Montage ''; classic songs (mostly from the 1950s through the 1970s, with only a few songs from the 1980s scattered in) were used during these montages in the original run of the series, though more recent pop, R&B and rock songs have been incorporated since Tom Bergeron became the show 's host. In season five, an animated sidekick was introduced named "Stretchy McGillicuddy '' (voiced by Danny Mann), who was known for trying to tease Saget and doing other crazy things. In one episode (in season five), he was shown on the two large TV monitors on both sides of the set and Bob had to turn him off with a remote. Stretchy 's catchphrase was: "Do n't get a little touchy Bob, I 'm just a little stretchy! '' The character was dropped from the show at the end of the seventh season. In 1994, ABC canceled America 's Funniest People after four seasons due to declining ratings and had to decide what to do with the Sunday night 7: 30 p.m. Eastern slot that was now left vacant. After trying out the short - lived sitcom On Our Own in the 7: 30 p.m. slot after AFHV during the 1994 -- 95 season, ABC then later chose to expand America 's Funniest Home Videos to one hour with back - to - back airings, with that week 's new episode being shown in the first half - hour, followed by a repeat from a previous season to fill the remaining time. On February 1, 1996, another spinoff of AFHV debuted called World 's Funniest Videos; which was taped at Walt Disney World in Lake Buena Vista, Florida; this series was also hosted by Coulier, along with actress Eva LaRue. Paired with a weekly version of the popular Before They Were Stars specials on Thursday nights, World 's Funniest Videos focused on funny and amazing home videos from around the world. However, due to low ratings, ABC put it on hiatus a few weeks after its debut, before cancelling the series outright after only one season and burning off the remaining episodes that summer. For Saget 's final season on AFHV, two new episodes would be shown. Numerous comedy skits were performed on the set during Saget 's tenure as host. The set consisted of a living room design (the main set, originally a three - wall design with a bay window, was remodeled for the 1992 -- 93 season as a flatter frame outline with translucent walls -- though the furniture featured on the original set remained). The beginning of each episode was tied in with a skit just before the transition was made from the introduction to Saget. This usually consisted of several actors in a fake room (usually in the upper part of the audience section or in another soundstage) pretending to get excited watching America 's Funniest Home Videos. This technique was scrapped at the end of the fifth season. Saget soon grew tired of the repetitive format and was eager to pursue other projects as a comedian, actor, and director. Producer Di Bona held him to his contract, resulting in a frustrated Saget listlessly going through the motions, constantly getting out of character, and making pointed remarks on the air during his last two seasons. Saget 's contract expired in May 1997, and he decided to leave the show afterward. However, according to Vin Di Bona, the producers felt a change (and change of hosts) was needed for AFV as a result of ABC going through a change of leadership (hence ABC 's ownership transition from Capital Cities to Disney). His former Full House castmates (except for Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen) were present in the episode prior to the $100,000 season finale (which additionally featured 3 - D skits as part of an ABC promotional gimmick week), which was his final episode. Saget returned to America 's Funniest Home Videos on two different occasions, first, to co-host a 20th anniversary special edition episode alongside Tom Bergeron, which aired on November 29, 2009 (which was four days shy of AFV 's actual 20th anniversary date of its premiere on the air on November 26, 1989); and on May 17, 2015, he made a cameo appearance at the end of Tom Bergeron 's final episode as host of AFV in Disneyland. He has yet to make his first guest appearance on Alfonso Ribiero 's AFV, which would be his third guest appearance on the show and his second guest appearance on the road or in the studio. After Saget 's departure from the series, ABC sidelined America 's Funniest Home Videos from the network 's 1997 -- 98 fall schedule, choosing to bring it back as a mid-season replacement. The show began to be alternately called AFV at this point (though the show officially continued to be titled America 's Funniest Home Videos). The series returned for season nine on January 5, 1998, with new hosts and an overhauled look. Comedian John Fugelsang and model - turned - television personality Daisy Fuentes took over as co-hosts of the show. Jess Harnell also succeeded Owens as the show 's announcer and still holds this position to this day (despite several hosting changes since). During this period, the show introduced a segment called "Bad News, Good News, '' which shows a video of an accident; then one of the hosts makes a humorous statement about the upside of what happened. This segment continued to appear occasionally until the fourth year of Tom Bergeron 's stint as host. Another notable segment was the "AFV Hall of Fame '', in which a clip is shown, and Fugelsang reveals the moment of impact (a screen that shows a still picture of that clip) that occurred in it. This segment was scrapped at the end of season ten. Another featured segment was "Who Would You Like to See... '', in which a random person is asked which celebrity they would like to see involved in a random humorous mishap, with a photo of a celebrity 's face posterized over the face of the actual person in the video. With the Sunday night 7: 00 p.m. Eastern time slot now occupied by Disney films aired as part of The Wonderful World of Disney, the show constantly changed timeslots, moving from Monday nights to Thursday nights to Saturday nights. The ratings for the show suffered during this period, and both Fuentes and Fugelsang left the show after two seasons in 1999. Their last episode -- which aired on May 6 of that year -- was taped at the House of Blues in West Hollywood, California. The only honorable mention of John Fugelsang, Daisy Fuentes, and segments showcasing their run to date was the 2 - part 300th episode AFV special in 2003 during the early years of the Bergeron run, which also showcased Saget 's run of episodes in select segments, as well. They have yet to make their first guest appearances on the road or in the studio on AFV, as they have never been invited back as guests since their final episodes as co-hosts back in 1999. In May 1999, ABC announced that it would discontinue America 's Funniest Home Videos as a regular weekly series, but the show returned occasionally as a series of specials hosted by various ABC sitcom stars including The Hughleys star D.L. Hughley and Spin City co-star Richard Kind. The show moved to a much smaller soundstage and the set featured various video screens and monitors (resembling iMac computers) placed on shelves. A special sports version of the show called AFV: The Sports Edition, that was hosted by ESPN anchor Stuart Scott, was rebroadcast every New Year 's Day and aired occasionally before NBA playoff games with a post 8: 30 p.m. Eastern Time tip - off until 2008. A special entitled America 's Funniest Home Videos: Deluxe Uncensored (which was released only on home video, and featured somewhat more risque content than that allowed on the television broadcasts) was hosted by Steve Carell and taped on the set used from the 1998 -- 99 season. These specials (except for the special sports edition) were not taped in front of a live studio audience, instead applause and laugh tracks were used during commercial bumpers and just before, during, and after video packages. In October 2000, ABC announced its decision to return America 's Funniest Home Videos as a regular weekly series, ordering 13 new episodes. On July 20, 2001, the show returned in its third format, this time with host Tom Bergeron (who was also hosting Hollywood Squares at the time). By this point, the show was expanded to full hour - long episodes, instead of two consecutive half - hour episodes. The show was now being seen on Friday nights at 8: 00 p.m. Eastern Time; however, it went on hiatus for two months due in part to the September 11 attacks and also because of ABC airing specials and trying a new Friday night lineup. That lineup was short - lived, and the show returned to the schedule in December 2001. In his earlier episodes, Bergeron used the set (with the bulky see - through iMac computers) from the AFV specials that aired in 2000, until the latter part of his first season, when a new set (with a studio audience) was introduced featuring a round video screen with several monitors. In September 2003, the show returned to its former Sunday 7: 00 p.m. Eastern timeslot, still an hour long (though special episodes occasionally aired on Friday nights until 2007). Unlike Saget, who provided voice - overs to the clips, Bergeron humorously narrated them, though he did lend his voice to some clips from time to time. The Bergeron version added new segments, such as "Tom 's Home Movies '', where his face is digitally superimposed over the face of a person in each of the videos with varying expressions shown to match the person 's reaction to their mishaps in the videos (a recurring gag referenced by Bergeron in this segment is on his superimposed head being larger than normal size), various audience participation games using funny home videos including "Head, Gut, or Groin, '' where Tom picked one or two members of the studio audience to guess whether the person in the video would be hit in the aforementioned three areas of the body in order to win an America 's Funniest Home Videos compilation DVD (since the 2012 -- 13 season, a bobblehead of Bergeron was given as the prize) and the "slo - mo gizmo '', where a video is played first at normal speed and then again at a slower speed and telestrated. Bergeron nearly always ended each episode with the phrase "If you get it on (video) tape, you could get it in cash '', which was later changed to "Upload to us. Get rich, get famous '' by the 2008 -- 09 season. While only four of the segments ("Vs. '', "The Dog / Cat Park '', "Name That Sound '', and "A Moment With... '') continue to be shown on Alfonso Ribiero 's AFV at present, the segments introduced (and still seen in reruns) during this period when Tom Bergeron hosted the show include: Starting with the 2007 -- 08 season, the series began allowing viewers to upload their funny home videos online at ABC.com, but has since the 2012 -- 13 season; launched their own website that same year in 2013 and has viewers upload their videos instead to AFV.com, in addition to sending their videos via standard mail. Except for reruns of episodes from seasons 21 and 22 that referenced uploading to ABC.com, the re-edited season 11 -- 20 episodes that used to originally reference ABC.com on the unaltered versions of the episodes now reference uploading to AFV.com. During the 2011 -- 12 season, the AFV iOS app was released on the App Store, allowing users of Apple mobile devices to record and upload videos for submission to the show; a version of the app was released for Android devices the following season. In the final six seasons of Tom Bergeron 's run as host, the show started its "Funny Since 1989 '' campaign in 2009 and had two anniversary seasons. Season 20, in 2009, had a special 20th anniversary episode that aired on November 29, 2009. The special brought back Bob Saget to AFV for the first time in 12 years as a guest. Both Saget and Bergeron ended that episode with a pinata party skit and a nod to the Star Wars lightsaber fight scenes when the credits started rolling. The pinatas resembled the looks of the two hosts. Five years later, on March 7, 2014, Bergeron announced on his Twitter account that season 25 would be his last. AFV aired a 25th Anniversary Celebrity Celebration special in February 2015. Bergeron 's final new episode from his in - studio stage home of 15 years (which was really his second to final episode) aired on May 10, 2015 (and for the final time in rerun form on ABC on September 13, 2015), and was the final (and season 25 's second) $100,000 show of his tenure and featured at different times of the episode a look back at classic and modern funny home videos that defined the show 's then - 25 - year run. Bergeron 's "real '' final new episode aired on May 17, 2015, the season finale, ending his run as host after fifteen seasons (the longest hosting tenure for the series to date). The episode -- taped on - location at Disneyland for that season 's edition of the annual "Grand Prize Spectacular '', AFV 's 25th anniversary, and the Disneyland Resort 's 60th Anniversary Diamond Celebration that began on May 22, 2015 (which has appeared in various formats since 2005, in which one of the two (formerly three) $100,000 winners from the current season wins a Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, or in earlier seasons, an Adventures by Disney vacation package) -- featured an auto - tuned montage of clips and outtakes from Bergeron 's run as host and closed with him being escorted after walking off the outdoor stage near Sleeping Beauty Castle following the grand prize presentation on a cart driven by original host Bob Saget in a special cameo appearance. ABC aired encores of this episode on two different occasions. First, on July 19, 2015 to coincide with Disneyland 's official 60th birthday on the weekend of July 17, 2015 (the actual 60th anniversary of Disneyland 's grand - opening on July 17, 1955) and again on September 20, 2015 as the network 's final episode airing, new or rerun, of AFV with Tom Bergeron and him as host signing off for the final time. Tom Bergeron made his first guest appearance in the studio on the season 26 "Grand Prize Spectacular '' finale of Alfonso Ribiero 's AFV on May 22, 2016 and played the show 's final on - air audience participation game "Who Breaks It? '' and won an Alfonso Ribiero AFV pillow and socks. On May 19, 2015, two days after Bergeron 's final episode aired, ABC announced that Alfonso Ribeiro (known for playing Carlton Banks on The Fresh Prince of Bel - Air) would take over as host of AFV beginning with the season 26 premiere on October 11, 2015. Bergeron formally introduced Ribeiro 's new role as host during the latter 's guest performance on the season 20 finale of Dancing with the Stars (Ribeiro appeared as a DWTS competitor and won the prior season). Before becoming the current host of the show, Alfonso Ribiero made his first (and final) guest appearance in the studio on a season 25 episode of AFV playing one of the show 's audience participation games with then - host Tom Bergeron called "Who 's Makin ' That Racket? ''. While some of the Tom Bergeron - era clip segments, the in - studio audience, and background parts of the Tom Bergeron - era set props remained intact and / or continued to air for Alfonso Ribeiro 's first three seasons, the stage featured a floor layout and stairway connected to a rubics - like cube with flat - screen TVs and new segments (especially for Alfonso Ribiero 's run) continued to be added and aired on the show. The Assignment America and musical montage segments that started in the Bob Saget - era and the honorable mentions segments and Disney Grand Prize Vacation Sweepstakes Contests that started in the Tom Bergeron - era also continued. In May 2017, ABC renewed AFV for a 28th season. For the start of the season, instead of leading off the night, it currently airs at 8 p.m. ET / 7 p.m. CT and was lead into at the start of the season by The Toy Box; during the holiday season, AFV will air in a ' repeat / new episode ' scheduling format. After every half of the season, the $10,000 winners from the preceding episodes are brought back to participate in a contest to win an additional $100,000. (Previously, there would be three $100,000 shows per season, after runs of shows consisting of either 5, 6, or 7 episodes. Beginning with the 24th season, the format changed to two $100,000 shows, each one after a 9 - or - 10 - episode run. This format was also used during seasons 9, 12, 13, and 14.) Two $100,000 contests air each season (the final $100,000 episode originally aired as the season finale until the 15th season, at which point it begin airing as the episode before each season 's final episode), though only one aired in the first season. America 's Funniest Home Videos became an instant hit with audiences, with the original special in November 1989 averaging a 17.7 rating and 25 share, finishing at ninth place in the Nielsen ratings that week. When it debuted as a weekly Sunday night series in January 1990, the show averaged an 18.0 rating / 27 share, finishing at 16th place. It placed within Nielsen 's Top 5 highest - rated weekly series within weeks of its debut; by March 1990, AFHV became the # 1 primetime series for a short time, causing CBS ' 60 Minutes to be unseated for the top spot in the Nielsen ratings for the first time in 12 years. Indeed there was at least one week in 1990 when America 's Funniest Home Videos, when put in the same time slot as 60 Minutes, actually beat 60 Minutes for a win in the time slot. AFHV finished the 1989 -- 90 season in the Top 10 most watched shows, with an approximate average of 38 million viewers for each episode. AFHV finished the 2009 -- 10 season in 55th place, with an approximate average of 7.52 million viewers, and finished in 69th in viewers 18 -- 49, with 2.0 / 6. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that "if you could pick a safe show that appeals to almost everyone, this might be it ''. AFV 's original theme song was "The Funny Things You Do '', composed by Dan Slider and performed by Jill Colucci, who also wrote the lyrics with Stewart Harris. This version of the song accompanied the opening and closing credits for the first seven - and - a-half seasons. This theme was reused once again for when Tom Bergeron introduced Bob Saget as well as a montage of classic videos and Saget 's first, original intro moment to the stage from the pilot episode and a latter segment (using the theme 's original lyrics) showcasing Saget 's run (during AFV 's first eight seasons) on the show in the AFV 20th anniversary special, which aired in 2009. The show 's online series of videos entitled AFV XD is noted for its use of this version of the theme song, as well as portions of the original graphics from the 1989 -- 97 seasons. During the final part of the $100,000 shows, bands as well as other artists would play the theme. Midway through Saget 's final season in 1997, the theme was revamped (as well as the graphics and animation of the show 's intro) featuring a duet of new vocals, Peter Hix (who had previously performed the theme song for America 's Funniest People) and Terry Wood. The new version was also set in a different key than the original. When AFHV returned for its ninth season with new hosts Daisy Fuentes and John Fugelsang in 1998, a completely new arrangement of "The Funny Things You Do '' made its debut. Since that time, the theme has been an instrumental (also composed by Slider) with a faster, ska / reggae beat, with the original key restored, making it sound similar to "The Impression That I Get '' by The Mighty Mighty Bosstones. An alternate version of this theme exists that is stripped of the trumpets (this version is only heard as the closing theme during the 2002 -- 03 season in ABC and broadcast syndication runs, as well as in re-edited bumpers with added video clips from that particular episode in some 2002 -- 03 season episodes in broadcast syndication). In reruns of the Fugelsang - Fuentes episodes on WGN America and later the Bergeron episodes on WGN America and ABC Family, the theme is noticeably slowed down during the show 's opening titles and commercial bumpers. For season 26, with new host Alfonso Ribeiro, a new arrangement of "The Funny Things You Do '' was introduced with that season 's premiere episode in 2015, replacing the 1998 theme after seventeen seasons. The current theme, which Slider also composed, is stylized more alike the original version with its key of that theme, as well as the additional hook of the 1998 version retained. The 1998 and 2015 themes can be heard in their entirety at the Television Production Music Museum. The two later themes used during the post-Saget era have not been released to this day, as they are reportedly being held by Vin Di Bona. "The Funny Things You Do '' was the theme song to the Australian version between 1991 and 2004. It was replaced by an instrumental version as part of a major revamp in 2005. Virtually all episodes of AFHV are, or have been, in syndication. Each period has aired separately. Until 2001, the Saget version was syndicated by 20th Television, which assumed syndication rights through its purchase of MTM Enterprises, which had syndicated the show from 1995 to 1998. Disney - ABC Domestic Television (formerly Buena Vista Television), the sister company of one of the show 's production companies ABC Productions, distributes all versions of the series. The 1989 -- 1994 Bob Saget episodes airing in off - network syndication in the Hallmark Channel from January 4, 2010 to February 25, 2010;; Nick at Nite from April 30, 2007 to October 2007 with episodes weeknights @ 9pm and 9: 30pm. The 1994 - 97 episodes on ABC Family were from September 2004 to April 2007 and aired weekends @ 11pm and 11: 30pm and Weeknights @ 12am and 12: 30am. The 1989 - 1994 episodes aired on Pax Network from October 6, 2003 to October 2, 2005 originally Monday - Thursday nights at 7pm and 7: 30pm then went to Monday - Friday nights at 11pm and 11: 30pm In the Pax airings of the Bob Saget run, when back - to - back episodes aired, the opening titles of the second episode were cut and replaced with an announcer saying "Now do n't go away, here 's more of America 's Funniest Home Videos! '' before cutting to Ernie Anderson introducing Saget. Some airings of the Saget version on Hallmark, and Nick at Nite cut the interviews with the winners, due to time constraints, because of the longer ad breaks that were not seen on U.S. broadcast television during the period that the episodes originally aired on ABC. Also, because of time constraints, some Hallmark episodes have the opening titles (as well as various portions of the show) sped up. The 1998 -- 1999 Fugelsang - Fuentes episodes aired on ABC Family from the fall of 1999 (known as Fox Family and owned by News Corporation at the time), until the fall of 2003; the 1994 -- 1997 Saget episodes also aired on the network from the fall of September 2005 to October 2010, usually on Monday through Friday mornings at 11 a.m., and Saturdays and Sundays at 10 and 10: 30 p.m. PT. The Tom Bergeron episodes aired on ABC Family on November 1, 2010 to September 2014; it usually aired three to six nights a week with episodes regularly airing at 6 p.m. ET (depending upon the night 's schedule); it had previously also ran on the network in a four - hour block on Fridays from 6 to 11 p.m. ET from 2009 to 2012. The Tom Bergeron (and until Fall 2014, Fuentes - Fugelsang) episodes have aired on WGN America since 2004. Currently, the channel still only shows the 2001 -- 09 Tom Bergeron run (now in re-edited form for HD broadcasts since Fall 2014), which airs Saturdays and on select days in 4 - hour blocks from 6 to 10 p.m. ET. Before the primetime newscast was dropped by WGN America in February 2014, the Fugelsang - Fuentes episodes aired on occasions until Fall 2014 (more frequently from 2004 to 2010, due to primetime movie overruns) when a sporting event airing on WGN - TV / Chicago that was not cleared to air on WGN America forced the preemption of its simulcast of WGN - TV 's 9 p.m. newscast outside of Chicago. Atlanta independent station WPCH - TV (channel 17; formerly the local Atlanta feed of TBS, now known as "PeachtreeTV '') aired the entire Saget run, the first (and so far, the only) channel ever to do so since the original ABC run, from 2007 to 2009. The Tom Bergeron episodes began airing in off - network syndication on September 14, 2009; WGN America also aired the off - network syndicated episodes in late night until September 2011, while alternate versions of the Bergeron (and sometimes the Fugelsang - Fuentes) episodes with the Buena Vista Television tag before the end credits aired in the evening. UpTV began airing (and currently still airs) reruns of the 2001 -- 15 Tom Bergeron - era episodes of AFV in (and since) 2016. Months ahead of and in preparation for AFV 's 25th anniversary and Tom Bergeron 's 15th and final season as host of AFV in season 25, since August 2014, the 2001 -- 2010 Tom Bergeron episodes from past seasons for its syndication rerun airings were re-edited to make them more HD friendly and rid the episodes of "some '' of their outdated promo, contest sweepstakes, and sponsorship references that may no longer be valid. Evidence of the re-editing can be seen when the picture zooms back to its original standard - definition format during the end credits (on WGN America and UpTV only) with the colored bars utilizing the show 's different background color schemes from past seasons on the left and right sides of screens. The 2009 -- 2015 Tom Bergeron episodes with a re-edited season 20 package began airing for the first time ever in syndication on TBS on September 15, 2014. On October 3, 2016, some episodes from the 2001 -- 2009 Tom Bergeron - era syndication package that were already airing in reruns on other cable networks for over a decade had finally became part of TBS ' early - morning line - up of AFV reruns. Like the initial ABC airings, while the syndicated episodes continue to use all of the different color and logo variations of the ABC Entertainment and Vin Di Bona Productions tags before or after the end credits, depending on the station or cable networks, they have not shown the Buena Vista Television or even the ABC Studios or Disney / ABC Domestic Television distribution tags since Fall 2014. Broadcast syndication airings of the Bergeron - era episodes have censored instances of nudity involving young children, which were uncensored in the original ABC broadcasts. Outside the United States, family - oriented Canadian cable channel YTV has aired AFV on Saturday nights since September 2009. Canadian broadcaster yesTV, with CHEK - DT in British Columbia, also began airing a simulcast of AFV episodes on Sundays at 7 p.m. local time, as it airs on ABC in the U.S. (but factoring simultaneous substitution), starting from season 25, City and its sister network Omni Television was the previous broadcaster in Canada since the Spring of 2010. It also airs on Fox8 in Australia. ABC, Shout! Factory, and Slingshot Entertainment have released numerous compilation releases of America 's Funniest Home Videos on VHS and DVD in Region 1 (North America). Parker Brothers released a board game in 1990. Graphix Zone released a hybrid CD - ROM titled America 's Funniest Home Videos: Lights! Camera! InterAction! in 1995. Imagination Games released a DVD game in 2007. An America 's Funniest Home Videos micro movie viewer was released in 1990.

where did the menendez brothers live in beverly hills

Lyle and Erik Menéndez - wikipedia Joseph Lyle Menéndez (born January 10, 1968) and Erik Galen Menéndez (born November 27, 1970) are American brothers from Beverly Hills, California, who were convicted in a high - profile trial in 1994 for the 1989 murder by shotgun of their wealthy parents, entertainment executive José and his wife, Mary ("Kitty ''). During the trial, the brothers claimed that the murders stemmed from years of sexual and psychological abuse that they had suffered at the hands of their parents. The juries deadlocked in both trials, but in their retrials, the juries both rejected the defense 's claim. The brothers received the sentence of life imprisonment without the possibility of parole. The Menéndez brothers ' father, José Enrique Menéndez, was born in Havana, Cuba, and moved to the United States when he was 16, following the upheaval of the Cuban Revolution. While attending Southern Illinois University, he met Mary Louise "Kitty '' Andersen. The two married in 1963 and moved to New York City, where José earned a degree in accounting at Queens College. The couple had two sons. Joseph Lyle Menéndez, who went by his middle name, was born in New York City on January 10, 1968. Erik was born on November 27, 1970, in Gloucester Township, New Jersey. Kitty quit her job teaching after Lyle was born. In New Jersey, both brothers attended Princeton Day School. José 's career as a corporate executive took the family to Calabasas, California, where the boys spent their adolescence. In 1987 Erik attended high school in Calabasas, earning average grades but showing a remarkable talent for tennis, as did Lyle. Lyle attended Princeton University but was placed on academic probation for poor grades and discipline, and he was later suspended for a year after allegations of plagiarism surfaced during his freshman year. In interviews that they gave in 2017, the brothers stated that their father sexually molested them when they were young, saying that they had shared this information with a friend when they were 10. On August 20, 1989, Lyle and Erik were 21 and 18, respectively. The murders occurred that evening in the den of the family 's home in Beverly Hills, at 722 North Elm Drive. José and Kitty were tired that summer evening because the family had been shark fishing on a chartered yacht, Motion Picture Marine, until midnight the previous day. With Lyle and Erik out for the evening, José and Kitty went into their den to watch the James Bond movie The Spy Who Loved Me. Neighbors later reported hearing loud bangs around 10 p.m but dismissed them as nothing to be concerned about, as they thought that local kids were playing with firecrackers. José was shot point - blank in the back of the head with a Mossberg 12 - gauge shotgun. Kitty, awakened by the shots, got up from the couch and ran for the hallway but was shot in the leg. She slipped in her own blood and fell and was then shot several times in the arm, chest, and face, leaving her unrecognizable. Both José and Kitty were then shot in the kneecap, in an attempt to make the murders appear related to organized crime. The brothers then drove away and dumped their shotguns on Mulholland Drive. They later told police they had left home that evening to see the new James Bond movie, Licence to Kill, but since the lines were too long, they saw Batman instead. Afterwards, they said, they went to the annual "Taste of L.A. '' festival at the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium. At 11: 47 p.m., when the brothers returned home, Lyle telephoned 9 - 1 - 1 and cried, "Somebody killed my parents! '' The police considered the brothers to be suspects, but they did not have any evidence, and they did not order the brothers to undergo gunshot residue tests to learn whether they had recently used a firearm. During their trial, Erik said he spotted a shotgun shell that they had left on the floor and removed it while the policeman who was talking to him looked away. Security at the home had been good. The Mediterranean mansion was rented previously to musicians Prince as well as Elton John. José frequently left the alarm system off and the gates open, even after his Mercedes - Benz 560SEL was stolen from the front semicircular driveway of the house, just weeks before the murders. Kitty, on the other hand, was agitated in the time just prior to the murders and was constantly locking her bedroom door at night and keeping a rifle in her wardrobe. During the months after the murders, the brothers spent money lavishly, which added to investigators ' suspicions that they had been involved with their parents ' deaths. Lyle bought an expensive Rolex watch, a Porsche Carrera, and Chuck 's Spring Street Cafe, a Buffalo wings restaurant in Princeton, New Jersey. Erik also hired a full - time tennis coach and competed in a series of pro tournaments in Israel. They left the North Elm Drive mansion unoccupied and lived in two separate penthouse apartments in nearby Marina del Rey. They drove around Los Angeles in their late mother 's Mercedes - Benz SL convertible, dined expensively and went on overseas trips to the Caribbean and to London. Prosecutors later alleged that the brothers spent about $1 million during their first six months as orphans. Erik confessed the murders to his psychologist, Dr. Oziel, who told his mistress about the killings after he was threatened by Lyle. After Oziel broke up with his mistress and returned to his wife, his ex-mistress, in a fit of rage, told the police. Lyle was arrested near the mansion on March 8, 1990 after police received information that he was preparing to flee California. Erik, who was then in Israel, surrendered himself three days later upon returning to Los Angeles. Both were remanded without bail and they were separated from each other. In August 1990, Judge James Albrecht ruled that the tapes of conversations between Erik and his psychologist would be admissible because Lyle had voided doctor -- patient privilege by threatening physical harm against Oziel. That ruling was appealed, delaying the proceedings for two years. After the ruling was initially overturned on appeal, the Supreme Court of California declared in August 1992 that several tapes were admissible but not the tape on which Erik discussed the murders. That finally allowed a Los Angeles County grand jury to issue indictments in December 1992 on charges that the brothers had murdered their parents. The Menéndez brothers and the murder of their parents became a national sensation when Court TV broadcast the trial in 1993. The younger brother 's defense attorney, Leslie Abramson, became famous with her flamboyant defense, alleging that the brothers were driven to murder by a lifetime of abuse at the hands of their parents, including sexual abuse at the hands of their father, who was described as a cruel, callous perfectionist and a pedophile and Kitty was portrayed as a selfish, mentally - unstable alcoholic and drug addict, who had enabled her husband 's abuse and was also sometimes violent towards them. However, the brothers ' lack of a past criminal history contrasted the "escape from parental abuse '' theory. The trial ended with two deadlocked juries. The voting jurors went along sex lines as the brothers ' female lawyers went to considerable lengths to divide the jurors by sex, as men on the both juries voted for a conviction, while female jurors refused to accept their findings. Los Angeles County District Attorney Gil Garcetti announced immediately that the brothers would be retried. The second trial was somewhat less publicized, partly because Judge Stanley Weisberg refused to allow cameras in the courtroom. Both brothers were convicted of two counts of first - degree murder and conspiracy to commit murder. In the penalty phase of the trial, the jury did not endorse death sentences for the brothers but returned recommendations of life in prison. The jury later said that the abuse defense was never a factor in its deliberations and that it rejected the death penalty because neither brother had a felony record or a history of violence. Unlike the juries in the previous trials, the jury in the penalty phase unanimously rejected the defense 's theory that the brothers killed their parents out of fear. It believed that the brothers had committed the murders with the intent to gain control over their father 's considerable wealth. On July 2, 1996, Judge Weisberg sentenced the two to life in prison without the possibility of parole. Judge Weisberg sentenced the brothers to consecutive sentences for the murders and the charge of conspiracy to commit murder. As had been done during their pretrial detention, the California Department of Corrections separated the Menéndez brothers and sent them to different prisons. Both brothers were classified as maximum - security inmates and were segregated from other prisoners. During the penalty phase of their murder trial, defense lawyer Abramson allegedly directed a defense witness, Dr. William Vicary, to alter his notes, but the district attorney 's office decided that it would not investigate the infraction. Both brothers filed motions for a mistrial, claiming that they suffered irreparable damage in the penalty phase as a result of suggestions of possible misconduct and ineffective representation by Abramson. On February 27, 1998, the California Court of Appeals upheld the murder convictions, and on May 28, 1998, the Supreme Court of California voted to uphold the murder convictions and the life - without - parole sentences, with none of the Supreme Court justices voting to review the case. Both brothers filed habeas corpus petitions with the Supreme Court of California, which were denied in 1999. Having exhausted their appeal remedies in state court, the brothers filed separate habeas corpus petitions in the United States District Court. On March 4, 2003, a magistrate judge recommended the denial of the petitions. The district court adopted recommendation. The brothers then appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. On September 7, 2005, a three - judge panel issued their ruling affirming the denial of both brothers ' petitions for habeas corpus. Since entering prison, both brothers have married even though California does not allow conjugal visits for those convicted of murder or for those serving life sentences. On July 2, 1996, Lyle married longtime pen pal Anna Eriksson, a former model, in a ceremony attended by Abramson and Lyle 's aunt, Marta Menéndez, and presided over by Judge Nancy Brown. The two were divorced on April 1, 2001 after Eriksson reportedly discovered that Lyle was "cheating '' on her by writing to another woman. In November 2003, Lyle, then 35, married Rebecca Sneed, a 33 - year - old magazine editor from Sacramento, at a ceremony in a supermax prison visiting area of Mule Creek State Prison. Lyle and Rebecca had reportedly known each other for about ten years prior to their engagement. In 1997, Erik was reportedly married in a telephone ceremony at Folsom State Prison. In June 1999, Erik, 28, married Tammi Ruth Saccoman, 37, at Folsom State Prison in a prison waiting room. Tammi later stated, "Our wedding cake was a Twinkie. We improvised. It was a wonderful ceremony until I had to leave. That was a very lonely night. '' In an interview with ABC News in October 2005, she described her relationship with Erik as "something that I 've dreamed about for a long time. And it 's just something very special that I never thought that I would ever have. '' In 2005, Tammi also self - published a book, They Said We 'd Never Make It -- My Life With Erik Menéndez, but she said on Larry King Live that Erik "did a lot of editing on the book. '' In a 2005 interview with People magazine, she stated, "Not having sex in my life is difficult, but it 's not a problem for me. I have to be physically detached, and I 'm emotionally attached to Erik... My family does not understand. When it started to get serious, some of them just threw up their hands. '' Tammi also noted that she and her 10 - year - old daughter drive the 150 miles (240 km) every weekend to see Erik, and her daughter refers to him as her "Earth Dad. '' Regarding his sentence of life in prison without the possibility of parole, Erik has stated: "Tammi is what gets me through. I ca n't think about the sentence. When I do, I do it with a great sadness and a primal fear. I break into a cold sweat. It 's so frightening I just have n't come to terms with it. '' As of 2017, both men are incarcerated in the California state prison system. Lyle is housed at Mule Creek State Prison in Ione. Erik is housed at the Richard J. Donovan Correctional Facility in San Diego. Under the terms of the sentences for their multiple crimes, the brothers are expected to spend the remainder of their lives behind bars. According to Erik, on the same Larry King Live episode, he and his older brother have not spoken to each other for more than ten years. In 2010, A&E released a documentary on Tammi, Mrs. Menéndez. The Menéndez brothers were recently featured in a 2017 documentary titled Truth and Lies: The Menéndez Brothers -- American Sons, American Murderers on ABC, as well as on an episode of Snapped in 2016. The murder is the subject of multiple docudramas, including the forthcoming Lifetime movie Menendez: Blood Brothers, and the 1994 television film Menendez: A Killing in Beverly Hills. The media hype surrounding the first trial was parodied in the 1996 dark comedy film The Cable Guy. The Menéndez brothers were also the subject of the weekly satire podcast The Last Podcast on the Left in 2016. They were also depicted in the film Natural Born Killers. Their story has been retold in a Lifetime movie. In an episode of NBC 's 30 Rock titled "Gavin Volure '', Tracy Jordan is worried that his children are going to "Menendez '' him because they are acting strangely, going as far as to use a Japanese sex doll of his likeness to fool his children, and eventually, Gavin Volure in the episode 's conclusion; in another episode ("Nothing Left to Lose ''), main character Jenna Maroney is revealed to have a tattoo on her forearm that says "Free Lyle Menendez. '' In an episode of ABC 's Fresh off the Boat, the topic of the Menéndez brothers and how they "did n't get away with it '' came up while Jessica was talking to Evan about going to St. Orlando private school. In his 2008 stand - up comedy show It 's Bad For Ya, George Carlin makes a brief allusion to the Menéndez brothers, in a segment intended to debunk the idea that after death parents can somehow help their children spiritually in their various endeavours, which he presents as unrealistic and illogical, saying: "Suppose you kill your parents... would they help you? I 'll guarantee you Mr. and Mrs. Menéndez are not helping those two boys! '' The Law & Order season 1 episode 19 "The Serpent 's Tooth '' is also based on the case. Law & Order True Crime: The Menéndez Murders, is set to air on Tuesdays in the Fall of 2017 on NBC.

what did the fera do in the new deal

Federal Emergency Relief Administration - wikipedia The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) was the new name given by the Roosevelt Administration to the Emergency Relief Administration (ERA) which President Franklin Delano Roosevelt had created in 1933. FERA was established as a result of the Federal Emergency Relief Act and was replaced in 1935 by the Works Progress Administration (WPA). Prior to 1933, the federal government gave loans to the states to operate relief programs. One of these, the New York state program TERA (Temporary Emergency Relief Administration), was set up in 1931 and headed by Harry Hopkins, a close adviser to Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt asked Congress to set up FERA -- which gave grants to the states for the same purpose -- in May 1933, and appointed Hopkins to head it. Along with the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) it was the first relief operation under the New Deal. FERA 's main goal was to alleviate household unemployment by creating new unskilled jobs in local and state government. Jobs were more expensive than direct cash payments (called "the dole ''), but were psychologically more beneficial to the unemployed, who wanted any sort of job, for self - esteem, to play the role of male breadwinner. From May 1933 until it closed in December 1935, FERA gave states and localities $3.1 billion (the equivalent of $5.54 billion in 2017). FERA provided work for over 20 million people and developed facilities on public lands across the country. Faced with continued high unemployment and concerns for public welfare during the coming winter of 1933 -- 34, FERA instituted the Civil Works Administration (CWA) as a $400 million short - term measure to get people to work. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration was shut down in 1935 and its work taken over by two completely new federal agencies, the Works Progress Administration and the Social Security Administration FERA operated a wide variety of work - relief projects, including construction, projects for professionals (e.g., writers, artists, actors, and musicians), and production of consumer goods. Workers ' education, a form of adult education, emphasized the study of economic and social problems from the workers ' perspective. When the FERA created its adult education program in 1933, workers ' education classes were included. Between 1933 and 1943, 36 experiment programs in workers ' education were launched, 17 of them lasting over ten years. With as many as two thousand teachers employed at one time, officials conservatively estimated that the program reached at least one million workers nationwide until it was ended in World War II. Three distinct phases of a federal workers ' education program existed: FERA (1933 -- 1935), Works Progress Administration (WPA -- prior to separation from the other adult education programs, 1935 -- 1939), and WPA Workers ' Service Program (1939 -- 1943). FERA and WPA workers ' education stimulated educational activities within the labor movement. For example, in Indiana this program was particularly popular among the new, more radical CIO unions. Federal workers ' education activities also encouraged union - university cooperation and laid the foundation for labor education at Indiana University. New Dealers designed the WPA Workers ' Service Program as the model for a Federal Labor Extension Service, similar to the existing federal agricultural extension program, but it was never implemented. Ellen Sullivan Woodward was director of women 's work for FERA and CWA. During the short lifespan of the CWA, Woodward placed women in such civil works projects as sanitation surveys, highway and park beautification, public building renovation, public records surveys, and museum development. Most were unemployed white collar clerical workers. In July 1934, the FERA established a separate division for professional and nonconstruction projects. Project designers in the division for professional projects faced an enormous challenge in creating effective and meaningful work for unskilled women. In 1935 she became assistant administrator of the Works Progress Administration, where she directed the income - earning projects of some 500,000 women. Poor people lacked enough food in the Depression, and farmers had too much. The mismatch was solved by the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC), FERA, and WPA programs which aimed to reduce farm surpluses by government purchase and then redistribution of food to the needy. Three methods of distribution were employed with varying success: direct distribution, food stamps, and school lunches. Mullins (1999) examines the hesitant relief efforts of Oklahoma City residents during the early years of the Depression, 1930 -- 35, under Governor William H. Murray, emphasizing the community 's reluctance to comply with FERA rules. Fearing that aid recipients would become dependent on their assistance, Oklahoma City administrators sparingly doled out federal and local relief funds; city leaders initiated a campaign to discourage migration into the city; local newspapers failed to print the location of soup lines; voters rejected a bond issue to bolster relief funds; and the city council declined to increase taxes to boost its depression relief budget. At issue was the control over FERA distribution imposed by Governor Murray, and lawmakers ' reluctance to meet federal funding match assessments, despite a budget surplus in Oklahoma City and sufficient state funds to reduce property taxes. Although he criticized the welfare bureaucracy, Murray championed the state 's yeoman farmers and took credit for the food, seed, and books that they received from federal funds. New Deal administrators ultimately removed Murray from his oversight role, charging corruption in aid distribution, failure to meet employment quotas, and the inability to determine local funding needs. In Nebraska, Democratic Governor Charles W. Bryan (brother of William Jennings Bryan and the party 's Vice President nominee in 1924) was at first unwilling to request aid from the Hoover administration. When Roosevelt 's FERA became law in 1933 Nebraska took part. Rowland Haynes, the state 's emergency relief director, was the major force in implementing such national programs as the FERA and CWA. Robert L. Cochran, who became governor in 1935, was a "cautious progressive '' who sought federal assistance and placed Nebraska among the first American states to adopt a social security law. The enduring impact of FERA and social security in Nebraska was to shift responsibility for social welfare from counties to the state, which henceforth accepted federal funding and guidelines. The change in state and national relations may have been the most important legacy of these New Deal programs in Nebraska. FERA made welfare payments to Southern tenant farmers 1933 - 35, with the distribution of money across states and counties was strongly influenced by state governments and the influential planter class. Their interests rested mainly in not allowing federal welfare to undermine their authority and the economic structure that favored landowners. Tenant farmers, however, exerted significant counterpressure by organizing the Southern Tenant Farmers Union and the Alabama Sharecroppers ' Union under the auspices of the Socialist Party and the Communist Party. The unions agitated for welfare assistance, and their events and campaigns drew national publicity. While tenant farmers remained terribly disadvantaged politically, their collective efforts improved matters substantially in areas where their organizations were strongest. Julius Stone, Jr., changed the economic direction of Key West, Florida, when he was the director of the southeast region of FERA. In 1934, Key West went bankrupt and state turned the city over to the FERA in a dubious constitutional move. Within two years, Stone had reversed the economic disaster and successfully moved the city into tourism.

where does the double bass sit in the orchestra

String section - wikipedia The string section is the largest body of a single instrument category in the standard Classical orchestra. It normally consists of the first violins, the second violins, the violas, the cellos, and the double basses (or basses). The first and second violinists play the same types of instruments; the difference between the two sections is in the types of musical lines that are typically given to each section. The first violins are generally given the melody or higher - pitch musical lines, whereas the second violins generally play a part that is lower in pitch than the first violins. The second violins may play a harmony part, a countermelody or an accompaniment passage. In discussions of the instrumentation of a musical work, the phrase "the strings '' or "and strings '' is used to indicate a string section as just defined. An orchestra consisting solely of a string section is called a string orchestra. Smaller string sections are used in jazz, pop and rock music arrangements and in musical theatre pit orchestras. The most common seating arrangement in the 2000s is with first violins, second violins, violas and cello sections arrayed clockwise around the conductor, with basses behind the cellos on the right. The first violins are led by the concertmaster (leader in the UK); each of the other string sections also has a principal player (principal second violin, principal viola, principal cello and principal bass) who play the orchestral solos for the section, lead entrances and, in some cases, determine the bowings for the section (the concertmaster / leader may set the bowings for all strings, or just for the upper strings). The principal string players sit at the front of their section, closest to the conductor and on the row of performers which is closest to the audience. In the 19th century it was standard to have the first and second violins on opposite sides (violin I, cello, viola, violin II), rendering obvious the crossing of their parts in, for example, the opening of the finale to Tchaikovsky 's Sixth Symphony. If space or numbers are limited, cellos and basses can be put in the middle, violins and violas on the left (thus facing the audience) and winds to the right; this is the usual arrangement in orchestra pits. The seating may also be specified by the composer, as in Béla Bartók 's Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta, which uses antiphonal string sections, one on each side of the stage. In some cases, due to space constraints (as with an opera pit orchestra) or other issues, a different layout may be used. In a typical stage set - up, the first and second violins, violas and cellos are seated by twos, a pair of performers sharing a stand being called a "desk '', Each principal (or section leader) is usually on the "outside '' of the first desk, that is, closest to the audience. When the music calls for subdivision of the players the normal procedure for such divisi passages is that the "outside '' player of the desk (the one closer to the audience) takes the upper part, the "inside '' player the lower, but it is also possible to divide by alternating desks, the favored method in threefold divisi. The "inside '' player typically turns the pages of the part, while the "outside '' player continues playing. In cases where a page turn occurs during an essential musical part, modern performers may photocopy some of the music to enable the page turn to take place during a less important place in the music. There are more variations of set - up with the double bass section, depending on the size of the section and the size of the stage. The basses are commonly arranged in an arc behind the cellos, either standing or sitting on high stools, usually with two players sharing a stand; though occasionally, due to the large width of the instrument, it is found easier for each player to have their own stand. There are not usually as many basses as cellos, so they are either in one row, or for a larger section, in two rows, with the second row behind the first. In some orchestras, some or all of the string sections may be placed on wooden risers, which are platforms that elevate the performers. The size of a string section may be expressed with a formula of the type (for example) 10 - 10 - 8 - 10 - 6, designating the number of first violins, second violins, violas, cellos, and basses. The numbers can vary widely: Wagner in Die Walküre specifies 16 - 16 - 12 - 12 - 8; the band orchestra in Darius Milhaud 's La création du monde is 1 - 1 - 0 - 1 - 1. In general, music from the Baroque music era (ca. 1600 - 1750) and the Classical music period (ca. 1720 - 1800) used (and is often played in the modern era with) smaller string sections. During the Romantic music era (ca. 1800 - 1910), string sections were significantly enlarged to produce a louder, fuller string sound that could match the loudness of the large brass instrument sections used in orchestral music from this period. During the contemporary music era, some composers requested smaller string sections. In some regional orchestras, amateur orchestras and youth orchestras, the string sections may be relatively small, due to the challenges of finding enough string players. The music for a string section is not necessarily written in five parts; besides the variants discussed below, in classical orchestras the ' quintet ' is often called a ' quartet ', with basses and cellos playing together. The role of the double - bass section evolved considerably during the 19th century. In orchestral works from the classical era, the bass and cello would typically play from the same part, labelled "Bassi ''. Given the pitch range of the instruments, this means that if a double bassist and a cellist read the same part, the double bass player would be doubling the cello part an octave lower. While passages for cellos alone (marked "senza bassi '') are common in Mozart and Haydn, independent parts for both instruments become frequent in Beethoven and Rossini and common in later works of Verdi and Wagner. In Haydn 's oratorio The Creation, the music to which God tells the newly created beasts to be fruitful and multiply achieves a rich, dark tone by its setting for divided viola and cello sections with violins omitted. Famous works without violins include the 6th of the Brandenburg Concerti by Bach, Second Serenade of Brahms, the opening movement of Brahms 's Ein Deutsches Requiem, Andrew Lloyd Webber 's Requiem, and Philip Glass 's opera Akhnaten. Fauré 's original versions of his Requiem and Cantique de Jean Racine were without violin parts, there being parts for 1st and 2nd viola, and for 1st and 2nd cello; though optional violin parts were added later by publishers. Handel often wrote works for strings without violas: for example many of his Chandos Anthems. Mozart 's masses and offertories written for the Salzburg cathedral routinely dispensed with violas, as did his dances. Leonard Bernstein omitted violas from West Side Story. Stravinsky 's Symphony of Psalms has no parts for violins or violas. Richard Strauss ' Elektra (1909) and Josephslegende, and some of George Handel 's coronation anthems, are notable examples of the violins being divided threefold. "String section '' is also used to describe a group of bowed string instruments used in rock, pop, jazz and commercial music. In this context the size and composition of the string section is less standardised, and usually smaller, than a classical complement.

who played the devil in storm of the century

Storm of the Century - wikipedia Storm of the Century, alternatively known as Stephen King 's Storm of the Century, is a 1999 horror TV miniseries written by Stephen King and directed by Craig R. Baxley. Unlike many other King mini-series, Storm of the Century was not based upon a Stephen King novel -- King wrote it as a screenplay from the beginning. The screenplay was published in February 1999. A very powerful blizzard hits the fictional small town of Little Tall Island (also the setting of King 's novel Dolores Claiborne) off the coast of Maine. The storm is so powerful that all access off the island is blocked, and no one is able to leave the island until the storm is over. While trying to deal with the storm, tragedy strikes when one of the town 's residents is brutally murdered by André Linoge (Colm Feore), a menacing stranger who appears to know the town members ' darkest secrets, and who gives no hint of his motives other than the cryptic statement "Give me what I want, and I 'll go away. '' Linoge is imprisoned in the town 's holding cell by part - time constable Michael Anderson (Timothy Daly), but he uses his various abilities to affect the town, driving people to commit suicides and inflict terrifying dreams. After walking from his cell, Linoge 's campaign of terror culminates in an enchantment that places all eight of the town 's small children into unconsciousness. While looking for Linoge, Mike notices his name is an anagram for Legion, a collective group of demons mentioned in the Gospel of Mark and Gospel of Luke, having been exorcised by Jesus and cast into a herd of swine. Linoge eventually calls a town meeting, and it is here that Linoge states he desires one of the eight children he has enchanted. He reveals his true form (an impossibly ancient, dying man), explaining that he is not immortal, and needs someone to carry on his "work. '' He states that he can not simply take the child he desires, but he can punish. If they refuse, he threatens to force them to march into the sea two - by - two, as he claims to have done at Roanoke Island, North Carolina, centuries before. With his demands set, he leaves them with half an hour to make their decision. Although Mike begs the town to refuse Linoge 's request, appealing to their common decency and the fact that they may be aiding in a great evil, all of the townspeople except him vote to give Linoge what he desires. Linoge has one parent of each child draw one of eight "weirding stones, '' with Mike 's wife Molly drawing the black. Contemptuously thanking the town, Linoge transforms into his true form and suggests that the less they say to the outside world about the events with him, the happier they will be. With a final remark to Molly that Ralph will eventually come to call him "father '', Linoge flies off into the night with his new protégé. Most of the film 's epilogue is narrated by Mike, as he explains how he leaves Little Tall the following summer. Unable to live with those who sacrificed his child, Mike divorces Molly and settles in San Francisco as a US Marshal. Nine years after the storm, Mike notices an old man and a teenage boy walking by, humming Linoge 's favorite tune "I 'm a little teapot ''. He calls out to the boy, realizing it is his son, now corrupted by Linoge. He chases after them into an alley, but they are gone. Mike considers telling Molly about what he saw, but ultimately decides against it, sometimes thinking that was the wrong decision, "but in daylight, I know better. '' The screenplay for the miniseries was written by Stephen King expressly for television, and was published by Pocket Books just prior to the initial airing of Storm of the Century on ABC, while the mass market edition of the screenplay was published only as a trade paperback. A hardcover edition was published concurrently by the Book of the Month Club. The book contains an introduction in which King describes the genesis of the idea as it occurred to him in late 1996, beginning to write it in December 1996, and debating the format the story should take, either a novel or a screenplay, ending up writing a "novel for television ''. Storm of the Century aired on ABC on February 14 -- 18, 1999. It was released on DVD on June 22 the same year. The miniseries was well received by critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes counts six positive out of eight reviews. U.S. Television Ratings: (millions)

when did isle of capri lake charles open

Isle of Capri Casinos - Wikipedia Isle of Capri Casinos, Inc. was a gaming company headquartered in Creve Coeur, Missouri in Greater St. Louis which operates casinos and associated entertainment and lodging facilities in the United States. It operated 15 casinos in seven states across the U.S., Isle of Capri properties have nearly 13 million visitors each year. These properties have a total of about 14,000 slot machines, 350 table games, 2,300 hotel rooms; and three dozen restaurants. The company was founded in 1990 by Bernard Goldstein as Kana Corporation. In April 1992, it was renamed Anubis II Corporation. In June 1992, it was renamed again to Casino America, Inc. and began trading on the NASDQ under the ticker symbol CSNO. In 1995 it announced a move to trade to the New York Stock Exchange but that did not happen. In September 1998, it became Isle of Capri Casinos, Inc. and changed its ticker symbol to "ISLE. '' The company opened its first casino on August 1, 1992 as a publicly traded corporation. Goldstein was known as the "grandfather of riverboat gaming since he owned the first riverboat casino to sail on the Mississippi River. Goldstein 's first casino operations were in the Quad City area of Iowa and Illinois, where Goldstein operated the riverboats Diamond Lady and the Emerald Lady under the corporate name Steamboat Casino Cruises. The two boats, which sailed from Bettendorf, Iowa on April 1, 1991, were two of the first modern riverboat casinos. Isle of Capri Casinos opened its first casino in Biloxi, Mississippi in August 1992, and was the first gaming establishment to trade on the NASDAQ. In 2000, Isle of Capri spent $400 million in a multi-part deal to acquire the Lady Luck chain of casinos. Lady Luck Gaming, which owned two adjacent Lady Luck casinos in Lula, Mississippi, one in Natchez, Mississippi, the Miss Marquette casino in Marquette, Iowa, and a half interest in the Lady Luck casino in Bettendorf, Iowa, was bought for $59 million in cash, $177 million in assumed debt, and $22 million to redeem preferred stock. On the same day, Isle of Capri bought the other half of the Bettendorf property from Goldstein 's family for $62 million, and the rights to the Lady Luck trademark from Lady Luck 's founder, Andrew Tompkins, for $31 million. Six months later, it completed the purchase of the Lady Luck Hotel & Casino in downtown Las Vegas from Tompkins for $14.5 million. The Las Vegas property was sold two years later to a group of real estate investors. The other Lady Luck properties were all rebranded under the Isle of Capri name. In 2005, its Biloxi casino (but not its hotel) was destroyed and its Lake Charles facilities were damaged by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, respectively. In August 2006, Isle of Capri Casinos moved its headquarters from Biloxi to Creve Coeur, Missouri, a suburb of St. Louis. Missouri had offered $4.2 million in tax incentives to lure the operation. 150 employees moved with the headquarters. Company officials said they were looking for new headquarters after evacuating their building three times in 2004 -- 05 due to hurricanes. On February 14, 2006, Isle of Capri sold the Isle of Capri Bossier City and Isle of Capri Vicksburg to Legends Gaming for $240 million. The properties are now known as "Diamond Jack 's ''. The company competed for a gambling license in Pittsburgh in 2006, offering $290 million toward the construction of a new arena for the Pittsburgh Penguins as an incentive and thus drawing enormous public support in Pittsburgh. The Pennsylvania Gaming Control Board nevertheless awarded the license to PITG Gaming Majestic Star instead, who was required to partially fund the building of the new arena, the Consol Energy Center. On March 19, 2007 Isle of Capri purchased Casino Aztar in Caruthersville, Missouri from Columbia Sussex for about $45 million. In April, 2007 the Company opened the Isle Casino & Racing at Pompano Park in Pompano Beach, Florida. On July 1, 2007 Isle of Capri opened a new property in Waterloo, Iowa. In 2008, the company adopted a two - brand strategy, reviving the Lady Luck name for smaller properties with limited amenities, while keeping the Isle of Capri name for properties with full - service facilities like hotel rooms, convention space, and expanded dining options. The Marquette and Caruthersville casinos were the first to be rebranded as Lady Luck properties. In June 2010, Isle of Capri bought the Rainbow Casino in Vicksburg, Mississippi from Bally Technologies for $80 million. The property was re-branded Lady Luck Casino in 2012. On December 1, 2010, the Missouri Gaming Commission awarded the company the state 's 13th gaming license for a casino project in Cape Girardeau. The casino includes 1,000 slot machines, 28 table games, 3 restaurants, a lounge and terrace overlooking the Mississippi River and a 750 - seat event center at an estimated cost of $125 million. On April 14, 2011, Isle of Capri and Nemacolin Woodlands Resort were selected as the recipients of Pennsylvania 's last casino resort license by the state 's gaming board. Lady Luck Casino Nemacolin is expected to include 600 slot machines, 28 table games, a casual dining restaurant and lounge. On October 30, 2012, Isle Casino Cape Girardeau opened to the public. In November 2012, Isle of Capri sold the Isle Casino Hotel Biloxi to Landry 's Inc. for $45 million. On July 1, 2013, Lady Luck Casino Nemacolin opened to the public. On February 3, 2014, the Company completed the sale of its Davenport, Iowa casino to Scott County Casino LLC. On October 18, 2015, the Company closed their Natchez, MS riverfront casino due to low patronage. The Isle of Capri hotel was sold to Natchez competitor Magnolia Bluffs Casino. On March 13, 2017, the Company sold Lady Luck Marquette to the Casino Queen based in Swansea, Illinois. On May 1, 2017, the acquisition by Eldorado Resorts, previously announced on September 19, 2016, was completed. The properties owned and operated by Isle of Capri Casinos at the time of its acquisition were: Properties previously owned by the company include:

who is laughing in dark side of the moon

The Dark Side of the Moon - wikipedia The Dark Side of the Moon is the eighth studio album by English rock band Pink Floyd, released on 1 March 1973 by Harvest Records. The album built on ideas explored in earlier recordings and live shows, but lacks the extended instrumental excursions that characterised their earlier work. Its themes explore conflict, greed, the passage of time, and mental illness, the latter partly inspired by the deteriorating mental state of founding member and principal contributor, Syd Barrett. Developed during live performances, an early version was premiered several months before recording began; new material was recorded in two sessions in 1972 and 1973 at Abbey Road in London. The group used some advanced recording techniques at the time, including multitrack recording and tape loops. Analogue synthesizers were prominent in several tracks, and snippets from recorded interviews with Pink Floyd 's road crew and others provided philosophical quotations throughout. Engineer Alan Parsons was responsible for many distinctive sonic aspects and the recruitment of singer Clare Torry. The album 's iconic sleeve was designed by Storm Thorgerson; following keyboardist Richard Wright 's request for a "simple and bold '' design, it depicts a prism spectrum, representing the band 's lighting and the record 's themes. The Dark Side of the Moon was a commercial and critical success. It topped the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart for a week and remained in the chart for 741 weeks from 1973 to 1988. With an estimated 45 million copies sold, it is Pink Floyd 's most successful album and one of the best - selling worldwide. It has been remastered and re-released several times, and covered in its entirety by several acts. It produced two singles, "Money '' and "Us and Them ''. It is often ranked as one of the greatest albums of all time. Following Meddle in 1971, Pink Floyd assembled for a tour of Britain, Japan and the United States in December of that year. In a band meeting at drummer Nick Mason 's home in Camden, bassist Roger Waters proposed that a new album could form part of the tour. Waters ' idea was for an album that dealt with things that "make people mad '', focusing on the pressures faced by the band during their arduous lifestyle, and dealing with the apparent mental problems suffered by former band member Syd Barrett. The band had explored a similar idea with 1969 's The Man and The Journey. In an interview for Rolling Stone, guitarist David Gilmour said: "I think we all thought -- and Roger definitely thought -- that a lot of the lyrics that we had been using were a little too indirect. There was definitely a feeling that the words were going to be very clear and specific. '' Generally, all four members agreed that Waters ' album concept unified by a single theme was a good idea. Waters, Gilmour, Mason and keyboardist Richard Wright participated in the writing and production of the new material, and Waters created the early demo tracks at his Islington home in a small studio built in his garden shed. Parts of the new album were taken from previously unused material; the opening line of "Breathe '' came from an earlier work by Waters and Ron Geesin, written for the soundtrack of The Body, and the basic structure of "Us and Them '' borrowed from an original composition by Wright for Zabriskie Point. The band rehearsed at a warehouse in London owned by The Rolling Stones, and then at the Rainbow Theatre in Finsbury Park, London. They also purchased extra equipment, which included new speakers, a PA system, a 28 - track mixing desk with a four channel quadraphonic output, and a custom - built lighting rig. Nine tonnes of kit was transported in three lorries; this would be the first time the band had taken an entire album on tour. The album had been given the provisional title of Dark Side of the Moon (an allusion to lunacy, rather than astronomy). However, after discovering that that title had already been used by another band, Medicine Head, it was temporarily changed to Eclipse. The new material premièred at The Dome in Brighton, on 20 January 1972, and after the commercial failure of Medicine Head 's album the title was changed back to the band 's original preference. Dark Side of the Moon: A Piece for Assorted Lunatics, as it was then known, was performed in the presence of an assembled press on 17 February 1972 -- more than a year before its release -- at the Rainbow Theatre, and was critically acclaimed. Michael Wale of The Times described the piece as "... bringing tears to the eyes. It was so completely understanding and musically questioning. '' Derek Jewell of The Sunday Times wrote "The ambition of the Floyd 's artistic intention is now vast. '' Melody Maker was, however, less enthusiastic: "Musically, there were some great ideas, but the sound effects often left me wondering if I was in a bird - cage at London zoo. '' However, the following tour was praised by the public. The new material was performed in the same order in which it was eventually recorded; differences included the lack of synthesizers in tracks such as "On the Run '', and Bible readings later replaced by Clare Torry 's vocals on "The Great Gig in the Sky ''. Pink Floyd 's lengthy tour through Europe and North America gave them the opportunity to make continual improvements to the scale and quality of their performances. Work on the album was interrupted in late February when the band travelled to France and recorded music for French director Barbet Schroeder 's film La Vallée. They then performed in Japan and returned to France in March to complete work on the film. After a series of dates in North America, the band flew to London to begin recording, from 24 May to 25 June. More concerts in Europe and North America followed before the band returned on 9 January 1973 to complete the album. The Dark Side of the Moon built upon experiments Pink Floyd had attempted in their previous live shows and recordings, but lacks the extended instrumental excursions which, according to critic David Fricke, had become characteristic of the band after founding member Syd Barrett left in 1968. Gilmour, Barrett 's replacement, later referred to those instrumentals as "that psychedelic noodling stuff '', and with Waters cited 1971 's Meddle as a turning - point towards what would be realised on the album. The Dark Side of the Moon 's lyrical themes include conflict, greed, the passage of time, death, and insanity, the latter inspired in part by Barrett 's deteriorating mental state; he had been the band 's principal composer and lyricist. The album is notable for its use of musique concrète and conceptual, philosophical lyrics, as found in much of the band 's other work. Each side of the album is a continuous piece of music. The five tracks on each side reflect various stages of human life, beginning and ending with a heartbeat, exploring the nature of the human experience, and (according to Waters) "empathy ''. "Speak to Me '' and "Breathe '' together stress the mundane and futile elements of life that accompany the ever - present threat of madness, and the importance of living one 's own life -- "Do n't be afraid to care ''. By shifting the scene to an airport, the synthesizer - driven instrumental "On the Run '' evokes the stress and anxiety of modern travel, in particular Wright 's fear of flying. "Time '' examines the manner in which its passage can control one 's life and offers a stark warning to those who remain focused on mundane aspects; it is followed by a retreat into solitude and withdrawal in "Breathe (Reprise) ''. The first side of the album ends with Wright and vocalist Clare Torry 's soulful metaphor for death, "The Great Gig in the Sky ''. Opening with the sound of cash registers and loose change, the first track on side two, "Money '', mocks greed and consumerism using tongue - in - cheek lyrics and cash - related sound effects (ironically, "Money '' has been the most commercially successful track from the album, with several cover versions produced by other bands). "Us and Them '' addresses the isolation of the depressed with the symbolism of conflict and the use of simple dichotomies to describe personal relationships. "Any Colour You Like '' concerns the lack of choice one has in a human society. "Brain Damage '' looks at a mental illness resulting from the elevation of fame and success above the needs of the self; in particular, the line "and if the band you 're in starts playing different tunes '' reflects the mental breakdown of former bandmate Syd Barrett. The album ends with "Eclipse '', which espouses the concepts of alterity and unity, while forcing the listener to recognise the common traits shared by humanity. The album was recorded at Abbey Road Studios, in two sessions, between May 1972 and January 1973. The band were assigned staff engineer Alan Parsons, who had worked as assistant tape operator on Atom Heart Mother, and who had also gained experience as a recording engineer on the Beatles ' Abbey Road and Let It Be. The recording sessions made use of some of the most advanced studio techniques of the time; the studio was capable of 16 - track mixes, which offered a greater degree of flexibility than the eight - or four - track mixes they had previously used, although the band often used so many tracks that to make more space available second - generation copies were made. Beginning on 1 June, the first track to be recorded was "Us and Them '', followed six days later by "Money ''. Waters had created effects loops from recordings of various money - related objects, including coins thrown into a food - mixing bowl taken from his wife 's pottery studio, and these were later re-recorded to take advantage of the band 's decision to record a quadraphonic mix of the album (Parsons has since expressed dissatisfaction with the result of this mix, attributed to a lack of time and the paucity of available multi-track tape recorders). "Time '' and "The Great Gig in the Sky '' were the next pieces to be recorded, followed by a two - month break, during which the band spent time with their families and prepared for an upcoming tour of the US. The recording sessions suffered regular interruptions; Waters, a supporter of Arsenal F.C., would often break to see his team compete, and the band would occasionally stop work to watch Monty Python 's Flying Circus on the television, leaving Parsons to work on material recorded up to that point. Gilmour has, however, disputed this claim; in an interview in 2003 he said: "We would sometimes watch them but when we were on a roll, we would get on. '' Returning from the US in January 1973, they recorded "Brain Damage '', "Eclipse '', "Any Colour You Like '' and "On the Run '', while fine - tuning the work they had already laid down in the previous sessions. A foursome of female vocalists was assembled to sing on "Brain Damage '', "Eclipse '' and "Time '', and saxophonist Dick Parry was booked to play on "Us and Them '' and "Money ''. With director Adrian Maben, the band also filmed studio footage for Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii. Once the recording sessions were complete, the band began a tour of Europe. The album features metronomic sound effects during "Speak to Me '', and tape loops opening "Money ''. Mason created a rough version of "Speak to Me '' at his home, before completing it in the studio. The track serves as an overture and contains cross-fades of elements from other pieces on the album. A piano chord, replayed backwards, serves to augment the build - up of effects, which are immediately followed by the opening of "Breathe ''. Mason received a rare solo composing credit for "Speak to Me ''. The sound effects on "Money '' were created by splicing together Waters ' recordings of clinking coins, tearing paper, a ringing cash register, and a clicking adding machine, which were used to create a 7 - beat effects loop (later adapted to four tracks in order to create a "walk around the room '' effect in quadraphonic presentations of the album). At times the degree of sonic experimentation on the album required the engineers and band to operate the mixing console 's faders simultaneously, in order to mix down the intricately assembled multitrack recordings of several of the songs (particularly "On the Run ''). Along with the conventional rock band instrumentation, Pink Floyd added prominent synthesizers to their sound. For example, the band experimented with an EMS VCS 3 on "Brain Damage '' and "Any Colour You Like '', and a Synthi A on "Time '' and "On the Run ''. They also devised and recorded unconventional sounds, such as an assistant engineer running around the studio 's echo chamber (during "On the Run ''), and a specially treated bass drum made to simulate a human heartbeat (during "Speak to Me '', "On the Run '', "Time '' and "Eclipse ''). This heartbeat is most prominent as the intro and the outro to the album, but it can also be heard sporadically on "Time '' and "On the Run ''. "Time '' features assorted clocks ticking, then chiming simultaneously at the start of the song, accompanied by a series of Rototoms. The recordings were initially created as a quadraphonic test by Parsons, who recorded each timepiece at an antique clock shop. Although these recordings had not been created specifically for the album, elements of this material were eventually used in the track. Several tracks, including "Us and Them '' and "Time '', demonstrated Richard Wright 's and David Gilmour 's ability to harmonise their voices. In the 2003 Classic Albums documentary The Making of The Dark Side of the Moon, Waters attributed this to the fact that their voices sounded extremely similar. To take advantage of this, Parsons utilised studio techniques such as the double tracking of vocals and guitars, which allowed Gilmour to harmonise with himself. The engineer also made prominent use of flanging and phase shifting effects on vocals and instruments, odd trickery with reverb, and the panning of sounds between channels (most notable in the quadraphonic mix of "On the Run '', when the sound of the Hammond B3 organ played through a Leslie speaker rapidly swirls around the listener). The album 's credits include Clare Torry, a session singer and songwriter, and a regular at Abbey Road. She had worked on pop material and numerous cover albums, and after hearing one of those albums Parsons invited her to the studio to sing on Wright 's composition "The Great Gig in the Sky ''. She declined this invitation as she wanted to watch Chuck Berry perform at the Hammersmith Odeon, but arranged to come in on the following Sunday. The band explained the concept behind the album, but were unable to tell her exactly what she should do. Gilmour was in charge of the session, and in a few short takes on a Sunday night Torry improvised a wordless melody to accompany Wright 's emotive piano solo. She was initially embarrassed by her exuberance in the recording booth, and wanted to apologise to the band -- only to find them delighted with her performance. Her takes were then selectively edited to produce the version used on the track. For her contribution she was paid £ 30, equivalent to about £ 360 in 2018, but in 2004 she sued EMI and Pink Floyd for songwriting royalties, arguing that her contribution to "The Great Gig in the Sky '' was substantial enough to be considered co-authorship. The High Court agreed with her, but the terms of the settlement were not disclosed. All post-2005 pressings therefore credit Wright and Torry jointly for the song. Snippets of voices between and over the music are another notable feature of the album. During recording sessions, Waters recruited both the staff and the temporary occupants of the studio to answer a series of questions printed on flashcards. The interviewees were placed in front of a microphone in a darkened Studio 3, and shown such questions as "What 's your favourite colour? '' and "What 's your favourite food? '', before moving on to themes more central to the album (such as madness, violence, and death). Questions such as "When was the last time you were violent? '', followed immediately by "Were you in the right? '', were answered in the order they were presented. Roger "The Hat '' Manifold proved difficult to find, and was the only contributor recorded in a conventional sit - down interview, as by then the flashcards had been mislaid. Waters asked him about a violent encounter he had had with another motorist, and Manifold replied "... give ' em a quick, short, sharp shock... '' When asked about death he responded "live for today, gone tomorrow, that 's me... '' Another roadie, Chris Adamson, who was on tour with Pink Floyd, recorded the snippet which opens the album: "I 've been mad for fucking years -- absolutely years ''. The band 's road manager Peter Watts (father of actress Naomi Watts) contributed the repeated laughter during "Brain Damage '' and "Speak to Me ''. His second wife, Patricia "Puddie '' Watts (now Patricia Gleason), was responsible for the line about the "geezer '' who was "cruisin ' for a bruisin ' '' used in the segue between "Money '' and "Us and Them '', and the words "I never said I was frightened of dying '' heard halfway through "The Great Gig in the Sky ''. Perhaps the most notable responses "I am not frightened of dying. Any time will do: I do n't mind. Why should I be frightened of dying? There 's no reason for it -- you 've got to go sometime '' and closing words "there is no dark side in the moon, really. As a matter of fact it 's all dark '' came from the studios ' Irish doorman, Gerry O'Driscoll. Paul and Linda McCartney were also interviewed, but their answers were judged to be "trying too hard to be funny '', and were not included on the album. McCartney 's Wings bandmate Henry McCullough contributed the line "I do n't know, I was really drunk at the time ''. Following the completion of the dialogue sessions, producer Chris Thomas was hired to provide "a fresh pair of ears ''. Thomas 's background was in music, rather than engineering. He had worked with Beatles producer George Martin, and was acquainted with Pink Floyd 's manager Steve O'Rourke. All four members of the band were engaged in a disagreement over the style of the mix, with Waters and Mason preferring a "dry '' and "clean '' mix which made more use of the non-musical elements, and Gilmour and Wright preferring a subtler and more "echoey '' mix. Thomas later claimed there were no such disagreements, stating "There was no difference in opinion between them, I do n't remember Roger once saying that he wanted less echo. In fact, there were never any hints that they were later going to fall out. It was a very creative atmosphere. A lot of fun. '' Although the truth remains unclear, Thomas 's intervention resulted in a welcome compromise between Waters and Gilmour, leaving both entirely satisfied with the end product. Thomas was responsible for significant changes to the album, including the perfect timing of the echo used on "Us and Them ''. He was also present for the recording of "The Great Gig in the Sky '' (although Parsons was responsible for hiring Torry). Interviewed in 2006, when asked if he felt his goals had been accomplished in the studio, Waters said: When the record was finished I took a reel - to - reel copy home with me and I remember playing it for my wife then, and I remember her bursting into tears when it was finished. And I thought, "This has obviously struck a chord somewhere '', and I was kinda pleased by that. You know when you 've done something, certainly if you create a piece of music, you then hear it with fresh ears when you play it for somebody else. And at that point I thought to myself, "Wow, this is a pretty complete piece of work '', and I had every confidence that people would respond to it. -- Richard Wright The album was originally released in a gatefold LP sleeve designed by Hipgnosis and George Hardie. Hipgnosis had designed several of the band 's previous albums, with controversial results; EMI had reacted with confusion when faced with the cover designs for Atom Heart Mother and Obscured by Clouds, as they had expected to see traditional designs which included lettering and words. Designers Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell were able to ignore such criticism as they were employed by the band. For The Dark Side of the Moon, Richard Wright instructed them to come up with something "smarter, neater -- more classy ''. The prism design was inspired by a photograph that Thorgerson had seen during a brainstorming session with Powell. The artwork was created by their associate, George Hardie. Hipgnosis offered the band a choice of seven designs, but all four members agreed that the prism was by far the best. The final design depicts a glass prism dispersing light into colour. The design represents three elements: the band 's stage lighting, the album lyrics, and Wright 's request for a "simple and bold '' design. The spectrum of light continues through to the gatefold -- an idea that Waters came up with. Added shortly afterwards, the gatefold design also includes a visual representation of the heartbeat sound used throughout the album, and the back of the album cover contains Thorgerson 's suggestion of another prism recombining the spectrum of light, facilitating interesting layouts of the sleeve in record shops. The light band emanating from the prism on the album cover has six colours, missing indigo compared to the traditional division of the spectrum into red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Inside the sleeve were two posters and two pyramid - themed stickers. One poster bore pictures of the band in concert, overlaid with scattered letters to form PINK FLOYD, and the other an infrared photograph of the Great Pyramids of Giza, created by Powell and Thorgerson. Since the departure of founder member Barrett in 1968, the burden of lyrical composition had fallen mostly on Waters. He is therefore credited as the author of the album 's lyrics, making The Dark Side of the Moon the first of five consecutive Pink Floyd albums with lyrics credited to him alone. The band were so confident of the quality of the words that, for the first time, they printed them on the album 's sleeve. "Roger 's concerns in it are not out of date, '' remarked Gilmour on the album 's twentieth anniversary. "He did a fantastic job with those words. Then, Roger was always more verbal than the rest of us, who had no great confidence in our lyric - writing. Probably, in hindsight, we should have stuck at it: the roots of our problems were being set back then. But we all got the credit and money that we were happy with. '' As the quadraphonic mix of the album was not then complete, the band (with the exception of Wright) boycotted the press reception held at the London Planetarium on 27 February. The guests were, instead, presented with a quartet of life - sized cardboard cut - outs of the band, and the stereo mix of the album was presented through a poor - quality public address system. Generally, however, the press were enthusiastic; Melody Maker 's Roy Hollingworth described side one as "so utterly confused with itself it was difficult to follow '', but praised side two, writing: "The songs, the sounds, the rhythms were solid and sound, Saxophone hit the air, the band rocked and rolled, and then gushed and tripped away into the night. '' Steve Peacock of Sounds wrote: "I do n't care if you 've never heard a note of the Pink Floyd 's music in your life, I 'd unreservedly recommend everyone to The Dark Side of the Moon ''. In his 1973 review for Rolling Stone magazine, Loyd Grossman declared Dark Side "a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites, but demands involvement ''. In his 1981 review of the album, Robert Christgau found its lyrical ideas clichéd and its music pretentious, but called it a "kitsch masterpiece '' that can be charming with highlights such as taped speech fragments, Parry 's saxophone, and studio effects which enhance Gilmour 's guitar solos. The Dark Side of the Moon was released first in the US on 1 March 1973, and then in the UK on 16 March. It became an instant chart success in Britain and throughout Western Europe; by the following month, it had gained a gold certification in the US. Throughout March 1973 the band played the album as part of their US tour, including a midnight performance at Radio City Music Hall in New York City on 17 March before an audience of 6,000. The album reached the Billboard Top LP 's & Tape chart 's number one spot on 28 April 1973, and was so successful that the band returned two months later for another tour. Much of the album 's early American success is attributed to the efforts of Pink Floyd 's US record company, Capitol Records. Newly appointed chairman Bhaskar Menon set about trying to reverse the relatively poor sales of the band 's 1971 studio album Meddle. Meanwhile, disenchanted with Capitol, the band and manager O'Rourke had been quietly negotiating a new contract with CBS president Clive Davis, on Columbia Records. The Dark Side of the Moon was the last album that Pink Floyd were obliged to release before formally signing a new contract. Menon 's enthusiasm for the new album was such that he began a huge promotional advertising campaign, which included radio - friendly truncated versions of "Us and Them '' and "Time ''. In some countries -- notably the UK -- Pink Floyd had not released a single since 1968 's "Point Me at the Sky '', and unusually "Money '' was released as a single on 7 May, with "Any Colour You Like '' on the B - side. It reached number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 in July 1973. A two - sided white label promotional version of the single, with mono and stereo mixes, was sent to radio stations. The mono side had the word "bullshit '' removed from the song -- leaving "bull '' in its place -- however, the stereo side retained the uncensored version. This was subsequently withdrawn; the replacement was sent to radio stations with a note advising disc jockeys to dispose of the first uncensored copy. On 4 February 1974, a double A-side single was released with "Time '' on one side, and "Us and Them '' on the opposite side. Menon 's efforts to secure a contract renewal with Pink Floyd were in vain however; at the beginning of 1974, the band signed for Columbia with a reported advance fee of $1 M (in Britain and Europe they continued to be represented by Harvest Records). The Dark Side of the Moon became one of the best - selling albums of all time and is in the top 25 of a list of best - selling albums in the United States. Although it held the number one spot in the US for only a week, it remained in the Billboard album chart for 741 weeks. The album re-appeared on the Billboard charts with the introduction of the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart in May 1991, and has been a perennial feature since then. In the UK, it is the seventh - best - selling album of all time and the highest selling album never to reach number one. -- Nick Mason In the US the LP was released before the introduction of platinum awards on 1 January 1976. It therefore held only a gold disc until 16 February 1990, when it was certified 11 × platinum. On 4 June 1998 the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album 15 × platinum, denoting sales of fifteen million in the United States -- making it their biggest - selling work there (The Wall is 23 × platinum, but as a double album this signifies sales of 11.5 million). "Money '' has sold well as a single, and as with "Time '', remains a radio favourite; in the US, for the year ending 20 April 2005, "Time '' was played on 13,723 occasions, and "Money '' on 13,731 occasions. Industry sources suggest that worldwide sales of the album total about 45 million. "On a slow week '' between 8,000 and 9,000 copies are sold, and a total of 400,000 were sold in 2002, making it the 200th - best - selling album of that year -- nearly three decades after its initial release. The album has sold 9,502,000 copies in the US since 1991 when Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales for Billboard. To this day, it occupies a prominent spot on Billboard 's Pop Catalog Chart. It reached number one when the 2003 hybrid CD / SACD edition was released and sold 800,000 copies in the US. On the week of 5 May 2006 The Dark Side of the Moon achieved a combined total of 1,716 weeks on the Billboard 200 and Pop Catalog charts. One in every fourteen people in the US under the age of 50 is estimated to own, or to have owned, a copy. Upon a chart rule change in 2009 allowing catalogue titles to re-enter the Billboard 200, The Dark Side of the Moon returned to the chart at number 189 on 12 December of that year for its 742nd charting week. It has continued to sporadically appear on the Billboard 200 since then, reaching 900 weeks on the chart in April 2015. "The combination of words and music hit a peak, '' explained Gilmour. "All the music before had not had any great lyrical point to it. And this one was clear and concise. The cover was also right. I think it 's become like a benevolent noose hanging behind us. Throughout our entire career, people have said we would never top the Dark Side record and tour. But The Wall earned more in dollar terms. '' In 1979, The Dark Side of the Moon was released as a remastered LP by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab, and in April 1988 on their "Ultradisc '' gold CD format. The album was released by EMI on the then - new compact disc format in 1984, and in 1992 it was re-released as a remastered CD in the box set Shine On. This version was re-released as a 20th anniversary box set edition with postcards the following year. The cover design was again by Storm Thorgerson, the designer of the original 1973 cover. On some pressings, a faintly audible orchestral version of the Beatles ' "Ticket to Ride '' can be heard after "Eclipse '' over the album 's closing heartbeats. The original quadraphonic mix, created by Alan Parsons, was commissioned by EMI but never endorsed by Pink Floyd, as Parsons was disappointed with his mix. To celebrate the album 's 30th anniversary, an updated surround version was released in 2003. The band elected not to use Parsons ' quadraphonic mix (done shortly after the original release), and instead had engineer James Guthrie create a new 5.1 channel surround sound mix on the SACD format. Guthrie had worked with Pink Floyd since co-producing and engineering their eleventh album, The Wall, and had previously worked on surround versions of The Wall for DVD - Video and Waters ' In the Flesh for SACD. Speaking in 2003, Alan Parsons expressed some disappointment with Guthrie 's SACD mix, suggesting that Guthrie was "possibly a little too true to the original mix '', but was generally complimentary. The 30th - anniversary edition won four Surround Music Awards in 2003, and has since sold more than 800,000 copies. The cover image was created by a team of designers including Storm Thorgerson. The image is a photograph of a custom - made stained glass window, built to match the exact dimensions and proportions of the original prism design. Transparent glass, held in place by strips of lead, was used in place of the opaque colours of the original. The idea is derived from the "sense of purity in the sound quality, being 5.1 surround sound... '' The image was created out of a desire to be "the same but different, such that the design was clearly DSotM, still the recognisable prism design, but was different and hence new ''. The Dark Side of the Moon was also re-released in 2003 on 180 - gram virgin vinyl (mastered by Kevin Gray at AcousTech Mastering) and included slightly different versions of the original posters and stickers that came with the original vinyl release, along with a new 30th anniversary poster. In 2007 the album was included in Oh, by the Way, a box set celebrating the 40th anniversary of Pink Floyd, and a DRM - free version was released on the iTunes Store. In 2011 the album was re-released as part of the Why Pink Floyd...? campaign, featuring a remastered version of the album along with various other material. -- Richard Wright The success of the album brought wealth to all four members of the band; Richard Wright and Roger Waters bought large country houses, and Nick Mason became a collector of upmarket cars. Some of the profits were invested in the production of Monty Python and the Holy Grail. Engineer Alan Parsons received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Engineered Recording, Non-Classical for The Dark Side of the Moon, and he went on to have a successful career as a recording artist with the Alan Parsons Project. Although Waters and Gilmour have on occasion downplayed his contribution to the success of the album, Mason has praised his role. In 2003, Parsons reflected: "I think they all felt that I managed to hang the rest of my career on Dark Side of the Moon, which has an element of truth to it. But I still wake up occasionally, frustrated about the fact that they made untold millions and a lot of the people involved in the record did n't. '' Part of the legacy of The Dark Side of the Moon is in its influence on modern music, the musicians who have performed cover versions of its songs, and even in modern urban myths. Its release is often seen as a pivotal point in the history of rock music, and comparisons are sometimes drawn between Pink Floyd and Radiohead -- specifically their 1997 album OK Computer -- which has been called The Dark Side of the Moon of the 1990s, owing to the fact that both albums share themes relating to the loss of a creative individual 's ability to function in the modern world. The Dark Side of the Moon has frequently appeared on rankings of the greatest albums of all - time. In 1987, Rolling Stone listed the record 35th on its "Top 100 Albums of the Last 20 Years '', and sixteen years later, in 2003 the album polled in 43rd position on the magazine 's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time ''. and was voted 43rd again on the magazine 's 2012 list. In 2006, it was voted "My Favourite Album '' by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation 's audience. NME readers voted the album eighth in their 2006 "Best Album of All Time '' online poll, and in 2009, Planet Rock listeners voted the album the "greatest of all time ''. The album is also number two on the "Definitive 200 '' list of albums, made by the National Association of Recording Merchandisers "in celebration of the art form of the record album ''. It came 29th in The Observer 's 2006 list of "The 50 Albums That Changed Music '', and 37th in The Guardian 's 1997 list of the "100 Best Albums Ever '', as voted for by a panel of artists and music critics. The album 's cover has been lauded by critics and listeners alike, VH1 proclaiming it the fourth greatest in history, and Planet Rock listeners the greatest of all time. In 2013, The Dark Side of the Moon was selected for preservation in the United States National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress for being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant ''. In 2014, readers of Rhythm voted it the seventh most influential progressive drumming album. One of the more notable covers of The Dark Side of the Moon is Return to the Dark Side of the Moon: A Tribute to Pink Floyd. Released in 2006, the album is a progressive rock tribute featuring artists such as Adrian Belew, Tommy Shaw, Dweezil Zappa, and Rick Wakeman. In 2000, The Squirrels released The Not So Bright Side of the Moon, which features a cover of the entire album. The New York dub collective Easy Star All - Stars released Dub Side of the Moon in 2003 and Dubber Side of the Moon in 2010. The group Voices on the Dark Side released the album Dark Side of the Moon a Cappella, a complete a cappella version of the album. The bluegrass band Poor Man 's Whiskey frequently play the album in bluegrass style, calling the suite Dark Side of the Moonshine. A string quartet version of the album was released in 2004. In 2009, The Flaming Lips released a track - by - track remake of the album in collaboration with Stardeath and White Dwarfs, and featuring Henry Rollins and Peaches as guest musicians. Industrial metal band Ministry called their seventh studio album Dark Side of the Spoon as a play of word to The Dark Side of the Moon with reference to heroin, as several members of the band suffered from long - term addiction to said substance at the time. Several notable acts have covered the album live in its entirety, and a range of performers have used samples from The Dark Side of the Moon in their own material. Jam - rock band Phish performed a semi-improvised version of the entire album as part their show on 2 November 1998 in West Valley City, Utah. Progressive metal band Dream Theater have twice covered the album in their live shows, and in May 2011 Mary Fahl released From the Dark Side of the Moon, a song - by - song "re-imagining '' of the album. Milli Vanilli used the tape loops from Pink Floyd 's "Money '' to open their track "Money '', followed by Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch on Music for the People. Dark Side of the Rainbow and Dark Side of Oz are two names commonly used in reference to rumours (circulated on the Internet since at least 1994) that The Dark Side of the Moon was written as a soundtrack for the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. Observers playing the film and the album simultaneously have reported apparent synchronicities, such as Dorothy beginning to jog at the lyric "no one told you when to run '' during "Time '', and Dorothy balancing on a tightrope fence during the line "balanced on the biggest wave '' in "Breathe ''. David Gilmour and Nick Mason have both denied a connection between the two works, and Roger Waters has described the rumours as "amusing ''. Alan Parsons has stated that the film was not mentioned during production of the album. All lyrics written by Roger Waters. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone Notes Footnotes Bibliography

who is a star is born written about

A Star Is Born (2018 film) - wikipedia A Star Is Born is a 2018 American music - themed romantic drama film produced and directed by Bradley Cooper (in his directorial debut) and written by Cooper, Eric Roth and Will Fetters. A remake of the 1937 film of the same name, it stars Cooper, Lady Gaga, Andrew Dice Clay, Dave Chappelle, and Sam Elliott, and follows a hard - drinking musician (Cooper) who discovers and falls in love with a young singer (Gaga). It marks the fourth remake of the original 1937 film, after the 1954 musical, the 1976 rock musical and the 2013 Bollywood romance film. Talks of a remake of A Star Is Born began in 2011, with Clint Eastwood attached to direct and Beyoncé set to star. The film was in development hell for several years with various actors approached to co-star, including Christian Bale, Leonardo DiCaprio, Will Smith, and Tom Cruise. In March 2016, Cooper signed on to star and direct, and Lady Gaga joined the cast in August 2016. Principal photography began at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in April 2017. A Star Is Born premiered at the 75th Venice International Film Festival on August 31, 2018, and was theatrically released in the United States on October 5, 2018, by Warner Bros. The film has grossed over $255 million worldwide and received critical acclaim, with praise for Cooper, Gaga and Elliott 's performances and Cooper 's direction, as well as the screenplay, cinematography and music. Jackson Maine, a famous country music singer privately battling an alcohol and drug addiction, plays a concert in California. His main support is Bobby, his manager and significantly older half - brother. After the show, Jackson happens upon a drag bar where he witnesses a performance by Ally, a waitress and singer - songwriter. Jackson is amazed by her talent; they spend the night speaking to each other, where Ally discloses to him the troubles she has faced in pursuing a professional music career. Jackson invites Ally to his next show. Despite her initial refusal she attends and, with Jackson 's encouragement, sings on stage with him. Jackson invites Ally to go on tour with him, and they form a romantic relationship. In Arizona, Ally and Jackson visit the ranch where Jackson grew up and where his father is buried, only to discover that Bobby sold the land. Angered at his betrayal, Jackson punches Bobby, who subsequently quits as his manager. Before doing so, Bobby reveals that he did inform Jackson about the sale, but the latter was too inebriated to notice. While on tour Ally meets Rez, a record producer who offers her a contract. Although visibly bothered, Jackson still supports her decision. Rez refocuses Ally away from country music and towards pop. Jackson misses one of Ally 's performances after he passes out drunk in public; he recovers at the home of his friend Noodles, and later makes up with Ally. There he proposes to Ally with a ring made from a loop of guitar string, and they are married that same day. During Ally 's performance on Saturday Night Live, Bobby reconciles with Jackson. Later, Jackson and Ally fight after he drunkenly voices his disapproval of Ally 's new image and music, which is nominated for Grammy Awards. At the Grammys, a visibly intoxicated Jackson performs in a tribute to Roy Orbison, and Ally wins the Best New Artist award. When she goes up on stage to receive her award, Jackson follows her, where he wets himself and passes out. Ally 's father Lorenzo berates Jackson and Ally helps him sober up. Jackson joins a drug rehabilitation program shortly thereafter. Jackson recovers in rehab, where he discloses to his counselor that he attempted suicide as a teenager. He tearfully apologizes to Ally for his behavior, and returns home. Ally wishes to bring Jackson to perform with her on the European leg of her tour; Rez refuses, prompting Ally to cancel the remainder of the tour so she can care for Jackson. Rez later confronts Jackson, informing him of Ally 's decision to cancel her tour and accusing him of holding Ally back. That evening, Ally lies to Jackson, and tells him that her record label has cancelled her tour so she can focus on her second album. Jackson promises that he will come to her concert that night, but after Ally leaves, he hangs himself in their garage. Ally becomes inconsolable after Jackson 's death. She is visited by Bobby, who explains Jackson 's death was his own fault and not hers. Ally takes a song that Jackson had written but never performed and sings it at a tribute concert, introducing herself as Ally Maine. Additionally, Rebecca Field appears as Gail, Shangela Laquifa Wadley as the drag bar emcee, Willam Belli as drag queen Emerald, Greg Grunberg as Jackson 's driver Phil, and Ron Rifkin as Carl. Lukas Nelson & Promise of the Real appear as Jackson 's band, Eddie Griffin appears as a local preacher and Luenell appears as a cashier. Marlon Williams, Brandi Carlile, Halsey, Alec Baldwin, and Don Roy King cameo as themselves. In January 2011, it was announced that Clint Eastwood was in talks to direct Beyoncé in a third American remake of the 1937 film A Star Is Born; however, the project was delayed due to Beyoncé 's pregnancy. In April 2012, writer Will Fetters told Collider that the script was inspired by Kurt Cobain. Talks with Christian Bale, Leonardo DiCaprio, Tom Cruise, Johnny Depp, and Will Smith to play the male lead failed to come to fruition. On October 9, 2012, Beyoncé left the project, and it was reported that Bradley Cooper was in talks to star. Eastwood was interested in Esperanza Spalding to play the female lead. On March 24, 2015, Warner Bros. announced that Cooper was in final talks to make his directorial debut with the film, and potentially to star with Beyoncé, who was again in talks to join; Cooper did become the male lead. On August 16, 2016, it was reported that Lady Gaga had officially become attached and the studio had green - lit the project to begin production early 2017. It marks the fourth remake of the original 1937 film, after the 1954 musical, the 1976 rock musical and the 2013 Bollywood romance film. On November 9, 2016, it was reported that Ray Liotta was in talks to join the film in the role of the manager to Cooper 's character, though he ultimately was not involved. On March 17, 2017, Sam Elliott joined the film, with Andrew Dice Clay entering negotiations to play Lorenzo, the father of Lady Gaga 's character. Clay was selected over Robert De Niro, John Turturro and John Travolta. In April 2017, Rafi Gavron, Michael Harney, and Rebecca Field also joined the cast. Filming began on April 17, 2017. In May, Dave Chappelle was cast in the film. In April 2018, it was announced that Halsey would have a small role. After seeing him perform at Desert Trip festival, Cooper approached Lukas Nelson (son of country music singer Willie Nelson) and asked him to help work on the film. Nelson agreed and wrote several songs, which he sent to the producers. Nelson subsequently met Lady Gaga and began writing songs with her and she, in turn, provided backing vocals on two tracks on his self - titled 2017 album. The soundtrack, performed by Gaga and Cooper, was released on October 5, 2018, by Interscope Records. The studio announced that the album "features 19 songs in a wide range of musical styles + 15 dialogue tracks that will take you on a journey that mirrors the experience of seeing the film. '' A Star Is Born had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on August 31, 2018. It also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival, the San Sebastián International Film Festival, and the Zurich Film Festival in September 2018. The film was theatrically released in the United States on October 5, 2018, distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures, after initially having been set for September 28, 2018, and May 18, 2018, releases. As of October 29, 2018, A Star Is Born has grossed $149.9 million in the United States and Canada, and $106 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $255.9 million, against a production budget of $36 -- 40 million. In the United States and Canada, A Star Is Born grossed $1.35 million from select Tuesday and Wednesday night screenings, and $15.8 million on its first day, including $3.2 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $42.9 million for the weekend and finished second at the box office, behind fellow newcomer Venom. The film remained in second place in its second, third and fourth weekends, grossing a respective $28 million, $19.3 million and $14.1 million. Outside North America, the film was released day - and - date with the U.S. in 31 other countries, and made $14.2 million in its opening weekend; its largest markets were the United Kingdom ($5.3 million), France ($2.1 million) and Germany ($1.9 million). On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, A Star Is Born holds an approval rating of 90 % based on 394 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "With appealing leads, deft direction, and an affecting love story, A Star Is Born is a remake done right -- and a reminder that some stories can be just as effective in the retelling. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 88 out of 100, based on 60 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported film - goers gave it a 90 % positive score. Alonso Duralde of TheWrap gave the film a positive review, saying, "Cooper and Lady Gaga are dynamite together; this is a story that lives and dies by the central relationship and the instant chemistry that must blossom between them, and these two have it in spades, '' and praised the musical numbers, describing them as "electrifying ''. Owen Gleiberman of Variety lauded Cooper 's directing, co-writing, and acting, and called the film "a transcendent Hollywood movie ''. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B+, singling out Gaga 's performance, saying, "she deserves praise for her restrained, human - scale performance as a singer whose real - girl vulnerability feels miles away from the glittery meat - dress delirium of her own stage persona. '' Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine found the film superior to its previous iterations and similarly praised Cooper 's direction, the writing, as well the performances and chemistry of Cooper and Gaga. She stated: "You come away feeling something for these people, flawed individuals who are trying to hold their cracked pieces of self together -- or to mend the cracks of those they love, '' also describing Gaga 's performance as a "knockout. '' In his review for Los Angeles Times, Justin Chang called the film "remarkable, '' and praised Cooper for his fresh take on the well - worn formula of 1937 film, as well his direction, the performances, writing, and the cinematography. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film 4.5 out of five stars, and deemed it as a "modern classic, '' hailing the performances of Cooper and Gaga, and Cooper 's direction. He found the film 's screenplay and the original songs "seamless '' and "terrific, '' and also called the film a major Oscar contender of the year and one of the year 's best films. The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday described the film as "lavishly delightful '' and "earthly convincing, '' and added that it "offers a suitably jaundiced glimpse of starmaking machinery at its most cynical, but also its most thrilling and gratifying. '' She similarly praised Cooper 's direction, the performances and chemistry of Cooper and Gaga, and the supporting performances, particularly Andrew Dice Clay and Sam Elliott. While praising the direction, acting, and writing, Michael Phillips in the Chicago Tribune argues that a A Star is Born 's formula has always been very seductive to audiences, even when it has been written poorly, and Cooper 's few missteps include being a bit of a scene hog. Admitting audiences love it, and he just liked it, Phillips drew attention to a skeptical review by Lindsey Romaine of Medium.com who criticized the story 's marginalization of the Gaga character in dealing with Cooper 's manipulative addict. She at least wanted a scene where Gaga 's character processed her behavior of letting the addict boyfriend get away with it. Phillips argued that it is in part the skillful musicianship which gets audiences to blow past such flaws.

what does the song hotel california actually mean

Hotel California - wikipedia "Hotel California '' is the title track from the Eagles ' album of the same name and was released as a single in February 1977. Writing credits for the song are shared by Don Felder (music), Don Henley, and Glenn Frey (lyrics). The Eagles ' original recording of the song features Henley singing the lead vocals and concludes with an extended section of electric guitar interplay between Felder and Joe Walsh. The song is considered the most famous recording by the band, and its long guitar coda has been voted the best guitar solo of all time by readers of Guitarist in 1998. The song was awarded the Grammy Award for Record of the Year in 1978. The lyrics of the song have been given various interpretations by fans and critics alike, the Eagles themselves described the song as their "interpretation of the high life in Los Angeles ''. In the 2013 documentary History of the Eagles, Henley said that the song was about "a journey from innocence to experience... that 's all... '' Since its release, "Hotel California '' has been covered by a number of artists and has become a part of international popular culture. Julia Phillips proposed adapting the song into a film, but the members of the Eagles disliked the idea and it never came to fruition. Commercially, "Hotel California '' reached the number one position on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached the top ten of several international charts. The melody of the song was composed by Don Felder in a rented house on Malibu Beach. He recorded the basic tracks with a Rhythm Ace drum machine and added a 12 string guitar on a four - track recording deck in his spare bedroom, then mixed in a bassline, and gave Don Henley and Glenn Frey each a copy of the recording. Felder, who met the Eagles through his high school bandmate Bernie Leadon, said that Leadon advised him to make tapes of songs he wrote for the band so that other band members like Henley, whose forte is in writing lyrics, might work with him on finishing the songs they like. The demos he made were always instrumental, and on every album project he would submit 15 or 16 ideas. The demo he made for "Hotel California '' showed influences from Latin and reggae music, and it grabbed the attention of Henley who said he liked the song that "sounds like a Mexican reggae or Bolero '', which gave the song its first working title, "Mexican Reggae ''. Frey and Henley were both interested in the tune after hearing the demo, and discussed the concept for the lyrics. In 2008, Felder described the writing of the lyrics: Don Henley and Glenn wrote most of the words. All of us kind of drove into L.A. at night. Nobody was from California, and if you drive into L.A. at night... you can just see this glow on the horizon of lights, and the images that start running through your head of Hollywood and all the dreams that you have, and so it was kind of about that... what we started writing the song about. Henley decided on the theme of "Hotel California '', noting how The Beverly Hills Hotel had become a literal and symbolic focal point of their lives at that time. Henley said of their personal and professional experience in LA: "We were getting an extensive education, in life, in love, in business. Beverly Hills was still a mythical place to us. In that sense it became something of a symbol, and the ' Hotel ' the locus of all that LA had come to mean for us. In a sentence, I 'd sum it up as the end of the innocence, round one. '' Frey came up with a cinematic scenario of a person who, tired from driving a long distance in a desert, saw a place for a rest and pulled in for the night, but entered "a weird world peopled by freaky characters '', and became "quickly spooked by the claustrophobic feeling of being caught in a disturbing web from which he may never escape. '' In an interview with Cameron Crowe, Frey said that he and Henley wanted the song "to open like an episode of the Twilight Zone '', and added: "We take this guy and make him like a character in The Magus, where every time he walks through a door there 's a new version of reality. We wanted to write a song just like it was a movie. '' Frey described the song in an interview with NBC 's Bob Costas as a cinematic montage "just one shot to the next... a picture of a guy on the highway, a picture of the hotel, the guy walks in, the door opens, strange people. '' Frey continued: "We decided to create something strange, just to see if we could do it. '' Henley then wrote most of the lyrics based on Frey 's idea, and sought inspiration for the writing by driving out into the desert as well as from films and theater. Part of the lyrics, such as "Her mind is Tiffany twisted, she got the Mercedes bends / She got a lot of pretty pretty boys she calls friends '', are based on Henley 's break - up with his girlfriend Loree Rodkin. According to Glenn Frey 's liner notes for The Very Best Of, the use of the word "steely '' in the lyric, "They stab it with their steely knives, but they just ca n't kill the beast, '' was a playful nod to the band Steely Dan, who had included the lyric "Turn up the Eagles, the neighbors are listening '' in their song "Everything You Did ''. Frey had also said that the writing of the song was inspired by the boldness of Steely Dan 's lyrics and its willingness to go "out there '', and thought that the song they wrote had "achieved perfect ambiguity. '' The Eagles recorded the track with Don Henley on lead vocal three different times, twice at the Record Plant in Los Angeles and finally at the Criteria Studios in Miami. They first recorded a riff, but when it came to recording the vocal, it was found to be in too high a key for Henley 's voice, so Felder progressively lowered the key from E minor, eventually settling on B minor. The second recording however was judged too fast. In Miami, the band fine - tuned the instrumentation and the lyrics and recorded numerous takes. Five or six best ones were selected, and the best parts were then spliced together to create the released version. According to the producer Bill Szymczyk, there were 33 edits on the two ‐ inch master. The final section features a guitar battle between Joe Walsh (who had replaced Bernie Leadon after Leadon 's departure from the band in 1975) and Felder, which took the two of them sitting together working for around three days to achieve the necessary precision. Walsh and Felder initially started improvising but Henley insisted that the recording should follow the music as first recorded in Felder 's demo. Henley decided that the song should be a single, although Felder had doubts and the record company was reluctant to release it because, at over six minutes, its duration far exceeded that of the songs generally played by radio stations. The band took a stand and refused the label 's request to shorten the song. The song was released as the second single from the album after "New Kid in Town ''. The front cover art for some overseas editions of the 45rpm single released was a reworked version of the Hotel California LP cover art, which used a photograph of the Beverly Hills Hotel by David Alexander, with design and art direction by Kosh. As "Hotel California '' became one of the group 's most popular songs and a concert staple for the band, live recordings of the song have therefore also been released. The first live recording of the song appeared on the Eagles ' 1980 live album, and an acoustic version with an extended intro is a track in the 1994 Hell Freezes Over reunion concert CD and video release. The Hell Freezes Over version is performed using eight guitars and has a decidedly Spanish sound, with Don Felder 's flamenco - inspired arrangement and intro. "Hotel California '' first entered the Billboard Hot 100 on chart dated February 26, 1977, and topped the Hot 100 singles chart for one week in May 1977, the band 's fourth song to reach No. 1 on that chart. It peaked at number 10 on the Easy Listening chart in April 1977. Billboard ranked it number 19 on its 1977 Pop Singles year - end chart. Three months after its first release, the single was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), representing one million copies shipped. In 2009, the song was further certified Platinum (Digital Sales Award) by the RIAA for sales of one million digital downloads, and has since sold over 3 million downloads. The Eagles won the 1977 Grammy Award for Record of the Year for "Hotel California '' at the 20th Grammy Awards in 1978. The song is rated highly in many rock music lists and polls; Rolling Stone magazine ranked it number 49 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. It was named one of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. At the induction of the Eagles into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998, all seven former and present members of the band reunited to perform "Hotel California ''. The song 's guitar solo was voted the best solo of all time by readers of Guitarist magazine in 1998, and was ranked 8th on Guitar Magazine 's Top 100 Guitar Solos. The song was also included in the music video game Guitar Hero World Tour. It was ranked the number 1 in the list of the best 12 - string guitar songs of all times by Guitar World magazine in 2015. Glenn Frey said that originally "We decided to create something strange, just to see if we could do it, '' and that the song was meant to mimic the imagery of the 1965 novel The Magus by John Fowles, about a man in an unfamiliar rural setting who is unsure about what he is experiencing. Don Henley has given a number of explanations about the song, ranging from "a journey from innocence to experience '' to "a sociopolitical statement ''. In an interview with Rolling Stone, Henley said that the song was meant to be "more of a symbolic piece about America in general '', and added: "Lyrically, the song deals with traditional or classical themes of conflict: darkness and light, good and evil, youth and age, the spiritual versus the secular. I guess you could say it 's a song about loss of innocence. '' The song has been described as being "all about American decadence and burnout, too much money, corruption, drugs and arrogance; too little humility and heart. '' It has also been interpreted as an allegory about hedonism, self - destruction, and greed in the music industry of the late 1970s. Don Henley called it "our interpretation of the high life in Los Angeles '', and later said: "It 's basically a song about the dark underbelly of the American dream and about excess in America, which is something we knew a lot about. '' In the 2013 documentary, History of the Eagles, Henley reiterated: On just about every album we made, there was some kind of commentary on the music business, and on American culture in general. The hotel itself could be taken as a metaphor not only for the myth - making of Southern California, but for the myth - making that is the American Dream, because it is a fine line between the American Dream, and the American nightmare. In a 2009 interview, The Plain Dealer music critic John Soeder asked Don Henley if he regretted writing the lines "So I called up the captain / ' Please bring me my wine ' / He said, ' We have n't had that spirit here since 1969 ' '' because wines are fermented while spirits are distilled. Henley responded: Thanks for the tutorial and, no, you 're not the first to bring this to my attention -- and you 're not the first to completely misinterpret the lyric and miss the metaphor. Believe me, I 've consumed enough alcoholic beverages in my time to know how they are made and what the proper nomenclature is. But that line in the song has little or nothing to do with alcoholic beverages. It 's a sociopolitical statement. My only regret would be having to explain it in detail to you, which would defeat the purpose of using literary devices in songwriting and lower the discussion to some silly and irrelevant argument about chemical processes. In his Encyclopedia of Great Popular Song Recordings, Volume 1, Steve Sullivan theorizes that the "spirit '' that the Hotel California has n't had since 1969 refers to the spirit of social activism of the 1960s, and how disco and the related pop music of the mid-1970s had turned away from it. The metaphorical character of the story related in the lyrics has inspired a number of conjectural interpretations by listeners. In the 1980s some Christian evangelists alleged that "Hotel California '' referred to a San Francisco hotel that was purchased by Anton LaVey and converted into his Church of Satan. Other rumors suggested that the Hotel California was the Camarillo State Mental Hospital. The term "colitas '' in the first stanza ("warm smell of colitas, rising up through the air '') has been interpreted as a sexual slang or a reference to marijuana. "Colitas '' means "little tails '' in Spanish; in Mexican slang it refers to buds of the cannabis (marijuana) plant. According to Glenn Frey, the "warm smell '' is "colitas... it means little tails, the very top of the plant. '' The Eagles ' manager Irving Azoff appears to lend support to the marijuana hypothesis, however, Felder said: "The colitas is a plant that grows in the desert that blooms at night, and it has this kind of pungent, almost funky smell. Don Henley came up with a lot of the lyrics for that song, and he came up with colitas. '' Other interpretations of the songs include heroin addiction and cannibalism. On the various interpretations, Henley said: "Some of the wilder interpretations of that song have been amazing. It was really about the excesses of American culture and certain girls we knew. But it was also about the uneasy balance between art and commerce. '' The intro and verse 's chord pattern counts eight measures, each one assigned to a single chord. Seven different chords are used in the eight measures. As the song opens, it is not until the eighth measure that a chord is repeated. The song is initially in the key of B - minor. The presence of E major gives a hint of B Dorian. The chords are played as follows: The eight measure sequence is repeated in the intro, for each verse and in the outro, providing the harmonic framework for the entire extended dual guitar solo at the end of the song. One explanation of the progression is that it is a common flamenco chord progression called the "Spanish progression '' (i -- VII -- VI -- V in a phrygian context) that is interspersed with consecutive fifths. With its descending ostinato pattern, it could be considered a fandango, a forerunner of the Baroque chaconne form. This chord sequence is not commonly used, and Ian Anderson of Jethro Tull has pointed out its similarity to his song "We Used to Know '' from their 1969 album Stand Up, suggesting the Eagles heard it when they toured together. While the Eagles did open for Jethro Tull in June 1972, Don Felder, who wrote the music, did not join the band until 1974 and would not have been in the audience or backstage. Felder has said that he had never heard "We Used to Know '', and that he was unfamiliar with Jethro Tull apart from the fact the frontman plays a flute. The chorus, or refrain, uses five of the song 's seven chords, structured with the melody in a way that shifts the key from B - minor to its relative major of D: Al B. Sure! recorded his rendition for his album, Private Times... and the Whole 9! (1990). Gipsy Kings recorded a flamenco version sung in Spanish. The Orb, under the name of Jam On The Mutha produced a version which charted at No. 62 on the UK chart in 1990. Mike Piranha recorded "Hotel Honolulu '' in 1998, satirizing overdevelopment, crime, and other issues on Oahu, which became a local hit in Hawaii. The Romanian band Vama Veche recorded its version with different lyrics entitled "Hotel Cişmigiu '', sung in its native language. Alabama 3 covered the song for the album, La Peste (2000). Nancy Sinatra recorded a cover version for her 2002 album California Girl, an album of songs about California. The Cat Empire recorded a version sung in French entitled "L'hotel de Californie '' for Triple J 's Like a Version segment, and is included in its 2005 compilation album as well as the band 's 2003 live album On the Attack. The Killers and Rhythms del Mundo collaborated their version with Afro - Cuban music for the 2009 Artists ' Project Earth charity, and it appeared on the album Rhythms del Mundo Classics. Frank Ocean released a song that samples the entire instrumental track of "Hotel California '' on his mixtape Nostalgia, Ultra (2011), entitled "American Wedding ''. It led to a threatened lawsuit from Don Henley for copyright infringement. "Hotel California '' and its lyrics have become absorbed into the wider culture around the world, and have been used by various writers and commentators to reflect on issues ranging from politics to social media and welfare, or as an observation on a particular situation. The lines "We are programmed to receive / You can check out any time you like / But you can never leave! '' were used by an economist to refer to how the appeal of an attractive "Hotel California '' - type host country to foreign investors may be countered by the cost of exit on leaving the country. A term "The Hotel California Effect '' was then used to refer to the negative effect of financial regulations on investment, and the problems foreign investors faced when getting their money out of China. It has also applied to other ideas such as leaving a service provider or social media network. A book titled Operation Hotel California: The Clandestine War Inside Iraq was written about the clandestine operation named after the song title by CIA -- US Special Forces teams in Iraqi Kurdistan in the lead - up to the Iraq War. Although the Eagles were noted for their reluctance to license their songs for use in shows, the song had been used in a number of films and television shows, such as The Big Lebowski (performed by the Gipsy Kings), Absolutely Fabulous, and The Sopranos. Most recently it was used during the final scenes of the premiere episode of American Horror Story: Hotel in October 2015. According to Rolling Stone, Julia Phillips, the producer of films like Taxi Driver and Close Encounters of the Third Kind, was interested in shooting a movie based on the song 's story. The band members and Phillips met to discuss the project. In her memoir You 'll Never Eat Lunch in This Town Again, Phillips wrote that the band members were difficult to deal with and arrogant. Henley said that Phillips offered the band members cocaine and was "nonplussed '' when they turned it down. Tension between the two parties ended the pre-development deal for the film. Rolling Stone reported that the band was not upset at this development, as they were not particularly enamored with the idea of "Hotel California '' being adapted into a film. This was because Henley feared that he would lack control over the project. shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone

baldur's gate 2 vs baldur's gate 2 enhanced edition

Baldur 's Gate II: Enhanced Edition - wikipedia Baldur 's Gate II: Enhanced Edition is a remake of the role - playing game Baldur 's Gate II: Shadows of Amn and its expansion Baldur 's Gate II: Throne of Bhaal. The game was launched on Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. Baldur 's Gate II: Enhanced Edition was officially announced as a Beamdog exclusive that would feature some new content, widescreen compatibility, and will continue to use 2nd Edition D&D rules. The remake was developed by Overhaul Games, a division of Beamdog and was published by Atari. The release includes remastered versions of the original Baldur 's Gate II: Shadows of Amn and its expansions under an enhanced version of the Infinity Engine, known as the Infinity Enhanced Engine. Overhaul Games initially planned to release in 2013, after the release of Baldur 's Gate: Enhanced Edition, but due to contractual issues with Atari, Beamdog announced that the Enhanced would not be launched. On August 15, 2013 Beamdog CEO Trent Oster announced that the contractual issues have been resolved and that news regarding Baldur 's Gate II: Enhanced Edition was forthcoming. This edition was released on November 15, 2013 on PC. It was released on the App Store on January 16, 2014. For all editions, the game follows 2nd Edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons, licensed by Wizards of the Coast. The game features much of the same updated gameplay presented in Baldur 's Gate: Enhanced Edition, give the same updated multiplayer, including cross platform multiplayer, which allows players from different platforms to play with each other. Major changes to the game 's presentation include its higher resolution and widescreen viewing modes to enhance gameplay. The iPad and Android versions present a radical departure from the original interface, with the multitouch screen allowing for gestures that can result in zooming in and out. This is to allow for larger text and more focus on enhanced detail. Tablet versions also allow for users to swipe between screens, eliminating the use for tabs. Ex-Bioware employee and creative director for the enhanced edition Trent Oster said, "When I describe playing a Baldur 's Gate combat scenario to someone, I use the analogy of a football playbook... When you think about Baldur 's Gate in this light, the iPad makes so much sense. In fact, I think Baldur 's Gate is almost the perfect game for the touch interface -- it was just released a decade early. '' Set in the Forgotten Realms continent of Faerûn, Baldur 's Gate II: Enhanced Edition takes place in the nations of Amn and Tethyr. As with the original Enhanced Edition, all locations from the original production are present as well as new locations. Depending on the characters recruited, up to thirty new locations can be accessed. While the original characters of Baldur 's Gate II return once again, the Enhanced Edition brings back the new characters introduced in Baldur 's Gate: Enhanced Edition - Neera the Wild Mage, Dorn Il - Khan the Blackguard, and Rasaad the Monk - who are once again recruitable, with two additional new characters, unique to Baldur 's Gate II: Enhanced Edition - Hexxat the Thief, and Wilson the Bear. Each, like before, have a personal character quest that sees the player travelling to new locations, both in Shadows of Amn and Throne of Bhaal; the latter involves the characters bringing a close to their personal stories. Much like the previous game, all of new characters from Baldur 's Gate: Enhanced Edition are once again available as romance options. The general plot of the game remains relatively unchanged, aside from the sidequests added in due to new characters. The largest new plot feature comes in the form of The Black Pits 2: Gladiators of Thay, an optional and standalone story which acts as a sequel to a challenge mode present in the previous Enhanced Edition. The mode pits players in gladitorial combat against such creatures as Mind Flayers, Githyanki and Demi - Liches. Beamdog had negotiated to get a contract for the first two Baldur 's Gate games from Atari and Wizards of the Coast for approximately fourteen months before they were allowed to start working on the Enhanced Editions. Beamdog also needed to get a license to use the Infinity Engine from BioWare. Upon development, the decision was made to make the game available on the iPad -- it will be compatible with all three generations of iPad. On March 15, 2012, remakes of both Baldur 's Gate and Baldur 's Gate II were announced. Baldur 's Gate II: Enhanced Edition was slated for a 2013 release for both the PC and iPad. Nat Jones was named the official art director for the remakes, with senior Dungeons & Dragons writer Dave Gross also joining the team. Sam Hulick composed new music for the game. Via his Twitter account, developer Trent Oster revealed that the studio would not be making an Xbox 360 version for either remake, because the controller was not a good fit for the Infinity Engine. He added that his team would not be porting the game to Wii U due to their negative experience with Nintendo while developing MDK2 HD. It was later revealed that Sony had contacted Beamdog about making both remakes available on the PlayStation 3, though nothing would come out of it. Sony and Beamdog were unable to negotiate a price required for funding the redesign of the game, difficult due to differences in controls and the UI between the PC and PlayStation 3. On June 19, 2013, Baldur 's Gate II: Enhanced Edition 's development was put on hold indefinitely due to legal issues with Atari. Developer Trent Oster described the Overhaul team as being "demoralized '' due to the incident. Upon the resolution of the contractual and legal issues on August 15, 2013, Overhaul Games promised details regarding the remake following the release of the patch for Baldur 's Gate: Enhanced Edition. It was later confirmed that it would be "a while '' before news about the remake would be released, though. At the end of the month, the release date was announced and a gameplay trailer was shown, with confirmation of an iOS edition later on. The game received positive review scores from most of the critics. On Metacritic, it holds an aggregate score of 78 / 100 for the Windows version while the iOS version holds an aggregate score of 63 / 100. Ryan Cartmel of the online magazine Hardcore Gamer gave the game a 4.5 / 5, saying "with an epic story, memorable characters, hundreds of hours of dungeon crawling, questing and adventuring, Baldur 's Gate stands tall among the classics. The Enhanced Edition takes all that (and then some) and wraps it in a much more visually pleasing package that will be more acceptable to modern gamers '' Patrick Hancock of Destructoid gave the release a score of 8.5 / 10 calling the remake and the additions "impressive efforts with a few noticeable problems holding it back ''. Brett Todd of GameSpot gave the revision a review score of 7 / 10 praising the new additions to the game. Leif Johnson of IGN gave the game a review score of 8.3 / 10 praising it for the improved visuals and new additions.

who plays the opening game of the nfl season

2017 NFL season - wikipedia The 2017 NFL season is the 98th and current season in the history of the National Football League (NFL). The season began on September 7, 2017, with the Kansas City Chiefs defeating the defending Super Bowl LI champion New England Patriots 42 -- 27 in the NFL Kickoff Game. The season will conclude with Super Bowl LII, the league 's championship game, on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota. For the second consecutive year, a team relocated to the Los Angeles metropolitan area, as the former San Diego Chargers announced their intent to relocate to the city in January 2017. The 2017 NFL League year began on March 9 at 4: 00 p.m. EST. On March 7, clubs were allowed to contact and enter into contract negotiations with the agents of players who became unrestricted free agents upon the expiration of their contracts two days later. On March 9, clubs exercised options for 2017 on players who have option clauses in their contracts, submitted qualifying offers to their restricted free agents with expiring contracts and to whom desire to retain a Right of Refusal / Compensation, submitted a Minimum Salary Tender to retain exclusive negotiating rights to their players with expiring 2016 contracts and who have fewer than three accrued seasons of free agent credit, and teams were required to be under the salary cap using the "Top - 51 '' definition (in which the 51 highest paid - players on the team 's payroll must have a collected salary cap hit below the actual cap). The 2017 trading period also began the same day. A total of 496 players were eligible for some form of free agency at the beginning of the free agency period. Among the high - profile players who changed teams via free agency were cornerbacks A.J. Bouye (from Texans to Jaguars), Logan Ryan (from Patriots to Titans), and Stephon Gilmore (from Bills to Patriots); safeties Barry Church (from Cowboys to Jaguars), Johnathan Cyprien (from Jaguars to Titans), Micah Hyde (from Packers to Bills), and Tony Jefferson (from Cardinals to Ravens); linebackers Jabaal Sheard (from Patriots to Colts), Malcolm Smith (from Raiders to 49ers), and Manti Te'o (from Chargers to Saints); defensive tackles Johnathan Hankins (from Giants to Colts) and Calais Campbell (from Cardinals to Jaguars); offensive tackles Andrew Whitworth (from Bengals to Rams), Kelvin Beachum (from Jaguars to Jets), Matt Kalil (from Vikings to Panthers), Mike Remmers (from Panthers to Vikings), Ricky Wagner (from Ravens to Lions), Riley Reiff (from Lions to Vikings), and Russell Okung (from Broncos to Chargers); offensive guards Kevin Zeitler (from Bengals to Browns), Larry Warford (from Lions to Saints), Ronald Leary (from Cowboys to Broncos), and T.J. Lang (from Packers to Lions); tight ends Martellus Bennett (from Patriots to Packers) and Jared Cook (from Packers to Raiders); wide receivers Alshon Jeffery (from Bears to Eagles), Brandon Marshall (from Jets to Giants), DeSean Jackson (from Redskins to Buccaneers), Kenny Britt (from Rams to Browns), Pierre Garçon (from Redskins to 49ers), Robert Woods (from Bills to Rams), Terrelle Pryor (from Browns to Redskins), and Torrey Smith (from 49ers to Eagles); running backs Latavius Murray (from Raiders to Vikings), Adrian Peterson (from Vikings to Saints), Eddie Lacy (from Packers to Seahawks), and Jamaal Charles (from Chiefs to Broncos); fullbacks Mike Tolbert (from Panthers to Bills) and Patrick DiMarco (from Falcons to Bills); quarterback Mike Glennon (from Buccaneers to Bears). At one point, Jay Cutler had also announced retirement, but later rescinded and signed with the Miami Dolphins. Cutler previously played for the Chicago Bears. The 2017 NFL Draft was held on April 27 -- 29, 2017 in Philadelphia. The Cleveland Browns selected Myles Garrett with the first overall pick. Training camps for the 2017 season were held in late July through August. Teams started training camp no earlier than 15 days before the team 's first scheduled preseason game. Prior to the start of the regular season, each team played four preseason exhibition games, beginning on August 10. The preseason began on the evening of August 3 with the 2017 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, that featured the Dallas Cowboys (represented in the 2017 Hall of Fame Class by owner Jerry Jones) who hosted Arizona Cardinals (represented by former quarterback Kurt Warner). It was televised nationally on NBC. The 64 - game preseason schedule ended on August 31; a 65th game, that of the 2017 Texas Governor 's Cup, was canceled due to the aftermath of Hurricane Harvey. The 2017 regular season 's 256 games will be played over a 17 - week schedule which began on September 7. Each of the league 's 32 teams plays a 16 - game schedule, with one bye week for each team. The slate also features games on Monday nights. There are games played on Thursday, including the National Football League Kickoff game in prime time on September 7 and games on Thanksgiving Day. The regular season will conclude with a full slate of 16 games on Sunday, December 31, all of which will be intra -- division matchups, as it has been since 2010. Under the NFL 's current scheduling formula, each team plays the other three teams in its own division twice. In addition a team plays against all four teams in one other division from each conference. The final two games on a team 's schedule are against the two teams in the team 's own conference in the divisions the team was not set to play which finished the previous season in the same rank in their division (e.g. the team which finished first in its division the previous season would play each other team in its conference that also finished first in its respective division). The preset division pairings for 2017 will be as follows. Intra-conference AFC East vs AFC West AFC North vs AFC South NFC East vs NFC West NFC North vs NFC South Inter-conference AFC East vs NFC South AFC North vs NFC North AFC South vs NFC West AFC West vs NFC East Highlights of the 2017 schedule include: The entire schedule was released on April 20, 2017. The following games were moved or canceled because of severe weather, by way of flexible scheduling, or for other reasons: In week 3 of the season there were numerous anthem protests in response to comments by President Donald Trump stating that those who kneel during the anthem should be fired. Protests included entire teams linking arms or kneeling during the anthem. Three teams - the Steelers, Titans and Seahawks - did not even take to the field for the anthem. The following people associated with the NFL (or AFL) have died in 2017. Dan Rooney was chairman and plurality owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers and one of the sons of founding owner Art Rooney, Sr. Having been officially involved with the franchise since 1960, Rooney was a part of all six of the Steelers ' Super Bowl victories. In addition to this, Rooney was considered an active and progressive owner in the league 's operations, most famously by successfully pushing for the Rooney Rule, an affirmative action policy requiring all NFL franchises to interview persons of color for head coaching vacancies. Concurrently with his role with the Steelers, Rooney also served as United States Ambassador to Ireland from 2009 to 2014. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2000, making him and his father the second father - son duo in the Hall behind Tim & Wellington Mara. Rooney died on April 13 at the age of 84. Bold indicates members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The following rule changes were approved for the 2017 NFL season at the owners ' meeting on March 28, 2017: The following rule changes were approved for the 2017 NFL season at the NFL Spring League meeting on May 23, 2017: The following will be "points of emphasis '' for the 2017 season: The ban on teams contacting potential coaching candidates until that candidate 's team has been eliminated from the playoffs was tabled. The following were named the top performers during the 2017 season: Anthony Lynn was hired as the Chargers ' new head coach on January 12, 2017. The Atlanta Falcons will play their first season at Mercedes - Benz Stadium, after playing in the Georgia Dome for the previous 25 seasons. The stadium in which the Arizona Cardinals play their home games is in the process of obtaining a new naming rights agreement. The University of Phoenix, which owns the naming rights to the Cardinals ' home field, is planning to terminate the final nine years of a 20 - year agreement, but will continue to keep its name on the stadium. The stadium in which the Denver Broncos play their home games is in the process of obtaining a new naming rights agreement. Sporting goods retailer Sports Authority, which had owned the naming rights to the Broncos ' home field since 2011, filed for bankruptcy in March 2016, and liquidated all of their stores. The Broncos bought out the existing naming rights contract with permission from the Delaware District United States bankruptcy court in August 2016. Three months later, the Broncos selected American talent agency WME - IMG to secure a new naming rights partner for their home field, which, to date, still carries the name Sports Authority Field at Mile High. On January 12, 2017, the San Diego Chargers exercised their option to relocate to Los Angeles as the Los Angeles Chargers. They will be joining the Los Angeles Rams as tenants in their new stadium, Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park in Inglewood, California when that stadium is complete in 2020. For the time being, the Chargers will play at the 30,000 seat StubHub Center in Carson, California, the smallest venue (in terms of number of seats) the league has used for a full season since 1956. On January 19, 2017, the Oakland Raiders filed paperwork to relocate to Las Vegas, Nevada. The NFL officially approved the Raiders relocation to Las Vegas on March 27. Unlike the Chargers, the Raiders will remain at the Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum through at least the 2018 season (with the 2019 season to be determined) while Las Vegas Stadium is built, with the team moving to Nevada in 2019 or 2020. The Los Angeles Rams, who had capped season ticket sales at 55,000 for the 2017 season, announced to have 60,128 spectators in the first home game on week 1. However, reports estimate that spectators only filled a third of the 93,607 seats of the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The Los Angeles Chargers did not sell out their week 2 game at the StubHub Center, which was never expanded to 30,000 seats as originally stated and has typically had less than 26,000 fans in attendance. When the StubHub Center is at capacity, the majority of the fans present are of the opposing team. The Los Angeles teams were not the only ones with visible attendance problems. The San Francisco 49ers reported a Week 3 attendance total that exceeded the capacity of Levi 's Stadium, even as wide swaths of empty seats were visible in the stadium throughout the game. This followed similar sparse attendance for the 49ers ' home opener. This is the fourth season under the current broadcast contracts with ESPN, CBS, Fox, and NBC. This includes "cross-flexing '' (switching) Sunday Afternoon games between CBS and Fox before or during the season (regardless of the conference of the visiting team). NBC will continue to air Sunday Night Football, the annual Kickoff game, and the primetime Thanksgiving game. ESPN will continue to air Monday Night Football and the Pro Bowl. NBC will also serve as the broadcaster of Super Bowl LII. This will also be the second and final year of the current Thursday Night Football contract with CBS, NBC, and NFL Network. Along with ESPN 's simulcasted Wild Card game on ABC, ESPN announced on May 24, 2017, that the 2018 Pro Bowl will also be simulcast on ABC, marking the return of the Pro Bowl to the network for the first time since 2003. For the first 9 weeks of the regular season, ESPN2 will simulcast ESPN Deportes ' Spanish - language Monday Night Football broadcasts. The simulcast will end after Week 9 due to ESPN2 's Monday - night college basketball broadcasts. Although never explicitly announced, the league continued the moratorium on its blackout policy, ensuring all games will be televised in the market of their home teams regardless of ticket sales. In over-the - top rights, Amazon Video acquired non-exclusive streaming rights to the 10 broadcast television Thursday Night Football games for $50 million. These streams will be exclusive to paid Amazon Prime subscribers, in contrast to Twitter, which held the rights to the same package in 2016 and had made those streams free to most of the world. This is the final season of the NFL 's exclusive mobile streaming contract with Verizon Wireless; the league intends to no longer have a single exclusive partner going forward, citing changes to viewing habits. Verizon Communications acquired international streaming rights to an NFL London Game between the Baltimore Ravens and Jacksonville Jaguars, in a similar arrangement to the 2015 game that was streamed by Yahoo! -- which was acquired by Verizon in 2017. The game was streamed by Yahoo and other Verizon - owned platforms, including AOL, go90, and Complex. NFL Network remains a partner with Twitter for online content, including its new streaming news program NFL Blitz Live. The NFL also reached a deal with Facebook in September 2017 to offer video highlights following games, and streaming programs on the service 's new Watch platform. This is also the final season of the NFL 's current national radio contract with Westwood One. Two new international digital rights deals also led to user criticism over their quality of service. In Canada, NFL Sunday Ticket shifted from distribution through television providers to the over-the - top provider DAZN, while in Europe, Deltatre took over European distribution of NFL Game Pass and launched new mobile apps. Both services faced criticism over their streaming quality, while Delatre 's app faced criticism for having bugs and initially lacking features seen in the previous version of the platform. The Independent exposed that Deltatre had also issued an internal e-mail instructing its employees to give the apps 5 - star reviews. DAZN subsequently announced that it would return to distributing Sunday Ticket through Canadian television providers in addition to their OTT service. The league has sought to reduce the number of standard commercial breaks (media timeouts) on its telecasts from 21 to 16, four in each quarter, with each break extended by one additional 30 - second commercial. One particular scenario the league sought to eliminate is the "double - up, '' in which a network cuts to a commercial after a scoring play, then airs the kickoff, and again goes to commercial before play from scrimmage resumes. Under the proposal, the league will allow networks to cut to commercial during instant replay reviews, which it had not been allowed to do before. Commissioner Roger Goodell stated that the changes are being made in an attempt to consolidate downtime between the actual game play so that there are fewer and less noticeable interruptions; he does not expect the changes to have an appreciable impact on the real - time length of a game, which currently clocks in at slightly over three hours. The NFL will also, as a trial, lift its ban on the broadcast of commercials for distilled spirits during its telecasts. However, they are subject to restrictions; a maximum of four liquor ads may be broadcast per - game, along with two per - pregame and postgame show. These ads may not contain football - related themes or target underage viewers, and must contain a "prominent social responsibility message ''. Tony Romo, who announced his retirement as a player on April 4, 2017, joined CBS, where he replaced Phil Simms as lead color commentator. Simms and Nate Burleson, who comes over from NFL Network, will replace Tony Gonzalez and Bart Scott on CBS 's pregame show, The NFL Today. Jay Cutler also announced his retirement from professional football on May 5 and was slated to join Fox as a color analyst for its NFL coverage; he later rescinded that announcement in August and joined the Miami Dolphins. Gonzalez will move to Fox, where he will join Fox NFL Kickoff; upon his departure, Gonzalez stated that he wished to pursue opportunities closer to his home in California, rather than travel to New York weekly to appear on CBS. James Lofton, coming over from radio, will replace Solomon Wilcots as a CBS analyst. On May 31, 2017, it was announced that Mike Tirico would replace Al Michaels on play - by - play on NBC 's portion of the Thursday Night Football package, joined by Cris Collinsworth. The NFL had previously required this role to be filled by NBC 's lead broadcast team of Michaels and Collinsworth; Tirico called a limited slate of games in 2016, including several NBC - broadcast games as a fill - in for Michaels (who voluntarily took several games off due to the increased number he was calling that season), and as part of a secondary team for selected games the TNF package. He will also succeed Bob Costas as the lead studio host for NBC. Due to its proximity to the 2018 Winter Olympics (where he is also succeeding Bob Costas as lead host), Tirico will not participate in NBC 's Super Bowl LII coverage. Beth Mowins became the second woman to call play - by - play for a national NFL broadcast, following Gayle Sierens in 1987, when she served as play - by - play announcer for the nightcap in ESPN 's Week 1 Monday Night doubleheader, with Rex Ryan as her color commentator. In an unusual case of a broadcaster working for two networks in the same season, Mowins also called a regional game for CBS in Week 3, with Jay Feely as her partner. * Note -- Late DH matchups listed in table are the matchups that were shown to the largest percentage of the market.

who became the first woman to head indian external affairs ministry

Minister of External Affairs (India) - wikipedia The Minister of External Affairs (or simply foreign minister) is the head of the Ministry of External Affairs of the Government of India. One of the senior-most offices in the Union Cabinet, the chief responsibility of the Foreign Minister is to represent India and its government in the international community. The foreign minister also plays an important role in determining Indian foreign policy. Occasionally, the foreign minister is assisted by a Minister of State for External Affairs or the lower - ranked Deputy Minister of External Affairs. India 's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, also held the foreign minister post throughout his 17 - year premiership of the country; he remains the country 's longest - serving foreign minister. Several other prime ministers have since held the additional charge of foreign minister, but never has any other cabinet minister held additional charge of the office. There have been a number of foreign ministers who went on to become prime minister. The current Minister of External Affairs is Sushma Swaraj of the Bharatiya Janata Party, who took over from Salman Khurshid of the Indian National Congress on 26 May 2014

who was the second man to climb mount everest

Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions - wikipedia Mount Everest is the world 's highest mountain, with a peak at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) above sea level. It is situated in the Himalayan range in Tibet. The first British expedition -- organized and financed by the newly formed Mount Everest Committee -- came under the leadership of Colonel Charles Howard - Bury, with Harold Raeburn as mountaineering leader, and included George Mallory, Guy Bullock, and Edward Oliver Wheeler. It was primarily for mapping and reconnaissance to discover whether a route to the summit could be found from the north side. As the health of Raeburn broke down, Mallory assumed responsibility for most of the exploration to the north and east of the mountain. He wrote to his wife: "We are about to walk off the map... '' After five months of arduous climbing around the base of the mountain, Wheeler explored the hidden East Rongbuk Glacier and its route to the base of the North Col. On September 23, Mallory became the first person to set foot on the mountain and he, Bullock, and Wheeler reached the North Col at 7,020 metres (23,030 ft) before being forced back by strong winds. To Mallory 's experienced eye, the route up the North ridge intersecting the NE Ridge and from there to the summit looked long, but feasible for a fresher party. The second British expedition, under General Charles Granville Bruce and climbing leader Lt - Col. Edward Lisle Strutt, and containing Mallory, returned for a full - scale attempt on the mountain. On May 22, they climbed to 8,170 m (26,800 ft) on the North Ridge before retreating. They were the first humans to climb above 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) on a mountain. The scope of this accomplishment is reflected by the fact that there are only 14 mountains on earth -- the eight - thousanders -- that reach and exceed 8,000 metres. At that moment, Mallory and Strutt had exceeded the summit of all but five other mountains on the planet. A day later, George Finch and Geoffrey Bruce climbed up the North Ridge and Face to 8,320 m (27,300 ft) using oxygen for the first time. They climbed from the North Col to their highest camp at a phenomenal rate of 900 vert - ft / hr., and were the first climbers to sleep using oxygen. On June 7, George Mallory, about to lead a third attempt, was caught in an avalanche on the steep walls of the North Col in which seven Sherpa climbers were killed. These became the first reported deaths on Everest. The third British expedition was led by Brigadier - General Charles Bruce, although becoming indisposed as a result of a flare - up of malaria, he relinquished leadership of the expedition to Lt - Col. Edward Norton, with Mallory promoted to climbing leader. Geoffrey Bruce, Howard Somervell, and John Noel returned from the previous year, along with newcomers Noel Odell and Andrew Irvine. On June 2, Mallory & Bruce set off from the North Col (C - 4) to make the first summit attempt. But extreme wind and cold, exhaustion, and the refusal of the porters to carry farther led Mallory to abandon the attempt and the next day the party returned to the North Col camp. On June 4, Norton and Somervell attempted an oxygenless summit in perfect weather; throat trouble forced Somervell to abandon the climb at about 28,000 feet while Norton continued on alone, reaching a height of 8,573 m (28,126 ft), just 275 m (900 ft) short of the summit. Exhausted, he turned back and rejoined Somervell for the descent. On June 8, Mallory and Irvine left their high camp (C - 6 at 26,900 - ft) to attempt the summit, using Irvine 's modified oxygen apparatus. Odell, climbing in support below, wrote in his diary that at 26,000 - ft he "saw Mallory & Irvine on the ridge, nearing base of final pyramid '' climbing what he thought at the time was the very difficult Second Step at 12: 50 p.m. It was the last time the two were seen; whether either of them reached the summit remains a question that has reverberated through the decades. Back in England, the climbing establishment pressured Odell to change his view. After about six months he began to equivocate on which Step it was he saw them -- from the Second to possibly the First. If the First, they had no chance of having reached the top; if the Second, they would have had about three hours of oxygen each and the summit was at least three hours away. It is conceivable (though unlikely) that Mallory might have taken Irvine 's remaining oxygen and attempted to reach the summit. A much more probable scenario is that the two reached First Step at about 10: 30AM. Mallory, seeing the treacherous nature of the traverse to the Second Step, went it alone. He reconnoitered the base of the climbing crux and decided it was not for him that day. He returned, picked up Irvine and the two decided to climb the First Step for a look around and to photograph the complex approach to the Second Step. It was when climbing this small promontory that they were spotted from below by Odell, who assumed that, since they were ascending, they must therefore have been on the Second Step, although it is now difficult to believe that the two would still be climbing from so low down at a time -- five hours late -- that was considered to be the turn - around hour. Descending from the First Step, the two continued down when, at 2PM, they were hit by a severe snow squall. Roping up, Mallory, leading, may have slipped pulling himself and Irvine down. The rope must have caught to inflict severe rope - jerk injury around Mallory 's (and presumably, Irvine 's) waist. Some researchers believe Irvine was able to stay high and struggle along the crest of the NE Ridge another 100 yards, only to succumb to cold and possible injuries of the fall. Others believe that the two became separated after the fall by the near white - out conditions of the squall. Based on his final location, it would seem that Mallory had continued straight down in search of his partner, while Irvine, also injured, might have continued diagonally down through the Yellow Band. In 1979, climber Wang Hongbao of China revealed to the climbing leader of a Japanese expedition that in 1975, while taking a stroll from his bivouac he had discovered "an English dead '' at 8100 m, roughly below the site of Irvine 's ice axe discovered in 1933 near the NE Ridge. Wang was killed in an avalanche the next day before he could provide additional details. In 1999, however, Conrad Anker of the Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition found Mallory 's body in the predicted search area near the old Chinese bivouac. There are opposing views within the mountaineering community as to whether the duo may have reached the summit 29 years before the first successful ascent by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay in 1953. Despite the existence of many theories, the success of Mallory and Irvine 's summit assault must be viewed as remote at best. The leading theory amongst those supporting the summit push has Mallory overcoming the difficulty of the sheer face of the Second Step by standing on Irvine 's shoulders. Armed with Irvine 's remaining 3 / 4 - full oxygen tank he could conceivably have reached the summit late in the day, but this would have meant that Irvine would have had to descend by himself. However, rope - jerk injuries around Mallory 's waist must mean the two were roped when they fell from below the First Step. 1960s Chinese Everest climber Xu Jing told Eric Simonson and Jochen Hemmleb in 2001 that he recalled spotting a corpse somewhere in the Yellow Band. Despite numerous searches of the north face, no sign of Irvine has turned up so far. One researcher claims to have finally spotted Irvine 's body using microscopic examination of aerial photographs. This possible discovery set off a new round of search expeditions in 2010 and 2011. A major expedition, under the leadership of Hugh Ruttledge, set out to climb with the great expectations that this time they would succeed. Oxygen was taken but not used because of the incorrect but lingering belief that it was of little benefit to a properly acclimated climber. After delays caused by poor weather and illness of team members, a much higher assault camp was placed than in 1924. On the first summit attempt, Lawrence Wager and Percy Wyn - Harris intended to follow the Northeastern ridge, but were unable to regain it, having bypassed (rather than climb over) the First Step, which they reached at 7: 00 AM. The direct access to the Second Step from the First involves a treacherous traverse. Instead of taking it, they dropped down to follow the lower, easier traverse pioneered by Norton in 1924. Observing the Second Step from 100 - ft. below it, Wyn - Harris declared it "unclimbable. '' Shortly after crossing the Great Couloir, they turned back for poor snow conditions and the lateness of the hour. A subsequent attempt by Eric Shipton and Frank Smythe followed the same route but Smythe, who pressed on alone when Shipton turned back because of illness, got no higher. In 1996, fifteen people died trying to reach the summit, making it the deadliest year in Everest history. On May 10, a storm stranded several climbers between the summit and the safety of Camp IV, killing Rob Hall, Scott Fischer, Yasuko Namba, Doug Hansen, and guide Andy Harris on the south and the Indian (Ladakhi) climbers Tsewang Paljor, Dorje Morup, Tsewang Smanla on the north. Hall and Fischer were both highly experienced climbers who were leading paid expeditions to the summit. Journalist Jon Krakauer, on assignment from Outside magazine, was in Hall 's party. He published the bestseller Into Thin Air about the experience. Anatoli Boukreev, a guide who felt impugned by Krakauer 's book, co-authored a rebuttal book called The Climb. The dispute sparked a large debate within the climbing community. In May 2004, Kent Moore, a physicist, and John L. Semple, a surgeon, both researchers from the University of Toronto, told New Scientist magazine that an analysis of weather conditions on that day suggested that freak weather caused oxygen levels to plunge approximately 14 %. During the same season, climber and filmmaker David Breashears and his team filmed the IMAX feature Everest on the mountain (some climbing scenes were later recreated for the film in British Columbia, Canada). The 70 mm IMAX camera was specially modified to be lightweight enough to carry up the mountain, and to function in the extreme cold with the use of particular greases on the mechanical parts, plastic bearings and special batteries. Production was halted as Breashears and his team assisted the survivors of the May 10 disaster, but the team eventually reached the top on May 23 and filmed the first large format footage of the summit. On Breashears ' team was Jamling Tenzing Norgay, the son of Norgay, following in his father 's footsteps for the first time. Also on his team was Ed Viesturs of Seattle, WA, who summited without the use of supplemental oxygen, and Araceli Segarra, who became the first woman from Spain to summit Everest. The storm 's impact on climbers on the mountain 's other side, the North Ridge, where several climbers also died, was detailed in a first hand account by British filmmaker and writer Matt Dickinson in his book The Other Side of Everest. Vicky Jacks of Balquidder, Scotland, summited Everest in May 2004 aged 51yrs. At the time the oldest woman to have achieved this, and Scotland 's first woman climber.

who is the first president of india who had no political affiliation

List of presidents of India - Wikipedia The President of India is the head of state and first citizen of India. The President is also the Commander - in - chief of the Indian Armed Forces. Although the president is vested such powers by the Constitution of India, the position is largely a ceremonial role and the executive powers are de facto exercised by the Prime Minister. The post of President is known in Hindi as Rashtrapati, a Sanskrit neologism meaning "lord of the realm ''. The President is elected by the Electoral College composed of elected members of the parliament houses, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, and also members of the Vidhan Sabha, the state legislative assemblies. There have been 14 presidents of India since the introduction of the post in 1950 (the current tenure is 5 years of an Indian President 's term). The post was established when India was declared as a republic with the adoption of the Indian constitution. Apart from these thirteen, three acting presidents have also been in office for short periods of time. Varahagiri Venkata Giri became Indian Acting President in 1969 following the death of Zakir Husain, who died in office. Giri was elected President a few months later. He remains the only person to have held office both as a president and acting president. Giri was the only person to be elected as an independent candidate. The President may remain in office for a tenure of five years, as stated by article 56, part V, of the constitution of India. In the case where a president 's term of office is terminated early or during the absence of the president, the vice president assumes office. By article 70 of part V, the parliament may decide how to discharge the functions of the president where this is not possible, or in any other unexpected contingency. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India, is the only person to have held office for two terms. Seven presidents have been members of a political party before being elected. Six of these were active party members of the Indian National Congress. The Janata Party has had one member, Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, who later became president, he was born in Anantapur District (now Andhra Pradesh). Two presidents, Zakir Husain and Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, have died in office. Their vice-presidents functioned as acting president until a new president was elected. Following Zakir Husain 's death, two acting presidents held office until the new president, V.V. Giri, was elected. Varahagiri Venkata Giri himself, Zakir Husain 's vice president, was the first acting president. When Giri resigned to take part in the presidential elections, he was succeeded by Mohammad Hidayatullah as acting president. The 12th president, Pratibha Patil, is the first woman to serve as President of India, elected in 2007. The current President is Ram Nath Kovind, elected on 25 July 2017. This list is numbered based on Presidents elected after winning an Indian Presidential election. The terms of Varahagiri Venkata Giri, Mohammad Hidayatullah, and Basappa Danappa Jatti, who have functioned as acting presidents, are therefore not numbered. The President of India does not represent any political party. The colours used in the table indicate the following: Basappa Danappa Jatti (1974 -- 1977) Muhammad Hidayatullah (1979 -- 1982) Ramaswamy Venkataraman (1984 -- 1987) Bhairon Singh Shekhawat (2002 -- 2007) Venkaiah Naidu

since it began in 1930 which country has had the most fifa world cup wins

List of FIFA World Cup winners - wikipedia This is a list of all teams, players and coaches who have won the FIFA World Cup tournament since its inception in 1930. The 21 World Cup tournaments have been won by eight different nations. Brazil has won the most titles, five. The current champion is France, who won the title in 2018. Participating teams have to register squads for the World Cup, which consisted of 22 players until 1998 and of 23 players from 2002 onwards. Since 1978, winners ' medals are given to all members of the winning squads. Prior to that, only players who were on the pitch during the final matches received medals. FIFA decided in 2007 to retroactively award winners ' medals to all members of the winning squads between 1930 and 1974. A total of 445 players have been in the winning team in the World Cup. Brazil 's Pelé is the only one to have won three times, while another 20 have won twice. 20 different coaches have won the World Cup, Italy 's Vittorio Pozzo being the only one to win twice. Four other coaches finished as winners once and runners - up once: West Germany 's Helmut Schön (winner in 1974, runner - up in 1966) and Franz Beckenbauer (winner in 1990, runner - up in 1986), Argentina 's Carlos Bilardo (winner in 1986, runner - up in 1990), and Brazil 's Mário Zagallo (winner in 1970, runner - up in 1998). Zagallo (twice), Beckenbauer and France 's Didier Deschamps also won the title as players. Every edition of the tournament has been won by a coach leading the team of his own country.

when does the share market open and close in india

Bombay stock exchange - wikipedia The Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) is an Indian stock exchange located at Dalal Street, Kala Ghoda, Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Maharashtra, India. Established in 1875, the BSE is Asia 's first stock exchange, It claims to be the world 's fastest stock exchange, with a median trade speed of 6 microseconds, The BSE is the world 's 11th largest stock exchange with an overall market capitalization of more than $ 2 Trillion as of July, 2017. More than 5500 companies are publicly listed on the BSE. Of these, as of November 2016, there are only 7,800 listed companies of which only 4000 trade on the stock exchanges at BSE and NSE. Hence the stocks trading at the BSE and NSE account for only about 4 % of the Indian economy. Bombay Stock Exchange was founded by Premchand Roychand. He was one of the most influential businessmen in 19th - century Bombay. A man who made a fortune in the stockbroking business and came to be known as the Cotton King, the Bullion King or just the Big Bull. He was also the founder of the Native Share and Stock Brokers Association, an institution that is now known as the BSE. The Bombay Stock Exchange is the oldest stock exchange in Asia. Its history dates back to 1855, when 22 stockbrokers would gather under banyan trees in front of Mumbai 's Town Hall. The location of these meetings changed many times to accommodate an increasing number of brokers. The group eventually moved to Dalal Street in 1874 and became an official organization known as "The Native Share & Stock Brokers Association '' in 1875. On August 31, 1957, the BSE became the first stock exchange to be recognized by the Indian Government under the Securities Contracts Regulation Act. In 1980, the exchange moved to the Phiroze Jeejeebhoy Towers at Dalal Street, Fort area. In 1986, it developed the S&P BSE SENSEX index, giving the BSE a means to measure the overall performance of the exchange. In 2000, the BSE used this index to open its derivatives market, trading S&P BSE SENSEX futures contracts. The development of S&P BSE SENSEX options along with equity derivatives followed in 2001 and 2002, expanding the BSE 's trading platform. Historically an open outcry floor trading exchange, the Bombay Stock Exchange switched to an electronic trading system developed by CMC Ltd. in 1995. It took the exchange only 50 days to make this transition. This automated, screen - based trading platform called BSE On - Line Trading (BOLT) had a capacity of 8 million orders per day. The BSE has also introduced a centralized exchange - based internet trading system, BSEWEBx.co.in to enable investors anywhere in the world to trade on the BSE platform. Now BSE has raised capital by issuing shares and as on 3rd may 2017 the BSE share which is traded in NSE only closed with Rs. 999. The BSE is also a Partner Exchange of the United Nations Sustainable Stock Exchange initiative, joining in September 2012. 2016 2017 The hours of operation for the BSE quoted above are stated in terms of the local time (GMT + 5: 30). BSE 's normal trading sessions occur on all days of the week except weekends and holidays declared by the Exchange in advance. The launch of S&P BSE SENSEX in 1986 was later followed up in January 1989 by the introduction of the BSE National Index (Base: 1983 -- 84 = 100). It comprised 100 stocks listed at five major stock exchanges in India -- Mumbai, Calcutta, Delhi, Ahmedabad and Madras. The BSE National Index was renamed BSE - 100 Index from 14 October 1996 and, since then, its calculations take into consideration only the prices of stocks listed at BSE. BSE launched the dollar - linked version of BSE - 100 index on 22 May 2006, the "BSE - 200 '' and the "DOLLEX - 200 '' on 27 May 1994, the BSE - 500 Index and 5 sectoral indices in 1999, and the BSE - PSU Index, DOLLEX - 300, and the BSE TECk Index (the country 's first free - float based index) in 2001. Over the years, BSE shifted all its indices to the free - float methodology (except BSE - PSU index). The BSE disseminates information on the Price - Earnings Ratio, the Price to Book Value Ratio, and the Dividend Yield Percentage of all its major indices on day - to - day basis. The values of all BSE indices are updated on a real - time basis during market hours and displayed through the BOLT system, the BSE website, and news wire agencies. All BSE Indices are reviewed periodically by the BSE Index Committee. This Committee, which comprises eminent independent finance professionals, frames the broad policy guidelines for the development and maintenance of all BSE indices. The BSE Index Cell carries out the day - to - day maintenance of all indices and conducts research on development of new indices. SENSEX is significantly correlated with the stock indices of other emerging markets. The S&P BSE SmallCap Index accounts for 45 % of the annual turnover, while the S&P BSE MidCap Index and the S&P BSE LargeCap Index account for 21 % and 30 % respectively. Coordinates: 18 ° 55 ′ 47 '' N 72 ° 50 ′ 01 '' E  /  18.929681 ° N 72.833589 ° E  / 18.929681; 72.833589  (Bombay Stock Exchange)

centers for respiratory and cardiovascular control are found in this part of the brain

Respiratory center - wikipedia The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata and pons, in the brainstem. The respiratory center is made up of three major respiratory groups of neurons, two in the medulla and one in the pons. In the medulla they are the dorsal respiratory group, and the ventral respiratory group. In the pons, the pontine respiratory group includes two areas known as the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic centre. The respiratory centre is responsible for generating and maintaining the rhythm of respiration, and also of adjusting this in homeostatic response to physiological changes. The respiratory center receives input from chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, the cerebral cortex, and the hypothalamus in order to regulate the rate and depth of breathing. Input is stimulated by altered levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH, by hormonal changes relating to stress, and anxiety from the hypothalamus, and also by signals from the cerebral cortex to give a conscious control of respiration. Injury to respiratory groups can cause various breathing disorders that may require mechanical ventilation, and is usually associated with a poor prognosis. The respiratory centre is divided into three major groups, two in the medulla and one in the pons. The two groups in the medulla are the dorsal respiratory group and the ventral respiratory group. In the pons, the pontine respiratory group is made up of two areas -- the pneumotaxic centre and the apneustic centre. The dorsal and ventral medullary groups control the basic rhythm of respiration. In the medulla, the dorsal respiratory group makes up the inhalation area of respiratory control. In the medulla, the ventral respiratory group make up the exhalation area of respiratory control. In the pons, the pontine respiratory group includes the pneumotaxic and apneustic centers. These have connections between them, and from both to the solitary nucleus. The pneumotaxic center is located in the upper part of the pons. Its nuclei are the subparabrachial nucleus and the medial parabrachial nucleus. The pneumotaxic center controls both the rate and the pattern of breathing. The pneumotaxic center is considered an antagonist to the apneustic center, (which produces abnormal breathing during inhalation) cyclically inhibiting inhalation. The pneumotaxic center is responsible for limiting inspiration, providing an inspiratory off - switch (IOS). It limits the burst of action potentials in the phrenic nerve, effectively decreasing the tidal volume and regulating the respiratory rate. Absence of the center results in an increase in depth of respiration and a decrease in respiratory rate. The pneumotaxic center regulates the amount of air that can be taken into the body in each breath. The dorsal respiratory group has rhythmic bursts of activity that are constant in duration and interval. When a faster rate of breathing is needed the pneumotaxic center signals the dorsal respiratory group to speed up. When longer breaths are needed the bursts of activity are elongated. All the information that the body uses to help respiration happens in the pneumotaxic center. If this was damaged or in any way harmed it would make breathing almost impossible. One study on this subject was on anesthetized paralyzed cats before and after bilateral vagotomy. Ventilation was monitored in awake and anesthetized cats breathing air or CO2. Ventilation was monitored both before and after lesions to the pneumotaxic center region and after subsequent bilateral vagotomy. Cats with pontine lesions had a prolonged inhalation duration. In cats, after anaesthesia and bivagotomy, pontine transection has been described as evoking a long sustained inspiratory discharges interrupted by short expiratory pauses. In rats on the other hand, after anaesthesia, bivagotomy and pontine transection, this breathing pattern was not observed, either in vivo or in vitro. These results suggest interspecies differences between rat and cat in the pontine influences on the medullary respiratory center. The apneustic center of the lower pons appears to promote inhalation by a constant stimulation of the neurons in the medulla oblongata. The apneustic center sends signals to the dorsal group in the medulla to delay the ' switch off ', the inspiratory off switch (IOS) signal of the inspiratory ramp provided by the pneumotaxic centre. It controls the intensity of breathing, giving positive impulses to the neurons involved with inhalation. The apneustic center is inhibited by pulmonary stretch receptors and also by the pneumotaxic center. It also discharges an inhibitory impulse to the pneumotaxic center. Breathing is the repetitive process of bringing air into the lungs and taking waste products out. The oxygen brought in from the air is a constant, on - going need of an organism to maintain life. This need is still there during sleep so that the functioning of this process has to be automatic and be part of the autonomic nervous system. The in - breath is followed by the out - breath, giving the respiratory cycle of inhalation and exhalation. The number of cycles per minute is the respiratory rate. The respiratory rate is set in the respiratory center by the dorsal respiratory group, in the medulla, and these neurons are mostly concentrated in the solitary nucleus that extends the length of the medulla. The basic rhythm of respiration is that of quiet, restful breathing known as eupnea. Quiet breathing only requires the activity of the dorsal group which activates the diaphragm, and the external intercostal muscles. Exhalation is passive and relies on the elastic recoil of the lungs. When the metabolic need for oxygen increases, inspiration becomes more forceful and the neurons in the ventral group are activated to bring about forceful exhalation. Depression of the respiratory centre can be caused by: brain trauma, brain damage, a brain tumour, or ischemia. A depression can also be caused by drugs including opioids, and sedatives. The respiratory centre can be stimulated by amphetamine, to produce faster and deeper breaths. Normally at therapeutic doses, this effect is not noticeable, but may be evident when respiration is already compromised.

who has been in the top flight of english football the longest

Football Records in England - wikipedia This article concerns football records in England. Unless otherwise stated, records are taken from the Football League or Premier League. Where a different record exists for the top flight (Football League First Division 1888 -- 1992, and Premier League 1992 --), this is also given. Records in this section refer to the English Football Pyramid Both players came on as a substitute and elbowed / pushed an opponent before the game had been restarted. (*) This is also a joint overall European record. List of football clubs in England by competitive honours won

all the states of india and there capitals

List of state and union territory capitals in India - wikipedia India is a country located in southern Asia. With over 1.3 billion people, India is the most populous democracy in the world. It is a federal constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system consisting of 29 states and 7 union territories. All states, as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments, both patterned on the Westminster model. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by the centre through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis. Since then, their structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided into administrative districts... The state and union territory capitals are sorted according to no legislative and judicial capitals. The administrative capital is where the executive government offices are located, the legislative capital is where the state assembly convenes, and the judicial capital is the location of the state or territorial High Courts. Union territories are marked with a dagger (). Dharamshala (W / 2nd) Dharamsala (Winter) 2017

who won world war 1 and world war ii

World War II - wikipedia Allied victory Pacific War Mediterranean and Middle East Other campaigns Contemporaneous wars World War II (often abbreviated to WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although conflicts reflecting the ideological clash between what would become the Allied and Axis blocs began earlier. The vast majority of the world 's countries -- including all of the great powers -- eventually formed two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the most global war in history; it directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. In a state of total war, the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, blurring the distinction between civilian and military resources. World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, marked by 50 to 85 million fatalities, most of whom were civilians in the Soviet Union and China. It included massacres, the genocide of the Holocaust, strategic bombing, premeditated death from starvation and disease and the only use of nuclear weapons in war. The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937, but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939, the day of the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and the subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom. From late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. The war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the coalition of the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth, with campaigns including the North Africa and East Africa campaigns, the aerial Battle of Britain, the Blitz bombing campaign, and the Balkan Campaign, as well as the long - running Battle of the Atlantic. On 22 June 1941, the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the largest land theatre of war in history, which trapped the Axis, most crucially the German Wehrmacht, into a war of attrition. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Japanese conquests were perceived by many in Asia as liberation from Western dominance; as such, several armies from the conquered territories aided the Japanese. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, and Germany and Italy were defeated in North Africa and then, decisively, at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. In 1943, with a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasions of Sicily and Italy which brought about Italian surrender, and Allied victories in the Pacific, the Axis lost the initiative and was forced into strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German - occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key Western Pacific islands. The war in Europe concluded with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet troops, the suicide of Adolf Hitler and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender under its terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August respectively. With an invasion of the Japanese archipelago imminent, the possibility of additional atomic bombings and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, Japan formally surrendered on 2 September 1945. Thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II changed the political alignment and social structure of the world. The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers -- China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States -- became the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Africa and Asia began. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities and to create a common identity. The start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland; the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino - Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A.J.P. Taylor, who held that the Sino - Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously, and the two wars merged in 1941. This article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. The exact date of the war 's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than the formal surrender of Japan, which was on 2 September 1945 that officially ended the war in Asia. A peace treaty with Japan was signed in 1951. A treaty regarding Germany 's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place in 1990 and resolved most post-World War II issues. A formal peace treaty between Japan and the USSR had never been signed. World War I had radically altered the political European map, with the defeat of the Central Powers -- including Austria - Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire -- and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia, which eventually led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania and Greece, gained territory, and new nation - states were created out of the collapse of Austria - Hungary and the Ottoman and Russian Empires. To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was created during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The organisation 's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military and naval disarmament, and settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration. Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I, its aftermath still caused irredentist and revanchist nationalism in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses incurred by the Treaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all of its overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country 's armed forces. The German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918 -- 1919, and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by Britain and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left - wing and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire ''. Adolf Hitler, after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933. He abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massive rearmament campaign. Meanwhile, France, to secure its alliance, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription. To contain Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany 's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect though, the Franco - Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year. Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition. In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome -- Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy would join in the following year. The Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party allies and new regional warlords. In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan, which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country 's right to rule Asia, used the Mukden Incident as a pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo. Too weak to resist Japan, China appealed to the League of Nations for help. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei, until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan. After the 1936 Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan. The Second Italo -- Ethiopian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did nothing when the former clearly violated the League 's Article X. Germany was the only major European nation to openly support the invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany 's goal of absorbing Austria. When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels, led by General Francisco Franco. The Soviet Union supported the existing government, the Spanish Republic. Over 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the USSR used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis. His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front. In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China. The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China 's prior co-operation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan, as well as engaging the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou and Communist forces in Pingxingguan. Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai, but, after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens of thousands if not hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese. In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan, but the city was taken by October. Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. In the mid-to - late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and the Mongolian People 's Republic. The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin - ron, which emphasised Japan 's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. With the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino - Japanese War and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets, this policy would prove difficult to maintain. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin - ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward, eventually leading to its war with the United States and the Western Allies. In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, again provoking little response from other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon Britain and France followed the counsel of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed Czechoslovakia 's Zaolzie region. Although all of Germany 's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war - mongers '' and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build - up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state, the Slovak Republic. Hitler also delivered the 20 March 1939 ultimatum to Lithuania, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region. Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig, Britain and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece. Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel. Hitler accused Britain and Poland of trying to "encircle '' Germany and renounced the Anglo - German Naval Agreement and the German -- Polish Non-Aggression Pact. The situation reached a general crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. In August 23, when tripartite negotiations about a military alliance between France, Britain and USSR stalled, the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany. This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet "spheres of influence '' (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia for the USSR), and raised the question of continuing Polish independence. The pact neutralized the possibility of Soviet opposition to a campaign against Poland and assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two - front war, as it had in World War I. Immediately after that, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that Britain had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland, and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it. In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which only served as a pretext to worsen relations. On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig, and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. The Poles refused to comply with the German demands, and on the night of 30 -- 31 August in a violent meeting with the British ambassador Neville Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected. On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the attack. The Battle of Westerplatte is often described as the first battle of the war. Britain responded with an ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, France, Britain, Australia, and New Zealand declared war on Germany. This alliance was joined by South Africa (6 September) and Canada (10 September). The alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland. The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country 's economy and war effort. Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic. On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw. The Polish counter offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, after signing a cease - fire with Japan, the Soviets invaded Eastern Poland under a pretext that the Polish state had ostensibly ceased to exist. On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October. Despite the military defeat, the Polish government never surrendered. A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries; many of them would fight against the Axis in other theatres of the war. The Polish government in exile also established an Underground State and a resistance movement; in particular the Polish partisan Home Army would grow to become one of the war 's largest resistance movements. Germany annexed the western and occupied the central part of Poland, and the USSR annexed its eastern part; small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to Britain and France, but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected, and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, which would be postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather. The Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries -- Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, the states that were in the Soviet "sphere of influence '' under the Molotov - Ribbentrop pact -- to sign "mutual assistance pacts '' that stipulated stationing Soviet troops in these countries. Soon after, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the USSR. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, and the USSR was expelled from the League of Nations. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success was modest, and the Finno - Soviet war ended in March 1940 with minimal Finnish concessions. In June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and the disputed Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and Hertza. Meanwhile, Nazi - Soviet political rapprochement and economic co-operation gradually stalled, and both states began preparations for war. In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden, which the Allies were attempting to cut off. Denmark capitulated after a few hours, and Norway was conquered within two months despite Allied support. British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the appointment of Winston Churchill as Prime Minister on 10 May 1940. On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco - German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, which was mistakenly perceived by Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. By successfully implementing new blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco - Belgian border near Lille. Britain was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although abandoning almost all of their equipment. On 10 June, Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones, and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which Britain attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany. The Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours. Britain rejected Hitler 's ultimatum, and the German air superiority campaign started in August but failed to defeat RAF Fighter Command. Due to this the proposed German invasion of Britain was postponed indefinitely on 17 September. The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz, but failed to significantly disrupt the British war effort and largely ended in May 1941. Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic. The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck. In November 1939, the United States was taking measures to assist China and the Western Allies, and amended the Neutrality Act to allow "cash and carry '' purchases by the Allies. In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases. Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. In December 1940 Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the US to become an "arsenal of democracy '' and promoting Lend - Lease programmes of aid to support the British war effort. The US started strategic planning to prepare for a full - scale offensive against Germany. At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy and Germany as the Axis Powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined. Romania and Hungary would make major contributions to the Axis war against the USSR, in Romania 's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the USSR. In early June 1940 the Italian Regia aeronautica attacked and beseiged Malta, a British possession. In late summer through early autumn Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British - held Egypt. In October Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within days with minor territorial changes. Germany started preparation for an invasion of the Balkans to assist Italy, to prevent the British from gaining a foothold there, which would be a potential threat for Romanian oil fields, and to strike against the British dominance of the Mediterranean. In December 1940 British Commonwealth forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa. The offensives were highly successful; by early February 1941 Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission by a carrier attack at Taranto and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan. Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa, and at the end of March 1941 Rommel 's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back the Commonwealth forces. In under a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk. By late March 1941 Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact. However, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece, commencing on 6 April 1941; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. Although the Axis victory was swift, bitter and large - scale partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war. In the Middle East, in May Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy - controlled Syria. In June -- July they invaded and occupied the French possessions Syria and Lebanon, with the assistance of the Free French. With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource - rich European possessions in Southeast Asia, the two powers signed the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border. Hitler believed that Britain 's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. He therefore decided to try to strengthen Germany 's relations with the Soviets, or failing that to attack and eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets showed some interest, but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union. On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them. They were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. The primary targets of this surprise offensive were the Baltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk - Astrakhan line, from the Caspian to the White Seas. Hitler 's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate Communism, generate Lebensraum ("living space '') by dispossessing the native population and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany 's remaining rivals. Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By the middle of August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially developed Eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov). The diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front prompted Britain to reconsider its grand strategy. In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany The British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran 's oil fields. In August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter. By October Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region were achieved, with only the sieges of Leningrad and Sevastopol continuing. A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops were forced to suspend their offensive. Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended. By early December, freshly mobilised reserves allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army, allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100 -- 250 kilometres (62 -- 155 mi) west. In 1939, the United States had renounced its trade treaty with Japan, and beginning with an aviation gasoline ban in July 1940, Japan became subject to increasing economic pressure. During this time, Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but was repulsed by late September. Despite several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina. Afterwards, the United States embargoed iron, steel and mechanical parts against Japan. Other sanctions soon followed. Chinese nationalist forces launched a large - scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists. Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation. In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shanggao. In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces. German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, United Kingdom and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo. At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East, intending to capitalise off the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions. Since early 1941 the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. At the same time the US, Britain, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the US would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries ''. Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American - British - Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. On 20 November a new government under Hideki Tojo presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war. Japan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near - simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific. These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines, landings in Thailand and Malaya, and the battle of Hong Kong. These attacks led the United States, United Kingdom, China, Australia and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large - scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt. On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four -- the Soviet Union, China, Britain and the United States -- and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations, thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter, and agreeing to not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers. During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large - scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets were also demanding a second front. The British, on the other hand, argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolster resistance forces. Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour without using large - scale armies. Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa. At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration by the United Nations, and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to invade France in 1944. By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore, and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces, the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean, and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha. These easy victories over unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, as well as overextended. In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Japan 's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang - Jiangxi Campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy. With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua. The Americans planned a counter-attack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing Rabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia. Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna - Gona. Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops. In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942, went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943. The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front - lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results. Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. In May the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov, and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy Kuban steppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south - east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad, and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously. By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender, and the front - line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk. Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast. By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive, Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. In North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by early February, followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. Concerns the Japanese might use bases in Vichy - held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein. On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid, demonstrated the Western Allies ' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security. In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta. A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo - American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies. Hitler responded to the French colony 's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France; although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. The Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943. In June 1943 the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and "de-house '' the civilian population. The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, it lead to significant casualties and inflicted considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial center. After the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians. Soon after, the US, with support from Australian and New Zealand forces, began major operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives, and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea. In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia. On 4 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets ' deeply echeloned and well - constructed defences, and for the first time in the war Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies ' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther -- Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensives. On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following Italy 's armistice with the Allies. Germany with the help of fascists responded by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, and creating a series of defensive lines. German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German - occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic, causing an Italian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November. German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai - shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran. The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory and the military planning for the Burma Campaign, while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany 's defeat. From November 1943, during the seven - week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while awaiting Allied relief. In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio. By the end of January, a major Soviet offensive expelled German forces from the Leningrad region, ending the longest and most lethal siege in history. The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops. The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on 4 June, Rome was captured. The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against British positions in Assam, India, and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima. In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma, and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina. The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China 's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese - held territory and capture Allied airfields. By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha in the Hunan province. On 6 June 1944 (known as D - Day), after three years of Soviet pressure, the Western Allies invaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France. These landings were successful, and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces, both led by General Charles de Gaulle, on 25 August and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Ruhr river in a large offensive. In Italy, Allied advance also slowed due to the last major German defensive line. On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus ("Operation Bagration '') that destroyed the German Army Group Centre almost completely. Soon after that another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet advance prompted resistance forces in Poland to initiate several uprisings against the German occupation. However, the largest of these in Warsaw, where German soldiers massacred 200,000 civilians, and a national uprising in Slovakia, did not receive Soviet support and were subsequently suppressed by the Germans. The Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries ' shift to the Allied side. In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. By this point, the Communist - led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German - occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet - Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, although Finland was forced to fight their former allies. By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese force captured the Mount Song to reopen the Burma Road. In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December. In the Pacific, US forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands, and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history. On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French -- German border to split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp to prompt a political settlement. By January, the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets and Poles attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia. On 4 February, Soviet, British and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan. In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania, while Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling the German Army Group B, while the Soviets advanced to Vienna. In early April, the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg, while Soviet and Polish forces stormed Berlin in late April. American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April. On 30 April 1945, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany. Several changes in leadership occurred during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. Two days later, Hitler committed suicide, and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz. German forces surrendered in Italy on 29 April. Total and unconditional surrender was signed on 7 May, to be effective by the end of 8 May. German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March following a battle which reduced the city to ruins. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war. Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) were destroying strategic and populated cities and towns in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. On the night of 9 -- 10 March, USAAF B - 29 bombers struck Tokyo with thousands of incendiary bombs, which killed 100,000 civilians and destroyed 16 square miles (41 km) within a few hours. Over the next five months, the USAAF firebombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians and destroying 65 % of built - up areas. In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, over-running the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. Chinese forces started to counterattack in Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. At the same time, American submarines cut off Japanese imports, drastically reducing Japan 's ability to supply its overseas forces. On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, and reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of all Japanese forces by Japan, specifically stating that "the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ''. During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister. The Allies called for unconditional Japanese surrender in the Potsdam Declaration of 27 July, but the Japanese government rejected the call. In early August, the USAAF dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, invaded Japanese - held Manchuria, and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force. The Red Army also captured Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war. The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany. The former became a neutral state, non-aligned with any political bloc. The latter was divided into western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the USSR, accordingly. A denazification programme in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society. Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia, Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, East Prussia was divided between Poland and the USSR, followed by the expulsion of the 9 million Germans from these provinces, as well as the expulsion of 3 million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia to Germany. By the 1950s, every fifth West German was a refugee from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line, from which 2 million Poles were expelled; north - east Romania, parts of eastern Finland, and the three Baltic states were also incorporated into the USSR. In an effort to maintain world peace, the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, as a common standard for all member nations. The great powers that were the victors of the war -- France, China, Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States -- became the permanent members of the UN 's Security Council. The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People 's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state, the Russian Federation, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over. Germany had been de facto divided, and two independent states, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic were created within the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones, accordingly. The rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence. Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist - led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Albania became Soviet satellite states. Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy, causing tension with the USSR. Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States - led NATO and the Soviet - led Warsaw Pact; the long period of political tensions and military competition between them, the Cold War, would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and proxy wars. In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administrated Japan 's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the US in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War. In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People 's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab -- Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation. The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The US emerged much richer than any other nation; it had a baby boom and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers and it dominated the world economy. The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945 -- 1948. Because of international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years. Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan (1948 -- 1951) both directly and indirectly caused. The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle. Italy also experienced an economic boom and the French economy rebounded. By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, and although it received a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, continued relative economic decline for decades. The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era. Japan experienced incredibly rapid economic growth, becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s. China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952. Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded. Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about 20 million military personnel and 40 million civilians. Many of the civilians died because of deliberate genocide, massacres, mass - bombings, disease, and starvation. The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war, including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. A quarter of the people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed. Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany. Of the total number of deaths in World War II, approximately 85 per cent -- mostly Soviet and Chinese -- were on the Allied side. Many of these deaths were caused by war crimes committed by German and Japanese forces in occupied territories. An estimated 11 to 17 million civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Nazi racist policies, including the Holocaust of around 6 million Jews, half of whom were Polish citizens, along with at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles. Millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), Roma, homosexuals, and other ethnic and minority groups were also killed. Between 1941 and 1945, over 200,000 ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies and Jews, were persecuted and murdered by the Axis - aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia. Also, over 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945. In Asia and the Pacific, between 3 million and more than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese (estimated at 7.5 million), were killed by the Japanese occupation forces. The most infamous Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered. Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during the Sankō Sakusen. General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung. Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons. The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731) and in early conflicts against the Soviets. Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against civilians and, sometimes on prisoners of war. The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, and the imprisonment or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia, in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army. The mass - bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime. However, no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II. The German government led by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party was responsible for the Holocaust (killing of approximately 6 million Jews), as well as for killing of 2.7 million ethnic Poles, and 4 million others who were deemed "unworthy of life '' (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet prisoners of war, Romani, homosexuals, Freemasons, and Jehovah 's Witnesses) as part of a programme of deliberate extermination. Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable condition, and, although their extermination was not an official goal, 3.6 million of Soviet POWs out of 5.7 died in Nazi camps during the war. In addition to concentration camps, death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people at an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers. About 12 million Europeans from German occupied countries were used as slave work force in German agriculture and war economy. Soviet Gulag became de facto a system of deadly camps during 1942 -- 43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates, including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939 -- 40 by the USSR, as well as of the Axis POWs. By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD check, and significant part of them was sent to Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators. Japanese prisoner - of - war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1 per cent (for American POWs, 37 per cent), seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56. At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board, or Kōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. In Java, between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers ''), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese - held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java. In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the sizeable plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 per cent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 per cent of total German income as the war went on. In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front - lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the "inferior people '' of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions. Although resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East or the West until late 1943. In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. Although Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European domination in some territories, their excessive brutality turned local public opinion against them within weeks. During Japan 's initial conquest it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m) of oil (~ 5.5 × 10 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces, and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (~ 6.8 × 10 ^ t), 76 per cent of its 1940 output rate. In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and British Dominions) had a 30 per cent larger population and a 30 per cent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, it then gives the Allies more than a 5: 1 advantage in population and nearly 2: 1 advantage in GDP. In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan, but only an 89 per cent higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38 per cent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included. The United States provided about two - thirds of all the ordnance used by the Allies in terms of warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. Though the Allies ' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition. While the Allies ' ability to out - produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan 's reluctance to employ women in the labour force, Allied strategic bombing, and Germany 's late shift to a war economy contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and were not equipped to do so. To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers; Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia. Aircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers, and ground - support, and each role was advanced considerably. Innovation included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high - priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); and of strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy 's ability to wage war). Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface - to - air artillery. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and, though late introduction meant it had little impact, it led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide. Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship. In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap. Carriers were also more economical than battleships because of the relatively low cost of aircraft and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured. Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War, were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious. Land warfare changed from the static front lines of World War I to increased mobility and combined arms. The tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank - versus - tank combat. This, along with Germany 's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self - propelled), mines, short - ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. Even with large - scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG34, and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. The assault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armed forces. Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine. Development of SIGINT (signals intelligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes and British Ultra, a pioneering method for decoding Enigma benefiting from information given to Britain by the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception, which the Allies used to great effect, such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world 's first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons, operations research and the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel.

list of private medical colleges in lahore not affiliated with uhs

List of medical schools in Pakistan - wikipedia In Pakistan, a medical school is more often referred to as a medical college. A medical college is affiliated with a university as a department which usually has a separate campus. Currently, there are a total of 117 medical colleges in Pakistan, 59 of which are public and 58 private. All but two colleges are listed in International Medical Education Directory. All medical colleges and universities are regulated by the respective provincial department of health. They however have to be recognized after meeting a set criteria by a central regulatory authority called Pakistan Medical and Dental Council (PMDC). Entrance into the medical colleges is based on merit under the guidelines of PMDC. Both the academic performance at the HSC (grades 11 - 12) and an entrance test like MCAT are taken into consideration for the eligibility to enter most of the medical colleges. To get admission into any government medical college the following weightage is considered: After successfully completing five years of theoretical and practical (clinical) training in the medical college and affiliated teaching hospitals the graduates are awarded a Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) degree. The graduates are then eligible to apply for a medical license from the PMDC. The curriculum for all colleges, irrespective of their regional location and university affiliation, is designed by PMDC. The curriculum spans a term of five years or seasons (four professional years). Main courses of the curriculum, respective of the academic year they are examined in, are as follows: * includes Nutrition, Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Research Methods, Health education, Family Planning, Occupational, Environmental, Preventive and Tropical Medicine. Theoretical, practical and clinical knowledge is assessed by one or more of the following methods; multiple choice questions (MCQs), short essay questions (SEQs), short answer questions (SAQs), laboratory skills, viva voce, and objective structured clinical examination (OSCE). Required laboratory training is provided in biochemistry, histology, physiology, pharmacology, toxicology, pathology including hematology, immunology and microbiology. Teaching in gross anatomy is assisted by exploratory dissection of cadavers. A mandatory group research project is also to be submitted by the students before the fourth professional examination in the community medicine department. Students are also taught diagnostic imaging and technical report writing in the radiology department. Clinical training and evaluation sessions (or clerkship) at the affiliated teaching hospitals is also compulsory for all medical students, especially in their second, third and fourth (final) professional years. These include observation, assisting and practice in various emergency, outpatient, inpatient and operative settings in the following rotating disciplines: anesthesiology, cardiology, dermatology, general surgery, gynecology, internal medicine, obstetrics, ophthalmology including orthoptics, orthopedics, otorhinolaryngology including acoustics, pediatrics, psychiatry, radiology and urology. Visits to various locations for the purposes of training and understanding of social, legal, communal and preventive aspects of health are also conducted if possible, such as: Once the student has graduated after passing his or her final (fourth professional) examination, he or she is eligible to apply for a seat as a house officer in either the attached hospital of the college (usually as a paid employee) or in any other tertiary health care hospital (usually as an unpaid employee or "honorary ''). The graduate has to first register (provisional) with and acquire a certificate from PMDC. The house officer has to serve for 12 months (foundation year) at one or more hospitals in four modules; 3 months in internal medicine, 3 months in general surgery, 3 months in medicine allied and 3 months in surgery allied in any order. The graduate can then apply for a medical practice license from PMDC which will allow the medical graduate to work as a registered medical professional anywhere in the country and study for higher specialties / qualifications. ! No.! Name of medical school! Funding! Established! Enrollment! University! City! Province! Website! IMED profile - 94 Talha Medical College Private 2009 100 MIU Mirpur AJK mimc.edu.pk 704445 -) All medical students are taught various aspects of public health such as:

when do the new tax laws become effective

Tax cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 - Wikipedia Public law no. 115 - 97, an Act to provide for reconciliation pursuant to titles II and V of the concurrent resolution on the budget for fiscal year 2018, is a congressional revenue act originally introduced in Congress as the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA). Public law no. 115 - 97 ("the Act '') amended the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 based on tax reform advocated by congressional Republicans and the Trump administration. Major elements include reducing tax rates for businesses and individuals; a personal tax simplification by increasing the standard deduction and family tax credits, but eliminating personal exemptions and making it less beneficial to itemize deductions; limiting deductions for state and local income taxes (SALT) and property taxes; further limiting the mortgage interest deduction; reducing the alternative minimum tax for individuals and eliminating it for corporations; reducing the number of estates impacted by the estate tax; and repealing the individual mandate of the Affordable Care Act (ACA). The nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reported that under the Act individuals and pass - through entities like partnerships and S corporations would receive about $1,125 billion in net benefits (i.e. net tax cuts offset by reduced healthcare subsidies) over 10 years, while corporations would receive around $320 billion in benefits. The individual and pass - through tax cuts fade over time and become net tax increases starting in 2027 while the corporate tax cuts are permanent. This enabled the Senate to pass the bill with only 51 votes, without the need to defeat a filibuster, under the budget reconciliation process. The CBO estimated that implementing the Act would add an estimated $1.455 trillion to the national debt over ten years, or about $1.0 trillion after macroeconomic feedback effects, in addition to the $10 trillion increase forecast under the current policy baseline and existing $20 trillion national debt. CBO reported on December 21, 2017: "Overall, the combined effect of the change in net federal revenue and spending is to decrease deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in spending) allocated to lower - income tax filing units and to increase deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in taxes) allocated to higher - income tax filing units ''. The nonpartisan Joint Committee on Taxation also estimated that the GDP level would be 0.7 % percent higher, employment level would be 0.6 % higher and personal consumption level would be 0.6 % higher during the 2018 -- 2027 period on average due to the Act. These are higher levels, not higher annual growth rates, so these are relatively minor economic impacts over 10 years. The distribution of impact by individual income group varies significantly based on the assumptions involved and point in time measured. In general, businesses and upper income groups will mostly benefit regardless, while lower income groups will see the initial benefits fade over time or be adversely impacted. For example, the CBO and JCT estimated that: The Tax Policy Center (TPC) estimated that the bottom 80 % of taxpayers (income under $149,400) would receive 35 % of the benefit in 2018, 34 % in 2025 and none of the benefit in 2027, with some groups incurring costs. TPC also estimated 72 % of taxpayers would be adversely impacted in 2019 and beyond, if the tax cuts are paid for by spending cuts separate from the legislation, as most spending cuts would impact lower - to middle - income taxpayers and outweigh the benefits from the tax cuts. The law also impacts healthcare by repealing the ACA individual mandate, resulting in projections of up to 13 million fewer persons covered by health insurance as some younger, healthier persons will likely choose not to participate. Those in the remaining less healthy pool will pay higher insurance costs on the ACA exchanges, which will result in additional persons dropping coverage. Critics in the media, think tanks and academia assailed the law, mainly based on forecasts of its adverse impact (e.g., higher budget deficit, higher trade deficit, greater income inequality, lower healthcare coverage and higher healthcare costs), disproportionate impact on certain states and professions and the misrepresentations made by its advocates. Some of the reforms passed by the Republicans have become controversial within key states, particularly the $10,000 cap on state and local tax deductibility, and are being challenged in federal court. The House passed the penultimate version of the bill on December 19, 2017, though for Senate procedural reasons small changes were needed and a revote was held in the House. The Senate passed the final version on December 20 in a 51 -- 48 vote and that final version was passed by the House of Representatives on that same day. The bill was signed into law by President Donald Trump on December 22, 2017. Most of the changes introduced by the bill went into effect on January 1, 2018 and will not affect 2017 taxes. Under the law, there are numerous changes to the individual income tax, including changing the income level of individual tax brackets, lowering tax rates, and increasing the standard deductions and family tax credits while the personal exemption and itemized deductions are reduced or eliminated. Most individual income taxes are reduced, until 2025. The number of income tax brackets remain at seven, but the income ranges in several brackets have been changed and each new bracket has lower rates. These are marginal rates that apply to income in the indicated range as under current law (i.e., prior Public Law 115 - 97 or the Act), so a higher income taxpayer will have income taxed at several different rates. A different inflation measure (Chained CPI or C - CPI) will be applied to the brackets instead of the Consumer Price Index (CPI), so the brackets increase more slowly. This is effectively a tax increase over time, as people move more quickly into higher brackets as their income rises; this element is permanent. The standard deduction nearly doubles, from $12,700 to $24,000 for married couples. For single filers, the standard deduction will increase from $6,350 to $12,000. About 70 % of families choose the standard deduction rather than itemized deductions; this could rise to over 84 % if doubled. The personal exemption is eliminated -- this was a deduction of $4,150 per taxpayer and dependent, unless it is in an estate or trust. The child tax credit is doubled from $1,000 to $2,000, $1,400 of which will be refundable. There is also a $500 credit for other dependents, versus zero under current law. Mortgage interest deduction for newly purchased homes (and second homes) would be lowered from total loan balances of $1 million under current law to $750,000. Interest from home equity loans (aka second mortgages) will no longer be deductible, unless the money is used for home improvements. The deduction for state and local income tax, sales tax, and property taxes ("SALT deduction '') will be capped at $10,000. This would have more impact on taxpayers with more expensive property, generally those who live in higher - income areas, or people in states with higher state tax rates. The act repeals the individual mandate of the Affordable Care Act starting in 2019. This is estimated to save the government over $300 billion, by reducing the number of people with coverage by up to 13 million over time along with related health insurance premium tax subsidies. It is estimated to increase premiums on the health insurance exchanges by up to 10 %. It also expands the amount of out - of - pocket medical expenses that may be deducted by lowering threshold from 10 % of adjusted gross income to 7.5 %, but only for 2017 (retroactively) and 2018. For 2019 and later years, the threshold will increase to 10 %. No changes are made to major education deductions and credits, or to the teacher deduction for unreimbursed classroom expenses, which remains at $250. The bill initially expanded usage of 529 college savings accounts for both K - 12 private school tuition and homeschools, but the provision regarding homeschools was overruled by the Senate parliamentarian and removed. The 529 savings accounts for K - 12 private school tuition provision was left intact. The act also prohibites new contributions to Coverdell Education Savings Accounts. Taxpayers will only be able to deduct a casualty loss if it occurs in a disaster that is declared by the president. Alimony paid to an ex-spouse will no longer be deductible by the payer, and alimony payments will no longer be included in the recipient 's gross income. This effectively shifts the tax burden of alimony from the recipient to the payer. This provision is effective for divorce and separation agreements signed after December 31, 2018. Employment - related moving expenses will no longer be deductible, except for moves related to active - duty military service. The miscellaneous itemized deductions (which included deductions for tax preparation fees, investment expenses, union dues, and unreimbursed employee expenses) are eliminated. Fewer people will pay the Alternative minimum tax (AMT) because the act increases the exemption level (from $84,500 to $109,400 for couples; from $54,300 to $70,300 for singles). The act repeals the ability to recharacterize Roth conversions. Under current law, estates that exceed $5.6 million are subject to a 40 % tax at time of death. The TCJA doubles the taxable threshold to $11.2 million. The final bill reduces pass - through taxes via a 20 % deduction, after which a lower rate of 29.6 % will be applied. This benefit phases out starting at $315,000. Many businesses are incorporated as pass - through entities (e.g., partnerships, and S - corporations) meaning the owners pay taxes at individual rates. These represent 95 % of businesses and most of corporate tax revenues. Approximately the largest 2 % of pass - through businesses represent 40 % of pass - through income and under current law are taxed at 39.6 %, the top individual rate. The corporate tax rate would fall from 35 % to 21 %, while some related business deductions and credits would either be reduced or eliminated. The Act would also change the U.S. from a global to a territorial tax system with respect to corporate income tax. Instead of a corporation paying the U.S. tax rate (35 %) for income earned in any country (less a credit for taxes paid to that country), each subsidiary would pay the tax rate of the country in which it is legally established. In other words, under a territorial tax system, the corporation saves the difference between the generally higher U.S. tax rate and the lower rate of the country in which the subsidiary is legally established. Bloomberg Journalist Matt Levine explained the concept: "If we 're incorporated in the U.S. (under today 's global tax regime), we 'll pay 35 percent taxes on our income in the U.S. and Canada and Mexico and Ireland and Bermuda and the Cayman Islands, but if we 're incorporated in Canada (under a territorial tax regime, proposed by the Act), we 'll pay 35 percent on our income in the U.S. but 15 percent in Canada and 30 percent in Mexico and 12.5 percent in Ireland and zero percent in Bermuda and zero percent in the Cayman Islands. '' In theory, the law would reduce the incentive for tax inversion, which is used today to obtain the benefits of a territorial tax system by moving U.S. corporate headquarters to other countries. One time repatriation tax of profits in overseas subsidiaries of 8 %, 15.5 % for cash. U.S. multinationals have accumulated nearly $3 trillion offshore, much of it subsidiaries in tax haven countries. The Act may encourage companies to bring the money home over time, but at these much lower rates. The corporate Alternative Minimum Tax would be eliminated. The final bill includes a 1.4 % excise tax on investment income of private colleges with assets valued at $500,000 per full - time student, and with at least 500 students. This provision has been referred to as an endowment tax, and it has been estimated that it would apply to around 32 universities. Some provisions from the earlier House bill were dropped that would have taxed graduate student tuition waivers, tuition benefits for children and spouses of employees, and student loan interest. A Senate Parliamentarian ruling on December 19 changed the exemption threshold from 500 tuition - paying students to 500 total students. Endowment funds used to carry out a college 's tax - exempt purpose are excluded from the asset threshold, but IRS regulations specifically defining this have not yet been made. The Act contains a variety of miscellaneous tax provisions, many advantaging particular special interests. Miscellaneous provisions include: The Act contains provisions that would open 1.5 million acres in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to oil and gas drilling. This major push to include this provision in the tax bill came from Republican Senator Lisa Murkowski. The move is part of the long - running Arctic Refuge drilling controversy; Republicans had attempted to allow drilling in ANWR almost 50 times. Opening the Arctic Refuge to drilling "unleashed a torrent of opposition from conservationists and scientists. '' Democrats and environmentalist groups such as the Wilderness Society criticized the Republican effort. Under the Statutory Pay - as - You - Go Act of 2010 (PAYGO), laws that increase the federal deficit will trigger automatic spending cuts unless Congress votes to waive them. Because the Act adds $1.5 trillion to the deficit, automatic cuts of $150 billion per year over ten years would have applied, including a $25 billion annual cut to Medicare. Because the PAYGO waiver is not allowed in a reconciliation bill, it requires separate legislation which requires 60 votes in the Senate to end a filibuster. If Congress had not passed the waiver, it would have been the first time that statutory PAYGO sequestration would have occurred. However, the PAYGO waiver was included in the continuing resolution passed by Congress on December 22 and signed by President Trump. The non-partisan Joint Committee on Taxation of the U.S. Congress published its macroeconomic analysis of the final version of the Act, on December 22, 2017: The Tax Policy Center (TPC) reported its macroeconomic analysis of the November 16 Senate version of the Act on December 1, 2017: The Penn Wharton Budget Model (PWBM) estimated relative to a prior law baseline that by 2027: The non-partisan Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimated on December 15, 2017, that implementing the Act would add an estimated $1,455 billion to the national debt over ten years, in addition to the $10 trillion increase forecast under the current policy baseline and existing $20 trillion national debt. Analysis of the similar Senate version indicated the deficit increase from the Act would be $1.0 trillion after macroeconomic feedback effects. CBO reported on December 21, 2017, that: "Overall, the combined effect of the change in net federal revenue and spending is to decrease deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in spending) allocated to lower - income tax filing units and to increase deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in taxes) allocated to higher - income tax filing units. '' The Joint Committee on Taxation estimated the Act would add $1,456 billion total to the annual deficits (debt) over ten years and described the deficit effects of particular elements of the Act on December 18, 2017: Individual and Pass - Through (total: $1,127 billion deficit increase) Business / Corporate and International (total: $330 billion deficit increase) In a November 2017 survey of leading economists, only 2 % agreed with the notion that a tax bill similar to those currently moving through the House and Senate would substantially increase U.S. GDP. The economists unanimously agreed that the bill would increase the U.S. debt. On December 21, 2017, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) released its distribution estimate of the Act: CBO stated that lower income groups will incur costs, while higher income groups will receive benefits: "Overall, the combined effect of the change in net federal revenue and spending is to decrease deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in spending) allocated to lower - income tax filing units and to increase deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in taxes) allocated to higher - income tax filing units. '' The Tax Policy Center (TPC) reported its distributional estimates for the Act. This analysis excludes the impact from repealing the ACA individual mandate, which would apply significant costs primarily to income groups below $40,000. It also assumes the Act is deficit financed and thus excludes the impact of any spending cuts used to finance the Act, which also would fall disproportionally on lower income families as a percentage of their income. The TPC also estimated the amount of the tax cut each group would receive, measured in 2017 dollars: According to the CBO, under the Senate version of the bill, businesses receive a $890 billion benefit or 63 %, individuals $441 billion or 31 %, and estates $83 billion or 6 %. U.S. corporations would likely use the extra after - tax income to repurchase shares or pay more dividends, which mainly flow to wealthy investors. According to the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities (CBPP), "Mainstream estimates conclude that more than one - third of the benefit of corporate rate cuts flows to the top 1 % of Americans, and 70 % flows to the top fifth. Corporate rate cuts could even hurt most Americans since they must eventually be paid for with other tax increases or spending cuts. '' Corporations have significant cash holdings ($1.9 trillion in 2016) and can borrow to invest at near - record low interest rates, so a tax cut is not a prerequisite for investment or giving workers a raise. As of Q2 2017, corporate profits after taxes were near record levels in dollar terms at $1.77 trillion annualized, and very high measured historically as a percentage of GDP, at 9.2 %. In 2017, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) compared the U.S. corporate tax rates (statutory and effective rates) as of 2012 across the G20 countries: An Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy analysis indicated the Act has more of a tax increase impact on "upper - middle - class families in major metropolitan areas, particularly in Democratic - leaning states where taxes, and usually property values, are higher. While only about one - in - five families between the 80th and 95th income percentiles in most red states would face higher taxes by 2027 under the House GOP bill, that number rises to about one - third in Colorado and Illinois, around two - fifths or more in Oregon, Virginia, Massachusetts, New York and Connecticut, and half or more in New Jersey, California and Maryland... '' The scoring by the organizations above assumes the tax cuts are deficit - financed, meaning that over ten years the deficit rises by $1.4 trillion relative to the current law baseline; or $1.0 trillion after economic feedback effects. However, if one assumes the tax cuts are paid for by spending cuts, the distribution is much more unfavorable to lower - and middle - income persons, as most government spending is directed to them; the higher income taxpayers tend to get tax breaks, not direct payments. According to the Tax Policy Center, if the Senate bill were financed by a $1,210 per household cut in government spending per year (a more likely scenario than focusing cuts proportionally by income or income taxes paid), then during 2019: Republican politicians such as Paul Ryan have advocated for spending cuts to help finance the tax cuts, while the President Trump 's 2018 budget includes $2.1 trillion in spending cuts over ten years to Medicaid, Affordable Care Act subsidies, food stamps, Social Security disability insurance, Supplemental security income, and cash welfare (TANF). The Senate bill repeals the individual mandate that requires all Americans under 65 to have health insurance or pay a penalty. The CBO estimated that 13 million fewer persons would have health insurance by 2025, including 8 million fewer on the Affordable Care Act exchanges and 5 million fewer on Medicaid. Fewer persons with healthcare means lower costs for the government, so CBO estimated over $300 billion in savings. This allowed Republicans to increase the size of the tax cuts in the bill. Health insurance premiums on the exchanges could rise as much as 10 percentage points more than they would otherwise. The Administration and its Council of Economic Advisors have made several claims in advocating the Act during 2017, including: Maya MacGuineas of the Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget wrote that the tax cuts would add $1.5 trillion more to the debt over a decade, on top of $10 trillion already forecast. She explained that when the 2001 Bush tax cuts were passed, debt was 31 % GDP, while today it is 77 % GDP, "higher than any time in history other than just after World War II. '' She concluded that: "Instead of trickling down economic growth, the House plan will unleash a tidal wave of debt that will ultimately slow wage growth and hurt the economy. '' Both the House and Senate versions of the bill will raise taxes for middle - and lower - income persons, after initial cuts. For example, the Senate version of the bill will result in tax increases for those earning less than $75,000 by 2027. David Leonhardt wrote: "An assortment of middle - class tax increases -- again, to help cover the cost of the tax cuts for the wealthy -- last for the full life of the Senate bill. As a result, it ends up being a tax increase on households making less than $75,000. '' Leonhardt explained that in 2027, after - tax income falls between 0.1 -- 1.5 % for incomes below $75 k, while incomes above $500 k see benefits of 0.4 -- 0.6 %. Leonhardt referred to the JCT study of the Senate version of the bill, which indicated that: a) Starting in 2021 those earning $10,000 -- 30,000 (24 % of taxpayers) pay more in taxes; b) In 2023 and 2025, those earning $0 -- $30,000 (34 % of taxpayers) pay more in taxes; and c) In 2027, income groups below $75,000 (65 % of taxpayers) pay more in taxes, while tax cuts remain for those earning over $75,000 (35 % of taxpayers). Paul Krugman disputed the Administration 's primary argument that tax cuts for businesses will stimulate investment and higher wages: In November 2017, the University of Chicago asked over 40 economists if U.S. GDP would be substantially higher a decade from now, if either the House or Senate bills were enacted, with the following results: 52 % either disagreed or strongly disagreed, while 36 % were uncertain and only 2 % agreed. The Tax Policy Center estimated that GDP would be 0.3 % higher in 2027 under the House bill versus current law, while the University of Pennsylvania Penn Wharton budget model estimates approximately 0.3 -- 0.9 % for both the House and Senate bills. The very limited effect estimated is due to the expectation of higher interest rates and trade deficits. These estimates are both contrary to the Administration 's claims of 10 % increase by 2027 (about 1 % per year) and Senator Mitch McConnell 's estimate of a 4.1 % increase. Federal Reserve Bank of NY President and CEO William C. Dudley stated in January 2018: "While this legislation will reduce federal revenues by about 1 percent of GDP in both 2018 and 2019, I anticipate the boost to economic growth will be less than that. Most importantly, most of the tax cuts accrue to the corporate sector and to higher - income households that have a relatively low marginal propensity to consume. This suggests that a significant portion of the tax cuts will be saved, not spent. '' Corporate executives indicated that raising wages and investment were not priorities should they have additional funds due to a tax cut. A survey conducted by Bank of America - Merrill Lynch of 300 executives of major U.S. corporations asked what they would do with a corporate tax cut. The top three responses were: 1) Pay down debt; 2) Stock buybacks, which are a form of payment to shareholders; and 3) Mergers. An informal survey of CEO 's conducted by Trump economic advisor Gary Cohn resulted in a similar response, with few hands raised in response to his request for them to do so if their company would invest more. Economist and former Treasury Secretary Larry Summers referred to the analysis provided by the Trump administration of its tax proposal as "... some combination of dishonest, incompetent, and absurd. '' Summers wrote that the Trump administration 's "central claim that cutting the corporate tax rate from 35 percent to 20 percent would raise wages by $4,000 per worker '' lacked peer - reviewed support and was "absurd on its face. '' On December 20, 2017, the day the final bill was passed by the House, Wells Fargo, Fifth Third Bancorp and Western Alliance Bancorp announced they would raise the minimum wage of its workers to $15 an hour upon signing of the bill. A number of companies announced bonuses for workers, including AT&T which said it will give a $1,000 bonus to every single one of its 200,000 employees as a result of the Tax Cut bill. Democratic Senator Chuck Schumer stated that these were the exception to the rule and that AT&T was in litigation with the government over a pending merger. He stated: "There is a reason so few executives have said the tax bill will lead to more jobs, investments, and higher wages -- because it will actually lead to share buybacks, corporate bonuses, and dividends. '' In the immediate aftermath of the passage of the Act, a relatively small number of corporations -- many of them involved in mergers disputed by the government or regulatory difficulties -- raised wages or paid bonuses to employees. About 18 companies in the S&P did so; when companies paid awards to employees, these were usually a small percentage of corporate savings from the Act. A January 2018 study from the firm Willis Towers Watson found that 80 % of companies were not "considering giving raises at all. '' Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin argued that the corporate income tax cut will benefit workers the most; however, the nonpartisan Joint Committee on Taxation and Congressional Budget Office estimate that owners of capital benefit vastly more than workers. The New York Times compared average tax rates under the TCJA vs. current law for each income group over time using a series of charts. They show that the Senate version of the bill cuts taxes for lower income persons initially relative to a current law baseline, but by 2027, those earning $50,000 or less would face a tax increase. In contrast, those earning $500,000 or more would have lower taxes initially as well as in 2027. The effect on the lower income persons is more significant if the ACA individual mandate is repealed, as more persons would choose not to sign up for healthcare coverage and thus lose subsidies. The Act also lowers the taxes paid by pass through entities such as S - corporations, partnerships, and limited liability companies, even though pass - through income mainly flows to higher income owners: The New York Times editorial board explained the tax bill as both consequence and cause of income and wealth inequality: "Most Americans know that the Republican tax bill will widen economic inequality by lavishing breaks on corporations and the wealthy while taking benefits away from the poor and the middle class. What many may not realize is that growing inequality helped create the bill in the first place. As a smaller and smaller group of people cornered an ever - larger share of the nation 's wealth, so too did they gain an ever - larger share of political power. They became, in effect, kingmakers; the tax bill is a natural consequence of their long effort to bend American politics to serve their interests. '' The corporate tax rate was 48 % in the 1970s and is 21 % under the Act. The top individual rate was 70 % in the 1970s and is 37 % under the Act. Despite these large cuts, incomes for the working class have stagnated and workers now pay a larger share of the pre-tax income in payroll taxes. The share of income going to the top 1 % has doubled, from 10 % to 20 %, since the pre-1980 period, while the share of wealth owned by the top 1 % has risen from around 25 % to 42 %. Despite President Trump promising to address those left behind, the House and Senate bills would increase economic inequality: In 2027, if the tax cuts are paid for by spending cuts borne evenly by all families, after - tax income would be 3.0 % higher for the top 0.1 %, 1.5 % higher for the top 10 %, - 0.6 % for the middle 40 % (30th to 70th percentile) and - 2.0 % for the bottom 50 %. A potential consequence of the proposed tax reform, specifically lowering business taxes, is that (in theory) the U.S. would be a more attractive place for foreign capital (investment money). This inflow of foreign capital would help fund the surge in investment by corporations, one of the stated goals of the legislation. However, a large inflow of foreign capital would drive up the price of the dollar, making U.S. exports more expensive, thus increasing the trade deficit. Paul Krugman estimated this could adversely impact up to 2.5 million U.S. jobs. According to The New York Times, "wide range of experts agree that cutting taxes is likely to increase the trade deficit '' with other countries, which conflicts with the stated priority of the White House to reduce the trade deficit. However, Economists widely reject however that reducing the trade deficit necessarily has to be good for the economy. So the fact that this bill may increase the trade deficit will not necessarily decrease American welfare. Paul Krugman wrote that deficits driven by tax cuts could trigger cuts in Medicare by law, opening the door to other safety net cuts to programs such as disability insurance. An estimated 13 million Americans could no longer have health insurance under the Senate version of the Act, which would repeal the ACA 's individual health insurance mandate, a provision in the ACA which imposes a tax penalty on those who choose not to buy health insurance. Neither the House nor the Senate versions of the Act specify how the approximately $1.7 trillion debt increase will be paid for. Therefore, the estimates of its impact on the lower - to middle - classes do not include future reductions in spending that Republicans may attempt to pass to offset the Act 's deficit impact. For example, David Leonhardt explained in The New York Times that: "(A) ll of these estimates understate the long - term damage to the middle class, because they ignore the cuts to education, transportation, Medicare, Medicaid and Social Security that will eventually be necessary to reduce the deficit. '' Three former Secretaries of Defense (Leon Panetta, Ash Carter, and Chuck Hagel) wrote a letter to congressional leaders on November 15, 2017, arguing the additional deficits driven by the tax cuts would ultimately result in reduced military spending and endanger national security by forcing the reduction in funding "for training, maintenance, force structure, flight missions, procurement and other key programs. '' Panetta, Carter, and Hagel wrote that the Act would increase the danger of a "' hollowed out ' military force that lacks the ability to sustain the intensive deployment requirements of our global defense mission. '' Federal Reserve officials had indicated earlier in 2017 that aggressive tax cuts could increase the pace of interest rate increases already planned. Higher interest rates make borrowing more expensive, slowing economic growth (GDP), other things equal. The Fed also raises interest rates to help offset the risk of inflation in a growing economy near full employment. However, as the tax plan became clearer and its impact on the economy was judged to be relatively minor, the Fed indicated that a plan to raise interest rates incrementally as many as three times in 2018 would not be changed. In November 2017, the OECD reported that the U.S. tax burden was lower in 2016 than the OECD country average, measured as a percentage of GDP: Journalist Justin Fox wrote in Bloomberg that Americans may feel financial pressure due to healthcare and college tuition costs, which are much higher than other OECD countries measured as a share of GDP, offsetting the benefit of the already lower tax structure. Fact - checkers such as FactCheck.Org, PolitiFact and The Washington Post 's fact - checker have found that Trump 's claims that his economic proposal and tax plan would not benefit wealthy persons like himself are likely false. The elimination of the estate tax (which only applies to inherited wealth greater than $11 million for a married couple) benefits only the heirs of the very rich (such as Trump 's children), and there is a reduced tax rate for people who report business income on their individual returns (as Trump does). An analysis by The New York Times found that if Trump 's tax plan had been in place in 2005 (the one recent year in which his tax returns were leaked), he would have saved $11 million in taxes. The analysis also found that Trump would save $4.4 million on his eventual estate tax bill. Experts say that the financial windfall for the President and his family from this bill is "virtually unprecedented in American political history ''. A number of Republican congressmen also stand to benefit personally from the tax plan. Most notably, Tennessee Senator Bob Corker was for some time the sole Republican Senator to oppose the tax plan, having stated that he would not support a tax plan that would increase the deficit; but Corker changed his vote to yes on the final version of the bill after a specific carved - out provision was added to the bill that Corker stood to benefit from. Corker rejected that he traded his vote for provisions that benefited him and said that he had no idea that there were provisions in the bill that he personally stood to benefit from. The bill that passed the House has been criticized for its significant negative impact on graduate students. Graduate students in private universities might see their effective tax rate go above 41.9 %, a rate higher than what even the richest of Americans typically pay. The change is due to one of the propositions in the bill that repeals the deduction for qualified tuition and related expenses, meaning that graduate students ' waived tuition would be viewed as taxable income. Given that their stipends are significantly less than the waived tuition, this would typically increase their taxes by 30 -- 60 % for public universities and hundreds of percent for private ones. The Senate version of the bill does not contain these provisions. The House bill 's disadvantageous treatment of graduate students was criticized because of its projected negative effect on the training of U.S. scientists. The bill 's impact on U.S. science and innovation has been criticized by Stanford professor emeritus Burton Richter, a winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics and the National Medal of Science, who critiqued the bill 's negative impact on Americans seeking advanced degrees and wrote that the budget impact of the tax cuts would force a dramatic reduction in federal funding for scientific research. According to The New York Times, "economists and tax experts across the political spectrum warn that the proposed system would invite tax avoidance. The more the tax code distinguishes among types of earnings, personal characteristics or economic activities, the greater the incentive to label income artificially, restructure or switch categories in a hunt for lower rates. '' According to The Wall Street Journal, the bill 's changes to "business and individual taxation could lead to a new era of business reorganization and tax - code gamesmanship with unknown consequences for the economy and federal revenue collection. '' Republicans justified the tax reform initially as an effort to simplify the tax code. Kevin Brady, the chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, and Speaker Paul Ryan said in November 2017 that they would simplify the tax code so much that 9 in 10 Americans would be able to file their taxes on a postcard. President Donald Trump said on December 13, 2017, that people would be able to file their taxes "on a single, little, beautiful sheet of paper ''. However, when the final version of the tax legislation passed through houses of Congress, the legislation kept most loopholes intact and did not simplify the tax code. The announcements by the House leaders hurt the stock prices of tax preparers, but upon the release of the actual bill, the stock prices of tax preparers sharply increased. The legislation was passed by Congress with little debate regarding the comprehensive reforming nature of the Act. The 400 - page House bill was passed two weeks after the legislation was first released, "without a single hearing '' held. In the Senate, the final version of the bill did not receive a public hearing, "was largely crafted behind closed doors, and was released just ahead of the final vote. '' Republicans rewrote major portions of tax bill just hours before the floor vote, making major changes in order to win the votes of several Republican holdouts. Many last - minute changes were handwritten on earlier drafts of the bill. The revisions appeared "first in the lobbying shops of K Street, which sent back copies to some Democrats in the Senate, who took to social media to protest being asked to vote in a matter of hours on a bill that had yet to be shared with them directly. '' The rushed approval of the legislation prompted an outcry from Democrats. Senate Minority Leader Charles Schumer (D -- NY) proposed giving senators more time to read the legislation, but this motion failed after every Republican voted no. Requests to wait until incoming Democratic senator Doug Jones of Alabama could vote on the bill were also denied. Some commentators also criticized the process. The New York Times editorial board wrote that the Senate 's move to rapidly approve the bill "is not how lawmakers are supposed to pass enormous pieces of legislation '' and contrasted the bill to the 1986 tax bill, in which "Congress and the Reagan administration worked across party lines, produced numerous drafts, held many hearings and struck countless compromises. '' Bloomberg columnist Al Hunt classified the legislation as a "slipshod product, legislated with minimal transparency '' that was "rushed so fast through a short - circuited lawmaking process '' in which many members of Congress who voted in favor of the bill did not fully understand what they had done. The finance ministers of the five largest European economies (Britain, Germany, France, Italy and Spain) wrote a letter to U.S. Treasury Secretary Steve Mnuchin, expressing concern that the tax reforms could trigger a trade war, as they would violate World Trade Organization rules and distort international trade. Similar concerns were voiced by China. In response to the Act, German economists called for the German government to enact tax reform and additional subsidies to prevent a loss of jobs and investments to the US. The Short Title reference of "Tax Cuts and Jobs Act '' was not approved by Senate in the final enactment of the reconciliation law due to a dispute that was settled by the Senate Parliamentarian. The tax act is, officially, a set of tax law changes to the Internal Revenue Code that were appended to a budget reconciliation law without Short Title, and its proper reconciliation name (either, the Long Title, or Public Law 115 - 97, or some generic abbreviation) is currently used in referring to the actual law. Nevertheless, as of early 2018, the proposed rejected Short Title name had gained currency within some political and professional circles who continue to use "Tax Cuts and Jobs Act '' to refer to Public Law 115 - 97, and so the Act may be inaccurately referred to by its rejected Short Title in some instances. The bill was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on November 2, 2017, by Congressman Kevin Brady, Republican representative from Texas. On November 9, 2017, the House Ways and Means Committee passed the bill on a party - line vote, advancing the bill to the House floor. The House passed the bill on November 16, 2017, on a mostly - party line vote of 227 -- 205. No Democrat voted for the bill, while 13 Republicans voted against it. Companion legislation was passed by the Senate Finance Committee and Senate Budget Committee, both times on a straight party - line vote. In the early morning hours of December 2, 2017, the Senate passed their version of the bill by a 51 -- 49 vote. Bob Corker (R -- TN) was the only Republican senator to vote against the measure and it received no Democratic Party support. Differences between the House and Senate bills were reconciled in a conference committee that signed the final version on December 15, 2017. The final version contained relatively minor changes from the Senate version. The President then signed the bill into law on December 22, 2017. There were important differences between the House and Senate versions of the bills, due in part to the Senate reconciliation rules, which required that the bill impact the deficit by less than $1.5 trillion over ten years and have minimal deficit impact thereafter. For example: In final changes prior to approval of the Senate bill on December 2, additional changes were made (among others) that were reconciled with the House bill in a conference committee, prior to providing a final bill to the President for signature. The Conference Committee version was published on December 15, 2017. It had relatively minor differences compared to the Senate bill. Individual and pass - through tax cuts "sunset '' (expire) after ten years, while the corporate tax changes are permanent. Leading Republicans support the bill, including President Donald Trump and Vice President Mike Pence, and Republicans in Congress, such as: The House passed the bill on a mostly - party line vote of 227 -- 205. No Democrat voted for the bill, while 13 Republicans voted against it. In the Senate, Republicans "eager for a major legislative achievement after the Affordable Care Act debacle... have generally been enthusiastic about the tax overhaul. '' A number of Republican senators who initially expressed trepidation over the bill, including Ron Johnson of Wisconsin, Susan Collins of Maine, and Steve Daines of Montana, ultimately voted for the Senate bill. The Senate passed the bill, with amendments, on a mostly - party line vote of 51 -- 49. Every Democrat voted against the bill, while every Republican voted for it, except Senator Bob Corker of Tennessee. Republican supporters of the tax bill have characterized it as a simplification of the tax code. While some elements of the legislation would simplify the tax code, other provisions would add additional complexity. For most Americans, the process for filing taxes under the Republican legislation would be similar to what it is today. Democrats oppose the legislation, viewing it as a giveaway to corporations and high earners at the expense of the middle class. Every House Democrat voted against the bill when it came to the House floor; they were joined by 13 Republicans who voted against it. The top congressional Democrats -- Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer of New York and House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi -- strongly oppose the bill. Schumer said of the bill that "The more it 's in sunlight, the more it stinks. '' Pelosi said the legislation was "designed to plunder the middle class to put into the pockets of the wealthiest 1 percent more money... It raises taxes on the middle class, millions of middle - class families across the country, borrows trillions from the future, from our children and grandchildren 's futures to give tax cuts to the wealthiest and encourages corporations to ship jobs overseas. '' The 13 House Republicans who voted against the bill were mostly from New York, New Jersey, and California, and were opposed to the bill 's elimination of the state and local income tax deduction in the bill, which benefits those states. Most academic economists stated that there is no empirical evidence that the tax plan would benefit the economy as much as the Trump administration claimed it will. There is, however, a consensus that it will widen public deficits and economic inequalities. Four winners of the Nobel Prize in Economics have spoken out against the legislation: Joseph Stiglitz, Paul Krugman, Richard Thaler, and Angus Deaton. A group of 137 economists signed an open letter expressing support for the bill; the letter was touted by President Trump, House Speaker Paul Ryan and the Senate Finance Committee as support for the legislation among economists; the letter was criticized by left - liberal publications that cited independent research which contradicted some of its claims and alleged that it contained signatories who did not exist. A group of nine economists (largely from the Reagan and Bush administrations) wrote a letter which estimated 3 percent growth from the reduction in the corporate tax rate within a decade; the letter was challenged by Harvard economists Larry Summers and Jason Furman (both of whom served in the Obama administration), and the nine economists appeared to back off from their original claims. In November 2017, Senator Lindsey Graham (R -- SC) said that "financial contributions will stop '' flowing to the Republican Party if tax reform is unable to be passed. This echoed comments by Representative Chris Collins (R -- NY), who said, "My donors are basically saying ' get it done or do n't ever call me again. ' '' It was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on November 2, 2017, by Congressman Kevin Brady, Republican of Texas. On November 9, 2017, the House Ways and Means Committee passed the bill on a party - line vote, advancing the bill to the House floor. The House passed the bill on November 16, 2017, on a mostly - party line vote of 227 -- 205. No Democrat voted for the bill, while 13 Republicans voted against it. On the same day, companion legislation passed the Senate Finance Committee, again on a party - line vote, 14 -- 12. On November 28, the legislation passed the Senate Budget Committee, again on a party - line vote. On December 2, the Senate passed its version by 51 -- 49, with Bob Corker being the only Republican not to vote in support of the bill. The benefits of the individual tax cuts fade over time, so the Senate can attempt to pass the bill with only 51 votes under the budget reconciliation process. This is specifically to comply with the Byrd Rule, which allows Senators to block legislation if it would increase the deficit significantly beyond a ten - year term. The final version of the bill initially passed in the House of Representatives by a vote of 227 -- 203 on December 19, 2017. In the December 19 vote, the same Republicans who voted against the original House bill still voted against it, with the exception of Tom McClintock. However, several provisions of the bill violated the Senate 's procedural rules, causing the need for the House of Representatives to re-vote with the provisions removed. On December 20, the Senate passed the bill by a party - line vote of 51 -- 48. On the same day, the House of Representatives re-voted on the bill and passed it by a vote of 224 -- 201.

who founded the national alliance to end homelessness

National Alliance to End Homelessness - wikipedia The National Alliance to End Homelessness is a United States - based organization addressing the issue of homelessness. The Alliance provides data and research to policymakers and elected officials in order to inform policy debates. They also work on the local level provide community partners with information on best practices and technical assistance. In March 2011, the Alliance partnered with 26 leaders from Australia, Canada, the European Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States to create an International Alliance to End Homelessness. In 1983, the National Citizens Committee for Food and Shelter was established to meet the emergency needs of the homeless population. In 1987, the Committee determined that a more comprehensive approach was necessary and created the National Alliance to End Homelessness. The current President and CEO is Nan Roman. Ms. Roman works with the Board of Directors and the Alliance 's staff to execute its mission. Current members of the Board include Susan Baker, Co-Founder, Elizabeth Boyle, Co-Founder; Mike Lowry, Gary M. Parsons, Robert Villency, President Nan Roman, Henry Cisneros, Stephen Coyle, Kenneth M. Duberstein, Jeffery Hayward, G. Allan Kingston, The Honorable John J. LaPalce, Tim Marx, Irene Mabry Moses, D. William Moreau, Norman B. Rice, Michael R. Steed, Robert D. Stillman, and Judy Woodruff. In addition to its board and staff, the Alliance partners with over 10,000 public agencies and community providers. In 2000 Ms. Roman launched A Plan, Not a Dream: How to End Homelessness in Ten Years, -- a revolutionary nationwide initiative that provided a step - by - step community - based plan to end homelessness in a decade. By 2010, there are 234 completed plans to end homelessness across the United States. Charity Watch rates the National Alliance to End Homelessness an "A + ''. Ending Homelessness Through Public Policy: Nan Roman, CEO of the National Alliance to End Homelessness When Nan Roman first worked for the Institute for Poverty Studies, the concept of homelessness was not discussed. There was a phenomenon called "residential displacement '' and there was a concern that "if we keep tearing down all this affordable housing and converting apartments into condos and co-ops, there wo n't be enough housing for low - income people. '' At the time the federal government was not concerned because they believed "widespread homelessness would never be accepted in the U.S. '' She later turned her focus to alleviating poverty by impacting public policy. Ms. Roman is a valued resource person for the United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH) The Homelessness Research Institute (HRI), the research branch of the Alliance, publishes an annual report, the State of Homelessness in America The Homelessness Research Institute (HRI), the research arm of the National Alliance to End Homelessness uses the definition for "homelessness '' or "homeless '' set by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), which considers an individual homeless if he or she lives in an emergency shelter, transitional housing program, haven, or a place not meant for human habitation, such as a car, abandoned buildings, or on the street. Continuums of Care (CoCs) are the local or regional planning bodies that coordinate services and funding for individuals and families experiencing homelessness. '' The Alliance hosts two conferences, the National Conference on Ending Homelessness and the National Conference on Ending Family and Youth Homelessness The 2015 National Conference on Ending Family and Youth Homelessness took place on February 18 to 20 at the Sheraton San Diego Hotel and Marina. The 2015 National Conference on Ending Homelessness will take place at the Renaissance Hotel in Washington DC from July 15 to 17. In 2012 the Canadian Alliance to End Homelessness was formed with Alex Himelfarb as the Chair, Tim Richter as Vice - Chair and Stephen Gaetz as secretary. Their objectives are similar to those National Alliance to End Homelessness, and they are actively supporting 10 - year plans in Canada. In 2008 Alberta became the first Canadian province to adopt a 10 - year plan with its two major cities, Calgary and Edmonton. Other cities soon followed. As President and CEO of the Calgary Homeless Foundation, Tim Richter led the implementation of Calgary, Alberta 's 10 Year Plan to End Homelessness from 2008 to 2012 which included the introduction of the Housing First program including the Pathways to Housing program.

who plays maura's mom on rizzoli and isles

Sharon Lawrence - wikipedia Sharon Elizabeth Lawrence (born June 29, 1961) is an American actress, singer, and dancer. She is best known for the role of Sylvia Costas Sipowicz in the ABC drama series NYPD Blue. The role garnered her three Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. Lawrence was born in Charlotte, North Carolina, the daughter of Earlyn Lawrence, an education administrator and Head Start supervisor, and Tom Lawrence, a television news reporter for WRAL - TV in Raleigh, North Carolina. She moved from Charlotte to Raleigh in her junior year of high school and graduated from Needham B. Broughton High School. She attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and graduated with a BA in journalism in 1983. Lawrence began her acting career on Broadway in the 1987 revival of Cabaret. In 1990, she performed in Fiddler on the Roof. She appeared in a number of television movies and series in the 1990s, like Cheers and Star Trek: Voyager. In 1993 she was cast as Assistant District Attorney Sylvia Costas in the ABC police drama series NYPD Blue created by Steven Bochco. Her consistently praised performance earned the actress three Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series nominations from 1993 to 1996, and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series in 1996. In 1996 she left the show for her own comedy series Fired Up on NBC. The series was canceled after two seasons. She later returned to NYPD Blue as a regular, and left the show in 1999, after her character was killed. Lawrence starred with Betty White and Alfred Molina on the short - lived sitcom Ladies Man from 1999 to 2001. She played Velma Kelly in the Broadway musical Chicago in 2000. She also had a series regular role on the CBS supernatural drama Wolf Lake from 2001 to 2002. In film, she co-starred in Gossip (2000), Little Black Book (2004), and The Alibi (2006). Lawrence guest starred on many television dramas and sitcoms in the 2000s. She played Maisy Gibbons, a housewife / prostitute in season one of Desperate Housewives. She also appeared in Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, Boston Legal, Monk, Curb Your Enthusiasm, The Mentalist, and Body of Proof. She had a regular role on the short - lived CW teenage drama series Hidden Palms (2008), as Tess Wiatt, and was seen in the Canadian cable television drama The Line in 2009. In 2009, Lawrence was nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for her portrayal as Izzie Stevens ' mother on Grey 's Anatomy. In April 2010, Lawrence joined Josh Schwartz 's CBS pilot Hitched. In October 2010, she began a recurring role on One Tree Hill as Sylvia Baker, the mother of Julian Baker (Austin Nichols) who comes to Tree Hill from Los Angeles to plan the upcoming wedding of Julian and Brooke Davis (Sophia Bush). She also played the lead character mother in a Lifetime comedy - drama Drop Dead Diva from 2009 to 2013. Also, she played the birth mother of Dr. Maura Isles (Sasha Alexander) in the TNT television series Rizzoli & Isles, although in real life the actresses are only 12 years apart. In recent years, Lawrence has starred in several independent films. In 2013 she was cast in Chris Carter 's thriller drama series The After. The show was set to premiere on Amazon Studios in 2014. The series was cancelled by Amazon before its premiere on January 5, 2015. In March, 2015, Lawrence was cast in the ABC comedy - drama pilot Mix. She now stars in the new CBS Sitcom Me, Myself and I. In 2002, Lawrence married Dr. Tom Apostle. Their wedding was held at the Greek Orthodox church Saint Sophia, the same Los Angeles church in which her character, Sylvia Costas, in NYPD Blue married Detective Andy Sipowicz. Lawrence has played on the World Poker Tour in the Hollywood Home and performed in benefits for the Alzheimer 's Association in Los Angeles called Night at Sardi 's and the What A Pair show for the John Wayne Breast Cancer Center. Lawrence chairs the Women In Film Foundation, the philanthropic arm of Women In Film, which since 1973 has advanced professional opportunities for women in the global entertainment marketplace. She supports Global Green and World Wildlife Fund to protect the environment and endangered species. She is an avid scuba diver.

how many songs did the beatles record together

List of songs recorded by the Beatles - Wikipedia The following is a table of songs recorded by the Beatles. While Bill Wyman of Vulture.com lists a set 213 Beatles compositions, there are a total of 305 songs listed on this page, with 69 of them being cover songs and 236 being original compositions. (with Lennon)

according to isi seismic risk zones the south bengal plains lie within

Earthquake zones of India - wikipedia The Indian subcontinent has a history of devastating earthquakes. The major reason for the high frequency and intensity of the earthquakes is that the Indian plate is driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47 mm / year. Geographical statistics of India show that almost 54 % of the land is vulnerable to earthquakes. A World Bank and United Nations report shows estimates that around 200 million city dwellers in India will be exposed to storms and earthquakes by 2050. The latest version of seismic zoning map of India given in the earthquake resistant design code of India (IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002) assigns four levels of seismicity for India in terms of zone factors. In other words, the earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic zones (Zone 2, 3, 4 and 5) unlike its previous version, which consisted of five or six zones for the country. According to the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level of seismicity whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity. Revised earthquake hazard zone map of India National Center for Seismology, Ministry of Earth Sciences is nodal agency of Government of India dealing with various activities in the field of seismology and allied disciplines. The major activities currently being pursued by the National Center for Seismology include, a) earthquake monitoring on 24X7 basis, including real time seismic monitoring for early warning of tsunamis, b) Operation and maintenance of national seismological network and local networks c) Seismological data centre and information services, d) Seismic hazard and risk related studies e) Field studies for aftershock / swarm monitoring, site response studies f) earthquake processes and modelling, etc. The MSK (Medvedev - Sponheuer - Karnik) intensity broadly associated with the various seismic zones is VI (or less), VII, VIII and IX (and above) for Zones 2, 3, 4 and 5, respectively, corresponding to Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE). The IS code follows a dual design philosophy: (a) under low probability or extreme earthquake events (MCE) the structure damage should not result in total collapse, and (b) under more frequently occurring earthquake events, the structure should suffer only minor or moderate structural damage. The specifications given in the design code (IS 1893: 2002) are not based on detailed assessment of maximum ground acceleration in each zone using a deterministic or probabilistic approach. Instead, each zone factor represents the effective period peak ground accelerations that may be generated during the maximum considered earthquake ground motion in that zone. Each zone indicates the effects of an earthquake at a particular place based on the observations of the affected areas and can also be described using a descriptive scale like Modified Mercalli intensity scale or the Medvedev -- Sponheuer -- Karnik scale. Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers earthquakes of intensity MSK IX or greater. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.36 for Zone 5. Structural designers use this factor for earthquake resistant design of structures in Zone 5. The zone factor of 0.36 is indicative of effective (zero period) level earthquake in this zone. It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The region of Kashmir, the Western and Central Himalayas, North and Middle Bihar, the North - East Indian region, the Rann of Kutch and the Andaman and Nicobar group of islands fall in this zone. Generally, the areas having trap rock or basaltic rock are prone to earthquakes. This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable to MSK VIII. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.24 for Zone 4 Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, the parts of Indo - Gangetic plains (North Punjab, Chandigarh, Western Uttar Pradesh, Terai, North Bengal, Sundarbans) and the capital of the country Delhi fall in Zone 4. In Maharashtra, the Patan area (Koynanagar) is also in zone no - 4. In Bihar the northern part of the state like Raxaul, Near the border of India and Nepal, is also in zone no - 4. This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to MSK VII. and also 7.8 The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.16 for Zone 3. This region is liable to MSK VI or less and is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.10 (maximum horizontal acceleration that can be experienced by a structure in this zone is 10 % of gravitational acceleration) for Zone 2. Since the current division of India into earthquake hazard zones does not use Zone 1, no area of India is classed as Zone 1. Future changes in the classification system may or may not return this zone to use.

how can the size of the flash eeprom be decided

Flash memory - Wikipedia Flash memory is an electronic (solid - state) non-volatile computer storage medium that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. Toshiba developed flash memory from EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read - only memory) in the early 1980s and introduced it to the market in 1984. The two main types of flash memory are named after the NAND and NOR logic gates. The individual flash memory cells exhibit internal characteristics similar to those of the corresponding gates. While EPROMs had to be completely erased before being rewritten, NAND - type flash memory may be written and read in blocks (or pages) which are generally much smaller than the entire device. NOR - type flash allows a single machine word (byte) to be written -- to an erased location -- or read independently. The NAND type operates primarily in memory cards, USB flash drives, solid - state drives (those produced in 2009 or later), and similar products, for general storage and transfer of data. NAND or NOR flash memory is also often used to store configuration data in numerous digital products, a task previously made possible by EEPROM or battery - powered static RAM. One key disadvantage of flash memory is that it can only endure a relatively small number of write cycles in a specific block. Example applications of both types of flash memory include personal computers, PDAs, digital audio players, digital cameras, mobile phones, synthesizers, video games, scientific instrumentation, industrial robotics, and medical electronics. In addition to being non-volatile, flash memory offers fast read access times, although not as fast as static RAM or ROM. Its mechanical shock resistance helps explain its popularity over hard disks in portable devices, as does its high durability, ability to withstand high pressure, temperature and immersion in water, etc. Although flash memory is technically a type of EEPROM, the term "EEPROM '' is generally used to refer specifically to non-flash EEPROM which is erasable in small blocks, typically bytes. Because erase cycles are slow, the large block sizes used in flash memory erasing give it a significant speed advantage over non-flash EEPROM when writing large amounts of data. As of 2013, flash memory costs much less than byte - programmable EEPROM and had become the dominant memory type wherever a system required a significant amount of non-volatile solid - state storage. Flash memory (both NOR and NAND types) was invented by Fujio Masuoka while working for Toshiba circa 1980. According to Toshiba, the name "flash '' was suggested by Masuoka 's colleague, Shōji Ariizumi, because the erasure process of the memory contents reminded him of the flash of a camera. Masuoka and colleagues presented the invention at the IEEE 1987 International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) held in San Francisco. Intel Corporation introduced the first commercial NOR type flash chip in 1988. NOR - based flash has long erase and write times, but provides full address and data buses, allowing random access to any memory location. This makes it a suitable replacement for older read - only memory (ROM) chips, which are used to store program code that rarely needs to be updated, such as a computer 's BIOS or the firmware of set - top boxes. Its endurance may be from as little as 100 erase cycles for an on - chip flash memory, to a more typical 10,000 or 100,000 erase cycles, up to 1,000,000 erase cycles. NOR - based flash was the basis of early flash - based removable media; CompactFlash was originally based on it, though later cards moved to less expensive NAND flash. NAND flash has reduced erase and write times, and requires less chip area per cell, thus allowing greater storage density and lower cost per bit than NOR flash; it also has up to 10 times the endurance of NOR flash. However, the I / O interface of NAND flash does not provide a random - access external address bus. Rather, data must be read on a block-wise basis, with typical block sizes of hundreds to thousands of bits. This makes NAND flash unsuitable as a drop - in replacement for program ROM, since most microprocessors and microcontrollers require byte - level random access. In this regard, NAND flash is similar to other secondary data storage devices, such as hard disks and optical media, and is thus highly suitable for use in mass - storage devices, such as memory cards. The first NAND - based removable media format was SmartMedia in 1995, and many others have followed, including: A new generation of memory card formats, including RS - MMC, miniSD and microSD, feature extremely small form factors. For example, the microSD card has an area of just over 1.5 cm, with a thickness of less than 1 mm. As of August 2017 microSD cards with capacity up to 400GB are available. Flash memory stores information in an array of memory cells made from floating-gate transistors. In single - level cell (SLC) devices, each cell stores only one bit of information. Multi-level cell (MLC) devices, including triple - level cell (TLC) devices, can store more than one bit per cell. The floating gate may be conductive (typically polysilicon in most kinds of flash memory) or non-conductive (as in SONOS flash memory). In flash memory, each memory cell resembles a standard MOSFET except that the transistor has two gates instead of one. The cells can be seen as an electrical switch in which current flows between two terminals (source and drain) and is controlled by a floating gate (FG) and a control gate (CG)., On top is the control gate (CG), as in other MOS transistors, but below this there is a floating gate (FG) insulated all around by an oxide layer. The FG is interposed between the CG and the MOSFET channel. Because the FG is electrically isolated by its insulating layer, electrons placed on it are trapped until they are removed by another application of electric field (e.g. Applied voltage or UV as in EPROM). Counter-intuitively, placing electrons on the FG sets the transistor to the logical "0 '' state. Once the FG is charged, the electrons in it screen (partially cancel) the electric field from the CG, thus, increasing the threshold voltage (V) of the cell. This means that now a higher voltage (V) must be applied to the CG to make the channel conductive. In order to read a value from the transistor, an intermediate voltage between the threshold voltages (V & V) is applied to the CG. If the channel conducts at this intermediate voltage, the FG must be uncharged (if it was charged, we would not get conduction because the intermediate voltage is less than V), and hence, a logical "1 '' is stored in the gate. If the channel does not conduct at the intermediate voltage, it indicates that the FG is charged, and hence, a logical "0 '' is stored in the gate. The presence of a logical "0 '' or "1 '' is sensed by determining whether there is current flowing through the transistor when the intermediate voltage is asserted on the CG. In a multi-level cell device, which stores more than one bit per cell, the amount of current flow is sensed (rather than simply its presence or absence), in order to determine more precisely the level of charge on the FG. Despite the need for high programming and erasing voltages, virtually all flash chips today require only a single supply voltage, and produce the high voltages using on - chip charge pumps. Over half the energy used by a 1.8 V NAND flash chip is lost in the charge pump itself. Since boost converters are inherently more efficient than charge pumps, researchers developing low - power SSDs have proposed returning to the dual Vcc / Vpp supply voltages used on all the early flash chips, driving the high Vpp voltage for all flash chips in a SSD with a single shared external boost converter. In spacecraft and other high - radiation environments, the on - chip charge pump is the first part of the flash chip to fail, although flash memories will continue to work -- in read - only mode -- at much higher radiation levels. In NOR flash, each cell has one end connected directly to ground, and the other end connected directly to a bit line. This arrangement is called "NOR flash '' because it acts like a NOR gate: when one of the word lines (connected to the cell 's CG) is brought high, the corresponding storage transistor acts to pull the output bit line low. NOR flash continues to be the technology of choice for embedded applications requiring a discrete non-volatile memory device. The low read latencies characteristic of NOR devices allow for both direct code execution and data storage in a single memory product. A single - level NOR flash cell in its default state is logically equivalent to a binary "1 '' value, because current will flow through the channel under application of an appropriate voltage to the control gate, so that the bitline voltage is pulled down. A NOR flash cell can be programmed, or set to a binary "0 '' value, by the following procedure: To erase a NOR flash cell (resetting it to the "1 '' state), a large voltage of the opposite polarity is applied between the CG and source terminal, pulling the electrons off the FG through quantum tunneling. Modern NOR flash memory chips are divided into erase segments (often called blocks or sectors). The erase operation can be performed only on a block-wise basis; all the cells in an erase segment must be erased together. Programming of NOR cells, however, generally can be performed one byte or word at a time. NAND flash also uses floating-gate transistors, but they are connected in a way that resembles a NAND gate: several transistors are connected in series, and the bit line is pulled low only if all the word lines are pulled high (above the transistors ' V). These groups are then connected via some additional transistors to a NOR - style bit line array in the same way that single transistors are linked in NOR flash. Compared to NOR flash, replacing single transistors with serial - linked groups adds an extra level of addressing. Whereas NOR flash might address memory by page then word, NAND flash might address it by page, word and bit. Bit - level addressing suits bit - serial applications (such as hard disk emulation), which access only one bit at a time. Execute - in - place applications, on the other hand, require every bit in a word to be accessed simultaneously. This requires word - level addressing. In any case, both bit and word addressing modes are possible with either NOR or NAND flash. To read data, first the desired group is selected (in the same way that a single transistor is selected from a NOR array). Next, most of the word lines are pulled up above the V of a programmed bit, while one of them is pulled up to just over the V of an erased bit. The series group will conduct (and pull the bit line low) if the selected bit has not been programmed. Despite the additional transistors, the reduction in ground wires and bit lines allows a denser layout and greater storage capacity per chip. (The ground wires and bit lines are actually much wider than the lines in the diagrams.) In addition, NAND flash is typically permitted to contain a certain number of faults (NOR flash, as is used for a BIOS ROM, is expected to be fault - free). Manufacturers try to maximize the amount of usable storage by shrinking the size of the transistors. NAND flash uses tunnel injection for writing and tunnel release for erasing. NAND flash memory forms the core of the removable USB storage devices known as USB flash drives, as well as most memory card formats and solid - state drives available today. Vertical NAND (V - NAND) memory stacks memory cells vertically and uses a charge trap flash architecture. The vertical layers allow larger areal bit densities without requiring smaller individual cells. V - NAND uses a charge trap flash geometry (pioneered in 2002 by AMD) that stores charge on an embedded silicon nitride film. Such a film is more robust against point defects and can be made thicker to hold larger numbers of electrons. V - NAND wraps a planar charge trap cell into a cylindrical form. The hierarchical structure of NAND Flash starts at a cell level which establishes strings, then pages, blocks, planes and ultimately a die. A string is a series of connected NAND cells in which the source of one cell is connected to the drain of the next one. Depending on the NAND technology, a string typically consists of 32 to 128 NAND cells. Strings are organised into pages which are then organised into blocks in which each string is connected to a separate line called a bitline (BL) All cells with the same position in the string are connected through the control gates by a wordline (WL) A plane contains a certain number of blocks that are connected through the same BL. A Flash die consists of one or more planes, and the peripheral circuitry that is needed to perform all the read / write / erase operations. An individual memory cell is made up of one planar polysilicon layer containing a hole filled by multiple concentric vertical cylinders. The hole 's polysilicon surface acts as the gate electrode. The outermost silicon dioxide cylinder acts as the gate dielectric, enclosing a silicon nitride cylinder that stores charge, in turn enclosing a silicon dioxide cylinder as the tunnel dielectric that surrounds a central rod of conducting polysilicon which acts as the conducting channel. Memory cells in different vertical layers do not interfere with each other, as the charges can not move vertically through the silicon nitride storage medium, and the electric fields associated with the gates are closely confined within each layer. The vertical collection is electrically identical to the serial - linked groups in which conventional NAND flash memory is configured. Growth of a group of V - NAND cells begins with an alternating stack of conducting (doped) polysilicon layers and insulating silicon dioxide layers. The next step is to form a cylindrical hole through these layers. In practice, a 128 Gibit V - NAND chip with 24 layers of memory cells requires about 2.9 billion such holes. Next the hole 's inner surface receives multiple coatings, first silicon dioxide, then silicon nitride, then a second layer of silicon dioxide. Finally, the hole is filled with conducting (doped) polysilicon. As of 2013, V - NAND flash architecture allows read and write operations twice as fast as conventional NAND and can last up to 10 times as long, while consuming 50 percent less power. They offer comparable physical bit density using 10 - nm lithography, but may be able to increase bit density by up to two orders of magnitude. One limitation of flash memory is that, although it can be read or programmed a byte or a word at a time in a random access fashion, it can be erased only a block at a time. This generally sets all bits in the block to 1. Starting with a freshly erased block, any location within that block can be programmed. However, once a bit has been set to 0, only by erasing the entire block can it be changed back to 1. In other words, flash memory (specifically NOR flash) offers random - access read and programming operations, but does not offer arbitrary random - access rewrite or erase operations. A location can, however, be rewritten as long as the new value 's 0 bits are a superset of the over-written values. For example, a nibble value may be erased to 1111, then written as 1110. Successive writes to that nibble can change it to 1010, then 0010, and finally 0000. Essentially, erasure sets all bits to 1, and programming can only clear bits to 0. File systems designed for flash devices can make use of this capability, for example, to represent sector metadata. Although data structures in flash memory can not be updated in completely general ways, this allows members to be "removed '' by marking them as invalid. This technique may need to be modified for multi-level cell devices, where one memory cell holds more than one bit. Common flash devices such as USB flash drives and memory cards provide only a block - level interface, or flash translation layer (FTL), which writes to a different cell each time to wear - level the device. This prevents incremental writing within a block; however, it does help the device from being prematurely worn out by intensive write patterns. Another limitation is that flash memory has a finite number of program -- erase cycles (typically written as P / E cycles). Most commercially available flash products are guaranteed to withstand around 100,000 P / E cycles before the wear begins to deteriorate the integrity of the storage. Micron Technology and Sun Microsystems announced an SLC NAND flash memory chip rated for 1,000,000 P / E cycles on 17 December 2008. The guaranteed cycle count may apply only to block zero (as is the case with TSOP NAND devices), or to all blocks (as in NOR). This effect is mitigated in some chip firmware or file system drivers by counting the writes and dynamically remapping blocks in order to spread write operations between sectors; this technique is called wear leveling. Another approach is to perform write verification and remapping to spare sectors in case of write failure, a technique called bad block management (BBM). For portable consumer devices, these wearout management techniques typically extend the life of the flash memory beyond the life of the device itself, and some data loss may be acceptable in these applications. For high reliability data storage, however, it is not advisable to use flash memory that would have to go through a large number of programming cycles. This limitation is meaningless for ' read - only ' applications such as thin clients and routers, which are programmed only once or at most a few times during their lifetimes. In December 2012, Taiwanese engineers from Macronix revealed their intention to announce at the 2012 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting that they had figured out how to improve NAND flash storage read / write cycles from 10,000 to 100 million cycles using a "self - healing '' process that used a flash chip with "onboard heaters that could anneal small groups of memory cells. '' The built - in thermal annealing was to replace the usual erase cycle with a local high temperature process that not only erased the stored charge, but also repaired the electron - induced stress in the chip, giving write cycles of at least 100 million. The result was to be a chip that could be erased and rewritten over and over, even when it should theoretically break down. As promising as Macronix 's breakthrough might have been for the mobile industry, however, there were no plans for a commercial product to be released any time in the near future. The method used to read NAND flash memory can cause nearby cells in the same memory block to change over time (become programmed). This is known as read disturb. The threshold number of reads is generally in the hundreds of thousands of reads between intervening erase operations. If reading continually from one cell, that cell will not fail but rather one of the surrounding cells on a subsequent read. To avoid the read disturb problem the flash controller will typically count the total number of reads to a block since the last erase. When the count exceeds a target limit, the affected block is copied over to a new block, erased, then released to the block pool. The original block is as good as new after the erase. If the flash controller does not intervene in time, however, a read disturb error will occur with possible data loss if the errors are too numerous to correct with an error - correcting code. Most flash ICs come in ball grid array (BGA) packages, and even the ones that do not are often mounted on a PCB next to other BGA packages. After PCB Assembly, boards with BGA packages are often X-rayed to see if the balls are making proper connections to the proper pad, or if the BGA needs rework. These X-rays can erase programmed bits in a flash chip (convert programmed "0 '' bits into erased "1 '' bits). Erased bits ("1 '' bits) are not affected by X-rays. Some manufacturers are now making X-ray proof SD and USB memory devices. The low - level interface to flash memory chips differs from those of other memory types such as DRAM, ROM, and EEPROM, which support bit - alterability (both zero to one and one to zero) and random access via externally accessible address buses. NOR memory has an external address bus for reading and programming. For NOR memory, reading and programming are random - access, and unlocking and erasing are block-wise. For NAND memory, reading and programming are page-wise, and unlocking and erasing are block-wise. Reading from NOR flash is similar to reading from random - access memory, provided the address and data bus are mapped correctly. Because of this, most microprocessors can use NOR flash memory as execute in place (XIP) memory, meaning that programs stored in NOR flash can be executed directly from the NOR flash without needing to be copied into RAM first. NOR flash may be programmed in a random - access manner similar to reading. Programming changes bits from a logical one to a zero. Bits that are already zero are left unchanged. Erasure must happen a block at a time, and resets all the bits in the erased block back to one. Typical block sizes are 64, 128, or 256 KiB. Bad block management is a relatively new feature in NOR chips. In older NOR devices not supporting bad block management, the software or device driver controlling the memory chip must correct for blocks that wear out, or the device will cease to work reliably. The specific commands used to lock, unlock, program, or erase NOR memories differ for each manufacturer. To avoid needing unique driver software for every device made, special Common Flash Memory Interface (CFI) commands allow the device to identify itself and its critical operating parameters. Besides its use as random - access ROM, NOR flash can also be used as a storage device, by taking advantage of random - access programming. Some devices offer read - while - write functionality so that code continues to execute even while a program or erase operation is occurring in the background. For sequential data writes, NOR flash chips typically have slow write speeds, compared with NAND flash. Typical NOR flash does not need an error correcting code. NAND flash architecture was introduced by Toshiba in 1989. These memories are accessed much like block devices, such as hard disks. Each block consists of a number of pages. The pages are typically 512 or 2,048 or 4,096 bytes in size. Associated with each page are a few bytes (typically 1 / 32 of the data size) that can be used for storage of an error correcting code (ECC) checksum. Typical block sizes include: While reading and programming is performed on a page basis, erasure can only be performed on a block basis. NAND devices also require bad block management by the device driver software, or by a separate controller chip. SD cards, for example, include controller circuitry to perform bad block management and wear leveling. When a logical block is accessed by high - level software, it is mapped to a physical block by the device driver or controller. A number of blocks on the flash chip may be set aside for storing mapping tables to deal with bad blocks, or the system may simply check each block at power - up to create a bad block map in RAM. The overall memory capacity gradually shrinks as more blocks are marked as bad. NAND relies on ECC to compensate for bits that may spontaneously fail during normal device operation. A typical ECC will correct a one - bit error in each 2048 bits (256 bytes) using 22 bits of ECC, or a one - bit error in each 4096 bits (512 bytes) using 24 bits of ECC. If the ECC can not correct the error during read, it may still detect the error. When doing erase or program operations, the device can detect blocks that fail to program or erase and mark them bad. The data is then written to a different, good block, and the bad block map is updated. Hamming codes are the most commonly used ECC for SLC NAND flash. Reed - Solomon codes and Bose - Chaudhuri - Hocquenghem codes are commonly used ECC for MLC NAND flash. Some MLC NAND flash chips internally generate the appropriate BCH error correction codes. Most NAND devices are shipped from the factory with some bad blocks. These are typically marked according to a specified bad block marking strategy. By allowing some bad blocks, the manufacturers achieve far higher yields than would be possible if all blocks had to be verified good. This significantly reduces NAND flash costs and only slightly decreases the storage capacity of the parts. When executing software from NAND memories, virtual memory strategies are often used: memory contents must first be paged or copied into memory - mapped RAM and executed there (leading to the common combination of NAND + RAM). A memory management unit (MMU) in the system is helpful, but this can also be accomplished with overlays. For this reason, some systems will use a combination of NOR and NAND memories, where a smaller NOR memory is used as software ROM and a larger NAND memory is partitioned with a file system for use as a non-volatile data storage area. NAND sacrifices the random - access and execute - in - place advantages of NOR. NAND is best suited to systems requiring high capacity data storage. It offers higher densities, larger capacities, and lower cost. It has faster erases, sequential writes, and sequential reads. A group called the Open NAND Flash Interface Working Group (ONFI) has developed a standardized low - level interface for NAND flash chips. This allows interoperability between conforming NAND devices from different vendors. The ONFI specification version 1.0 was released on 28 December 2006. It specifies: The ONFI group is supported by major NAND flash manufacturers, including Hynix, Intel, Micron Technology, and Numonyx, as well as by major manufacturers of devices incorporating NAND flash chips. Two major flash device manufacturers, Toshiba and Samsung, have chosen to use an interface of their own design known as Toggle Mode (and now Toggle V2. 0). This interface is n't pin - to - pin compatible with the ONFI specification. The result is a product designed for one vendor 's devices may not be able to use another vendor 's devices. A group of vendors, including Intel, Dell, and Microsoft, formed a Non-Volatile Memory Host Controller Interface (NVMHCI) Working Group. The goal of the group is to provide standard software and hardware programming interfaces for nonvolatile memory subsystems, including the "flash cache '' device connected to the PCI Express bus. NOR and NAND flash differ in two important ways: These two are linked by the design choices made in the development of NAND flash. A goal of NAND flash development was to reduce the chip area required to implement a given capacity of flash memory, and thereby to reduce cost per bit and increase maximum chip capacity so that flash memory could compete with magnetic storage devices like hard disks. NOR and NAND flash get their names from the structure of the interconnections between memory cells. In NOR flash, cells are connected in parallel to the bit lines, allowing cells to be read and programmed individually. The parallel connection of cells resembles the parallel connection of transistors in a CMOS NOR gate. In NAND flash, cells are connected in series, resembling a NAND gate. The series connections consume less space than parallel ones, reducing the cost of NAND flash. It does not, by itself, prevent NAND cells from being read and programmed individually. Each NOR flash cell is larger than a NAND flash cell -- 10 F vs 4 F -- even when using exactly the same semiconductor device fabrication and so each transistor, contact, etc. is exactly the same size -- because NOR flash cells require a separate metal contact for each cell. When NOR flash was developed, it was envisioned as a more economical and conveniently rewritable ROM than contemporary EPROM and EEPROM memories. Thus random - access reading circuitry was necessary. However, it was expected that NOR flash ROM would be read much more often than written, so the write circuitry included was fairly slow and could erase only in a block-wise fashion. On the other hand, applications that use flash as a replacement for disk drives do not require word - level write address, which would only add to the complexity and cost unnecessarily. Because of the series connection and removal of wordline contacts, a large grid of NAND flash memory cells will occupy perhaps only 60 % of the area of equivalent NOR cells (assuming the same CMOS process resolution, for example, 130 nm, 90 nm, or 65 nm). NAND flash 's designers realized that the area of a NAND chip, and thus the cost, could be further reduced by removing the external address and data bus circuitry. Instead, external devices could communicate with NAND flash via sequential - accessed command and data registers, which would internally retrieve and output the necessary data. This design choice made random - access of NAND flash memory impossible, but the goal of NAND flash was to replace mechanical hard disks, not to replace ROMs. The write endurance of SLC floating-gate NOR flash is typically equal to or greater than that of NAND flash, while MLC NOR and NAND flash have similar endurance capabilities. Examples of endurance cycle ratings listed in datasheets for NAND and NOR flash, as well as in storage devices using flash memory, are provided. However, by applying certain algorithms and design paradigms such as wear leveling and memory over-provisioning, the endurance of a storage system can be tuned to serve specific requirements. In order to compute the longevity of the NAND flash, one must account for the size of the memory chip, the type of memory (e.g. SLC / MLC / TLC), and use pattern. Because of the particular characteristics of flash memory, it is best used with either a controller to perform wear leveling and error correction or specifically designed flash file systems, which spread writes over the media and deal with the long erase times of NOR flash blocks. The basic concept behind flash file systems is the following: when the flash store is to be updated, the file system will write a new copy of the changed data to a fresh block, remap the file pointers, then erase the old block later when it has time. In practice, flash file systems are used only for memory technology devices (MTDs), which are embedded flash memories that do not have a controller. Removable flash memory cards and USB flash drives have built - in controllers to perform wear leveling and error correction so use of a specific flash file system does not add any benefit. Multiple chips are often arrayed to achieve higher capacities for use in consumer electronic devices such as multimedia players or GPSs. The capacity of flash chips generally follows Moore 's Law because they are manufactured with many of the same integrated circuits techniques and equipment. Consumer flash storage devices typically are advertised with usable sizes expressed as a small integer power of two (2, 4, 8, etc.) and a designation of megabytes (MB) or gigabytes (GB); e.g., 512 MB, 8 GB. This includes SSDs marketed as hard drive replacements, in accordance with traditional hard drives, which use decimal prefixes. Thus, an SSD marked as "64 GB '' is at least 64 × 1000 bytes (64 GB). Most users will have slightly less capacity than this available for their files, due to the space taken by file system metadata. The flash memory chips inside them are sized in strict binary multiples, but the actual total capacity of the chips is not usable at the drive interface. It is considerably larger than the advertised capacity in order to allow for distribution of writes (wear leveling), for sparing, for error correction codes, and for other metadata needed by the device 's internal firmware. In 2005, Toshiba and SanDisk developed a NAND flash chip capable of storing 1 GB of data using multi-level cell (MLC) technology, capable of storing two bits of data per cell. In September 2005, Samsung Electronics announced that it had developed the world 's first 2 GB chip. In March 2006, Samsung announced flash hard drives with a capacity of 4 GB, essentially the same order of magnitude as smaller laptop hard drives, and in September 2006, Samsung announced an 8 GB chip produced using a 40 nm manufacturing process. In January 2008, SanDisk announced availability of their 16 GB MicroSDHC and 32 GB SDHC Plus cards. More recent flash drives (as of 2012) have much greater capacities, holding 64, 128, and 256 GB. A joint development at Intel and Micron will allow the production of 32 - layer 3.5 terabyte (TB) NAND flash sticks and 10 TB standard - sized SSDs. The device includes 5 packages of 16 × 48 GB TLC dies, using a floating gate cell design. Flash chips continue to be manufactured with capacities under or around 1 MB, e.g., for BIOS - ROMs and embedded applications. In July 2016, Samsung announced the 4TB Samsung 850 EVO which utilizes their 256 Gb 48 - layer TLC 3D V - NAND. In August 2016, Samsung announced a 32 TB 2.5 - inch SAS SSD based on their 512 Gb 64 - layer TLC 3D V - NAND. Further, Samsung expects to unveil SSDs with up to 100 TB of storage by 2020. Flash memory devices are typically much faster at reading than writing. Performance also depends on the quality of storage controllers which become more critical when devices are partially full. Even when the only change to manufacturing is die - shrink, the absence of an appropriate controller can result in degraded speeds. Serial flash is a small, low - power flash memory that provides only serial access to the data - rather than addressing individual bytes, the user reads or writes large contiguous groups of bytes in the address space serially. Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) is a typical protocol for accessing the device. When incorporated into an embedded system, serial flash requires fewer wires on the PCB than parallel flash memories, since it transmits and receives data one bit at a time. This may permit a reduction in board space, power consumption, and total system cost. There are several reasons why a serial device, with fewer external pins than a parallel device, can significantly reduce overall cost: There are two major SPI flash types. The first type is characterized by small pages and one or more internal SRAM page buffers allowing a complete page to be read to the buffer, partially modified, and then written back (for example, the Atmel AT45 DataFlash or the Micron Technology Page Erase NOR Flash). The second type has larger sectors. The smallest sectors typically found in an SPI flash are 4 kB, but they can be as large as 64 kB. Since the SPI flash lacks an internal SRAM buffer, the complete page must be read out and modified before being written back, making it slow to manage. SPI flash is cheaper than DataFlash and is therefore a good choice when the application is code shadowing. The two types are not easily exchangeable, since they do not have the same pinout, and the command sets are incompatible. With the increasing speed of modern CPUs, parallel flash devices are often much slower than the memory bus of the computer they are connected to. Conversely, modern SRAM offers access times below 10 ns, while DDR2 SDRAM offers access times below 20 ns. Because of this, it is often desirable to shadow code stored in flash into RAM; that is, the code is copied from flash into RAM before execution, so that the CPU may access it at full speed. Device firmware may be stored in a serial flash device, and then copied into SDRAM or SRAM when the device is powered - up. Using an external serial flash device rather than on - chip flash removes the need for significant process compromise (a process that is good for high - speed logic is generally not good for flash and vice versa). Once it is decided to read the firmware in as one big block it is common to add compression to allow a smaller flash chip to be used. Typical applications for serial flash include storing firmware for hard drives, Ethernet controllers, DSL modems, wireless network devices, etc. One more recent application for flash memory is as a replacement for hard disks. Flash memory does not have the mechanical limitations and latencies of hard drives, so a solid - state drive (SSD) is attractive when considering speed, noise, power consumption, and reliability. Flash drives are gaining traction as mobile device secondary storage devices; they are also used as substitutes for hard drives in high - performance desktop computers and some servers with RAID and SAN architectures. There remain some aspects of flash - based SSDs that make them unattractive. The cost per gigabyte of flash memory remains significantly higher than that of hard disks. Also flash memory has a finite number of P / E cycles, but this seems to be currently under control since warranties on flash - based SSDs are approaching those of current hard drives. In addition, deleted files on SSDs can remain for an indefinite period of time before being overwritten by fresh data; erasure or shred techniques or software that work well on magnetic hard disk drives have no effect on SSDs, compromising security and forensic examination. For relational databases or other systems that require ACID transactions, even a modest amount of flash storage can offer vast speedups over arrays of disk drives. In June 2006, Samsung Electronics released the first flash - memory based PCs, the Q1 - SSD and Q30 - SSD, both of which used 32 GB SSDs, and were at least initially available only in South Korea. A solid - state drive was offered as an option with the first MacBook Air introduced in 2008, and from 2010 onwards, all models shipped with an SSD. Starting in late 2011, as part of Intel 's Ultrabook initiative, an increasing number of ultra-thin laptops are being shipped with SSDs standard. There are also hybrid techniques such as hybrid drive and ReadyBoost that attempt to combine the advantages of both technologies, using flash as a high - speed non-volatile cache for files on the disk that are often referenced, but rarely modified, such as application and operating system executable files. As of 2012, there are attempts to use flash memory as the main computer memory, DRAM. It is unclear how long flash memory will persist under archival conditions -- i.e., benign temperature and humidity with infrequent access with or without prophylactic rewrite. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the technology is reasonably robust on the scale of years. Datasheets of Atmel 's flash - based "ATmega '' microcontrollers typically promise retention times of 20 years at 85 ° C (185 ° F) and 100 years at 25 ° C (77 ° F). An article from CMU in 2015 writes that "Today 's flash devices, which do not require flash refresh, have a typical retention age of 1 year at room temperature. '' And that temperature can lower the retention time exponentially. The phenomenon can be modeled by Arrhenius law. One source states that, in 2008, the flash memory industry includes about US $9.1 billion in production and sales. Other sources put the flash memory market at a size of more than US $20 billion in 2006, accounting for more than eight percent of the overall semiconductor market and more than 34 percent of the total semiconductor memory market. In 2012, the market was estimated at $26.8 billion. Due to its relatively simple structure and high demand for higher capacity, NAND flash memory is the most aggressively scaled technology among electronic devices. The heavy competition among the top few manufacturers only adds to the aggressiveness in shrinking the design rule or process technology node. While the expected shrink timeline is a factor of two every three years per original version of Moore 's law, this has recently been accelerated in the case of NAND flash to a factor of two every two years. As the feature size of flash memory cells reaches the 15 - 16 nm minimum limit, further flash density increases will be driven by TLC (3 bits / cell) combined with vertical stacking of NAND memory planes. The decrease in endurance and increase in uncorrectable bit error rates that accompany feature size shrinking can be compensated by improved error correction mechanisms. Even with these advances, it may be impossible to economically scale flash to smaller and smaller dimensions as the number of electron holding capacity reduces. Many promising new technologies (such as FeRAM, MRAM, PMC, PCM, ReRAM, and others) are under investigation and development as possible more scalable replacements for flash.

what is texas a&m football record for 2017

2017 Texas A&M Aggies Football team - wikipedia The 2017 Texas A&M Aggies football team represents Texas A&M University in the 2017 NCAA Division I FBS football season. The Aggies play their home games at Kyle Field in College Station, Texas and compete in the Western Division of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). They are led by sixth year head coach Kevin Sumlin. Roster Last update: August 26, 2016 Texas A&M announced its 2017 football schedule on September 13, 2016. The 2017 schedule consists of 7 home games, 4 away games and 1 neutral site game in the regular season. The Aggies will host SEC foes Alabama, Auburn, Mississippi State, and South Carolina, and will travel to Florida, LSU, and Ole Miss. Texas A&M will go against Arkansas for the fourth time in a row in Arlington, Texas. The Aggies will host three of its four non -- conference games which are against Louisiana -- Lafayette from the Sun Belt Conference, New Mexico from the Mountain West Conference and Nicholls State from the Southland Conference and travel to UCLA from the Pac - 12 Conference. at Rose Bowl, Pasadena, CA The Texas A&M Aggies opened up the 2017 season on the road against the UCLA Bruins at the Rose Bowl. Despite leading the Bruins 44 -- 10 with 4: 08 left in the 3rd, the Aggies were stifled in the 4th quarter, losing 45 -- 44. The 34 point comeback victory is the largest in UCLA history. Nick Starkel started at quarterback for Texas A&M before leaving the game with an apparent left foot injury, with Kellen Mond taking his place. at Kyle Field, College Station, TX at Kyle Field, College Station, TX at AT&T Stadium, Arlington, TX at Kyle Field, College Station, TX at Kyle Field, College Station, TX at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium, Gainesville, FL at Kyle Field, College Station, TX at Kyle Field, College Station, TX at Kyle Field, College Station, TX at Vaught -- Hemingway Stadium, Oxford, MS at Tiger Stadium

the two most influential stoics were a roman slave and an emperor

Stoicism - wikipedia Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BC. It was heavily influenced by certain teachings of Socrates, while Stoic physics are largely drawn from the teachings of the philosopher Heraclitus. Stoicism is predominantly a philosophy of personal ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world. According to its teachings, as social beings, the path to happiness for humans is found in accepting this moment as it presents itself, by not allowing ourselves to be controlled by our desire for pleasure or our fear of pain, by using our minds to understand the world around us and to do our part in nature 's plan, and by working together and treating others fairly and justly. The Stoics are especially known for teaching that "virtue is the only good '' for human beings, and that external things -- such as health, wealth, and pleasure -- are not good or bad in themselves, but have value as "material for virtue to act upon ''. Alongside Aristotelian ethics, the Stoic tradition forms one of the major founding approaches to Western virtue ethics. The Stoics also held that certain destructive emotions resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed people should aim to maintain a will (called prohairesis) that is "in accord with nature ''. Because of this, the Stoics thought the best indication of an individual 's philosophy was not what a person said, but how a person behaved. To live a good life, one had to understand the rules of the natural order since they taught everything was rooted in nature. Many Stoics -- such as Seneca and Epictetus -- emphasized that because "virtue is sufficient for happiness '', a sage would be emotionally resilient to misfortune. This belief is similar to the meaning of the phrase "stoic calm '', though the phrase does not include the "radical ethical '' Stoic views that only a sage can be considered truly free, and that all moral corruptions are equally vicious. Stoicism flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century AD, and among its adherents was Emperor Marcus Aurelius. It experienced a decline after Christianity became the state religion in the 4th century AD. Since then it has seen revivals, notably in the Renaissance (Neostoicism) and in the modern era (modern Stoicism). Stoic comes from the Greek stōïkos, meaning "of the stoa (portico, or porch) ''. This, in turn, refers to the Stoa Poikile, or "Painted Stoa, '' in Athens, where the influential Stoic Zeno of Citium taught. In laymen 's terms stoicism is sometimes referred to as "suffering in silence '', and the ethics associated with that. The Stoics provided a unified account of the world, consisting of formal logic, monistic physics and naturalistic ethics. Of these, they emphasized ethics as the main focus of human knowledge, though their logical theories were of more interest for later philosophers. Stoicism teaches the development of self - control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason (logos). A primary aspect of Stoicism involves improving the individual 's ethical and moral well - being: "Virtue consists in a will that is in agreement with Nature. '' This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy, '' and to accept even slaves as "equals of other men, because all men alike are products of nature ''. The Stoic ethic espouses a deterministic perspective; in regard to those who lack Stoic virtue, Cleanthes once opined that the wicked man is "like a dog tied to a cart, and compelled to go wherever it goes ''. A Stoic of virtue, by contrast, would amend his will to suit the world and remain, in the words of Epictetus, "sick and yet happy, in peril and yet happy, dying and yet happy, in exile and happy, in disgrace and happy, '' thus positing a "completely autonomous '' individual will, and at the same time a universe that is "a rigidly deterministic single whole ''. This viewpoint was later described as "Classical Pantheism '' (and was adopted by Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza). Stoicism became the foremost popular philosophy among the educated elite in the Hellenistic world and the Roman Empire, to the point where, in the words of Gilbert Murray "nearly all the successors of Alexander (...) professed themselves Stoics. '' Beginning around 301 BC, Zeno taught philosophy at the Stoa Poikile ("Painted Porch ''), from which his philosophy got its name. Unlike the other schools of philosophy, such as the Epicureans, Zeno chose to teach his philosophy in a public space, which was a colonnade overlooking the central gathering place of Athens, the Agora. Zeno 's ideas developed from those of the Cynics, whose founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. Zeno 's most influential follower was Chrysippus, who was responsible for the molding of what is now called Stoicism. Later Roman Stoics focused on promoting a life in harmony within the universe, over which one has no direct control. Scholars usually divide the history of Stoicism into three phases: No complete work by any Stoic philosopher survives from the first two phases of Stoicism. Only Roman texts from the Late Stoa survive. Diodorus Cronus, who was one of Zeno 's teachers, is considered the philosopher who first introduced and developed an approach to logic now known as propositional logic, which is based on statements or propositions, rather than terms, making it very different from Aristotle 's term logic. Later, Chrysippus developed a system that became known as Stoic logic and included a deductive system, Stoic Syllogistic, which was considered a rival to Aristotle 's Syllogistic (see Syllogism). New interest in Stoic logic came in the 20th century, when important developments in logic were based on propositional logic. Susanne Bobzien wrote, "The many close similarities between Chrysippus ' philosophical logic and that of Gottlob Frege are especially striking. '' Bobzien also notes that "Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic, on virtually any topic logic today concerns itself with, including speech act theory, sentence analysis, singular and plural expressions, types of predicates, indexicals, existential propositions, sentential connectives, negations, disjunctions, conditionals, logical consequence, valid argument forms, theory of deduction, propositional logic, modal logic, tense logic, epistemic logic, logic of suppositions, logic of imperatives, ambiguity and logical paradoxes. '' The Stoics held that all being (ὄντα) -- though not all things (τινά) -- is material. They accepted the distinction between Abstract and concrete bodies, but rejected Aristotle 's belief that purely incorporeal being exists. Thus, they accepted Anaxagoras ' idea (as did Aristotle) that if an object is hot, it is because some part of a universal heat body had entered the object. But, unlike Aristotle, they extended the idea to cover all accidents. Thus if an object is red, it would be because some part of a universal red body had entered the object. They held that there were four categories. The Stoics propounded that knowledge can be attained through the use of reason. Truth can be distinguished from fallacy -- even if, in practice, only an approximation can be made. According to the Stoics, the senses constantly receive sensations: pulsations that pass from objects through the senses to the mind, where they leave an impression in the imagination (phantasia) (an impression arising from the mind was called a phantasma). The mind has the ability to judge (συγκατάθεσις, synkatathesis) -- approve or reject -- an impression, enabling it to distinguish a true representation of reality from one that is false. Some impressions can be assented to immediately, but others can only achieve varying degrees of hesitant approval, which can be labeled belief or opinion (doxa). It is only through reason that we gain clear comprehension and conviction (katalepsis). Certain and true knowledge (episteme), achievable by the Stoic sage, can be attained only by verifying the conviction with the expertise of one 's peers and the collective judgment of humankind. The first philosophers to explicitly describe nominalist arguments were the Stoics, especially Chrysippus. According to the Stoics, the Universe is a material, reasoning substance, known as God or Nature, which the Stoics divided into two classes, the active and the passive. The passive substance is matter, which "lies sluggish, a substance ready for any use, but sure to remain unemployed if no one sets it in motion ''. The active substance, which can be called Fate or Universal Reason (Logos), is an intelligent aether or primordial fire, which acts on the passive matter: The universe itself is God and the universal outpouring of its soul; it is this same world 's guiding principle, operating in mind and reason, together with the common nature of things and the totality that embraces all existence; then the foreordained might and necessity of the future; then fire and the principle of aether; then those elements whose natural state is one of flux and transition, such as water, earth, and air; then the sun, the moon, the stars; and the universal existence in which all things are contained. Everything is subject to the laws of Fate, for the Universe acts according to its own nature, and the nature of the passive matter it governs. The souls of humans and animals are emanations from this primordial Fire, and are, likewise, subject to Fate: Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being; and how all things act with one movement; and how all things are the cooperating causes of all things that exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and the structure of the web. Individual souls are perishable by nature, and can be "transmuted and diffused, assuming a fiery nature by being received into the seminal reason ('' logos spermatikos ") of the Universe ''. Since right Reason is the foundation of both humanity and the universe, it follows that the goal of life is to live according to Reason, that is, to live a life according to Nature. Stoic theology is a fatalistic and naturalistic pantheism: God is never fully transcendent but always immanent, and identified with Nature. Abrahamic religions personalize God as a world - creating entity, but Stoicism equates God with the totality of the universe; according to Stoic cosmology, which is very similar to the Hindu conception of existence, there is no absolute start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, the space and Universe have neither start nor end, rather they are cyclical. The current Universe is a phase in the present cycle, preceded by an infinite number of Universes, doomed to be destroyed ("ekpyrōsis '', conflagration) and re-created again, and to be followed by another infinite number of Universes. Stoicism considers all existence as cyclic, the cosmos as eternally self - creating and self - destroying (see also Eternal return). Stoicism, just like Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, does not posit a beginning or end to the Universe. According to the Stoics, the logos was the active reason or anima mundi pervading and animating the entire Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the seminal reason ("logos spermatikos ''), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine logos, which is the primordial Fire and reason that controls and sustains the Universe. The ancient Stoics are often misunderstood because the terms they used pertained to different concepts in the past than they do today. The word "stoic '' has come to mean "unemotional '' or indifferent to pain because Stoic ethics taught freedom from "passion '' by following "reason ''. The Stoics did not seek to extinguish emotions; rather, they sought to transform them by a resolute "askēsis '' that enables a person to develop clear judgment and inner calm. Logic, reflection, and concentration were the methods of such self - discipline. Borrowing from the Cynics, the foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself; in wisdom and self - control. Stoic ethics stressed the rule: "Follow where reason leads. '' One must therefore strive to be free of the passions, bearing in mind that the ancient meaning of "passion '' was "anguish '' or "suffering '', that is, "passively '' reacting to external events, which is somewhat different from the modern use of the word. A distinction was made between pathos (plural pathe) which is normally translated as passion, propathos or instinctive reaction (e.g., turning pale and trembling when confronted by physical danger) and eupathos, which is the mark of the Stoic sage (sophos). The eupatheia are feelings that result from correct judgment in the same way that passions result from incorrect judgment. The idea was to be free of suffering through apatheia (Greek: ἀπάθεια; literally, "without passion '') or peace of mind, where peace of mind was understood in the ancient sense -- being objective or having "clear judgment '' and the maintenance of equanimity in the face of life 's highs and lows. For the Stoics, reason meant not only using logic, but also understanding the processes of nature -- the logos or universal reason, inherent in all things. Living according to reason and virtue, they held, is to live in harmony with the divine order of the universe, in recognition of the common reason and essential value of all people. The four cardinal virtues (aretai) of Stoic philosophy is a classification derived from the teachings of Plato (Republic IV. 426 -- 435): Following Socrates, the Stoics held that unhappiness and evil are the results of human ignorance of the reason in nature. If someone is unkind, it is because they are unaware of their own universal reason, which leads to the conclusion of unkindness. The solution to evil and unhappiness then is the practice of Stoic philosophy: to examine one 's own judgments and behavior and determine where they diverge from the universal reason of nature. The Stoics accepted that suicide was permissible for the wise person in circumstances that might prevent them from living a virtuous life. Plutarch held that accepting life under tyranny would have compromised Cato 's self - consistency (constantia) as a Stoic and impaired his freedom to make the honorable moral choices. Suicide could be justified if one fell victim to severe pain or disease, but otherwise suicide would usually be seen as a rejection of one 's social duty. In philosophical terms, things that are indifferent are outside the application of moral law -- that is without tendency to either promote or obstruct moral ends. Actions neither required nor forbidden by the moral law, or that do not affect morality, are called morally indifferent. The doctrine of things indifferent (ἀδιάφορα, adiaphora) arose in the Stoic school as a corollary of its diametric opposition of virtue and vice (καθήκοντα kathekon, "convenient actions '', or actions in accordance with nature; and ἁμαρτήματα hamartemata, mistakes). As a result of this dichotomy, a large class of objects were left unassigned and thus regarded as indifferent. Eventually three sub-classes of "things indifferent '' developed: things to prefer because they assist life according to nature; things to avoid because they hinder it; and things indifferent in the narrower sense. The principle of adiaphora was also common to the Cynics. Philipp Melanchthon revived the doctrine of things indifferent during the Renaissance. Philosophy for a Stoic is not just a set of beliefs or ethical claims, it is a way of life involving constant practice and training (or "askēsis ''). Stoic philosophical and spiritual practices included logic, Socratic dialogue and self - dialogue, contemplation of death, training attention to remain in the present moment (similar to some forms of Buddhist meditation), and daily reflection on everyday problems and possible solutions. Philosophy for a Stoic is an active process of constant practice and self - reminder. In his Meditations, Marcus Aurelius defines several such practices. For example, in Book II. I: Say to yourself in the early morning: I shall meet today ungrateful, violent, treacherous, envious, uncharitable men. All of the ignorance of real good and ill... I can neither be harmed by any of them, for no man will involve me in wrong, nor can I be angry with my kinsman or hate him; for we have come into the world to work together... Prior to Aurelius, Epictetus in his Discourses, distinguished between three types of act: judgment, desire, and inclination. According to French philosopher Pierre Hadot, Epictetus identifies these three acts with logic, physics and ethics respectively. Hadot writes that in the Meditations, "Each maxim develops either one of these very characteristic topoi (i.e., acts), or two of them or three of them. '' Seamus Mac Suibhne has described the practices of spiritual exercises as influencing those of reflective practice. Robertson 's The Philosophy of Cognitive - Behavioral Therapy details at length parallels between Stoic spiritual exercises and modern cognitive behavioral therapy. Stoics were also known for consolatory orations, which were part of the consolatio literary tradition. Three such consolations by Seneca have survived. A distinctive feature of Stoicism is its cosmopolitanism: All people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another according to the Stoics. In the Discourses, Epictetus comments on man 's relationship with the world: "Each human being is primarily a citizen of his own commonwealth; but he is also a member of the great city of gods and men, whereof the city political is only a copy. '' This sentiment echoes that of Diogenes of Sinope, who said, "I am not an Athenian or a Corinthian, but a citizen of the world. '' They held that external differences such as rank and wealth are of no importance in social relationships. Instead, they advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings. Stoicism became the most influential school of the Greco - Roman world, and produced a number of remarkable writers and personalities, such as Cato the Younger and Epictetus. In particular, they were noted for their urging of clemency toward slaves. Seneca exhorted, "Kindly remember that he whom you call your slave sprang from the same stock, is smiled upon by the same skies, and on equal terms with yourself breathes, lives, and dies. '' In his Introduction to the 1964 Penguin Classics edition of Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth discussed the profound impact Stoicism had on Christianity. He claimed the author of the Fourth Gospel declared Christ to be the Logos, which "had long been one of the leading terms of Stoicism, chosen originally for the purpose of explaining how deity came into relation with the universe ''. In St. Ambrose of Milan 's Duties, "The voice is the voice of a Christian bishop, but the precepts are those of Zeno. '' Regarding what he called "the Divine Spirit '', Stanisforth wrote: Cleanthes, wishing to give more explicit meaning to Zeno 's ' creative fire ', had been the first to hit upon the term pneuma, or ' spirit ', to describe it. Like fire, this intelligent ' spirit ' was imagined as a tenuous substance akin to a current of air or breath, but essentially possessing the quality of warmth; it was immanent in the universe as God, and in man as the soul and life - giving principle. Clearly it is not a long step from this to the ' Holy Spirit ' of Christian theology, the ' Lord and Giver of life ', visibly manifested as tongues of fire at Pentecost and ever since associated -- in the Christian as in the Stoic mind -- with the ideas of vital fire and beneficient warmth. Regarding the Trinity, Staniforth wrote: Again in the doctrine of the Trinity, the ecclesiastical conception of Father, Word, and Spirit finds its germ in the different Stoic names of the Divine Unity. Thus Seneca, writing of the supreme Power which shapes the universe, states, ' This Power we sometimes call the All - ruling God, sometimes the incorporeal Wisdom, sometimes the holy Spirit, sometimes Destiny. ' The Church had only to reject the last of these terms to arrive at its own acceptable definition of the Divine Nature; while the further assertion ' these three are One ', which the modern mind finds paradoxical, was no more than commonplace to those familiar with Stoic notions. The apostle Paul met with Stoics during his stay in Athens, reported in Acts 17: 16 -- 18. In his letters, Paul reflected heavily from his knowledge of Stoic philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist his new Gentile converts in their understanding of Christianity. Stoic influence can also be seen in the works of St. Ambrose, Marcus Minucius Felix, and Tertullian. The Fathers of the Church regarded Stoicism as a "pagan philosophy ''; nonetheless, early Christian writers employed some of the central philosophical concepts of Stoicism. Examples include the terms "logos '', "virtue '', "Spirit '', and "conscience ''. But the parallels go well beyond the sharing and borrowing of terminology. Both Stoicism and Christianity assert an inner freedom in the face of the external world, a belief in human kinship with Nature or God, a sense of the innate depravity -- or "persistent evil '' -- of humankind, and the futility and temporary nature of worldly possessions and attachments. Both encourage Ascesis with respect to the passions and inferior emotions such as lust, and envy, so that the higher possibilities of one 's humanity can be awakened and developed. Stoic writings such as Meditations by Marcus Aurelius have been highly regarded by many Christians throughout the centuries. The Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Church accept the Stoic ideal of dispassion to this day. Roman Stoics taught that sex is just within marriage, for unitive and procreative purposes only. This teaching is accepted by the Catholic Church to this day. Saint Ambrose of Milan was known for applying Stoic philosophy to his theology. The word "stoic '' commonly refers to someone indifferent to pain, pleasure, grief, or joy. The modern usage as "person who represses feelings or endures patiently '' was first cited in 1579 as a noun, and 1596 as an adjective. In contrast to the term "Epicurean '', the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 's entry on Stoicism notes, "the sense of the English adjective ' stoical ' is not utterly misleading with regard to its philosophical origins. ''

who had the right to vote in 1789

Voting rights in the United States - wikipedia The issue of voting rights in the United States, specifically the enfranchisement and disenfranchisement of different groups, has been contested throughout United States history. Eligibility to vote in the United States is established both through the federal constitution and by state law. Several constitutional amendments (the 15th, 19th, and 26th specifically) require that voting rights can not be abridged on account of race, color, previous condition of servitude, sex, or age for those above 18; the constitution as originally written did not establish any such rights during 1787 -- 1870. In the absence of a specific federal law or constitutional provision, each state is given considerable discretion to establish qualifications for suffrage and candidacy within its own respective jurisdiction; in addition, states and lower level jurisdictions establish election systems, such as at - large or single member district elections for county councils or school boards. Beyond qualifications for suffrage, rules and regulations concerning voting (such as the poll tax) have been contested since the advent of Jim Crow laws and related provisions that indirectly disenfranchised racial minorities. Since the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the 24th Amendment to the Constitution, and related laws, voting rights have been legally considered an issue related to election systems. The Supreme Court ruled in 1964 that both houses of all state legislatures had to be based on election districts that were relatively equal in population size, under the "one man, one vote '' principle. In 1972, the Court ruled that state legislatures had to redistrict every ten years based on census results; at that point, many had not redistricted for decades, often leading to a rural bias. In other cases, particularly for county or municipal elections, at - large voting has been repeatedly challenged when found to dilute the voting power of significant minorities in violation of the Voting Rights Act. In the early 20th century, numerous cities established small commission forms of government in the belief that "better government '' could result from the suppression of ward politics. Commissioners were elected by the majority of voters, excluding candidates who could not afford large campaigns or who appealed to a minority. Generally the solution to such violations has been to adopt single - member districts (SMDs) but alternative election systems, such as limited voting or cumulative voting, have also been used since the late 20th century to correct for dilution of voting power and enable minorities to elect candidates of their choice. The United States Constitution did not originally define who was eligible to vote, allowing each state to determine who was eligible. In the early history of the U.S., most states allowed only white male adult property owners to vote. Freed slaves could vote in four states. Women were largely prohibited from voting, as were men without property. Women could vote in New Jersey until 1807 (provided they could meet the property requirement) and in some local jurisdictions in other northern states. Non-white Americans could also vote in these jurisdictions, provided they could meet the property requirement. By 1856, white men were allowed to vote in all states regardless of property ownership, although requirements for paying tax remained in five states. On the other hand, several states, including Pennsylvania and New Jersey stripped the free black males of the right to vote in the same period. Four of the fifteen post-Civil War constitutional amendments were ratified to extend voting rights to different groups of citizens. These extensions state that voting rights can not be denied or abridged based on the following: Following the Reconstruction Era until the culmination of the Civil Rights Movement, Jim Crow laws such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and religious tests were some of the state and local laws used in various parts of the United States to deny immigrants (including legal ones and newly naturalized citizens), non-white citizens, Native Americans, and any other locally "undesirable '' groups from exercising voting rights granted under the constitution. Because of such state and local discriminatory practices, over time, the federal role in elections has increased, through amendments to the Constitution and enacted legislation (e.g., the Voting Rights Act of 1965). The "right to vote '' is not explicitly stated in the U.S. Constitution except in the above referenced amendments, and only in reference to the fact that the franchise can not be denied or abridged based solely on the aforementioned qualifications. In other words, the "right to vote '' is perhaps better understood, in layman 's terms, as only prohibiting certain forms of legal discrimination in establishing qualifications for suffrage. States may deny the "right to vote '' for other reasons. For example, many states require eligible citizens to register to vote a set number of days prior to the election in order to vote. More controversial restrictions include those laws that prohibit convicted felons from voting, even those who have served their sentences. Another example, seen in Bush v. Gore, are disputes as to what rules should apply in counting or recounting ballots. A state may choose to fill an office by means other than an election. For example, upon death or resignation of a legislator, the state may allow the affiliated political party to choose a replacement to hold office until the next scheduled election. Such an appointment is often affirmed by the governor. The Constitution, in Article VI, clause (paragraph) 3, states that "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States ''. However, as described in the sections below, voting rights reforms in the 19th and 20th centuries extended the franchise to non-whites, those who do not own property, women, and those 18 -- 21 years old. Each extension of voting rights has been a product of, and also brought about, social change. Extension of voting rights happened through movements and a need for the US to adapt to its growing population. From 1778 to 1871, the government tried to resolve its relationship with the various native tribes by negotiating treaties. These treaties formed agreements between two sovereign nations, stating that Native American people were citizens of their tribe, living within the boundaries of the United States. The treaties were negotiated by the executive branch and ratified by the U.S. Senate. It said that native tribes would give up their rights to hunt and live on huge parcels of land that they had inhabited in exchange for trade goods, yearly cash annuity payments, and assurances that no further demands would be made on them. Most often, part of the land would be "reserved '' exclusively for the tribe 's use. Throughout the 1800s, many native tribes gradually lost claim to the lands they had inhabited for centuries through the federal government 's Indian Removal policy to relocate tribes from the Southeast and Northwest to west of the Mississippi River. European - American settlers continued to encroach on western lands. Only in 1879, in the Standing Bear trial, were American Indians recognized as persons in the eyes of the United States government. Judge Elmer Scipio Dundy of Nebraska declared that Indians were people within the meaning of the laws, and they had the rights associated with a writ of habeas corpus. However, Judge Dundy left unsettled the question as to whether Native Americans were guaranteed US citizenship. Although Native Americans were born within the national boundaries of the United States, those on reservations were considered citizens of their own tribes, rather than of the United States. They were denied the right to vote because they were not considered citizens by law and were thus ineligible. Many Native Americans were told that they would become citizens if they gave up their tribal affiliations in 1887 under the Dawes Act, which allocated communal lands to individual households and was intended to aid in the assimilation of Native Americans into majority culture. This still did not guarantee their right to vote. In 1924 the remaining Native Americans, estimated at about one - third, became United States citizens. But, many western states continued to restrict Native American ability to vote through property requirements, economic pressures, hiding the polls, and condoning of physical violence against those who voted. Since the late 20th century, they have been protected under provisions of the Voting Rights Act as a racial minority, and in some areas, language minority, gaining election materials in their native languages. In several British North American colonies, before and after the 1776 Declaration of Independence, Jews, Quakers and / or Catholics were excluded from the franchise and / or from running for elections. The Delaware Constitution of 1776 stated that "Every person who shall be chosen a member of either house, or appointed to any office or place of trust, before taking his seat, or entering upon the execution of his office, shall (...) also make and subscribe the following declaration, to wit: I, A B. do profess faith in God the Father, and in Jesus Christ His only Son, and in the Holy Ghost, one God, blessed for evermore; and I do acknowledge the holy scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be given by divine inspiration. ''. This was repealed by Article I, Section II. of the 1792 Constitution: "No religious test shall be required as a qualification to any office, or public trust, under this State ''. The 1778 Constitution of the State of South Carolina stated, "No person shall be eligible to sit in the house of representatives unless he be of the Protestant religion '', the 1777 Constitution of the State of Georgia (art. VI) that "The representatives shall be chosen out of the residents in each county (...) and they shall be of the Protestant religion ''. With the growth in the number of Baptists in Virginia before the Revolution, who challenged the established Anglican Church, the issues of religious freedom became important to rising leaders such as James Madison. As a young lawyer, he defended Baptist preachers who were not licensed by (and were opposed by) the established state Anglican Church. He carried developing ideas about religious freedom to be incorporated into the constitutional convention of the United States. In 1787, Article One of the United States Constitution stated that "the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature ''. More significantly, Article Six disavowed the religious test requirements of several states, saying: "(N) o religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. '' But, in Maryland, Jewish Americans were excluded from State office until the law requiring candidates to affirm a belief in an afterlife was repealed in 1828. At the time of ratification of the Constitution in the late 18th century, most states had property qualifications which restricted the franchise; the exact amount varied by state, but by some estimates, more than half of white men were disenfranchised. Several states granted suffrage to free men of color after the Revolution, including North Carolina. This fact was noted by Justice Benjamin Robbins Curtis ' dissent in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), as he emphasized that blacks had been considered citizens at the time the Constitution was ratified: Of this there can be no doubt. At the time of the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, all free native - born inhabitants of the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, and North Carolina, though descended from African slaves, were not only citizens of those States, but such of them as had the other necessary qualifications possessed the franchise of electors, on equal terms with other citizens. When the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified in 1868 after the Civil War, it granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to its jurisdiction. In 1869, the Fifteenth Amendment prohibited the government from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen 's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude ''. The major effect of these amendments was to enfranchise African American men, the overwhelming majority of whom were freedmen in the South. After the war, some southern states passed "Black Codes '', state laws to restrict the new freedoms of African Americans. They attempted to control their movement, assembly, working conditions and other civil rights. Some states also prohibited them from voting. The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, one of three ratified after the American Civil War to grant freedmen full rights of citizenship, prevented any state from denying the right to vote to any citizen based on race. This was primarily related to protecting the franchise of freedmen, but it also applied to non-white minorities, such as Mexican Americans in Texas. The state governments under Reconstruction adopted new state constitutions or amendments designed to protect the ability of freedmen to vote. The white resistance to black suffrage after the war regularly erupted into violence as white groups tried to protect their power. Particularly in the South, in the aftermath of the Civil War whites made efforts to suppress freedmen 's voting. In the 1860s, secret vigilante groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) used violence and intimidation to keep freedmen in a controlled role and reestablish white supremacy. But, black freedmen registered and voted in high numbers, and many were elected to local offices through the 1880s. In the mid-1870s, the insurgencies continued with a rise in more powerful white paramilitary groups, such as the White League, originating in Louisiana in 1874 after a disputed gubernatorial election; and the Red Shirts, originating in Mississippi in 1875 and developing numerous chapters in North and South Carolina; as well as other "White Line '' rifle clubs. They operated openly, were more organized than the KKK, and directed their efforts at political goals: to disrupt Republican organizing, turn Republicans out of office, and intimidate or kill blacks to suppress black voting. They worked as "the military arm of the Democratic Party ''. For instance, estimates were that 150 blacks were killed in North Carolina before the 1876 elections. Economic tactics such as eviction from rental housing or termination of employment were also used to suppress the black vote. White Democrats regained power in state legislatures across the South by the late 1870s, and the federal government withdrew its troops as a result of a national compromise related to the presidency, officially ending Reconstruction. African Americans were a majority in three southern states following the Civil War, and represented over 40 % of the population in four other states. While they did not elect a majority of African Americans to office in any state legislature during Reconstruction, whites still feared and resented the political power exercised by freedmen. After ousting the Republicans, whites worked to restore white supremacy. Although elections were often surrounded by violence, blacks continued to vote and gained many local offices in the late 19th century. In the late 19th century, a Populist - Republican coalition in several states gained governorships and some congressional seats in 1894. To prevent such a coalition from forming again and reduce election violence, the Democratic Party, dominant in all southern state legislatures, took action to disfranchise most blacks and many poor whites outright. From 1890 to 1908, ten of the eleven former Confederate states completed political suppression and exclusion of these groups by ratifying new constitutions or amendments which incorporated provisions to make voter registration more difficult. These included such requirements as payment of poll taxes, complicated record keeping, complicated timing of registration and length of residency in relation to elections, with related record - keeping requirements; felony disenfranchisement focusing on crimes thought to be committed by African Americans, and a literacy test or comprehension test. Prospective voters had to prove the ability to read and write the English language to white voter registrars, who in practice applied subjective requirements. Blacks were often denied the right to vote on this basis. Even well - educated blacks were often told they had "failed '' such a test, if in fact, it had been administered. On the other hand, illiterate whites were sometimes allowed to vote through a "grandfather clause, '' which waived literacy requirements if one 's grandfather had been a qualified voter before 1866, or had served as a soldier, or was from a foreign country. As most blacks had grandfathers who were slaves before 1866 and could not have fulfilled any of those conditions, they could not use the grandfather clause exemption. Selective enforcement of the poll tax was frequently also used to disqualify black and poor white voters. As a result of these measures, at the turn of the century voter rolls dropped markedly across the South. Most blacks and many poor whites were excluded from the political system for decades. Unable to vote, they were also excluded from juries or running for any office. In Alabama, for example, its 1901 constitution restricted the franchise for poor whites as well as blacks. It contained requirements for payment of cumulative poll taxes, completion of literacy tests, and increased residency at state, county and precinct levels, effectively disenfranchised tens of thousands of poor whites as well as most blacks. Historian J. Morgan Kousser found, "They disfranchised these whites as willingly as they deprived blacks of the vote. '' By 1941, more whites than blacks in total had been disenfranchised. Although African Americans quickly began legal challenges to such provisions in the 19th century, it was years before any were successful before the U.S. Supreme Court. Booker T. Washington, better known for his public stance of trying to work within societal constraints of the period at Tuskegee University, secretly helped fund and arrange representation for numerous legal challenges to disfranchisement. He called upon wealthy Northern allies and philanthropists to raise funds for the cause. The Supreme Court 's upholding of Mississippi 's new constitution, in Williams v. Mississippi (1898), encouraged other states to follow the Mississippi plan of disfranchisement. African Americans brought other legal challenges, as in Giles v. Harris (1903) and Giles v. Teasley (1904), but the Supreme Court upheld Alabama constitutional provisions. In 1915 Oklahoma was the last state to append a grandfather clause to its literacy requirement due to Supreme Court cases. From early in the 20th century, the newly established National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) took the lead in organizing or supporting legal challenges to segregation and disfranchisement. Gradually they planned the strategy of which cases to take forward. In Guinn v. United States (1915), the first case in which the NAACP filed a brief, the Supreme Court struck down the grandfather clause in Oklahoma and Maryland. Other states in which it was used had to retract their legislation as well. The challenge was successful. But, nearly as rapidly as the Supreme Court determined a specific provision was unconstitutional, state legislatures developed new statutes to continue disenfranchisement. For instance, in Smith v. Allwright (1944), the Supreme Court struck down the use of state - sanctioned all - white primaries by the Democratic Party in the South. States developed new restrictions on black voting; Alabama passed a law giving county registrars more authority as to which questions they asked applicants in comprehension or literacy tests. The NAACP continued with steady progress in legal challenges to disenfranchisement and segregation. In 1957, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1957 to implement the Fifteenth Amendment. It established the United States Civil Rights Commission; among its duties is to investigate voter discrimination. As late as 1962, programs such as Operation Eagle Eye in Arizona attempted to stymie minority voting through literacy tests. The 24th Amendment was ratified in 1964 to prohibit poll taxes as a condition of voter registration and voting in federal elections. Many states continued to use them in state elections as a means of reducing the number of voters. The American Civil Rights Movement, through such events as the Selma to Montgomery marches and Freedom Summer in Mississippi, gained passage by the United States Congress of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which authorized federal oversight of voter registration and election practices and other enforcement of voting rights. Congress passed the legislation because it found "case by case litigation was inadequate to combat widespread and persistent discrimination in voting ''. Activism by African Americans helped secure an expanded and protected franchise that has benefited all Americans, including racial and language minorities. The bill provided for federal oversight, if necessary, to ensure just voter registration and election procedures. The rate of African - American registration and voting in Southern states climbed dramatically and quickly, but it has taken years of federal oversight to work out the processes and overcome local resistance. In addition, it was not until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6 - 3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes (for both state and federal elections) were officially declared unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This removed a burden on the poor. Legal challenges have continued under the Voting Rights Act, primarily in areas of redistricting and election systems, for instance, challenging at - large election systems that effectively reduce the ability of minority groups to elect candidates of their choice. Such challenges have particularly occurred at the county and municipal level, including for school boards, where exclusion of minority groups and candidates at such levels has been persistent in some areas of the country. This reduces the ability of women and minorities to participate in the political system and gain entry - level experience. A parallel, yet separate, movement was that for women 's suffrage. Leaders of the suffrage movement included Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Alice Paul. In some ways this, too, could be said to have grown out of the American Civil War, as women had been strong leaders of the abolition movement. Middle - and upper - class women generally became more politically active in the northern tier during and after the war. In 1848, the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women 's rights convention, was held in Seneca Falls, New York. Of the 300 present, 68 women and 32 men signed the Declaration of Sentiments which defined the women 's rights movement. The first National Women 's Rights Convention took place in 1850 in Worcester, Massachusetts, attracting more than 1,000 participants. This national convention was held yearly through 1860. When Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton formed the National Women Suffrage Association, their goal was to help women gain voting rights through reliance on the Constitution. Also, in 1869 Lucy Stone and Henry Blackwell formed the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). However, AWSA focused on gaining voting rights for women through the amendment process. Although these two organization were fighting for the same cause, it was not until 1890 that they merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA). After the merger of the two organizations, the (NAWSA) waged a state - by - state campaign to obtain voting rights for women. Wyoming was the first state in which women were able to vote, although it was a condition of the transition to statehood. Utah was the second territory to allow women to vote, but the federal Edmunds -- Tucker Act of 1887 repealed woman 's suffrage in Utah. Colorado was the first established state to allow women to vote on the same basis as men. Some other states also extended the franchise to women before the Constitution was amended to this purpose. During the 1910s Alice Paul, assisted by Lucy Burns and many others, organized such events and organizations as the 1913 Women 's Suffrage Parade, the National Woman 's Party, and the Silent Sentinels. At the culmination of the suffragists ' requests and protests, ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote in time to participate in the Presidential election of 1920. Another political movement that was largely driven by women in the same era was the anti-alcohol Temperance movement, which led to the Eighteenth Amendment and Prohibition. Washington, D.C., was created from a portion of the states of Maryland and Virginia in 1801. The Virginia portion was retroceded (returned) to Virginia upon request of the residents, by an Act of Congress in 1846 to protect slavery, and restore state and federal voting rights in that portion of Virginia. When Maryland delegated a portion of its land to Congress so that it could be used as the Nation 's capital, Congress did not continue Maryland Voting Laws. It canceled all state and federal elections starting with 1802. Local elections limped on in some neighborhoods, until 1871, when local elections were also forbidden by the U.S. Congress. The U.S. Congress is the National Legislature. Under Article I, Section 8, Clause 17, Congress has the sole authority to exercise "Exclusive Legislature in all cases whatsoever '' over the nation 's capital and over federal military bases. Active disfranchisement is typically a States Rights Legislative issue, where the removal of voting rights is permitted. At the national level, the federal government typically ignored voting rights issues, or affirmed that they were extended. Congress, when exercising "exclusive legislation '' over U.S. Military Bases in the United States, and Washington, D.C., viewed its power as strong enough to remove all voting rights. All state and federal elections were canceled by Congress in D.C. and all of Maryland 's voting Rights laws no longer applied to D.C. when Maryland gave up that land. Congress did not pass laws to establish local voting processes in the District of Columbia. This omission of law strategy to disfranchise is contained in the Congressional debates in Annals of Congress in 1800 and 1801. In 1986, the US Congress voted to restore voting rights on U.S. Military bases for all state and federal elections. D.C., citizens were granted the right to vote in Presidential elections in 1961, after the ratification of the twenty - third amendment. Amendment 23 is the only known limit to U.S. Congressional powers, forcing Congress to enforce Amendments 14, 15, 19, 24, and 26 for the first time in Presidential elections. The Maryland citizens and territory converted in Washington, D.C., in 1801 were represented in 1801 by U.S. Rep. John Chew Thomas from Maryland 's 2nd, and U.S. Rep. William Craik from Maryland 's 3rd Congressional Districts. These Maryland U.S. Congressional Districts were redrawn and removed from Washington, D.C. No full Congressional elections have been held since in D.C., a gap continuing since 1801. Congress created a non-voting substitute for a U.S. Congressman, a Delegate, between 1871 -- 1875, but then abolished that post as well. Congress permitted restoration of local elections and home rule for the District on December 24, 1973. In 1971, Congress still opposed restoring the position of a full U.S. Congressman for Washington, D.C. That year it re-established the position of non-voting Delegate to the U.S. Congress. A third voting rights movement was won in the 1960s to lower the voting age from twenty - one to eighteen. Activists noted that most of the young men who were being drafted to fight in the Vietnam War were too young to have any voice in the selection of the leaders who were sending them to fight. Some states had already lowered the voting age: notably Georgia, Kentucky, and Hawaii, had already permitted voting by persons younger than twenty - one. The Twenty - sixth Amendment, ratified in 1971, prohibits federal and state laws which set a minimum voting age higher than 18 years. As of 2008, no state has opted for an earlier age, although some state governments have discussed it. California has, since the 1980s, allowed persons who are 17 to register to vote for an election where the election itself will occur on or after their 18th birthday, and several states including Indiana allow 17 - year - olds to vote in a primary election provided they will be 18 by the general election. Prisoner voting rights are defined by individual states, and the laws are different from state to state. Some states allow only individuals on probation to vote. Others allow individuals on parole and probation. As of 2012, only three states, Florida, Kentucky and Virginia, continue to impose a lifelong denial of the right to vote to all citizens with a felony record, absent a restoration of rights granted by the Governor or state legislature. However, in Kentucky, a felon 's rights can be restored after the completion of a restoration process to regain civil rights. In 2007, Florida legislature restored voting rights to convicted felons who had served their sentences. In March 2011, however, Governor Rick Scott reversed the 2007 reforms. He signed legislation that permanently disenfranchises citizens with past felony convictions. In July 2005, Iowa Governor Tom Vilsack issued an executive order restoring the right to vote for all persons who have completed supervision. On October 31, 2005, Iowa 's Supreme Court upheld mass reenfranchisement of convicted felons. Nine other states disenfranchise felons for various lengths of time following the completion of their probation or parole. Other than Maine and Vermont, all U.S. states prohibit felons from voting while they are in prison. In Puerto Rico, felons in prison are allowed to vote in elections. Practices in the United States are in contrast to some European nations, such as Norway. Some nations allow prisoners to vote. Prisoners have been allowed to vote in Canada since 2002. The United States has a higher proportion of its population in prison than any other Western nation, and more than Russia or China. The dramatic rise in the rate of incarceration in the United States, a 500 % increase from the 1970s to the 1990s, has vastly increased the number of people disenfranchised because of the felon provisions. According to the Sentencing Project, as of 2010 an estimated 5.9 million Americans are denied the right to vote because of a felony conviction, a number equivalent to 2.5 % of the U.S. voting - age population and a sharp increase from the 1.2 million people affected by felony disenfranchisement in 1976. Given the prison populations, the effects have been most disadvantageous for minority and poor communities. The Supreme Court of the United States struck down one - year residency requirements to vote in Dunn v. Blumstein 405 U.S. 330 (1972). The Court ruled that limits on voter registration of up to 30 to 50 days prior to an election were permissible for logistical reasons, but that residency requirements in excess of that violated the equal protection clause, as granted under the Fourteenth Amendment, according to strict scrutiny. In the 1980s homelessness was recognized as an increasing national problem. By the early 21st century, there have been numerous court cases to help protect the voting rights of persons without a fixed address. Low income and homeless citizens face some obstacles in registering to vote. These obstacles include establishing residency, providing a mailing address, and showing proof of identification. A residency requirement varies from state to state. States can not require citizens to show residency of more than 30 days before Election Day. The states of Idaho, Maine, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Wyoming allow voters to register on Election Day. North Dakota does not require voters to register. In the 21st century, homeless persons in all states have the right to register and vote if they satisfy other conditions. In most states, when registering to vote, homeless voters may designate any place of residence, including a street corner, a park, a shelter, or any other location where an individual stays at night. A citizen may only have one residency during registration, but they may switch their registration each time they change locations. Designating residency is needed to prove that the citizen lives within the district where he or she wishes to vote. Some states also require a mailing address in order to send out the voter ID card, which the individual must show on Election Day. Some states allow individuals to use PO Boxes as mailing addresses; other states allow the address to be that of a local shelter, advocacy organization, outreach center, or anywhere else that accepts mail on behalf of a person registering to vote. States such as Arizona and Nebraska allow homeless citizens to use county court houses or county clerks ' offices as mailing address. States that do not require a mailing address include Alaska, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Montana, New Jersey, Vermont, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. All potential voters face new requirements since 2002, when President Bush signed the Help America Vote Act (HAVA). It requires voters to provide their driver 's license numbers, or the last four digits of their Social Security Number on their voter registration form. This has been enforced. The National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH) assists nonprofit organizations, in getting lower income and homeless citizens registered to vote. In 1992, the NCH created a campaign called "You do n't need a home to vote ''. This campaign provided useful resources and guidelines for nonprofit organizations to follow when assisting citizens to register. Nonprofits, like homeless shelters and food banks, set up a voter registration party to help homeless citizens to register. The nonprofit workers must remain nonpartisan when assisting in the registration process. Voting rights of the American homeless is an issue that has been addressed in the courts since the 1980s. Each state is responsible for voting regulations in their area; however, many states throughout America have adopted similar laws regarding homeless citizen voting. Disenfranchising the homeless is considered a violation of their rights under the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause. Many arguments have been made against homeless people being able to vote. Their status of true citizenship has been called into question because of their lack of residency. However, the courts have ruled on more than one occasion in favor of the homeless voting. One of the first court cases regarding homeless voting was Pitts v. Black in New York. The US district court ruled that disenfranchising homeless citizens is a direct violation of the Equal Protection clause found in the Fourteenth Amendment. Two California court rulings, Collier v. Menzel, and Walters v. Weed, also addressed the residency question of homeless voters: Several locales retained restrictions for specialized local elections, such as for school boards, special districts, or bond issues. Property restrictions, duration of residency restrictions, and, for school boards, restrictions of the franchise to voters with children, remained in force. In a series of rulings from 1969 to 1973, the Court ruled that the franchise could be restricted in some cases to those "primarily interested '' or "primarily affected '' by the outcome of a specialized election, but not in the case of school boards or bond issues, which affected taxation to be paid by all residents. In Ball v. James 451 U.S. 335 (1981), the Court further upheld a system of plural voting, by which votes for the board of directors of a water reclamation district were allocated on the basis of a person 's proportion of land owned in the district. The Court has overseen operation of political party primaries to ensure open voting. While states were permitted to require voters to register for a political party 30 days before an election, or to require them to vote in only one party primary, the state could not prevent a voter from voting in a party primary if the voter has voted in another party 's primary in the last 23 months. The Court also ruled that a state may not mandate a "closed primary '' system and bar independents from voting in a party 's primary against the wishes of the party. (Tashijan v. Republican Party of Connecticut 479 U.S. 208 (1986)) The Office of Hawaiian Affairs of the state of Hawaii, created in 1978, limited voting eligibility and candidate eligibility to native Hawaiians on whose behalf it manages 1,800,000 acres (7,300 km) of ceded land. The Supreme Court of the United States struck down the franchise restriction under the Fifteenth Amendment in Rice v. Cayetano 528 U.S. 495 (2000), following by eliminating the candidate restriction in Arakaki v. State of Hawai'i a few months later. Citizens of the nation 's capital, Washington, D.C., have not been apportioned a representative or US senator in Congress. This is because D.C. is a federal district and not a state and under the Constitution, only states are apportioned congresspersons. District of Columbia citizens had voting rights removed in 1801 by Congress, when Maryland delegated that portion of its land to Congress. Congress incrementally removed effective local control or home rule by 1871. It restored some home rule in 1971, but maintained the authority to override any local laws. Washington, D.C., does not have full representation in the U.S. House or Senate. The Twenty - third Amendment, restoring U.S. Presidential Election after a 164 - year - gap, is the only known limit to Congressional "exclusive legislature '' from Article I - 8 - 17, forcing Congress to enforce for the first time Amendments 14, 15, 19, 24, and 26. Amendment 23 gave the District of Columbia three electors and hence the right to vote for President, but not full U.S. Congresspersons nor U.S. Senators. In 1978, Congress proposed a constitutional amendment that would have restored to the District a full seat for representation in the Congress as well. This amendment failed to receive ratification by sufficient number of states within the seven years required. As of 2013, a bill is pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives '', and permit United States citizens residing in the capital to vote for a member to represent them in the House of Representatives. The District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Cong. was passed by the U.S. Senate on February 26, 2009, by a vote of 61 - 37. On April 1, 1993, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States received a petition from Timothy Cooper on behalf of the Statehood Solidarity Committee (the "Petitioners '') against the government of the United States (the "State '' or "United States ''). The petition indicated that it was presented on behalf of the members of the Statehood Solidarity Committee and all other U.S. citizens resident in the District of Columbia. The petition alleged that the United States was responsible for violations of Articles II (right to equality before law) and XX (right to vote and to participate in government) of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man in connection with the inability of citizens of the District of Columbia to vote for and elect a representative to the U.S. Congress. On December 29, 2003, The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights having examined the information and arguments provided by the parties on the question of admissibility. Without prejudging the merits of the matter, the Commission decided to admit the present petition in respect of Articles II and XX of the American Declaration. In addition, the Commission concluded that the United States violates the Petitioners ' rights under Articles II and XX of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man by denying District of Columbia citizens an effective opportunity to participate in their federal legislature. U.S. citizens residing overseas who would otherwise have the right to vote are guaranteed the right to vote in federal elections by the Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act (UOCAVA) of 1986. As a practical matter, individual states implement UOCAVA. U.S. citizens who reside in Puerto Rico, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, or the United States Virgin Islands are not allowed to vote in U.S. national and presidential elections, as these U.S. territories belong to the United States but are not part of the United States. The U.S. Constitution requires a voter to be resident in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia to vote in federal elections. To say that the Constitution does not require extension of federal voting rights to U.S. territories residents does not, however, exclude the possibility that the Constitution may permit their enfranchisement under another source of law. A citizen who has never resided in the United States can vote if a parent is eligible to vote in certain states. In some of these states the citizen can vote in local, state and federal elections, in others in federal elections only. Puerto Rico is an insular area -- a United States territory that is neither a part of one of the fifty states nor a part of the District of Columbia, the nation 's federal district. Insular areas, such as Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam, are not allowed to choose electors in U.S. presidential elections or elect voting members to the U.S. Congress. This grows out of Article I and Article II of the United States Constitution, which specifically mandate that electors are to be chosen by "the People of the several States ''. In 1961, the 23rd amendment to the constitution extended the right to choose electors to the District of Columbia. Any U.S. citizen who resides in Puerto Rico (whether a Puerto Rican or not) is effectively disenfranchised at the national level. Although the Republican Party and Democratic Party chapters in Puerto Rico have selected voting delegates to the national nominating conventions participating in U.S. presidential primaries or caucuses, U.S. citizens not residing in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia may not vote in federal elections. Various scholars (including a prominent U.S. judge in the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit) conclude that the U.S. national - electoral process is not fully democratic due to U.S. government disenfranchisement of U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico. As of 2010, under Igartúa v. United States, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is judicially considered not to be self - executing, and therefore requires further legislative action to put it into effect domestically. Judge Kermit Lipez wrote in a concurring opinion, however, that the en banc majority 's conclusion that the ICCPR is non-self - executing is ripe for reconsideration in a new en banc proceeding, and that if issues highlighted in a partial dissent by Judge Juan R. Torruella were to be decided in favor of the plaintiffs, United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico would have a viable claim to equal voting rights. Congress has in fact acted in partial compliance with its obligations under the ICCPR when, in 1961, just a few years after the United Nations first ratified the ICCPR, it amended our fundamental charter to allow the United States citizens who reside in the District of Columbia to vote for the Executive offices. See U.S. Constitutional Amendment XXIII. 51. Indeed, a bill is now pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives '', and permit United States citizens residing in the capitol to vote for members of the House of Representatives. See District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act, S. 160, 111th Congress (passed by the Senate, February 26, 2009) (2009). 52 However, the United States has not taken similar "steps '' with regard to the five million United States citizens who reside in the other U.S. territories, of which close to four million are residents of Puerto Rico. This inaction is in clear violation of the United States ' obligations under the ICCPR ". Federal legislation such as the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 (NVRA, or "Motor - Voter Act '') and the Help America Vote Act of 2001 (HAVA) help to address some of the concerns of disabled and non-English speaking voters in the United States. Some studies have shown that polling places are inaccessible to disabled voters. The Federal Election Commission reported that, in violation of state and federal laws, more than 20,000 polling places across the nation are inaccessible, depriving people with disabilities of their fundamental right to vote. In 1999, the Attorney General of the State of New York ran a check of polling places around the state to see if they were accessible to voters with disabilities and found many problems. A study of three upstate counties of New York found fewer than 10 percent of polling places fully compliant with state and federal laws. Many polling booths are set in church basements or in upstairs meeting halls where there are no ramps or elevators. This means problems not just for people who use wheelchairs, but for people using canes or walkers too. And in most states people who are blind do not have access to Braille ballot to vote; they have to bring someone along to vote for them. Studies have shown that people with disabilities are more interested in government and public affairs than most and are more eager to participate in the democratic process. Many election officials urge people with disabilities to vote absentee, however some disabled individuals see this as an inferior form of participation. Voter turnout is lower among the disabled. In the 2012 United States presidential election 56.8 % of people with disabilities reported voting, compared to the 62.5 % of eligible citizens without disabilities. Jurisprudence concerning candidacy rights and the rights of citizens to create a political party are less clear than voting rights. Different courts have reached different conclusions regarding what sort of restrictions, often in terms of ballot access, public debate inclusion, filing fees, and residency requirements, may be imposed. In Williams v. Rhodes (1968), the United States Supreme Court struck down Ohio ballot access laws on First and Fourteenth Amendment grounds. However, it subsequently upheld such laws in several other cases. States can require an independent or minor party candidate to collect signatures as high as five percent of the total votes cast in a particular preceding election before the court will intervene. The Supreme Court has also upheld a state ban on cross-party endorsements (also known as electoral fusion) and primary write - in votes. More than 40 states or territories, including colonies before the Declaration of Independence, have at some time allowed noncitizens who satisfied residential requirements to vote in some or all elections. This in part reflected the strong continuing immigration to the United States. Some cities like Chicago, towns or villages (in Maryland) today allow noncitizen residents to vote in school or local elections. In 1875, the Supreme Court in Minor v. Happersett noted that "citizenship has not in all cases been made a condition precedent to the enjoyment of the right of suffrage. Thus, in Missouri, persons of foreign birth, who have declared their intention to become citizens of the United States, may under certain circumstances vote ''. Federal law prohibits noncitizens from voting in federal elections.

where does sukitte ii na yo leave off

Say "I Love You '' - wikipedia Say "I love you ''. (Japanese: 好き っ てい いなよ., Hepburn: Suki - tte ii na yo.) is a Japanese manga by Kanae Hazuki. An anime adaptation by Zexcs aired between October 6 and December 30, 2012. In North America, the manga is published by Kodansha Comics USA and the anime is licensed by Sentai Filmworks. A live action film was released on July 12, 2014. Quiet and unassuming Mei Tachibana has spent her high school years without making friends or getting a boyfriend because of a childhood incident that left her believing that people will betray each other sooner or later. She encounters a popular boy named Yamato Kurosawa, he becomes interested in her, and it is through their tentative friendship and blossoming relationship that Mei ultimately begins to branch out and befriend others. The manga is both written and illustrated by Kanae Hazuki and began serialization in Japan in Kodansha 's Dessert magazine. It was later obtained by Kodansha Comics USA for publishing in North America starting in April 2014. The sixth manga volume was released in two versions, a regular edition and a special edition with the latter being bundled with a special CD. The eleventh manga volume was also released in both regular and limited editions with the latter being bundled with an original video animation DVD. Seventeen tankōbon volumes have been released as of October 11, 2016. The manga will end serialization on July 24. An anime adaptation by Zexcs began premiered on Tokyo MX October 6, 2012. The series was later aired on tvk, BS11 and AT - X. It was later licensed by Sentai Filmworks for release in North America. The opening song is "Friendship '' by Ritsuko Okazaki and the ending theme is "Slow Dance '' by Suneohair. The wraparound jacket band of the 11th volume of the manga announced in 2013 that a live action film was greenlit for release in 2014. The film was both directed and written by Asako Hyuga. Haruna Kawaguchi and Sota Fukushi were cast as Mei Tachibana and Yamato Kurosawa respectively. The film was released in Japan on July 12, 2014. Its main theme song is "Happily '' by One Direction. The manga has sold over 5.3 million copies as of July 2014. The film earned ¥ 1.1 billion (US $10 million) at the Japanese box office.

how does a wheel and axel make work easier

Wheel and axle - wikipedia The wheel and axle is one of six simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists drawing from Greek texts on technology. The wheel and axle consists of a wheel attached to a smaller axle so that these two parts rotate together in which a force is transferred from one to the other. A hinge or bearing supports the axle, allowing rotation. It can amplify force; a small force applied to the periphery of the large wheel can move a larger load attached to the axle. The wheel and axle can be viewed as a version of the lever, with a drive force applied tangentially to the perimeter of the wheel and a load force applied to the axle, respectively, that are balanced around the hinge which is the fulcrum. The mechanical advantage of the wheel and axle is the ratio of the distances from the fulcrum to the applied loads, or what is the same thing the ratio of the diameter of the wheel and axle. A major application is in wheeled vehicles, in which the wheel and axle are used to reduce friction of the moving vehicle with the ground. Other examples of devices which use the wheel and axle are capstans, belt drives and gears. The Halaf culture of 6500 -- 5100 BCE has been credited with the earliest depiction of a wheeled vehicle. One of the first applications of the wheel to appear was the potter 's wheel, used by prehistoric cultures to fabricate clay pots. The earliest type, known as "tournettes '' or "slow wheels '', were known in the Middle East by the 5th millennium BCE (one of the earliest examples was discovered at Tepe Pardis, Iran, and dated to 5200 -- 4700 BCE). These were made of stone or clay and secured to the ground with a peg in the center, but required effort to turn. True (freely - spinning) wheels were apparently in use in Mesopotamia by 3500 BCE and possibly as early as 4000 BCE, and the oldest surviving example, which was found in Ur (modern day Iraq), dates to approximately 3100 BCE. Evidence of wheeled vehicles appears in the second half of the 4th millennium BCE, near - simultaneously in Mesopotamia (Sumerian civilization), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central Europe (Cucuteni - Trypillian culture). An early well - dated depiction of a wheeled vehicle (a wagon -- four wheels, two axles) is on the Bronocice pot, a ca. 3635 -- 3370 BCE ceramic vase, excavated in a Funnelbeaker culture settlement in southern Poland. The oldest known example of a wooden wheel and its axle was found in 2002 at the Ljubljana Marshes some 20 km south of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. According to radiocarbon dating, it is between 5,100 and 5,350 years old. The wheel was made of ash and oak and had a radius of 70 cm and the axle was 120 cm long and made of oak. In Roman Egypt, Hero of Alexandria identified the wheel and axle as one of the simple machines used to lift weights. This is thought to have been in the form of the windlass which consists of a crank or pulley connected to a cylindrical barrel that provides mechanical advantage to wind up a rope and lift a load such as a bucket from the well. The simple machine called a wheel and axle refers to the assembly formed by two disks, or cylinders, of different diameters mounted so they rotate together around the same axis. The thin rod which needs to be turned is called the axle and the wider object fixed to the axle, on which we apply force is called the wheel. A tangential force applied to the periphery of the large disk can exert a larger force on a load attached to the axle, achieving mechanical advantage. When used as the wheel of a wheeled vehicle the smaller cylinder is the axle of the wheel, but when used in a windlass, winch, and other similar applications (see medieval mining lift to right) the smaller cylinder may be separate from the axle mounted in the bearings. It can not be used separately. Assuming the wheel and axle does not dissipate or store energy, that is it has no friction or elasticity, the power input by the force applied to the wheel must equal the power output at the axle. As the wheel and axle system rotates around its bearings, points on the circumference, or edge, of the wheel move faster than points on the circumference, or edge, of the axle. Therefore, a force applied to the edge of the wheel must be less than the force applied to the edge of the axle, because power is the product of force and velocity. Let a and b be the distances from the center of the bearing to the edges of the wheel A and the axle B. If the input force F is applied to the edge of the wheel A and the force F at the edge of the axle B is the output, then the ratio of the velocities of points A and B is given by a / b, so the ratio of the output force to the input force, or mechanical advantage, is given by The mechanical advantage of a simple machine like the wheel and axle is computed as the ratio of the resistance to the effort. The larger the ratio the greater the multiplication of force (torque) created or distance achieved. By varying the radii of the axle and / or wheel, any amount of mechanical advantage may be gained. In this manner, the size of the wheel may be increased to an inconvenient extent. In this case a system or combination of wheels (often toothed, that is, gears) are used. As a wheel and axle is a type of lever, a system of wheels and axles is like a compound lever. The mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle with no friction is called the ideal mechanical advantage (IMA). It is calculated with the following formula: All actual wheels have friction, which dissipates some of the power as heat. The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) of a wheel and axle is calculated with the following formula: where Basic Machines and How They Work, United States. Bureau of Naval Personnel, Courier Dover Publications 1965, pp. 3 -- 1 and following preview online

who played bobby in can't buy me love

Ca n't Buy Me Love (film) - wikipedia Ca n't Buy Me Love is a 1987 American teen romantic comedy feature film starring Patrick Dempsey and Amanda Peterson in a story about a nerd at a high school in Tucson, Arizona who gives a cheerleader $1,000 to pretend to be his girlfriend for a month. The film was directed by Steve Rash and takes its title from a Beatles song with the same title. Ronald Miller (Patrick Dempsey) is a typical high school nerd living in suburban Tucson, Arizona. He has spent all summer mowing lawns to save up for a telescope. At an opportune moment, he makes a deal with next - door neighbor and popular cheerleader Cynthia "Cindy '' Mancini (Amanda Peterson). Cindy had borrowed an expensive suede outfit belonging to her mother (Sharon Farrell), without her permission, to wear to an end - of - the - summer / back - to - school party, and needs to replace it quickly after Quint (Cort McCown) accidentally spilled red wine on it at the party. Having few options, save for telling her mother the truth, Cindy reluctantly agrees to Ronald 's proposal: he will give her $1000 to purchase a new suede outfit, and she will help him look "cool '' by pretending to be his girlfriend for a month, even though she already has a boyfriend named Bobby (George Gray) who is away at his freshman year at the University of Iowa. Ronald feels that he can be a part of the popular crowd if they think Cindy is dating him. Both agree never to reveal their financial arrangement. Ronald then trades his nerdy, yet loyal, friends for the popular, but shallow, students, and undergoes a complete clothing and hair makeover under Cindy 's direction. Over the course of the month, they discover each other 's individuality and a bond develops organically between the two. Cindy soon starts to genuinely like Ronald and appreciates his company. As he washes her car at her house, she opens up to him, fetching a poem that she had written that means the world to her and letting Ronald read it. She gets to know him better as he reveals his interests in astronomy and space travel. They gaze at the moon and he tells her how, when they are their parents age, "people will be working there and living there... maybe even us. '' On the last date which Ronald has "paid '' for, Cindy hints that she would like to kiss Ronald, signifying that she has real feelings for him, but he misunderstands and assumes she wants to talk about ending their arrangement. They dramatically "break up '' in front of a crowd at school, but Ronald takes things too far and says some hurtful things about Cindy in front of their friends. She becomes cool and distant, but warns him that popularity is hard work and he needs to make sure that he "stays (him) self ''. The next day, Cindy appears disgusted with Ronald when she sees him behaving arrogantly at school, and becomes jealous when she sees him flirting with her best friends Barbara (Tina Caspary) and Patty (Darcy DeMoss), whom he later takes out on dates. Ronald continues playing "cool '' by hanging out with the jocks and hot chicks. He takes Patty to a dance at school, where he performs a dance he learned from an African cultural show on public television (he mistakenly thought he was watching American Bandstand). At first, the other kids are mystified, but they soon join in, and Ronald 's new "trendy '' dancing further increases his popularity at school. On Halloween night, he and some other boys drive to the house of Kenneth (Courtney Gains), Ronald 's best friend, where the jocks test his loyalty by coercing him to hurl dog feces at Kenneth 's house. Kenneth is lying in wait and catches Ronald, but lets him go before his dad can call the police. Kenneth ignores Ronald the next day at school. At a New Year 's Eve party at Big John 's (Eric Bruskotter) house, Ronald gets drunk and has sex with his date, Iris (Devin DeVasquez) in the bathroom. Iris has a reputation for nailing a lot of popular guys. Cindy walks by and hears Ronald reciting to Iris the very poem that she had written and allowed him to read. Devastated, she starts drinking heavily. Later, as a surprise, Cindy 's boyfriend, Bobby, shows up at the party, as he still has strong ties to the athletes at the school. After he learns about her relationship with Ronald, through Quint and Ricky (Gerardo Mejia), he breaks - up with Cindy in front of her friends. Even though she tried to explain the situation to Bobby, that Ronald paid her to go out with him, he proceeds to walk out on her and the party. In anger and frustration, she tells the party - goers the truth about her relationship with Ronald and his "cool '' pretenses. She scolds her friends for falling for his act and for being "a bunch of followers ''. "Our little plan worked, did n't it Ronald? '' Cindy says as she crushes his popularity, sending Ronald back to the bottom rung of the high school social ladder. Rejected and dejected, Ronald leaves the party alone to spend the night in his garage, crying himself to sleep. When school resumes after the holiday break, he immediately finds himself ostracized as a social pariah. The "jocks '' once again tease and throw food at him, and he soon finds that the nerdy crowd has abandoned him also. His distress only deepens when his attempts to reconcile with both Cindy and Kenneth are rebuffed. A moment for Ronald to redeem himself comes when he defends Kenneth against a potentially violent encounter with Quint. Kenneth, while helping Patty with her math homework, is approached by Quint, who orders him back to his side of the cafeteria, or take a serious beating. Ronald intervenes, threatening to break Quint 's pitching arm if he does not leave Kenneth, who had only been tutoring Patty out of sincere kindness and with no ulterior motive. Ronald points out that the three were all friends at one time: when they were nine, Quint had fallen out of their tree house and broken his arm. Kenneth and Ronald carried him twelve blocks to the hospital, with Quint crying all the way. Ronald confesses he was desperate to run with the popular crowd, but had messed up by trying to buy his way in. Kenneth, however, was just trying to make friends by being himself. Ronald goes on to say that the cool / nerd dynamic is "all bullshit, it 's tough enough just being yourself '', and walks away. Quint apologizes to Kenneth and the two shake hands as the whole school applauds. Ronald finally redeems himself with everyone. Following the incident, Cindy recognizes Ronald 's worth, and the two reconcile when she decides to hop on the back of his riding lawn mower instead of hanging out with her popular friends. He asks her to prom and the two kiss as the title song plays. Closing credits roll while the two of them ride off into the sunset on the lawn mower. The film was shot on location in Tucson, Arizona, at Tucson High Magnet School (then known as Tucson High School). The choreography is by Paula Abdul, who makes an uncredited appearance as a dancer. On a date where the main characters begin to bond, they jump the perimeter wall and explore the 309th Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group Aircraft Bone Yard on Davis -- Monthan Air Force Base that contains 4,400 aircraft. Although the characters say they jump the fence at 309 AMARG (The Boneyard) the actual scene looks more like it was shot at Bob 's Air Park, an aircraft recycler just outside the Boneyard, which has since been sold. Ca n't Buy Me Love received mixed reviews from critics. Caryn James, in The New York Times, wrote that the film missed its mark and traded its potential originality for a bid at popularity: Roger Ebert gave the film a half star out of a possible 4: Rotten Tomatoes has a rating of 50 % based on 22 critics. In 2006, it ranked number 41 on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the 50 Best High School Movies. Young Artist Award In 2013 Intrada Records released Robert Folk 's complete score for the film on a limited edition CD paired with David Newman 's work for Paradise. In 2003, Ca n't Buy Me Love was remade as Love Do n't Cost a Thing starring Nick Cannon and Christina Milian. Though the triggering event differs between the two movies, many of the aspects / scenes from the original film are reinterpreted in this remake, such as the eating of raw egg in the Home Economics classroom, as well as the cheerleader telling the bully that he is sitting in the wrong section in the cafeteria that he (the bully) need to sit in the "asshole section '' of the cafeteria.

at what age does the thymus reach its maximal size

Thymus - wikipedia The thymus is a specialized primary lymphoid organ of the immune system. Within the thymus, T cells mature. T cells are critical to the adaptive immune system, where the body adapts specifically to foreign invaders. The thymus is composed of two identical lobes and is located anatomically in the anterior superior mediastinum, in front of the heart and behind the sternum. Histologically, each lobe of the thymus can be divided into a central medulla and a peripheral cortex which is surrounded by an outer capsule. The cortex and medulla play different roles in the development of T cells. Cells in the thymus can be divided into thymic stromal cells and cells of hematopoietic origin (derived from bone marrow resident hematopoietic stem cells). Developing T cells are referred to as thymocytes and are of hematopoietic origin. Stromal cells include epithelial cells of the thymic cortex and medulla, and dendritic cells. The thymus provides an inductive environment for development of T cells from hematopoietic progenitor cells. In addition, thymic stromal cells allow for the selection of a functional and self - tolerant T cell repertoire. Therefore, one of the most important roles of the thymus is the induction of central tolerance. The thymus is largest and most active during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods. By the early teens, the thymus begins to atrophy and thymic stroma is mostly replaced by adipose (fat) tissue. Nevertheless, residual T lymphopoiesis continues throughout adult life. In children, the thymus is pinkish - gray, soft, and lobulated on its surfaces. At birth it is about 4 -- 6 cm long, 2.5 -- 5 cm wide, and about 1 cm thick. It is made up of two lobes that meet in upper midline, that stretch from below the thyroid in the neck to as low as the cartilage of the fourth rib. It lies beneath the sternum, rests on the pericardium, and is separated from the aortic arch and great vessels by a layer of fascia. The left brachiocephalic vein may even be embedded within the thymus. In the neck, it lies on the front and sides of the trachea, behind the sternohyoidei and sternothyreoidei. The thymus enlarges during childhood, and atrophies at puberty. Unlike many other organs, the thymus is at its largest in childhood. The thymus reaches maximum weight (20 to 37 grams) by the time of puberty. The thymus of older people is scarcely distinguishable from surrounding fatty tissue. With aging the thymus slowly shrinks, eventually degenerating into tiny islands of fatty tissue. By the age of 75 years, the thymus weighs only 6 grams. In children the thymus is grayish - pink in colour and in adults it is yellow. The thymus consists of two lobes, merged in the middle, surrounded by a capsule that extends with blood vessels into the interior. The lobes consists of a dense outer cortex and an inner less dense medulla. The lobes are divided into smaller lobules 0.5 - 2mm diameter, between which extrude radiating insertions from the capsule along (septa). The cortex is mainly made up of thymocytes, supported by a network of finely - branched epithelial reticular cells, which is continuous with a similar network in the medulla. This network forms an adventitia to the blood vessels, which enter the cortex via septa near the junction with the medulla. The cortex is the location of the earliest events in thymocyte development, where T - cell receptor gene rearrangement and positive selection takes place. In the medulla, the network of reticular cells is coarser than in the cortex, the lymphoid cells are relatively fewer in number, and there are concentric, nest - like bodies called Hassall 's corpuscles. These are concentric, layered whorls of epithelial cells that increase in number throughout life. They are the remains of the epithelial tubes, which grow out from the third pharyngeal pouches of the embryo to form the thymus. In the center of the medullary portion there are very few vessels, and they are of minute size. The medulla is the location of the latter events in thymocyte development. Thymocytes that reach the medulla have already successfully undergone T - cell receptor gene rearrangement and positive selection, and have been exposed to a limited degree of negative selection. The medulla is specialized to allow thymocytes to undergo additional rounds of negative selection to remove auto - reactive T cells from the mature repertoire. Transcriptional regulators AIRE and FEZ2 are expressed by the thymic medullary epithelium, and drives the transcription of organ - specific genes such as insulin to allow maturing thymocytes to be exposed to a more complex set of self - antigens than is present in the cortex. Micrograph of the thymus Structure of the thymus. Micrograph showing a Hassall 's corpuscle, found within the medulla of the thymus. The arteries supplying the thymus are branches of the internal thoracic, and inferior thyroid arteries, with branches from the superior thyroid artery sometimes seen. The branches reach the thymus and travel with the septa of the capsule into the area between the cortex and medulla, where they enter the thymus itself. The veins end in the left brachiocephalic vein, internal thoracic vein, and in the inferior thyroid veins. Lymphatic vessels travel only away from the thymus, accompanying the arteries and veins. These drain into the brachiocephalic, tracheobronchial and parasternal l lymph nodes. The nerves supplying the thymus arise from the vagus nerve and the cervical sympathetic chain. Branches from the phrenic nerves reach the investing capsule, but do not enter into the thymus itself. Although present, the exact role of the nerve supply of the thymus is little understood. The two lobes differ slightly in size and may be united or separated. Thymic tissue sometimes be found scattered on or around the gland. The thyomocytes and the epithelium of the thymus have different developmental origins. The epithelium of the thymus develops first, appearing as two flask - shape endodermal diverticula, which arise one on either side, from the third pharyngeal pouch, and extend outward and backward into the surrounding mesoderm and neural crest - derived mesenchyme in front of the ventral aorta. Here the thymocytes and epithelium meet and join with connective tissue. The pharyngeal opening of each diverticulum is soon obliterated, but the neck of the flask persists for some time as a cellular cord. By further proliferation of the cells lining the flask, buds of cells are formed, which become surrounded and isolated by the invading mesoderm. Additional portions of thymus tissue are sometimes developed from the fourth pharyngeal pouch. The epithelium forms fine lobules, and develops into a sponge - like structure. During this stage, hematopoietic bone - marrow precursors migrate into the thymus. Normal development is dependent on the interaction between the epithelium and the hematopoietic thymocytes. Iodine is also necessary for thymus development and activity. The thymus continues to grow between birth and puberty and then begins to atrophy, called thymic involution. The process accelerates after puberty, thymus decreases both in size and activity, and the tissue of the thymus is primarily replaced with fat (a phenomenon known as "organ involution ''). The atrophy is due to the increased circulating level of sex hormones, and chemical or physical castration of an adult results in the thymus increasing in size and activity. Fat cells are first visible in the walls between lobules, and then slowly spread throughout the cortex and then medulla. In the two lobes, hematopoietic precursors from the bone - marrow, referred to as thymocytes, mature into T cells. Once mature, T cells emigrate from the thymus and make up the peripheral T cells responsible for directing many parts of the adaptive immune system. Loss of the thymus at an early age through genetic mutation (as in DiGeorge Syndrome) results in severe immunodeficiency and subsequent high susceptibility to infection. Each T cell attacks a specific substance which it identifies with its receptor. T cells have receptors which are generated by randomly shuffling gene segments. Each T cell attacks a different antigen. T cells that attack the body 's own proteins are eliminated in the thymus. Thymic epithelial cells express major proteins from elsewhere in the body. First, T cells undergo "Positive Selection '', whereby the cell comes in contact with self - MHC, expressed by thymic epithelial cells; those with no interaction die by a lack of stimulatory signal. Second, the T cell undergoes "Negative Selection '' by interacting with thymic dendritic cells, whereby T cells with a strong interaction with self - MHC and / or self - antigen die by induced apoptosis or are induced to become a regulatory T cell, to avoid autoimmunity. Those with intermediate affinity survive. The stock of T - lymphocytes is built up in early life, so the function of the thymus is diminished in adults. It is largely degenerated in elderly adults and is barely identifiable, consisting mostly of fatty tissue. Involution of the thymus has been linked to loss of immune function in the elderly, susceptibility to infection and to cancer. The ability of T cells to recognize foreign antigens is mediated by the T - cell receptor. The T - cell receptor undergoes genetic rearrangement during thymocyte maturation, resulting in each T cell bearing a unique T - cell receptor, specific to a limited set of peptide: MHC combinations. The random nature of the genetic rearrangement results in a requirement of central tolerance mechanisms to remove or inactivate those T cells which bear a T - cell receptor with the ability to recognise self - peptides. In order to be positively - selected, thymocytes will have to interact with several cell surface molecules, MHC / HLA, to ensure reactivity and specificity. Positive selection eliminates (by apoptosis) weakly - binding cells and only takes strongly - or medium - binding cells. (Binding refers to the ability of the T - cell receptors to bind to either MHC class I / II or peptide molecules.) Negative selection is not 100 % complete. Some autoreactive T cells escape thymic censorship, and are released into the circulation. Additional mechanisms of tolerance active in the periphery exist to silence these cells such as anergy, deletion, and regulatory T cells. If these peripheral tolerance mechanisms also fail, autoimmunity may arise. Cells that pass both levels of selection are released into the bloodstream to perform vital immune functions. The thymus also secretes hormones and cytokines that regulate the maturation of T cells, including thymulin, thymopoietin, and thymosins. The immune system is a multicomponent interactive system. It effectively protects the host from various infections. An improperly functioning immune system can cause discomfort, disease or even death. The type of malfunction falls into one or more of the following major groups: hypersensitivity or allergy, auto - immune disease, or immunodeficiency. Allergy results from an inappropriate and excessive immune response to common antigens. Substances that trigger an allergic response are called allergens. Allergies involve mainly IgE, antibodies, and histamine. Mast cells release the histamine. Sometimes an allergen may cause a sudden and severe, possibly fatal reaction in a sensitive individual; this is called anaphylaxis. As the thymus is the organ of T - cell development, any congenital defect in thymic genesis or a defect in thymocyte development can lead to a profound T cell deficiency in primary immunodeficiency disease. Defects that affect both the T cell and B cell lymphocyte lineages result in severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). Acquired T cell deficiencies can also affect thymocyte development in the thymus. DiGeorge syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by the deletion of a small section of chromosome 22. This results in a midline congenital defect including thymic aplasia, or congenital deficiency of a thymus. Patients may present with a profound immunodeficiency disease, due to the lack of T cells. No other immune cell lineages are affected by the congenital absence of the thymus. DiGeorge syndrome is the most common congenital cause of thymic aplasia in humans. In mice, the nude mouse strain are congenitally thymic deficient. These mice are an important model of primary T cell deficiency. Severe combined immunodeficiency syndromes (SCID) are group of rare congenital genetic diseases that result in combined T lymphocyte and B lymphocyte deficiencies. These syndromes are caused by defective hematopoietic progenitor cells which are the precursors of both B - and T cells. This results in a severe reduction in developing thymocytes in the thymus and consequently thymic atrophy. A number of genetic defects can cause SCID, including IL - 7 receptor deficiency, common gamma chain deficiency, and recombination activating gene deficiency. The gene that codes for the enzyme called ADA (adenine deaminase), is located on chromosomes 20. The HIV virus causes an acquired T - cell immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) by specifically killing CD4 T cells. Whereas the major effect of the virus is on mature peripheral T cells, HIV can also infect developing thymocytes in the thymus, most of which express CD4. Autoimmune diseases are caused by a hyperactive immune system that instead of attacking pathogens reacts against the host organism (self) causing disease. One of the primary functions of the thymus is to prevent autoimmunity through the process of central tolerance, immunologic tolerance to self antigens. Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy - candidiasis - ectodermal dystrophy (APECED) is an extremely rare genetic autoimmune syndrome. However, this disease highlights the importance of the thymus in prevention of autoimmunity. This disease is caused by mutations in the Autoimmune Regulator (AIRE) gene. AIRE allows for the ectopic expression of tissue - specific proteins in the thymus medulla, such as proteins that would normally only be expressed in the eye or pancreas. This expression in the thymus, allows for the deletion of autoreactive thymocytes by exposing them to self - antigens during their development, a mechanism of central tolerance. Patients with APECED develop an autoimmune disease that affects multiple endocrine tissues. A GVHD - like disease called thymoma - associated multiorgan autoimmunity (TAMA) can occur in patients with thymoma. In these patients rather than a donor being a source of pathogenic T cells, the patient 's own malignant thymus produces self - directed T cells. This is because the malignant thymus is incapable of appropriately educating developing thymocytes to eliminate self - reactive T cells. The end result is a disease virtually indistinguishable from GVHD. Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease caused by antibodies that block acetylcholine receptors. Myasthenia gravis is often associated with thymic hyperplasia. Thymectomy may be necessary to treat the disease. Patients with the autoimmune disease myasthenia gravis commonly (70 %) are found to have thymic hyperplasia or malignancy. Two primary forms of tumours originate in the thymus. Tumours originating from the thymic epithelial cells are called thymomas, and are found in about 10 - 15 % of patients with myasthenia gravis. Symptoms are sometimes confused with bronchitis or a strong cough because the tumour presses on the recurrent laryngeal nerve. All thymomas are potentially cancerous, but they can vary a great deal. Some grow very slowly. Others grow rapidly and can spread to surrounding tissues. Treatment of thymomas often requires surgery to remove the entire thymus. Tumours originating from the thymocytes are called thymic lymphomas. Lymphomas or leukemias of thymocyte origin are classified as Precursor T acute lymphoblastic leukemia / lymphoma (T - ALL). People with an enlarged thymus, particularly children, were treated with intense radiation in the years before 1950. There is an elevated incidence of thyroid cancer and leukemia in treated individuals. Cervical thymus is a rare malformation. Thymic tissue containing cysts is rarely described in the literature, ectopic glandular tissue included in the wall of cystic formation can trigger a series of problems similar to those of thymus. Thymic cysts are uncommon lesions, about 150 cases being found. While thymic cyst and ectopic cervical thymus are identified most frequently in childhood, the mean age at which thymoma is diagnosed is 45 years. However, studies have shown the existence of necrotic thymic tissue masses in the neck (asymptomatic intravital) more frequently, the incidence reaching nearly 30 %. These observations may mean absence of clinical observation. Thymectomy is the surgical removal of the thymus. The usual reason for a thymectomy is to gain access to the heart for surgery to correct congenital heart defects in the neonatal period. In neonates, but not older children or adults, the relative size of the thymus obstructs surgical access to the heart. Removal of the thymus in infancy results in immunodeficiency by some measures, although T cells develop compensating function and it remains unknown whether disease incidence in later life is significantly greater. This is because sufficient T cells are generated during fetal life prior to birth. These T cells are long - lived and can proliferate by homeostatic proliferation throughout the lifetime of the patient. However, there is evidence of premature immune aging in patients thymectomized during early childhood. Other indications for thymectomy include the removal of thymomas and the treatment of myasthenia gravis. Thymectomy is not indicated for the treatment of primary thymic lymphomas. However, a thymic biopsy may be necessary to make the pathologic diagnosis. A thymus may be transplanted, however, this approach is problematic due to donor requirements and matching tissue with the patient. A fully functional thymus derived from reprogrammed mouse embryonic fibroblasts has been grown in the kidney capsule of mice. The newly formed organ resembled a normal thymus histologically and molecularly, and upon transplantation it was able to restore immune function in immunocompromised mice. The mouse embryonic fibroblasts were reprogrammed into thymic epithelial cells (TECs) by enforcing the expression of one transcription factor, FOXN1. When used as food for humans, animal thymic tissue is known as (one of the kinds of) sweetbread. The thymus was known to the ancient Greeks, and its name comes from the Greek word θυμός (thumos), meaning "anger '', or "heart, soul, desire, life '', possibly because of its location in the chest, near where emotions are subjectively felt; or else the name comes from the herb thyme (also in Greek θύμος or θυμάρι), which became the name for a "warty excrescence '', possibly due to its resemblance to a bunch of thyme. Galen was the first to note that the size of the organ changed over the duration of a person 's life. In the nineteenth century, a condition was identified as status thymicolymphaticus defined by an increase in lymphoid tissue and an enlarged thymus. It was thought to be a cause of sudden infant death syndrome but is now an obsolete term. Due to the large numbers of apoptotic lymphocytes, the thymus was originally dismissed as a "lymphocyte graveyard '', without functional importance. The importance of the thymus in the immune system was discovered in 1961 by Jacques Miller, by surgically removing the thymus from one day old mice, and observing the subsequent deficiency in a lymphocyte population, subsequently named T cells after the organ of their origin. Recently, advances in immunology have allowed the function of the thymus in T - cell maturation to be more fully understood. The thymus is present in all jawed vertebrates, where it undergoes the same shrinkage with age and plays the same immunological function as in human beings. Recently, a discrete thymus - like lympho - epithelial structure, termed the thymoid, was discovered in the gills of larval lampreys. Hagfish possess a protothymus associated with the pharyngeal velar muscles, which is responsible for a variety of immune responses. Little is known about the immune mechanisms of tunicates or of Amphioxus. The thymus is also present in most vertebrates, with similar structure and function as the human thymus. Some animals have multiple secondary (smaller) thymi in the neck; this phenomenon has been reported for mice and also occurs in 5 out of 6 human fetuses. As in humans, the Guinea pig 's thymus naturally atrophies as the animal reaches adulthood, but the athymic hairless guinea pig (which arose from a spontaneous laboratory mutation) possesses no thymic tissue whatsoever, and the organ cavity is replaced with cystic spaces. Thymus of a fetus On chest X-ray, the thymus appears as a radiodense (brighter in this image) mass by the upper lobe of the child 's right (left in image) lung. This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 1273 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)

what is the another name of western ghats

Western Ghats - wikipedia Western Ghats (also known as Sahyadri, meaning The Benevolent Mountains) is a mountain range that runs parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, located entirely in India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the eight "hottest hot - spots '' of biological diversity in the world. It is sometimes called the Great Escarpment of India. The range runs north to south along the western edge of the Deccan Plateau, and separates the plateau from a narrow coastal plain, called Konkan, along the Arabian Sea. A total of thirty - nine properties including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserve forests were designated as world heritage sites - twenty in Kerala, ten in Karnataka, five in Tamil Nadu and four in Maharashtra. The range starts near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra, south of the Tapti river, and runs approximately 1,600 km (990 mi) through the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu ending at Swamithoppe, near Kanyakumari, at the southern tip of India. These hills cover 160,000 km (62,000 sq mi) and form the catchment area for complex riverine drainage systems that drain almost 40 % of India. The Western Ghats block southwest monsoon winds from reaching the Deccan Plateau. The average elevation is around 1,200 m (3,900 ft). The area is one of the world 's ten "Hottest biodiversity hotspots '' and has over 7,402 species of flowering plants, 1,814 species of non-flowering plants, 139 mammal species, 508 bird species, 179 amphibian species, 6,000 insects species and 290 freshwater fish species; it is likely that many undiscovered species live in the Western Ghats. At least 325 globally threatened species occur in the Western Ghats. The Western Ghats are the mountainous faulted and eroded edge of the Deccan Plateau. Geologic evidence indicates that they were formed during the break - up of the supercontinent of Gondwana some 150 million years ago. Geophysical evidence indicates that the west coast of India came into being somewhere around 100 to 80 mya after it broke away from Madagascar. After the break - up, the western coast of India would have appeared as an abrupt cliff some 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in elevation. Basalt is the predominant rock found in the hills reaching a thickness of 3 km (2 mi). Other rock types found are charnockites, granite gneiss, khondalites, leptynites, metamorphic gneisses with detached occurrences of crystalline limestone, iron ore, dolerites and anorthosites. Residual laterite and bauxite ores are also found in the southern hills. The Western Ghats extend from the Satpura Range in the north, stretching from Gujarat to Tamil Nadu. It traverses south past the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Major gaps in the range are the Goa Gap, between the Maharashtra and Karnataka sections, and the Palghat Gap on the Tamil Nadu and Kerala border between the Nilgiri Hills and the Anaimalai Hills. The mountains intercept the rain - bearing westerly monsoon winds, and are consequently an area of high rainfall, particularly on their western side. The dense forests also contribute to the precipitation of the area by acting as a substrate for condensation of moist rising orographic winds from the sea, and releasing much of the moisture back into the air via transpiration, allowing it to later condense and fall again as rain. The northern portion of the narrow coastal plain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea is known as the Konkan, the central portion is called Kanara and the southern portion is called Malabar. The foothill region east of the Ghats in Maharashtra is known as Desh, while the eastern foothills of the central Karnataka state is known as Malenadu. The range is known as Sahyadri in Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Western Ghats meets the Eastern Ghats at Nilgiris in northwestern Tamil Nadu. Nilgiris connects Biligiriranga Hills in southeastern Karnataka with the Shevaroys and Tirumala hills. South of the Palghat Gap are the Anamala Hills, located in western Tamil Nadu and Kerala with smaller ranges further south, including the Cardamom Hills, then Aryankavu pass, Aralvaimozhi pass near Kanyakumari. In the southern part of the range is Anamudi (2,695 metres (8,842 ft)), the highest peak in Western Ghats. Western Ghats has many peaks that rise above 2,000 meters with Anamudi (2,695 m (8,842 ft)) being the highest peak. The Western Ghats form one of the four watersheds of India, feeding the perennial rivers of India. The major river systems originating in the Western Ghats include Godavari, Kaveri, Krishna, Thamiraparani and Tungabhadra. Majority of streams draining the Western Ghats join these rivers and carry large volume of water during the monsoon months. These rivers flow to the east due to the gradient of the land and drain out into the Bay of Bengal. Major tributaries include Kali, Bhadra, Bhavani, Bhima, Malaprabha, Ghataprabha, Hemavathi and Kabini. Periyar, Bharathappuzha, Netravati, Sharavathi, Mandovi and Zuari rivers flow westwards towards the Western Ghats, draining into the Arabian Sea and are fast - moving, owing to the steeper gradient. The rivers have been dammed for hydroelectric and irrigation purposes with major reservoirs spread across the states. The reservoirs are important for their commercial and sport fisheries of rainbow trout, mahseer and common carp. There are about 50 major dams along the length of the Western Ghats. Most notable of these projects are the Koyna in Maharashtra, Linganmakki and Sivasamudram in Karnataka, Mettur and Pykara in Tamil Nadu, Parambikulam and Idukki in Kerala During the monsoon season, numerous streams fed by incessant rain drain off the mountain sides leading to numerous waterfalls. Major waterfalls include Dudhsagar, Unchalli, Sathodi, Magod, Hogenakkal, Jog, Kunchikal, Sivasamudram, Meenmutty Falls, Athirappilly Falls. Talakaveri is the source of the river Kaveri and the Kuduremukha range is the source of the Tungabhadra. Western Ghats have several man - made lakes and reservoirs with major lakes at Ooty (34 hectares (84 acres)) in Nilgiris, Kodaikanal (26 hectares (64 acres)) and Berijam in Palani Hills, Pookode lake, Devikulam (6 hectares (15 acres)) and Letchmi (2 hectares (4.9 acres)) in Kerala. Climate in the Western Ghats varies with altitudinal gradation and distance from the equator. The climate is humid and tropical in the lower reaches tempered by the proximity to the sea. Elevations of 1,500 m (4,921 ft) and above in the north and 2,000 m (6,562 ft) and above in the south have a more temperate climate. Average annual temperature is around 15 ° C (59 ° F). In some parts frost is common, and temperatures touch the freezing point during the winter months. Mean temperature range from 20 ° C (68 ° F) in the south to 24 ° C (75 ° F) in the north. It has also been observed that the coldest periods in the South Western Ghats coincide with the wettest. During the monsoon season between June and September, the unbroken Western Ghats chain acts as a barrier to the moisture laden clouds. The heavy, eastward - moving rain - bearing clouds are forced to rise and in the process deposit most of their rain on the windward side. Rainfall in this region averages 300 centimetres (120 in) to 400 centimetres (160 in) with localised extremes touching 900 centimetres (350 in). The eastern region of the Western Ghats which lie in the rain shadow, receive far less rainfall of about 100 centimetres (39 in) resulting in an average rainfall of 250 centimetres (98 in) across regions. The total amount of rain does not depend on the spread of the area with areas in northern Maharashtra receiving heavy rainfall followed by long dry spells, while regions closer to the equator receive less annual rainfall and have rain spells lasting several months in a year. The Western Ghats are home to four tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregions -- the North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, North Western Ghats montane rain forests, South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, and South Western Ghats montane rain forests. The northern portion of the range is generally drier than the southern portion, and at lower elevations makes up the North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests ecoregion, with mostly deciduous forests made up predominantly of teak. Above 1,000 meters elevation are the cooler and wetter North Western Ghats montane rain forests, whose evergreen forests are characterised by trees of family Lauraceae. The evergreen forests in Wayanad mark the transition zone between the northern and southern ecologic regions of the Western Ghats. The southern ecologic regions are generally wetter and more species - rich. At lower elevations are the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, with Cullenia the characteristic tree genus, accompanied by teak, dipterocarps, and other trees. The moist forests transition to the drier South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests, which lie in its rain shadow to the east. Above 1,000 meters are the South Western Ghats montane rain forests, also cooler and wetter than the surrounding lowland forests, and dominated by evergreen trees, although some montane grasslands and stunted forests can be found at the highest elevations. The South Western Ghats montane rain forests are the most species - rich ecologic region in peninsular India; eighty percent of the flowering plant species of the entire Western Ghats range are found in this ecologic region. Historically the Western Ghats were well - covered in dense forests that provided wild foods and natural habitats for native tribal people. Its inaccessibility made it difficult for people from the plains to cultivate the land and build settlements. After the arrival of the British in the area, large swathes of territory were cleared for agricultural plantations and timber. The forest in the Western Ghats has been severely fragmented due to human activities, especially clear felling for tea, coffee, and teak plantations during 1860 to 1950. Species that are rare, endemic and habitat specialists are more adversely affected and tend to be lost faster than other species. Complex and species rich habitats like the tropical rainforest are much more adversely affected than other habitats. The area is ecologically sensitive to development and was declared an ecological hotspot in 1988 through the efforts of ecologist Norman Myers. The area covers five percent of India 's land with 27 % of all species of higher plants in India (4,000 of 15,000 species) are found here and 1,800 of these are endemic to the region. The range is home to at least 84 amphibian species, 16 bird species, seven mammals, and 1,600 flowering plants which are not found elsewhere in the world. The Government of India established many protected areas including 2 biosphere reserves, 13 National parks to restrict human access, several wildlife sanctuaries to protect specific endangered species and many Reserve Forests, which are all managed by the forest departments of their respective state to preserve some of the ecoregions still undeveloped. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve comprising 5,500 square kilometres (2,100 sq mi) of the evergreen forests of Nagarahole and deciduous forests of Bandipur in Karnataka, adjoining regions of Wayanad - Mukurthi in Kerala and Mudumalai National Park - Sathyamangalam in Tamil Nadu forms the largest contiguous protected area in the Western Ghats. Silent Valley in Kerala is among the last tracts of virgin tropical evergreen forest in India. In August 2011, the Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP) designated the entire Western Ghats as an Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) and assigned three levels of Ecological Sensitivity to its different regions. The Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel, headed by ecologist Madhav Gadgil, was a committee appointed by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests to assess the biodiversity and environmental issues of the Western Ghats. Gadgil Committee and its successor Kasturirangan Committee recommended suggestions to protect the Western Ghats. Gadgil report was criticized as being too environment - friendly and Kasturirangan report was labelled as being anti-environmental. In 2006, India applied to the UNESCO MAB for the Western Ghats to be listed as a protected World Heritage Site. In 2012, the following places are declared as World Heritage Sites: The Western Ghats are home to thousands of animal species including at least 325 globally threatened species. There are at least 139 mammal species. Of the 16 endemic mammals, 13 are threatened and amongst the 32 threatened species include the critically endangered Malabar large - spotted civet, the endangered lion - tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, Bengal tiger and Indian elephants, the vulnerable Indian leopard, Nilgiri langur and gaur. These hill ranges serve as important wildlife corridors and forms an important part of Project Elephant and Project Tiger reserves. The largest population of tigers outside the Sundarbans is in the Western Ghats where there are seven populations with an estimated population size of 336 to 487 individuals occupying 21,435 km (8,276 sq mi) forest in three major landscape units spread across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The Western Ghats eco-region has the largest Indian elephant population in the wild with an estimated 11,000 individuals across eight distinct populations. The endemic Nilgiri tahr which was on the brink of extinction has recovered and has an estimated 3,122 individuals in the wild. The Critically Endangered endemic Malabar large - spotted civet is estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals, with no sub-population greater than 50 individuals. About 3500 lion - tailed macaques live scattered over several areas in the Western Ghats. Western Ghats has the largest tiger population outside Sunderbans Endangered Lion - tailed macaque is endemic to Western Ghats Western Ghats region has the largest Indian elephant population in India Only 100 individuals of Nilgiri tahr were left in 2001 but has recovered to 3,300 by 2010 The endemic Nilgiri langur is endangered The major population of snake family Uropeltidae of the reptile class is restricted to the region. The region has significant population of vulnerable Mugger crocodiles. The amphibians of the Western Ghats are diverse and unique, with more than 80 % of the 179 amphibian species being endemic to the rainforests of the mountains. The endangered purple frog was discovered in 2003. Four new species of frogs belonging to the genera Rhacophorus, Polypedates, Philautus and Bufo were described from the Western Ghats in 2005. The region is also home to many caecilian species. The region has significant population of vulnerable Mugger crocodile Purple frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis) was discovered in 2003 Malabar gliding frog is endemic to Western Ghats Pipe snakes are found only in South India and Sri Lanka Denison 's barb is threatened from habitat loss and is now bred in captivity As of 2004, 288 freshwater fish species are listed for the Western Ghats, including 35 also known from brackish or marine water. Several new species have been described from the region since then (e.g., Dario urops and S. sharavathiensis). There are 118 endemic species, including 12 genera entirely restricted to the Western Ghats (Betadevario, Dayella, Horabagrus, Horalabiosa, Hypselobarbus, Indoreonectes, Lepidopygopsis, Longischistura, Mesonoemacheilus, Parapsilorhynchus, Rohtee and Travancoria). There is a higher fish richness in the southern part of the Western Ghats than in the northern, and the highest is in the Chalakudy River, which alone holds 98 species. Other rivers with high species numbers include the Periyar, Bharatapuzha, Pamba and Chaliyar, as well as upstream tributaries of the Kaveri, Pambar, Bhavani and Krishna rivers. The most species rich families are the Cyprinids (72 species), hillstream loaches (34 species; including stone loaches, now regarded a separate family), Bagrid catfishes (19 species) and Sisorid catfishes (12 species). The region is home to several brilliantly colored ornamental fishes like Denison 's (or red line torpedo) barb, several species of Dawkinsia barbs, zebra loach, Horabagrus catfish, dwarf pufferfish and dwarf Malabar pufferfish. The rivers are also home to Osteobrama bakeri, and larger species such as the Malabar snakehead and Malabar mahseer. A few are adapted to an underground life, including some Monopterus swampeels, and the catfish Horaglanis and Kryptoglanis. According to the IUCN, 97 freshwater fish species from the Western Ghats were considered threatened in 2011, including 12 critically endangered, 54 endangered and 31 vulnerable. All but one (Tor khudree) of these are endemic to the Western Ghats. An additional 26 species from the region are considered data deficient (their status is unclear at present). The primary threats are from habitat loss, but also from overexploitation and introduced species. There are at least 508 bird species. Most of Karnataka 's five hundred species of birds are from the Western Ghats region. There are at least 16 species of birds endemic to the Western Ghats including the endangered rufous - breasted laughingthrush, the vulnerable Nilgiri wood - pigeon, white - bellied shortwing and broad - tailed grassbird, the near threatened grey - breasted laughingthrush, black - and - rufous flycatcher, Nilgiri flycatcher, and Nilgiri pipit, and the least concern Malabar (blue - winged) parakeet, Malabar grey hornbill, white - bellied treepie, grey - headed bulbul, rufous babbler, Wynaad laughingthrush, white - bellied blue - flycatcher and the crimson - backed sunbird. Nilgiri wood - pigeon Great hornbill Malabar barbet Malabar (blue - winged) parakeet Nilgiri pipit White - bellied treepie There are roughly 6,000 insect species. Of 334 Western Ghats butterfly species, 316 species have been reported from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The Western Ghats is home to 174 species of odonates (107 dragonflies and 67 damselflies), including 69 endemics. Most of the endemic odonate are closely associated with rivers and streams, while the non-endemics typically are generalists. There are several species of leeches found all along the Western Ghats. The Malabar tree nymph is endemic to the Western Ghats Tamil Lacewings are found only in South Asia The Western Ghats has 67 species of damselflies The endemic land snail Indrella ampulla Phallus indusiatus found in the Western Ghats Seasonal rainfall patterns of the Western Ghats necessitate a period of dormancy for its land snails, resulting in their high abundance and diversity including at least 258 species of gastropods from 57 genera and 24 families. A total of 77 species of freshwater molluscs (52 gastropods and 25 bivalves) have been recorded from the Western Ghats, but the actual number is likely higher. This include 28 endemics. Among the threatened freshwater molluscs are the mussels Pseudomulleria dalyi, which is a Gondwanan relict, and the snail Cremnoconchus, which is restricted to the spray zone of waterfalls. According to the IUCN, 4 species of freshwater molluscs are considered endangered and 3 are vulnerable. An additional 19 species are considered data deficient. Of the 7,402 species of flowering plants occurring in the Western Ghats, 5,588 species are native or indigenous and 376 are exotics naturalised and 1,438 species are cultivated or planted as ornamentals. Among the indigenous species, 2,253 species are endemic to India and of them, 1,273 species are exclusively confined to the Western Ghats. Apart from 593 confirmed subspecies and varieties; 66 species, 5 subspecies and 14 varieties of doubtful occurrence are also reported and therefore amounting 8,080 taxa of flowering plants.

why are there so many churches in stamford

Stamford, Lincolnshire - wikipedia Stamford is a town on the River Welland in Lincolnshire, England, 92 miles (148 km) north of London on the A1. The population at the 2001 census was 21,800 including the adjacent parish of St Martin 's Without. The town has 17th and 18th - century stone buildings, older timber - framed buildings and five medieval parish churches. In 2013, Stamford was rated the best place to live by The Sunday Times. The Romans built Ermine Street across what is now Burghley Park and forded the river Welland to the west of Stamford, eventually reaching Lincoln; they built a town to the north at Great Casterton on the River Gwash. In AD 61 Boudica followed the Roman legion Legio IX Hispana across the river. The Anglo - Saxons later chose Stamford as their main town, being on a more important river than the Gwash. In 972 King Edgar made Stamford a borough. The Anglo - Saxons and Danes faced each other across the river. The town originally grew as a Danish settlement at the lowest point that the Welland could be crossed by ford or bridge. Stamford was the only one of the Five Boroughs of the Danelaw not to become a county town. Initially a pottery centre, producing Stamford Ware, by the Middle Ages it had become famous for its production of wool and the woollen cloth known as Stamford cloth or haberget - which "In Henry III 's reign... was well known in Venice ''. Stamford was a walled town but only a very small portion of the walls now remains. Stamford became an inland port on the Great North Road, the latter superseding Ermine Street in importance. Notable buildings in the town include the mediaeval Browne 's Hospital, several churches and the buildings of Stamford School, a public school founded in 1532. A Norman castle was built about 1075 and apparently demolished in 1484. The site stood derelict until the late twentieth century when it was built over and now includes a bus station and a modern housing development. A small part of the curtain wall survives at the junction of Castle Dyke and Bath Row. Stamford has been hosting an annual fair since the Middle Ages. Stamford fair is mentioned in Shakespeare 's Henry IV part 2 (act 3 scene 2). The mid-Lent fair is the largest street fair in Lincolnshire and one of the largest in the country. On 7 March 1190, crusaders at the fair led a pogrom; many Jews in the town were massacred. For over 600 years Stamford was the site of the Stamford Bull Run festival, held annually on 13 November, St Brice 's day, until 1839. According to local tradition, the custom was started by William de Warenne, 5th Earl of Surrey, after he saw two bulls fighting in the meadow beneath his castle viewpoint. Some butchers came to part the combatants and one of the bulls ran into the town. The earl mounted his horse and rode after the animal; he enjoyed the sport so much that he gave the meadow in which the fight began to the butchers of Stamford on condition that they should provide a bull, to be run in the town every 13 November, for ever after. Stamford Museum was in a Victorian building in Broad Street from 1980 to 2011. In June 2011 it closed because of Lincolnshire County Council budget cuts. Some of the former exhibits have been relocated to the Discover Stamford area at the town 's library. Stamford is part of the Parliamentary constituency of Grantham and Stamford. The incumbent Member of Parliament is the Conservative, Nick Boles. Since April 1974 Stamford has been within the areas of Lincolnshire County (upper tier) and South Kesteven District Council (lower tier); previous to that it was part of Kesteven County Council. Stamford is in the East Midlands region. Stamford has a town council. The arms of the town council are Per pale dexter side Gules three Lions passant guardant in pale Or and the sinister side chequy Or and Azure. The three lions are the English royal arms, the blue and gold chequers are the arms of the De Warenne family, who held the Manor in the 13th century. Stamford is a town and civil parish in the South Kesteven district of Lincolnshire, on the River Welland in a southwesterly protrusion of Lincolnshire, between Rutland to the north and west, and Peterborough to the south. It borders Northamptonshire to the southwest. There have been mistaken claims of a quadripoint where four ceremonial counties, Rutland, Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire seem to meet at a point (52 ° 38 ′ 25 '' N 0 ° 29 ′ 40 '' W  /  52.64028 ° N 0.49444 ° W  / 52.64028; - 0.49444). However, the location actually consists of two tripoints around 66 ft (20 metres) apart. In 1991, the boundary between Lincolnshire and Rutland (then Leicestershire) in the Stamford area was rearranged and now mostly follows the A1 to the railway line. The conjoined parish of Wothorpe is in the city of Peterborough. Barnack Road is the Lincolnshire / Peterborough boundary where it borders St Martin 's Without. The river downstream of the town bridge, and some of the meadows, fall within the drainage area of the Welland and Deepings Internal Drainage Board. In 1968, a specimen of the sauropod dinosaur Cetiosaurus oxoniensis was found in the Williamson Cliffe Quarry, close to nearby Great Casterton in adjacent Rutland. It is about 170 million years old, from the Aalenian or Bajocian part of the Jurassic period. It is 15 metres (49 ft) long and one of the most complete dinosaur skeletons found in the UK. In 1975, it was installed in the New Walk Museum in Leicester. Tourism plays an important part and there is substantial presence of professional law and accountancy firms. Health, education and other public service employers also play a role in the local economy, notably the hospital, two large medical general practices, schools (including independent schools) and the further education college. Hospitality is provided by a large number of hotels, licensed premises and many restaurants, tearooms and cafés. The licensed premises reflect the history of the town with the George Hotel, The Lord Burghley, The William Cecil, The Danish Invader, The Scotgate (and previously The Daniel Lambert) together with the Easton on the Hill, nearly thirty premises serve real ale. The surrounding villages and Rutland Water provide additional venues and employment opportunities, as do the several annual large events at Burghley House. The town has a significant retail and retail service sector. The town centre is home to many independents and draws people from a wide area for the pleasure of shopping, often in traffic - free streets. There are numerous gift shops, men 's and women 's outfitters, shoe shops and florists, as well as hair salons, beauty therapists and eateries. National supermarkets Waitrose, Marks & Spencer, Tesco, Sainsbury 's and Morrisons are represented. There are two retail parks a little way from the centre: on one, Homebase DIY, Curry 's electrical, Carpetright floor covering and McDonald 's fast - food; on the other Sainsbury 's, Argos, Lidl supermarket, and Halfords car spares and bicycle shop. The town has three builders ' merchants, and a number of other specialist trade outlets. There are two large car sales showrooms, and a number of car - related businesses. There are also local service retailers: convenience stores, post offices, newsagents and take - aways (fish and chips and others). National jeweller F. Hinds can trace their history back to the clockmaker Joseph Hinds, who worked in Stamford in the first half of the nineteenth century; they also have a branch in the town. South of the town is RAF Wittering, a main employer which was until recently the home of the Harrier. The base originally opened in 1916 as RFC Stamford, which closed then reopened in 1924 under its present title. The engineering company Cummins Generator Technologies (formerly Newage Lyon, then Newage International), a maker of electrical generators, is based on Barnack Road. C & G Concrete (now part of Breedon Aggregates) is on Uffington Road. The area is known for its limestone and slate quarries. Collyweston stone slate, the cream - coloured stone, is found on the roofs of many of Stamford 's stone buildings. Stamford Stone, in Barnack, have two quarries at Marholm and Holywell; Clipsham Stone have two quarries in Clipsham - Clipsham stone is found on York Minster. The Pick Motor Company was in Stamford. A number of smaller firms -- welders, printers and so forth -- are either in small collections of industrial units, or more traditional premises in older mixed - use parts of the town. Blackstone & Co in Stamford was a farm implement and diesel engine manufacturing company. Being in the midst of some of the richest farmland in England, and close to the famous "double cropping '' land of parts of the fens, agriculture provides a small but steady number of jobs for the town in farming, agricultural machinery, distribution and other ancillary services. The Stamford Mercury claims to have been published since 1695, and to be "Britain 's oldest newspaper ''. The London Gazette also claims this honour, having been published since the 1660s; however, it is not now a newspaper in the usual sense. Local radio provision is shared between Peterborough 's Heart Cambridgeshire (102.7 - Heart Peterborough closed in July 2010) and the smaller Rutland Radio (the 97.4 transmitter is on Little Casterton Road) from Oakham. Also the BBC 's Radio Cambridgeshire (95.7 from Peterborough), Radio Northampton (103.6 from Corby) and Radio Lincolnshire (94.9). NOW Digital broadcasts from the East Casterton transmitter covering the town and Spalding, which provides the Peterborough 12D multiplex (BBC Radio Cambridgeshire and Hereward FM). Stamford has its own lower - power television relay transmitter, due to the town being in a valley which takes the transmission from Waltham, and not Belmont. Local high - profile publishers are Key Publishing (aviation) and the Bourne Publishing Group (pets). Old Glory, a specialist magazine devoted to steam power and traction engines, was published in Stamford. Stamford was the first conservation area to be designated in England and Wales under the Civic Amenities Act 1967. Since then the whole of the old town and St Martin 's has been made an outstanding area of architectural or historic interest that is of national importance. The town has over 600 listed buildings, more than half of the total for the County of Lincolnshire. The Industrial Revolution largely left Stamford untouched. Much of the town centre was built in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in Jacobean or Georgian style. Stamford is characterised by streets of timber - framed and stone buildings (using the local limestone that Lincoln Cathedral is built from), and little shops tucked down back alleys. A significant number of the old coaching inns survive, their large doorways being a feature of the town. The main shopping area was pedestrianised in the 1980s. Near Stamford (actually in the historic Soke of Peterborough) is Burghley House, an Elizabethan mansion, vast and ornate, built by the First Minister of Elizabeth I, Sir William Cecil, later Lord Burghley. The house is the ancestral seat of the Marquess of Exeter. The tomb of William Cecil is in St Martin 's Church in Stamford. The parkland of the Burghley Estate adjoins the town of Stamford on two sides. Also inside the district of Peterborough is the village of Wothorpe. Another historic country house near Stamford is Tolethorpe Hall, now host to outdoor theatre productions by the Stamford Shakespeare Company. Tobie Norris had a famous bell foundry in the town in the 17th century; his name is now better known as a popular pub on St Paul 's Street. Lying as it does on the main north - south route (Ermine Street, the Great North Road and now the A1) from London to York and Edinburgh, several Parliaments were held in Stamford in the Middle Ages. The George, the Bull and Swan, the Crown and the London Inn were well - known coaching inns. The town had to manage with Britain 's north - south traffic through its narrow roads until 1960, when the bypass was built to the west of the town, only a few months after the M1 opened. The old route is now the B1081. There is only one road bridge over the Welland (excluding the A1): a local bottleneck. Until 1996, there were firm plans for the bypass to be upgraded to motorway standard, since shelved. The Carpenter 's Lodge roundabout south of the town has been replaced with a grade - separated junction. The old A16 road, now A1175 (Uffington Road), which heads to Market Deeping, meets the north end of the A43 (Wothorpe Road) in the south of the town. Foot bridges cross the Welland at the Meadows, some 500 yards upstream of the Town Bridge, and with the Albert Bridge a similar distance downstream. The Jurassic Way runs from Banbury to Stamford. The Hereward Way runs through the town from Rutland to the Peddars Way in Norfolk, along the Roman Ermine Street and then the River Nene. The Macmillan Way heads through the town, finishing at Boston and there is also Torpel Way to Peterborough, which follows the railway line, entering Peterborough at Bretton. The town is served by Stamford railway station, formerly known as Stamford Town to distinguish it from the now closed Stamford East station in Water Street. The station building is a fine stone structure in Mock Tudor style, influenced by the nearby Burghley House, and designed by Sancton Wood. The station has direct services to Leicester, Birmingham and Stansted Airport (via Cambridge) on the Birmingham to Peterborough Line. CrossCountry operate the majority of services as part of their Birmingham to Stansted Airport route. Trains arriving from, or departing for Peterborough, pass through a short tunnel that runs beneath St Martin 's. The town has a bus station on part of the old Castle site in St Peter 's Hill. The main bus routes are two routes to Peterborough, via Helpston or via Wansford, and to Oakham, Grantham, Uppingham and Bourne. There are also less frequent services to Peterborough by other routes. Delaine Buses services terminate at their old depot in North Street. Other operators active include CentreBus, Blands and Peterborough Council. On Sundays and Bank Holidays from 16 May 2010, there are five journeys to Peterborough operated by Peterborough City Council, on routes via Wittering / Wansford, Duddington / Wansford, Burghley House / Barnack / Helpston and Uffington / Barnack / Helpston. There is also a National Express coach service between London and Nottingham each day including Sundays. Route maps and timetables are on Lincolnshire County Council 's website, as responsibility for overseeing transport lies with that level of government. Although commercial shipping traffic brought cargoes along a canal from Market Deeping to warehouses in Wharf Road until the 1850s, this traffic is no longer possible because of the abandonment of the canal and the shallowness of the river above Crowland. There is a lock at the Sluice in Deeping St James but it is not in use. The river was not conventionally navigable upstream of the Town Bridge. Stamford has five state primary schools -- Bluecoat, St Augustine 's (RC), St George 's, St Gilbert 's and Malcolm Sargent, and the independent Stamford Endowed Schools Junior School, a co-educational school for children from ages two to eleven. There is one state secondary school in the town itself: Stamford Welland Academy (formerly Stamford Queen Eleanor School). This was formed in the late 1980s after the dissolution of the town 's two comprehensive schools -- Fane and Exeter. It became an academy in 2011. In April 2013, a group of parents announced their intention to establish a Free School in the town but their proposal did not receive government backing. Instead, the multi-academy trust which had submitted the Free School bid was invited to take over the running of the existing school. Stamford School and Stamford High School are long established independent schools with approximately 1,500 pupils combined. Stamford School (boys) was founded in 1532, with the High School (girls) founded in 1877. The schools have taught co-educational classes in the sixth form since 2000. Most of Lincolnshire still has grammar schools. In Stamford, the place of grammar schools was long filled by a form of the Assisted Places Scheme that provided state funding to send children to one of the two independent schools in the town that were formerly direct - grant grammars. The national scheme was abolished by the 1997 Labour government. The Stamford arrangements remained in place as an increasingly protracted transitional arrangement. In 2008, the council decided no new places could be funded and the arrangement finally ended in 2012. The rest of South Kesteven, apart from Market Deeping, has the selective system. Other secondary pupils travel to nearby Casterton College or further afield to other schools such as The Deepings School or Bourne Grammar School. New College Stamford offers post-16 further education: work - based, vocational and academic; and higher education courses including BA degrees in art and design awarded by the University of Lincoln and teaching related courses awarded by Bishop Grosseteste University. The college also offers a range of informal adult learning. In 1333 -- 4, a group of students and tutors from Merton and Brasenose Colleges, dissatisfied with conditions at their university, left Oxford to establish a rival college at Stamford. Oxford and Cambridge universities petitioned Edward III, and the King ordered the closure of the college and the return of the students to Oxford. Oxford MA students were obliged to swear the following: "You shall also swear that you will not read lectures, or hear them read, at Stamford, as in a University study, or college general '', an oath which remained in place until 1827. The site, and limited remains, of the former ' Brazenose College, Stamford ' where the Oxford secessionists lived and studied, now forms part of the Stamford School premises. In the 2001 Census, over 80 % of the population of Stamford identified themselves as Christian, while under 13 % identified themselves as of "no religion ''. Stamford has many current or former churches: Stamford and nearby villages have their own substantial entertainment sector, as well as being able to access what is on offer in Peterborough, Leicester and other nearby cities. The local sector includes: In 2012 the Olympic torchbearer passed through Stamford. There are a number of junior teams in each age group as well as school teams.

who took on the task of training the south vietnamese army

South Vietnamese Regional Force - wikipedia During the Vietnam War, the South Vietnamese Regional Forces were Army of the Republic of Vietnam militia. Recruited locally, they fell into two broad groups - Regional Forces and the more local - level Popular Forces (The RFPF 's, called Ruff - Puffs by American forces). In 1964, the Regional Forces were integrated into the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) and placed under the command of the Joint General Staff. Initially fielded as village - level or province - level defence forces, these units were miltia - men while also working part of full - time. Given the worse equipment available, they served as a front - line force against armed attacks but were considerably marginalised and demoralised during the American - intervention, as ARVN Regular Forces were relegated to guarding duty. Following Vietnamization these units once again came back to prominence as they became better trained and tasked with carrying out wider area operations despite lacking artillery and air support. They would serve as front - line provincial defence units while Regular Forces were deployed against conventional People 's Army of Vietnam forces, and grew to gradually number almost 250,000 by 1974. The concept of Regional and Popular Forces is in - line with countering the Local Force and Main Force structure of the Viet Cong as they lacked firepower support, while the ARVN Regular Forces fought the PAVN. Local militia came to play a very effective role in the war, as the style of small - unit warfare was better suited for guerrilla conflicts with most more familiar with the region and terrain. Despite being poorly paid, these forces were much more capable at detecting infiltration and holding civilian areas. Accounting for an estimated 2 - 5 % of war budget, they were thought to have accounted for roughly 30 % of casualties inflicted upon VC / NVA throughout the entire war. Part of this derives in these units generally being more capable of engaging in small - unit, highly - mobile tactics which proved difficult for slow - moving equipment - heavy units. During the early 1960s the Regional Forces manned the country - wide outpost system and defended critical points, such as bridges and ferries. There were some 9,000 such positions, half of them in the Mekong Delta region. Regional Forces played a key role in regional security in the early phase of the war, and while RF / PF members were marginalised and side - lined during the American - intervention as Regular Force Army of the Republic of Vietnam Units were relegated to guarding bases and areas, badly affecting morale and purpose. When U.S. forces began to withdraw from South Vietnam during 1969 and the ARVN began the task of fighting the communist main force units, Regional Forces took on a new importance. For the first time, they were deployed outside their home areas and were sometimes attached to ARVN units. By 1973 the Regional Forces had grown to 1,810 companies, some of which were consolidated into battalions. Charged primarily with local defense under provincial government control, they were too lightly armed and equipped, marginally trained, and lacked the unit cohesion to withstand attack by regular People 's Army of Vietnam units supported by tanks and artillery. Most forces were easily subdued, retreated or were destroyed during the Easter Offensive.

who were the groups involved in the coal strike of 1902

Coal strike of 1902 - wikipedia The Coal strike of 1902 (also known as the anthracite coal strike) was a strike by the United Mine Workers of America in the anthracite coalfields of eastern Pennsylvania. Miners struck for higher wages, shorter workdays and the recognition of their union. The strike threatened to shut down the winter fuel supply to major US cities. (At that time, residences were typically heated with anthracite or "hard '' coal, which produces higher heat value and less smoke than "soft '' or bituminous coal.) President Theodore Roosevelt became involved and set up a fact - finding commission that suspended the strike. The strike never resumed, as the miners received a 10 % wage increase and reduced workdays from ten to nine hours; the owners got a higher price for coal, and did not recognize the trade union as a bargaining agent. It was the first labor dispute in which the US federal government intervened as a neutral arbitrator. The United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) had won a sweeping victory in the 1897 strike by the soft - coal (bituminous coal) miners in the Midwest, winning significant wage increases. It grew from 10,000 to 115,000 members. A number of small strikes took place in the anthracite district from 1899 to 1901, by which the labor union gained experience and unionized more workers. The 1899 strike in Nanticoke, Pennsylvania, demonstrated that the unions could win a strike directed against a subsidiary of one of the large railroads. It hoped to make similar gains in 1900, but found the operators, who had established an oligopoly through concentration of ownership after drastic fluctuations in the market for anthracite, to be far more determined opponents than it had anticipated. The owners refused to meet or to arbitrate with the union; the union struck on September 17, 1900, with results that surprised even the union, as miners of all different nationalities and ethnicities walked out in support of the union. Republican Party Senator Mark Hanna from Ohio, himself an owner of bituminous coal mines (not involved in the strike), sought to resolve the strike as it occurred less than two months before the presidential election. He worked through the National Civic Federation which brought labor and capital representatives together. Relying on J.P. Morgan to convey his message to the industry that a strike would hurt the reelection of Republican William McKinley, Hanna convinced the owners to concede a wage increase and grievance procedure to the strikers. The industry refused, on the other hand, to formally recognize the UMWA as the representative of the workers. The union declared victory and dropped its demand for union recognition. The issues that led to the strike of 1900 were just as pressing in 1902: the union wanted recognition and a degree of control over the industry. The industry, still smarting from its concessions in 1900, opposed any federal role. The 150,000 miners wanted their weekly pay envelope. Tens of millions of city dwellers needed coal to heat their homes. John Mitchell, President of the UMWA, proposed mediation through the National Civic Federation, then a body of relatively progressive employers committed to collective bargaining as a means of resolving labor disputes. In the alternative, Mitchell proposed that a committee of eminent clergymen report on conditions in the coalfields. George Baer, President of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, one of the leading employers in the industry, brushed aside both proposals dismissively: On May 12, 1902, the anthracite miners voting in Scranton, Pennsylvania, went out on strike. The maintenance employees, who had much steadier jobs and did not face the special dangers of underground work, walked out on June 2. The union had the support of roughly eighty percent of the workers in this area, or more than 100,000 strikers. Some 30,000 left the region, many headed for Midwestern bituminous mines; 10,000 men returned to Europe. The strike soon produced threats of violence between the strikers on one side and strikebreakers, the Pennsylvania National Guard, local police, and hired detective agencies on the other. On June 8, President Theodore Roosevelt asked his Commissioner of Labor, Carroll D. Wright, to investigate the strike. Wright investigated and proposed reforms that acknowledged each side 's position, recommending a nine - hour day on an experimental basis and limited collective bargaining. Roosevelt chose not to release the report, for fear of appearing to side with the union. The owners, for their part, refused to negotiate with the union. As George Baer wrote when urged to make concessions to the strikers and their union, the "rights and interests of the laboring man will be protected and cared for -- not by the labor agitators, but by the Christian men to whom God in His infinite wisdom has given the control of the property interests of the country. '' The union used this letter to sway public opinion in favor of the strike. Roosevelt wanted to intervene, but he was told by his Attorney General, Philander Knox, that he had no authority to do so. Hanna and many others in the Republican Party were likewise concerned about the political implications if the strike dragged on into winter, when the need for anthracite was greatest. As Roosevelt told Hanna, "A coal famine in the winter is an ugly thing and I fear we shall see terrible suffering and grave disaster. '' Roosevelt convened a conference of representatives of government, labor, and management on October 3, 1902. The union considered the mere holding of a meeting to be tantamount to union recognition and took a conciliatory tone. The owners told Roosevelt that strikers had killed over 20 men and that he should use the power of government "to protect the man who wants to work, and his wife and children when at work. '' With proper protection, the owner said that they would produce enough coal to end the fuel shortage; they refused to enter into any negotiations with the union. The governor sent in the National Guard, who protected the mines and the minority of men still working. Roosevelt attempted to persuade the union to end the strike with a promise that he would create a commission to study the causes of the strike and propose a solution, which Roosevelt promised to support with all of the authority of his office. Mitchell refused and his membership endorsed his decision by a nearly unanimous vote. The economics of coal revolved around two factors: most of the cost of production was wages for miners, and if the supply fell, the price would shoot up. In an age before the use of oil and electricity, there were no good substitutes. Profits were low in 1902 because of an over supply; therefore the owners welcomed a moderately long strike. They had huge stockpiles which increased daily in value. It was illegal for the owners to conspire to shut down production, but not so if the miners went on strike. The owners welcomed the strike, but they adamantly refused to recognize the union, because they feared the union would control the coal industry by manipulating strikes. Roosevelt continued to try to build support for a mediated solution, persuading former president Grover Cleveland to join the commission he was creating. He also considered sending the U.S. Army to take over the coalfields. J.P. Morgan, the dominant figure in American finance, had played a role in resolving the 1900 strike. He was deeply involved in this strike as well: his interests included the Reading Railroad, one of the largest employers of miners. He had installed George Baer, who spoke for the industry throughout the strike, as the head of the railroad. At the urging of Secretary of War Elihu Root, Morgan came up with another compromise proposal that provided for arbitration, while giving the industry the right to deny that it was bargaining with the union by directing that each employer and its employees communicate directly with the commission. The employers agreed on the condition that the five members be a military engineer, a mining engineer, a judge, an expert in the coal business, and an "eminent sociologist ''. The employers were willing to accept a union leader as the "eminent sociologist, '' so Roosevelt named E.E. Clark, head of the railway conductors ' union, as the "eminent sociologist. '' After Catholic leaders exerted pressure, he added a sixth member, Catholic bishop John Lancaster Spalding, and Commissioner Wright as the seventh member. The anthracite strike ended, after 163 days, on October 23, 1902. The commissioners began work the next day, then spent a week touring the coal regions. Wright used the staff of the Department of Labor to collect data about the cost of living in the coalfields. The commissioners held hearings in Scranton over the next three months, taking testimony from 558 witnesses, including 240 for the striking miners, 153 for nonunion mineworkers, 154 for the operators, and eleven called by the Commission itself. Baer made the closing arguments for the coal operators, while lawyer Clarence Darrow closed for the workers. Although the commissioners heard some evidence of terrible conditions, they concluded that the "moving spectacle of horrors '' represented only a small number of cases. By and large, social conditions in mine communities were found to be good, and miners were judged as only partly justified in their claim that annual earnings were not sufficient "to maintain an American standard of living. '' Baer said in his closing arguments, "These men do n't suffer. Why, hell, half of them do n't even speak English ''. Darrow, for his part, summed up the pages of testimony of mistreatment he had obtained in the soaring rhetoric for which he was famous: "We are working for democracy, for humanity, for the future, for the day will come too late for us to see it or know it or receive its benefits, but which will come, and will remember our struggles, our triumphs, our defeats, and the words which we spake. '' In the end, however, the rhetoric of both sides made little difference to the Commission, which split the difference between mineworkers and mine owners. The miners asked for 20 % wage increases, and most were given a 10 % increase. The miners had asked for an eight - hour day and were awarded a nine - hour day instead of the standard ten hours then prevailing. While the operators refused to recognize the United Mine Workers, they were required to agree to a six - man arbitration board, made up of equal numbers of labor and management representatives, with the power to settle labor disputes. Mitchell considered that de facto recognition and called it a victory. John Mitchell wrote that eight men died during the five months, "three or four '' of them strikers or sympathizers. During the extensive arbitration testimony, after company owners made claims that the strikers had killed 21 men, Mitchell disagreed strongly and offered to resign his position if they could name the men and show proof. The first casualty occurred July 1. An immigrant striker named Anthony Giuseppe was found fatally shot near a Lehigh Valley Coal Company colliery in Old Forge; it was thought the Coal and Iron Police guarding the site shot blindly through a fence. Street fighting in Shenandoah, Pennsylvania on July 30 between a mob of 5,000 striking miners versus police resulted in the beating death of Joseph Beddall, a merchant and the brother of the deputy sheriff. Contemporary reporting describes three other deaths and widespread shooting injuries among strikers and Shenandoah police. On October 9, a striker named William Durham was shot and killed in Brownsville, Pennsylvania, near Shenandoah. He 'd been loitering near the half - dynamited house of a non-union worker and disobeyed an order to halt. The legality of that killing under martial law became a case, Commonwealth v. Shortall, that was taken to the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania. The behavior and private role of the Coal and Iron Police during the strike led to the formation of the Pennsylvania State Police, on May 2, 1905 as Senate Bill 278 was signed into law by Governor Samuel W. Pennypacker. The two forces operated in parallel until 1931. Organized labor celebrated the outcome as a victory for the UMWA and American Federation of Labor unions generally. Membership in other unions soared, as moderates argued they could produce concrete benefits for workers much sooner than radical Socialists who planned to overthrow capitalism in the future. Mitchell proved his leadership skills and mastery of the problems of ethnic, skill, and regional divisions that had long plagued the union in the anthracite region. By contrast the strikes of the radical Western Federation of Miners in the West often turned into full - scale warfare between strikers and both employers and the civil and military authorities. This strike was successfully mediated through the intervention of the federal government, which strove to provide a "Square Deal '' -- which Roosevelt took as the motto for his administration -- to both sides. The settlement was an important step in the Progressive era reforms of the decade that followed. There were no more major coal strikes until the 1920s.

who is buried in the floor of st george's chapel

St George 's Chapel, Windsor Castle - Wikipedia St George 's Chapel at Windsor Castle in England, is a chapel designed in the high - medieval Gothic style. It is both a Royal Peculiar, a church under the direct jurisdiction of the monarch, and the Chapel of the Order of the Garter. Seating approximately 800, it is located in the Lower Ward of the castle. St. George 's castle chapel was established in the 14th century by King Edward III and began extensive enlargement in the late 15th century. It has been the location of many royal ceremonies, weddings and burials. Windsor Castle is a principal residence for Queen Elizabeth II and St. George 's Chapel is the planned burial site for the Queen. The day - to - day running of the Chapel is the responsibility Dean and Canons of Windsor who make up the religious College of St George, which is directed by a Chapter of the Dean and four Canons, assisted by a Clerk, Virger (traditional spelling of verger) and other staff. The Society of the Friends of St George 's and Descendants of the Knights of the Garter, a registered charity, was established in 1931 to assist the College in maintaining the Chapel. In 1348, King Edward III founded two new religious colleges: St Stephen 's at Westminster and St George 's at Windsor. The new college at Windsor was attached to the Chapel of St Edward the Confessor which had been constructed by Henry III in the early thirteenth century. The chapel was then rededicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary, Edward the Confessor and George the Martyr. Edward III also built the Aerary Porch in 1353 -- 54. It was used as the entrance to the new college. St George 's Chapel became the Mother Church of the Order of the Garter, and a special service is still held in the chapel every June and is attended by the members of the order. Their heraldic banners hang above the upper stalls of the choir where they have a seat for life. The period 1475 -- 1528 saw a radical redevelopment of St George 's Chapel under the designs of King Henry VII 's most prized counsellor Sir Reginald Bray (later Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster), set in motion by Edward IV and continued by Henry VII and Henry VIII. The thirteenth - century Chapel of Edward the Confessor was expanded into a huge new Cathedral - like chapel under the supervision of Richard Beauchamp, Bishop of Salisbury, and the direction of the master mason Henry Janyns. The Horseshoe Cloister was constructed for the new community of 45 junior members: 16 vicars, a deacon gospeller, 13 lay clerks, 2 clerks epistoler and 13 choristers. The choristers of St George 's Chapel are still in existence to this day, although the total number is not fixed and is nearer to 20. The choristers are educated at St George 's School, Windsor Castle. They are full boarders at the school. In term time they attend practice in the castle every morning and sing Matins and Eucharist on Sundays and sing Evensong throughout the entire week, with the exception of Wednesdays. St George 's Chapel was a popular destination for pilgrims during the late medieval period. The chapel was purported to contain several important relics: the bodies of John Schorne and Henry VI and a fragment of the True Cross held in a reliquary called the Cross of Gneth. These relics all appear to have been displayed at the east end of the south choir aisle. The Chapel suffered a great deal of destruction during the English Civil War. Parliamentary forces broke into and plundered the chapel and treasury on 23 October 1642. Further pillaging occurred in 1643 when the fifteenth - century chapter house was destroyed, lead was stripped off the chapel roofs, and elements of Henry VIII 's unfinished funeral monument were stolen. Following his execution in 1649, Charles I was buried in a small vault in the centre of the choir at St George 's Chapel which also contained the coffins of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour. A programme of repair was undertaken at St George 's Chapel following the Restoration of the monarchy. The reign of Queen Victoria saw further changes made to the architecture of the chapel. The east end of the choir was reworked in devotion to Prince Albert; the Lady Chapel, which had been abandoned by Henry VII, was completed; a royal mausoleum was completed underneath the Lady Chapel; and a set of steps were built at the west end of the chapel to create a ceremonial entrance to the building. In the 21st century, St George 's accommodates approximately 800 persons for services and events. On the roof of the chapel, standing on the pinnacles, and also on pinnacles on the sides, are seventy - six heraldic statues representing the Queen 's Beasts, showing the Royal supporters of England. They represent fourteen of the heraldic animals: the lion of England, the red dragon of Wales, the panther of Jane Seymour, the falcon of York, the black bull of Clarence, the yale of Beaufort, the white lion of Mortimer, the greyhound of Richmond, the white hart of Richard II, the collared silver antelope of Bohun, the black dragon of Ulster, the white swan of Hereford, the unicorn of Edward III and the golden hind of Kent. The original beasts dated from the sixteenth century, but were removed in 1682 on the advice of Sir Christopher Wren. Wren had condemned the Reigate stone, the calcareous sandstone of which they were constructed. The present statues date from 1925, when the chapel was restored. Members of the Order of the Garter meet at Windsor Castle every June for the annual Garter Service. After lunch in the State Apartments in the Upper Ward of the Castle they process on foot, wearing their robes and insignia, down to St George 's Chapel where the service is held. If any new members have been admitted to the Order they are installed at the service. After the service, the members of the order return to the Upper Ward by carriage or car. The Order formerly had frequent services at the chapel, but, after becoming infrequent in the 18th century, they were discontinued in 1805. The ceremony was revived in 1948 by King George VI for the 600th anniversary of the founding of the Order, and has since become an annual event. After their installation, members are each assigned a stall in the chapel choir above which his or her heraldic devices are displayed. A member 's sword is placed below a helm which is decorated with a mantling and topped by a crest, coronet or crown. Above this, a member 's heraldic banner is flown emblazoned with his or her arms. A Garter stall plate, a small elaborately enamelled plate of brass, is affixed to the back of the stall displaying its member 's name and arms with other inscriptions. On a member 's death, the sword, helm, mantling, crest, coronet or crown, and banner are removed. A ceremony marking the death of the late member must be held before the stall can be assigned to anyone else. This ceremony takes place in the chapel, during which the Military Knights of Windsor carry the banner of the deceased member and offer it to the Dean of Windsor, who places it on the altar. The stall plates, however, are not removed; rather, they remain permanently affixed somewhere about the stall, so the stalls of the chapel are festooned with a colourful record of the members throughout history. St George 's Windsor is among the most important and ambitious medieval chantry foundations to have survived in England. The college, itself a medieval chantry, also contains a number of independent chantries in the form of altars and small chapels dedicated to various members of the English monarchy and also to a number of prominent courtiers, deans and canons. Masses, the Office and prayers would be offered in these chantries for the good of the founder. Henry VIII had intended a chantry to be set up in the chapel, despite the fact that he instituted the religious changes which brought about the Reformation in England and the eventual suppression of chantries. The much - admired iron gates in the sanctuary of the chapel as well as the locks on the doors of the chapel are the work of the medieval Cornish metalsmith John Tresilian. The status of the college as a royal foundation saved it from dissolution at the Reformation. As a result, many of the smaller chantries within the chapel were preserved. These are the only remaining chantries of their kind in England which have never formally been suppressed. The Rutland Chantry, forming the northern transept of St George 's Chapel, was founded in 1491 to honour Sir Thomas St Leger (c. 1440 -- 1483) and Anne of York, Duchess of Exeter (1439 -- 1476); Sir Thomas was Anne 's second husband. She was the eldest surviving daughter of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and thus elder sister of kings Edward IV (1442 -- 1483, reigned 1461 -- 1483) and Richard III (1452 -- 1485, reigned 1483 -- 1485). A monumental brass in memory of Anne of York and Sir Thomas survives on the east wall of the Rutland Chantry, the inscription of which records that the chantry was founded "with two priests singing forevermore '': "Wythin thys Chappell lyethe beryed Anne Duchess of Exetur suster unto the noble kyng Edward the forte. And also the body of syr Thomas Sellynger knyght her husband which hathe funde within thys College a Chauntre with too prestys sy'gyng for ev'more. On whose soule god have mercy. The wych Anne duchess dyed in the yere of oure lorde M Thowsande CCCCl xxv '' The chantry received its current name in honour of the earls of Rutland, descendants of Anne and Sir Thomas; their daughter, also named Anne, married George Manners, 11th Baron de Ros and gave birth to Thomas Manners, 1st Earl of Rutland. The tomb of George and Anne Manners is a prominent feature of the chantry; their effigies are carved in English alabaster. The chapel has been the site of many royal weddings, particularly of the children of Queen Victoria. These weddings include: The chapel has been the site of many royal funerals and interments. Persons interred here include:

who played barry frost on rizzoli and isles

Lee Thompson Young - wikipedia Lee Thompson Young (February 1, 1984 -- August 19, 2013) was an American actor. He was known for his teenage role as the title character on the Disney Channel television series The Famous Jett Jackson (1998 -- 2001) and as Chris Comer in the movie Friday Night Lights (2004). His last starring role was as Boston police detective Barry Frost on the TNT police drama series Rizzoli & Isles (2010 -- 14). Young was born in Columbia, South Carolina, the son of Velma Elaine (née Love) and Tommy Scott Young. He was in the second grade when his parents ' marriage ended, and he went to live with his mother. At age ten, he portrayed Martin Luther King in a play called A Night of Stars and Dreams by Dwight Woods, and the Phillis Wheatley Repertory Theater of Greenville, South Carolina. It was then that Young decided he wanted to become an actor. Young moved to New York City in June 1996, but it was not until the next year that he auditioned for the part of Jett Jackson in The Famous Jett Jackson. He filmed the pilot and found out in June 1998 from the Disney Channel that the show had been picked up; it later went on to become a Disney Channel Original Movie in June 2001. Young also starred in Johnny Tsunami (1999), another Disney Channel Original Movie, as Sam Sterling. The movie was successful, but he did not reprise the role in the sequel, Johnny Kapahala: Back on Board (2007). After the cancellation of The Famous Jett Jackson, Young had guest spots in the CBS series The Guardian. He also had a part in the movie Friday Night Lights (2004), portraying Chris Comer, and a part in the Jamie Foxx movie Redemption: The Stan Tookie Williams Story (2004). Lee appeared on UPN 's TV drama series South Beach, and he portrayed Victor Stone (known in DC Comics as Cyborg) in a fifth - season episode of the television series Smallville, in 2006; which character he reprised in the Season Six episode "Justice '' (airdate January 18, 2007), and again in the Season Nine finale "Salvation '' (airdate May 14, 2010). Young appeared in the feature film Akeelah and the Bee (2006), playing Akeelah 's brother Devon. He played National Guard rookie, Delmar, in The Hills Have Eyes 2 (2007). In 2009, Young played a cocky surgical intern in the hit comedy show Scrubs. It is revealed that his character was an overweight child. The character becomes involved in a romance with one of the medical interns. Young played the role of Al Gough, an FBI agent, in the ABC television drama FlashForward. He was written off the show in episode 7, when his character committed suicide to prevent the death of an innocent civilian. His last acting role was playing Barry Frost, partner of Jane Rizzoli (Angie Harmon) on the TNT drama Rizzoli & Isles, and he made an appearance on the Fox drama The Good Guys as the brother and business partner of an arms dealer. Young graduated with Honors from the University of Southern California, where he majored in Cinematic Arts and was a member of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity. Young enjoyed writing and wrote the screenplay for the 2007 short film Mano. On August 19, 2013, Young failed to show up for filming an episode of Rizzoli & Isles. Police were called to do a well - being check on him at his Los Angeles apartment, where he was found dead. His manager stated the actor had committed suicide. Police confirmed the cause of death as a self - inflicted gunshot wound. Young had been diagnosed with bipolar disorder, for which he had been taking medication, and had been suffering from depression before his death. After funeral services at Inglewood Park Cemetery, Young was interred at Lakeview Memorial Garden, York, South Carolina. A three - hour memorial service was held on the Paramount Studios lot. Young 's family launched the Lee Thompson Young Foundation in an effort to help remove the stigma surrounding mental illness.

when was the last time the colts made it to the playoffs

List of Indianapolis Colts seasons - wikipedia The Indianapolis Colts, formerly the Baltimore Colts, are an American football team playing in the National Football League (NFL). This list documents the season - by - season records of the Colts franchise from 1953 to present, including postseason records and league awards for individual players or head coaches. In 1953, a Baltimore - based group led by Carroll Rosenbloom gained the rights to a new Baltimore franchise. Rosenbloom was granted an NFL team, and was awarded the holdings of the defunct Dallas Texans organization. The new team was named the Colts after the previous team that folded after the 1950 NFL season. After 31 seasons in Baltimore, Colts owner Robert Irsay moved the team to Indianapolis, Indiana. The Colts have won two Super Bowl championships (Super Bowl V and Super Bowl XLI). They also played in and lost Super Bowl III and Super Bowl XLIV. Before the AFL and NFL merged in 1970, they won three NFL Championships (1958, 1959, and 1968). By winning Super Bowl XLI the Colts became the first team that played its home games in a domed stadium to win a Super Bowl held in an outdoor stadium. After the Colts owner Jim Irsay hired Tony Dungy in 2002, the Colts made the playoffs for nine straight seasons. They won five straight AFC South titles from 2003 to 2007 and had seven consecutive seasons of 12 or more victories from 2003 to 2009, the first time that has been achieved in the NFL 's 90 - year history. Much of the team 's success throughout the 2000s was attributed to the trio of general manager Bill Polian, coach Dungy, and quarterback Peyton Manning. In the 2013 season, the Colts secured their first division championship since Manning 's departure and first under quarterback Andrew Luck and head coach Chuck Pagano.

when do new episodes of the handmaids tale come out

The Handmaid 's Tale (TV series) - wikipedia The Handmaid 's Tale is an American television series created by Bruce Miller based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Canadian writer Margaret Atwood. It was ordered by streaming service Hulu with a straight - to - series order of 10 episodes, with the production beginning in late 2016. The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017, with the subsequent seven episodes added on a weekly basis every Wednesday. In May 2017, it was renewed for a second season to premiere in 2018. The series received critical acclaim and won eight Primetime Emmy Awards from thirteen nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series. It is the first series on a streaming platform to win an Emmy for Outstanding Series. In the near future, human fertility rates collapse as a result of sexually transmitted diseases and environmental pollution. With this chaos in place, the totalitarian, Christian theonomic government of "Gilead '' establishes rule in the former United States in the aftermath of a civil war. Society is organized by power - hungry leaders along a new, militarized, hierarchical regime of fanaticism and newly created social classes, in which women are brutally subjugated, and by law are not allowed to work, own property, handle money, or read. Worldwide infertility has resulted in the conscription of the few remaining fertile women in Gilead, called "Handmaids '', according to an "extremist interpretation '' of a Biblical account. They are assigned to the homes of the ruling elite, where they must submit to ritualized rape with their male masters in order to become pregnant and bear children for those men and their wives. Alongside the red - clad Handmaids, much of society is now grouped into classes that dictate their freedoms and duties. Wives are expected to run their households and wear blue, Marthas are housekeepers and cooks, Aunts train and oversee the Handmaids, Eyes watch over the general populace for signs of rebellion, Hunters track down people attempting to flee the country, and Jezebels are prostitutes. June Osborne, renamed Offred (Elisabeth Moss), is the Handmaid assigned to the home of Gileadan Commander Fred Waterford (Joseph Fiennes) and his wife Serena Joy (Yvonne Strahovski). She is subject to the strictest rules and constant scrutiny; an improper word or deed on her part can lead to brutal punishment. Offred, who is named after her male master like all Handmaids, can remember the "time before '', when she was married with a daughter and had her own name and identity, but all she can safely do now is follow the rules of Gilead in the hope that she can someday live free and be reunited with her daughter. The Waterfords, key players in the rise of Gilead, have their own conflicts with the realities of the society they have helped create. A straight - to - series order by Hulu of The Handmaid 's Tale was announced in April 2016, with Elisabeth Moss set to star. Based on the 1985 novel of the same name by Margaret Atwood, the series was created by Bruce Miller, who is also an executive producer with Daniel Wilson, Fran Sears, and Warren Littlefield. Atwood serves as consulting producer, giving feedback on some of the areas where the series expands or modernizes the book. She also co-wrote every episode and also had a small cameo role in the first episode. Moss is also a producer. In June 2016, Reed Morano was announced as director of the series. Samira Wiley, Max Minghella, and Ann Dowd joined the cast in July 2016. Joseph Fiennes, Madeline Brewer and Yvonne Strahovski were cast in August 2016, followed by O.T. Fagbenle and Amanda Brugel in September 2016. In October 2016, Ever Carradine joined the cast, and Alexis Bledel was added in January 2017. Filming on the series took place in Toronto, Mississauga, Hamilton, and Cambridge, Ontario, from September 2016 to February 2017. The first full trailer of the TV series was released by Hulu on YouTube on March 23, 2017. The series premiered on April 26, 2017. On May 3, 2017, The Handmaid 's Tale was renewed for a second season to premiere in 2018. Moss told the news media that the subsequent episodes will cover further developments in the story, filling in some of the unanswered questions and continuing the narrative already "finished '' in the book. The second season will consist of 13 episodes and will begin filming in fall 2017. Alexis Bledel will return as a series regular. Showrunner Bruce Miller stated that he envisioned ten seasons of the show, stating "Well, you know, honestly, when I started, I tried to game out in my head what would ten seasons be like? If you hit a home run, you want energy to go around the bases, you want enough story to keep going, if you can hook the audience to care about these people enough that they 're actually crying at the finale. '' The first three episodes of the series premiered on April 26, 2017, with the subsequent seven episodes added on a weekly basis. In Canada, the series is broadcast by Bravo, beginning with the first two episodes premiering on April 30. In Scandinavia, the series is available on HBO Nordic. In the UK and Ireland, the series premiered on May 28, 2017, and airs every Sunday on Channel 4. In New Zealand, the series was released on the subscription video on demand service Lightbox on June 8, 2017. In Australia, the series premiered on the TV channel SBS 's video streaming service SBS on Demand on July 6, 2017. The Handmaid 's Tale has received high acclaim from television critics. On Metacritic, it has a score of 92 out of 100 based on 40 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''. The season has a 96 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes with an average score of 8.63 out of 10 based on 92 reviews. The site 's critical consensus is, "Haunting and vivid, The Handmaid 's Tale is an endlessly engrossing adaptation of Margaret Atwood 's dystopian novel that 's anchored by a terrific central performance from Elisabeth Moss. '' Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter called it "probably the spring 's best new show and certainly its most important ''. Jen Chaney of Vulture gave it a highly positive review, and wrote that it is "A faithful adaptation of the book that also brings new layers to Atwood 's totalitarian, sexist world of forced surrogate motherhood '' and that "this series is meticulously paced, brutal, visually stunning, and so suspenseful from moment to moment that only at the end of each hour will you feel fully at liberty to exhale ''. There was much debate on whether parallels could be drawn between the series (and by extension, the book it is based on) and American society following Donald Trump 's and Mike Pence 's election as President of the United States and Vice President of the United States, respectively.

who played the guitar solo on haitian divorce

The Royal Scam - wikipedia The Royal Scam is the fifth album by Steely Dan, originally released by ABC Records in 1976. The album went gold and peaked at # 15 on the charts. The Royal Scam features more prominent guitar work than the prior Steely Dan album, Katy Lied, which had been the first without founding guitarist Jeff Baxter. Guitarists on the recording include Walter Becker, Denny Dias, Larry Carlton, Elliott Randall and Dean Parks. In common with other Steely Dan albums, The Royal Scam is littered with cryptic allusions to people and events both real and fictional. In a BBC interview in 2000, Becker and Fagen revealed that "Kid Charlemagne '' is loosely based on Augustus Owsley Stanley, the notorious drug "chef '' who was famous for manufacturing hallucinogenic compounds, and that "Caves of Altamira '', based on a book by Hans Baumann, is about the loss of innocence, the narrative about a visitor to the Cave of Altamira who registers his astonishment at the prehistoric drawings. The album was re-issued by MCA Records in 1979 following the sale of the ABC Records label to MCA. The album cover shows a man in a suit, sleeping on a radiator, and apparently dreaming of skyscraper - beast hybrids. The cover was created from a painting by Zox and a photograph by Charlie Ganse, and was originally created for Van Morrison 's unreleased 1975 album, Mechanical Bliss, the concept being a satire of the American Dream. In the liner notes for the 1999 remaster of the album, Fagen and Becker claim it to be "the most hideous album cover of the seventies, bar none (excepting perhaps Ca n't Buy a Thrill). '' In the song "Everything You Did '', a lyric says, "turn up the Eagles, the neighbors are listening. '' Glenn Frey of the Eagles said, "Apparently Walter Becker 's girlfriend loved the Eagles, and she played them all the time. I think it drove him nuts. So, the story goes that they were having a fight one day and that was the genesis of the line. '' Given that the two bands shared a manager (Irving Azoff) and that the Eagles proclaimed their admiration for Steely Dan, this was more friendly rivalry than feud. Later that year in a nod back to Steely Dan for the free publicity, and inspired by Steely Dan 's lyric style, the Eagles penned the lyrics, "They stab it with their steely knives but they just ca n't kill the beast '' in their hit "Hotel California ''. Frey commented, "We just wanted to allude to Steely Dan rather than mentioning them outright, so ' Dan ' got changed to ' knives, ' which is still, you know, a penile metaphor. ''. This comment refers to the name 's claimed origin in William S. Burroughs ' book Naked Lunch. Timothy B. Schmit, who sang background vocals on "The Royal Scam '' would later join the Eagles. The album was not as highly rated upon its release as its predecessors with most reviewers noting that it did not seem to represent any musical advancement. In contrast, the original Rolling Stone review was more positive, and ultimately the magazine gave it five stars in a later Hall of Fame review. It has been called one of their strongest albums. The song "The Caves Of Altamira '' was sung by a character in the SB Nation story 17776 written by Jon Bois. All tracks written by Walter Becker and Donald Fagen, except where noted. Steely Dan Additional musicians Production

who won the tournament of champions on jeopardy

Jeopardy! Tournament of Champions - wikipedia The Jeopardy! Tournament of Champions is an annual tournament featuring the longest - running champions and biggest money winners from the past season or seasons of Jeopardy! The tournament began in 1964 during Art Fleming 's tenure as host, and has continued into the Alex Trebek era of the show. There have been six years in which the Tournament was skipped altogether (1984, 1997, 2005, 2008, 2012, and 2016), and seven seasons (1, 17, 20, 23, 27, 30, and 33). The brief 1978 -- 79 revival, which aired for five months, is known to have had a Tournament as well. In 2002, Jeopardy! held a Million Dollar Masters tournament featuring fifteen previous champions, and in 2005 the show held an Ultimate Tournament of Champions for over three months, which featured over 100 champions from previous years instead of a regular Tournament of Champions for just the previous year; that season 's Tournament of Champions began on September 20, 2004, featuring any remaining season 19 champions who had n't qualified for that year 's tournament as well as all of the season 20 qualifiers except for Ken Jennings, who had just resumed his winning streak two weeks before the tournament started (Jennings 's streak was interrupted three times that year; the other two times were for the show 's annual Kids Week in October 2004 and the College Championship in November 2004). The season 25 Tournament of Champions was taped during the 2009 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Nevada. In 2014, Jeopardy! held a Battle of the Decades tournament featuring 45 previous champions, with 15 from their respective decade (1984 -- 93, 1994 -- 2003, and 2004 -- 13). All of the players competed in a week - long slate of games, respective of decade, from which the winners out of each game would become quarter - finalists. Those 15 winners would then return to compete in a regular tournament format, with the winner taking home $1,000,000. The latest Jeopardy! Tournament of Champions, featuring contestants from seasons 32, 33, and 34, began November 6, 2017. According to surviving microfilm records of broadcasts from the era, the original 1964 - 1975 Tournament of Champions format generally featured the top 9 winners in the given season, inviting the highest earning five - day champions, with four - day and three - day champions invited if necessary in order of winnings. In the current version of the show, the Tournament of Champions includes 15 players. Most of the slots are reserved for regular - season players who have won the most games since the previous championship contestants were chosen, followed by the most money in the case of the same number of games won. Prior to the end of the five - game limit, champions of five games were traditionally guaranteed a slot in the event, while four - day champions have been involved in most Tournament of Champions fields, and if necessary, three day champions may qualify (which has occurred in seven tournaments to date.) In the one instance where there were more five - day champions in the qualifying period than available slots in the tournament, the most recent overflow contestants were held over for the following tournament (which occurred in 2001, with the last two five - day champions held over to the 2003 event.) Notably, 2004 74 - day champion Ken Jennings gave up his bid in the 2006 Tournament of Champions in favor of an automatic finals bye in 2005 's Ultimate Tournament of Champions, and therefore never competed in the regular tournament. Winners of the annual College Championships and Teachers Tournaments are also guaranteed slots in the Tournament of Champions. For many years, the winners of the annual Teen Tournament and Seniors Tournaments also participated, but the Seniors Tournament was discontinued after 1995, and a Teen Tournament winner was last invited to the Tournament of Champions in 2000, none ever having won the event. Scheduling occurrences can result in multiple winners of a given annual tournament in the same Tournament of Champions field, most recently with two College Champions and two Teacher Champions in the 2017 event. Due to academic study commitments, two College Champions (Vinita Kailasanth in 2001 and Joey Beachum in 2008) have deferred their bid in their original intended Tournament of Champions to the following tournament. For Jeopardy! 's first nine Tournaments of Champions, the tournament was held each November, with the qualifying period for the event being the entire previous season. Starting after 1993 's installment, the qualifying period was modified to any games played between tournaments, and following 1996 's installment, tournaments moved to a more fluid schedule, and are no longer solely held in November; it is usually, but not always, held during a "sweeps '' month (February, May or November) to maximize the show 's Nielsen Ratings. As a result, qualifying periods now vary in length, and the tournament does not have to be held in a given season or calendar year. Due to scheduling delays from prior special events, producers have the option to begin a qualifying period prior to the start of the previous tournament if necessary, such as for 2015 's installment. A sixteenth player, who is the next highest player with the most wins, then by amount of money won, not in the field, is also invited as an alternate contestant in the event that a qualified champion is unable to attend. In the 2001 event, the two overflow five - day champions (Mark Dawson & Alan Bailey) were both invited as alternates, due to travel concerns in the wake of the September 11 attacks, though no one was unable to compete, and both were included as planned in the 2003 tournament. As well, the highest earning contestant to not advance out of the prior round is assigned as an alternate for the semifinals and finals in case of emergency. There have been at least 2 cases of otherwise - qualified contestants being removed from the Tournament of Champions field due to violations of eligibility requirements (Barbara Lowe in 1986 had appeared on another game show within the probationary period, and Jerry Slowik in 2014 was indicted on sexual abuse charges of a 15 - year - old girl, and his court case had not come to trial at the time of the taping; he eventually pleaded guilty in February 2015, including a 30 - day prison sentence, five year probationary period, and registration as a sex offender). In such cases, the champion with the most wins not already in the tournament, with earnings as the tie - breaker, took their place in the field. In at least one other case, a qualifying contestant had deceased before reaching the Tournament of Champions; six - day champion Cindy Stowell died of colon cancer shortly after she taped her appearance on the show and well before she would have appeared on the 2017 Tournament of Champions. Stowell 's estate was awarded the $5,000 she would have been guaranteed as a quarterfinalist, plus an additional $5,000 donation, which in accordance with her wishes and along with the rest of her earnings from the show, was donated to charity. In most seasons of the Art Fleming era, the Tournament of Champions featured three semifinal games, with the winners competing in a two - legged tie final (similarly to the second half of the modern tournament), though here, scores were n't reset for the second game, allowing contestants to add to, lose, and wager money won in the first game. For the 1969 Tournament of Champions only, 18 champions were invited to compete, who competed in six quarterfinal games, two semifinal games, and the usual two - day final (with the highest scoring losing semifinalist also competing as a wild card finalist.) The 1970 tournament returned to a one - week format, but featured two separate one day finals involving top performing contestants from the semifinal games. The 1978 syndicated revival of Jeopardy! held a Tournament of Champions in early 1979 featuring top - earning champions from prior games of that season, though the format is unclear from surviving episodes. A copy of the final episode exists (sans the contestants ' last names), which saw contestant Stuart defeat Phillip and Tom to win the event. With the expansion of the field to 15 players in the Alex Trebek era, the Tournament of Champions now lasts two weeks (10 shows) with the following format, devised by Trebek himself in 1985 to suit the 15 five - time champions from the previous year. The same format applies to all Jeopardy! 15 - player tournament formats -- the Teen Tournament, College Championship, and Teachers Tournament; it previously applied to the Seniors Tournament, the Million Dollar Masters Tournament, and starting with the second round (15 players), Jeopardy! Battle of the Decades: The following tie - breaker rules are imposed during the tournament: Triple Zero Score: All three players are eliminated from contention for an automatic berth to the next round. An additional wild card is added. Players with a score of zero are still eligible for a wild card, should not enough players have a positive score. Tie Game for First, Positive Score: Tied players participate in a tie - breaker round, which consists of one final toss - up clue; the player who rings in and gives the correct question advances. A player can not win by default, and must give the correct question to win. Should neither player offer a correct response, the question is thrown out and edited out of the final broadcast; only the final question that determines the winner is broadcast. In the final, the tie - breaker is used only if there is a tie after the aggregate. The tie - breaker round would later be added into non-tournament play. Tie for Wild Card: In case of a tie among the highest - scoring losers for a Wild Card position, the same rules as determining second and third place prizes is used, with the highest score after "Double Jeopardy! '' breaking the tie (and the Jeopardy! round, if necessary). A player with a zero score in their round is still eligible for a Wild Card should it come down to this. The prize amounts for all contestants are as follows: The following is a list of contestants and where they placed in the tournament. Prize amounts for the non-winning finalists who won more than the minimum guarantees are as indicated in parentheses.

three types of native mammals that live in florida

List of mammals of Florida - Wikipedia This is a list of mammal species found in the wild in the American State of Florida. In total, 98 species of mammals are known to inhabit, or recently to have inhabited, the state and its surrounding waters. This includes a few species, such as the black - tailed jackrabbit and red deer, that were introduced after the European colonization of the Americas. It also includes the extinct Caribbean monk seal. Rodents account for roughly one quarter of all species, followed closely by mammals from the Cetacea and Carnivora families. The species included in this list are drawn from the work of the American Society of Mammalogists, which compiled information from five different publications. Information on the international status of species has been drawn from the IUCN Red List. Coyotes arrived in northern Florida in the 1970s as its natural range expanded. Illegal releases were another factor in its occupation of the state. Coyotes are extremely adaptable, living in all types of forests and farms. Florida has two types of foxes. The native gray fox can be found in the United States almost anywhere, except northern plains and Rockies. It is sometimes confounded with the red fox due to having patches of red hair. The red fox was introduced to Florida by hunting clubs, although it may have been native in the northern panhandle. Its preferred habitats are open areas, while the gray fox prefers woods. Red wolves were once common throughout the southeastern US, including Florida. Extinct in the wild in 1980, it has been progressively introduced to select nature preserves. The present population was introduced as part of this recovery program in 1997 to the Saint Vincent National Refuge; once red wolf pups reach 18 months, they are relocated to the North Carolina portion of the program. Bobcats are well adapted to urban development and are not a conservation concern. They make their home in hammocks, forests or swamps. The Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi) is one of the subspecies of cougar. Its main differences from other subspecies are longer legs, smaller size and a shorter darker coat. The skull of the Florida panther is broader and flatter with highly arched nasal bones. Reportedly only seventy adult animals are alive, and a 1992 study estimated that the subspecies would become extinct between 2016 and 2055. It was chosen in 1982 as the Florida state animal by the state 's schoolchildren. It is believed that some jaguarundis were unintentionally released in the wild in the 1940s. There is no evidence besides witness accounts, and the existence of jaguarandis in the state is dubious. Two of the eleven species of skunks live in Florida. Both the eastern spotted skunk and the striped skunk can be found statewide (except for the Keys). Small populations of the Everglades mink (Mustela vison evergladensis), a subspecies of American mink, are encountered near Lake Okeechobee, and in the Big Cypress Swamp - Everglades National Park area. Northern river otters are a common sight close to freshwater streams across Florida. The population is increasing. Raccoons are prevalent in the lower 48 states, including Florida. Adaptable to almost all kinds of habitats, the animals are among the few who actually benefit from human development, since food becomes more available. Attacks by predators like the bobcat cause minimum mortality, and the main reason for raccoon deaths is considered to be car accidents. They are regarded as predators of sea turtles nests. All Florida black bear in Florida are part of the subspecies Ursus americanus floridanus. Differences between subspecies are very small; the Florida black bear differs from other subspecies by its highly arched forehead and its long and narrow braincase. Estimates for 2002 indicated the number of bears statewide to be between 2,000 and 3,200 individuals, indicating an increase from the previous census in 1998. The biggest cause of concern is roadkill, although the rates of mortality are equivalent to other areas in the country. Of the species listed below, 13 are confirmed to be resident species; all of them are insectivorous. Five species had very low numbers reported and can be classified as accidental species: Indiana bat, Jamaican fruit bat, little brown bat, northern long - eared myotis and the silver - haired bat. Some bats not in this list, but with reported sightings in the Lower Keys, are the buffy flower bat, Cuban flower bat and Cuban fig - eating bat. Bats can be classified in two groups by their roosting habits: solitary and colony - roosting bats. Solitary bats prefer to live in leaves, palm fronds and Spanish moss. Resident bats in this category are the Eastern red bat, the northern yellow bat and the Seminole bat. Hoary bats are not considered residents because they migrate to Mexico and South America to spend the winter. The remaining species are considered to be colony - roosting bats. Darker than their solitary counterparts and less furry, these bats prefer to live under bridges, in tree holes or caves. Only 3 Florida species live in caves: the eastern pipistrelle, the gray bat and the southeastern myotis. Florida has the highest concentration of southeastern myotis in the world. The greatest threat to bats in Florida is the disturbance or destruction of roost sites, due to vandalism or urban development. Of the several species of rodents in Florida, the subspecies of oldfield mouse are the biggest conservation concern, along with the Florida mouse. Six of eight subspecies of the Oldfield mouse (commonly named beach mice) are in endangered status, and one is extinct. Given causes for their demise is predators like cats and red foxes and destruction of their natural habitats. The Florida mouse is on the endangered species list because of destruction of their habitat. The mouse is the only mammal that is endemic to Florida. The rodent depends on the gopher tortoise (also endangered) for its survival, because it makes its burrows from tortoise burrows, or in the absence of those, Oldfield mouse burrows. Non-native species brought in boats by colonizers are the black rat, brown rat and house mouse. Other non-natives are the capybara, the nutria and the Mexican gray squirrel. Not listed below, but with reported sightings, are the biggest rat in the world, the Gambian pouched rat, which arrived in 2002; and the prairie dog. Both are wild releases of animals kept as pets. The only native even - toed ungulate is the white - tailed deer. It is the most economically important hunting mammal in all of North America, and is one of the major prey animals of the Florida panther. There were only about 20,000 deer in Florida during the late 1930s, and the species was almost extinct in South Florida due to a campaign to eliminate tick - borne diseases. Hunt restraining measures and purchases from other states were very successful bringing the population to more than 700,000 deer statewide. The smaller subspecies, Key deer, lives only in the Keys and numbers around 800 animals. Sambar deer were introduced in 1908 as alternative game for hunters on Saint Vincent Island. The population is between 700 and 1,000 deers; 130 hunters are licensed per year, and each can kill up to two animals. Some red deer were released from a hunting ranch around 1967 and may still exist as a small herd. Hogs found their way to Florida in 1539 with Spanish colonist Hernando de Soto. Florida has 12 % of the three million hogs that roam in the US. They are a popular hunting prey, but are regarded as a pest due to the damage they inflict to agriculture and environment. More than 21,000 hogs were killed in 1980 alone. All the confirmed Soricomorpha in Florida are nocturnal; the black - tailed jackrabbit -- introduced as a training tool for racing greyhounds from 1930 to 1950; the native eastern cottontail, which can be found anywhere but in forests and coastal marshes; and the marsh rabbit, who prefers freshwater and brackish marshes. The subspecies Lower Keys marsh rabbit has the scientific name Sylvilagus palustris hefneri after Hugh Hefner -- because research on the subspecies was financed in part by the Playboy Foundation. Three species of shrews are found across Florida. Two known subspecies are the Homosassa shrew (Sorex longirostris eionis) and Sherman 's short - tailed shrew, Blarina carolinensis shermanii. One of their main predators is the cat. Completing the Soricomorpha are two species of moles. The rhesus macaque was introduced to Florida in 1933, as props for Tarzan movies, and have established colonies after escaping from the set. Charles River Laboratories, the world 's biggest producer of lab animals, maintained a free - range colony until 1999, when they were forced to remove the animals after they destroyed parts of the mangrove forests in Key Haven. Other primates with reported sightings not included in this list are vervet monkeys and squirrel monkeys. Cingulata are represented by the nine - banded armadillo, released in 1922 by a Marine who kept them as pets, but other accounts place them as having migrated from Texas. Subsequent introductions and fast breeding spread the species statewide. The Virginia opossum is the only marsupial found in North America north of the Rio Grande. It lives in wooded areas and can be easily found statewide. Trichechus manatus latirostris is one of the two subspecies of the West Indian manatee. This herbivorous aquatic mammal lives in rivers, springs and shallow coastal waters. It was designated the state marine mammal in 1975 and is protected by federal and state laws. Threatened by habitat loss, entanglements in fishing gear and crab traps, or by being asphyxiated or crushed by canal locks and flood gates, the most common cause for manatee deaths is being struck by boats, which caused one quarter of all deaths recorded since 1974. In 2015, the statewide population was estimated at 6,063. Florida does not have seal colonies, but stray seals wash ashore in Florida occasionally. The most prevalent of those species have been the common seal and the hooded seal, although a bearded seal was seen in 2007. The Caribbean monk seal was native to the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico. Once a popular prey for Bahamas fishermen, their numbers diminished greatly in the 1800s. The last sighting of the species in Florida was in 1922, and specimens have not been seen anywhere since 1952. Of the several whales seen close to Florida, the most frequent and notable visitor is the North Atlantic right whale. Named as such because they were the "right '' whales to kill, their only known calving ground is located off the coasts of Georgia and Florida. Pregnant females migrate from feeding grounds located far north and deliver calves from mid December to March. Humpback whales are also re-colonizing the area while gray whales, once cavorting off Florida for the same reasons as the right whales, were extirpated from the Atlantic in the 17th - 18th century. The most common dolphin in the state is the common bottlenose dolphin. Dolphins, like manatees, are vulnerable to red tide and have mass fatalities when one occurs. Dolphins were designated the Florida state saltwater mammal in 1975.

national korean american service & education consortium (nakasec)

National Korean American Service & education Consortium - wikipedia The National Korean American Service & Education Consortium (NAKASEC, and 미주 한인 봉사 교육 단체 협의회 or 미교협 in Korean) is a national service, advocacy and education organization for two non-profit multi-issue grassroots local community centers: the Korean American Resource & Cultural Center in Chicago and the Korean Resource Center in Los Angeles. NAKASEC is based in Los Angeles and a D.C. office opened in late 2008. NAKASEC was founded in 1994 by local community centers to project a national progressive voice and promote the full participation of Korean Americans as a part of a greater goal of building a national movement for social change. NAKASEC was one of the major players in the Korean American community during the restoration movement after the welfare reform of 1996 through the "Fix ' 96 Campaign '' and continues to be active in the immigration reform debate. KRC along with other centers in Seattle, Washington, DC, Houston and other cities, were established in the early 1980s by political activists who escaped South Korea after Chun Doo - hwan 's military leadership crushed the Gwangju People 's Uprising in May 1980. From the onset, the center set as its goals the delivery of social services, community education, rights advocacy, and preservation and enrichment of traditional cultures and work on identity. During the 1980s, it focused its advocacy in solidarity work with the democratization movement of South Korea, exposing grave human rights violations committed by the Chun regime. Because of its open challenge to the then dictatorial state of South Korea, KRC was a target of covert repression and kidnap attempts by the KCIA and the Korean Consulate. With the Los Angeles Civil Unrest of 1992 and the anti-immigrant wave that swept across California with Proposition 187 in 1994, KRC steered its direction to issues of the Korean American community in Los Angeles, particularly around political education, civil rights and the defense of immigrant rights. In 1994, KRC and other sister centers across the United States, including YKASEC in New York City and KRCC in Chicago, founded the National Korean American Service and Education Consortium (NAKASEC, 미주 한인 봉사 교육 단체 협의회), a national civil rights organization with a progressive Korean American agenda. Under the leadership of NAKASEC, centers fought against Proposition 187, held community education on issues of race, and formed a broad coalition in the Korean American community against the Welfare Reform of 1996. Through a community fundraiser involving thousands of individuals, a full - page ad was posted in the Washington Post in 1997 demanding the president to end the attack on immigrants, and a campaign to restore welfare benefits for immigrants was launched in the late 90 's, winning back various benefits for lawful permanent residents and other immigrants. Many Korean American seniors became politicized during this struggle for benefits. NAKASEC coordinated a national two - week fast for the passage of the DREAM Act in 2004 with the participation of 700 individuals, and held a summer community fundraising campaign, gaining the monetary contribution of 14,000 individuals, to post a full - page ad in the New York Times and Washington Post urging the American public to support comprehensive immigration reform based on the principles of legalization of undocumented immigrants, an end to measures that prevented many families to be together, and the defense of workers ' rights and civil rights & liberties. The Korean American Resource & Cultural Center (KRCC for short, and 한인 교육 문화 마당 집 or 마당 집 in Korean) was founded in March 1995. KRCC has a strong youth program and leadership has worked broadly in a multi-racial and multi-ethnic environment. KRCC is member of a number of local coalitions, including the Coalition of Asian, African, Arab, European and Latino Immigrants of Illinois and the Illinois Coalition of Immigrant and Refugee Rights. The Korean Resource Center (KRC for short, and 민족 학교 in Korean) is a non-profit multi-issue, multi-mode grassroots organization based in Koreatown, Los Angeles that works with the Korean American, immigrant and low - income people of color communities of Los Angeles. It was one of the major players in the Korean American community during the restoration movement after the welfare reform of 1996 through the "Fix ' 96 Campaign '' and more recently in issues of access to health services and immigration reform. During the late 90 's and early 2000s KRC diversified its rights advocacy component into specialized programs that addressed health, immigrant rights and voting rights. KRC was part of the March 25th Marches with a million protestors in downtown Los Angeles as well as other protests. NAKASEC joined other labor, faith, and rights organizations in Southern California to form the We Are America Coalition, which mobilized hundreds of thousands of immigrants and allies in the May Day March. KRC has traditionally been supported by the Korean American community in its entirety and relied on small size individual donations, sales of used cans and garage sales to sustain its programs. A recent trend has been to rely more on foundation grants, but its tradition of community support is alive in its campaign fundraisers as well as its continuance of can and garage sales. KRC has a very strong and large senior age base because of its work with welfare rights and social services. KRC 's anniversary booklet claims that KRC served over 5,000 Korean Americans free of charge during 2006, mostly through education and enrollment of Medicare Part D as well as Medi - Cal, low - income legal and tax services, naturalization, etc. Many seniors are active in all of KRC 's components. KRC runs its own poongmul troupe, called HanNuRi (traditional Korean peasant percussion music), and educates the community through its poongmul classes. KRC 's poongmul troupe has become renowned in the activist community through its performance in rallies and cultural events.

who does the voice for optimus prime in transformers

Peter Cullen - wikipedia Peter Claver Cullen (born July 28, 1941) is a Canadian voice actor. He is best known as the voice of Optimus Prime (as well as Ironhide) in the original 1980s Transformers animated series, and most other incarnations of the character, as well, and Eeyore in the Winnie the Pooh franchise. He also voiced Monterey Jack in Chip ' n Dale Rescue Rangers from season one through some of season two. In 2007, Cullen returned to the role of Optimus Prime in various Transformers media, starting with the first live - action film. Cullen was born on July 28, 1941 in Montreal, Quebec, to Henry L. and Muriel (née McCann) Cullen. He has three siblings: Michaela, Sonny, and Larry. Cullen attended Regiopolis - Notre Dame Catholic Secondary School. He is a member of the first graduating class of the National Theatre School of Canada, which graduated in 1963. His brother, Larry Cullen, was a retired Captain in the United States Marine Corps, and helped inspire the voice of Optimus Prime. In 1968, he and Joan Stuart appeared as "Giles '' and "Penelope '' in L'Anglaise, a recurring segment about a French - Canadian man with an English - Canadian wife, on the CBC Radio comedy series, Funny You Should Say That. Cullen played a French - Canadian astronaut character named Commander Bi Bi Latuque alongside Ted Zeigler for the 1969 children 's show, The Buddies on CFCF - TV in Montreal. He honed his voice skills by working as a radio announcer, notably in his home town of Montreal on (then) MOR station CKGM doing the overnight and weekend swing shifts. From 1967 - 69, he was the announcer for Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour. From 1971 - 74, he, Zeigler and Billy Van were series regulars on The Sonny and Cher Comedy Hour. In 1974, Cullen was the announcer and a series regular (with Ted Zeigler and Billy Van) on The Hudson Brothers Razzle Dazzle Show. He lent his voice to a character in the album "The Story of Halloween Horror '' in 1977. Cullen recalls auditioning for the role of the robot superhero Optimus Prime at a casting house in Burbank, California, explaining that as he read Prime 's character breakdown, he saw that it was "the opportunity of the year '', and heeded his brother Larry 's advice: "Peter, do n't be a Hollywood superhero, be a real superhero. Real superheroes do n't yell and act tough; they are tough enough to be gentle, so control yourself. '' Cullen later learned from his agent, Steve Tisherman, that he not only won the part of Prime, but also, to his surprise, the role of Ironhide as well, which he saw as a "home run ''. He has stated that Optimus is his favorite voice role, and that he based the voice of the Autobot leader on his older brother Larry, who served in Vietnam. "When he came home, I could see a change. He was quieter and he was a man and a superhero to me, '' says the actor. "I watched him and listened to him. I 'd never had an opportunity to do a superhero, and when that came, (that voice) just came right out of me and I sounded like Optimus. '' He has also stated that he had no idea of Prime 's popularity until the character 's controversial death in the 1986 animated film, as the studio had never given him fan letters from children addressed to Optimus. The public backlash over Optimus ' death surprised producers greatly. Children were leaving the theaters because of the character 's death. The writers temporarily revived the character for a single episode in Season 3 called "Dark Awakening ''. Initially, this was intended to be his final appearance, but after fan requests continued, "The Return of Optimus Prime '', a two - part episode was produced. The original ending of "Dark Awakening '' was altered in reruns to include a teaser about the return of the character. Cullen reprised the role of Optimus Prime in the 2007 Transformers live - action film, and its sequels Revenge of the Fallen, Dark of the Moon, Age of Extinction, and The Last Knight, as well as the video games based on them. Cullen will also voice Optimus in the spin - off Bumblebee film, set to be released in 2018. He is contractually obligated to voice Optimus in at least one more sequel. Cullen again reprised his role as Optimus Prime in the video games Transformers: War for Cybertron, Transformers: Fall of Cybertron and Transformers: Devastation, and in the recent television series Transformers: Rescue Bots, Transformers Prime and Transformers: Robots in Disguise. His performance in the premiere season of Transformers: Prime earned him a nomination for a 2011 Daytime Emmy Award in the Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program category. In the 1980s and the 1990s, Cullen appeared on a number of television shows. He has played Coran, Stride the Tiger Fighter, and King Alfor in the Lion Voltron series, the transforming spaceship / robot Ramrod in the 1980s anime series Saber Rider and the Star Sheriffs, Commander James Hawkins in the Vehicle Voltron series, Eeyore in the Winnie the Pooh franchise, KARR in Knight Rider, Antor and Bomba, and Gunner, in Dino - Riders, Airbourne, Nemesis Enforcer and Zandar in G.I. Joe, He played "Mantor / Mantys '' in Coleco 's 5 episode mini-series Sectaurs in 1986; Red Skull in the 1981 cartoon series of Spider - Man, Klaar and Zanzoar in Megas XLR and Mantus in The Pirates of Dark Water. He also had a voice part in the 1984 motion picture Gremlins, as a gremlin, and the first season of the 2008 Knight Rider series as KARR. He also did voicework in The Greatest Adventure: Stories from the Bible series, notably as Japheth, one of Noah 's sons in the "Noah 's Ark '' episode, and the King of Nineveh in the "Jonah '' episode. He was well known by some as the main villain Venger in the animated series of Dungeons and Dragons. He played the evil sorcerer Renwick in the lesser known series Little Wizards and played Cindarr in the short - lived series Visionaries: Knights of the Magical Light. Among many other television series and films, he has also lent his basso voice to many film trailers and television commercials, including announcing for the Toonami and You Are Here blocks on the Cartoon Network. Cullen spent some of his early professional years in Montreal as a radio announcer / DJ on CKGM; and as a character in a then - popular local television kids show. He acted the role of a French - Canadian astronaut, along with writer and his partner on the show, Ted Ziegler. Both Ziegler and Cullen were in the supporting cast of The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour, as well as other network comedies of the era. He voiced Nintendo 's mascot Mario in the Donkey Kong segments on Saturday Supercade, making him the first person to ever provide a voice for the character. Cullen has done voicework on drum and bass DJ Dieselboy 's 2004 album, The Dungeonmaster 's Guide, and narration on the 2013 album Tetragrammaton by the Dutch extreme metal band The Monolith Deathcult. Tetragrammaton also featured Cullen on bass in "God 's Among Insects. '' Additionally, he did voicework for the unreleased Blizzard Entertainment game Warcraft Adventures: Lord of the Clans, and provided narration for the Star Wars fan film series I.M.P.S.: The Relentless. Cullen is a voice announcer on Police Story 4: First Strike in advertisements for New Line Cinema, lending his experience as an ex-cop for the Santa Monica division to the cast. Cullen has four children: Clay, Angus, Claire, Pilar and three grandchildren. He is a good friend of his Transformers co-star and fellow voice actor Frank Welker. At BotCon 2010, Hasbro named Cullen as one of the first four human inductees in the Transformers Hall of Fame for his role as the voice of Optimus Prime. In 2008, Time magazine named Cullen "Celebrity Most Likely to Pilot Commercial Airplanes. ''

where do spare ribs come from on a pig

Pork ribs - wikipedia Pork ribs are a cut of pork popular in Western and Asian cuisines. The ribcage of a domestic pig, meat and bones together, is cut into usable pieces, prepared by smoking, grilling, or baking -- usually with a sauce, often barbecue -- and then served. Several different types of ribs are available, depending on the section of rib cage from which they are cut. Variation in the thickness of the meat and bone, as well as levels of fat in each cut, can alter the flavor and texture of the prepared dish. The inner surface of the rib cage is covered by a layer of connective tissue (pleura) that is difficult to cook tender; it is usually removed before marinating or cooking. Baby back ribs (also back ribs or loin ribs) are taken from the top of the rib cage between the spine and the spare ribs, below the loin muscle. They have meat between the bones and on top of the bones, and are shorter, curved, and sometimes meatier than spare ribs. The rack is shorter at one end, due to the natural tapering of a pig 's rib cage. The shortest bones are typically only about 3 in (7.6 cm) and the longest is usually about 6 in (15 cm), depending on the size of the hog. A pig side has 15 to 16 ribs (depending on the breed), but usually two or three are left on the shoulder when it is separated from the loin. So, a rack of back ribs contains a minimum of eight ribs (some may be trimmed if damaged), but can include up to 13 ribs, depending on how it has been prepared by the butcher. A typical commercial rack has 10 -- 13 bones. If fewer than 10 bones are present, butchers call them "cheater racks ''. Rib tips are short, meaty sections of rib attached to the lower end of the spare ribs, between the ribs and the sternum. Unlike back ribs or spare ribs, the structure of the rib is provided by dense costal cartilage, not bone. Rib tips are cut away from the spare ribs when preparing St. Louis style spare ribs. Riblets are prepared by butchers by cutting a full set of spare ribs approximately in half. This produces a set of short, flat ribs where the curved part of the rib is removed and gives them a more uniform look. Loin back ribs do n't always have this removed. When not removed they have a rounded look to them and are often referred to as baby back ribs. Another product (imprecisely) called riblets is actually the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae. Riblets used to be thrown out by butchers, but have become popular due to their excellent flavor and lower cost. Button ribs (or feather bones) are often confused with riblets mostly because Applebee 's sells these as "riblets ''. In fact, what Applebee 's sells is found just past the ribs near the back bone, just underneath the tenderloin. This cut of meat actually has no bones, but instead has "buttons '' of cartilaginous material with meat attached. Rib tips (or brisket) are found at the bottom of the spare ribs by the sternum. The rib tips have a high proportion of cartilage. The rib tips give the spare ribs a rounded appearance. In an attempt to give the meat a more uniform appearance and make it easier to eat, this piece is sometimes removed, and the remaining spare ribs are referred to as Saint Louis style ribs.

who is lily's mother on the young and the restless

Lily Winters - wikipedia Lily Winters is a fictional character from the American CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless. Created by William J. Bell, the character appeared as a child for her first five - year period. In 2002, Christel Khalil began portraying Lily as a teenager after the character rapidly aged. In 2005, Khalil left the series, resulting in the character 's recasting with Davetta Sherwood; however, Sherwood 's portrayal was brief when Khalil asked to return the following year. Khalil began playing the character as a "rebellious, yet naive teenager '', later becoming one of the soap opera 's heroines. Winters is the daughter of supermodel - turned - executive Drucilla Winters (Victoria Rowell) born in the midst of a questioned paternity storyline, with Neil Winters (Kristoff St. John) believing he was her father. Eleven years later, the storyline was readdressed with the revelation that Malcolm Winters (Shemar Moore) is her biological father. Lily later began a relationship with Daniel Romalotti (Michael Graziadei), a romance inspired by Romeo and Juliet. The couple were popular with viewers, who were saddened at their separation (because of Daniel 's addiction to pornography). Lily was later paired with leading character Cane Ashby (Daniel Goddard), a romance that has attracted significant fan attention. In 2009, the pair were married just before Lily was diagnosed with ovarian cancer, a storyline praised by viewers and critics. Lily and Cane had two children: Charlie and Mattie Ashby, born in 2010. The following year the couple divorced (after Cane faked his death and kept secrets from Lily), but reunited and were remarried in 2012. Khalil has received critical acclaim for her portrayal, which has garnered her an NAACP Image and Daytime Emmy Award. Critics have described her as having evolved from a "teen star '' into a "leading lady ''. Winters was first portrayed as a child by Vanessa Carson in 1996, followed by Brooke Marie Bridges from 1998 to 2000. In August 2002 Khalil was cast in the role as a teenager at age 14. Lily was the first soap - opera role for which she auditioned. After screen tests with co-star Kristoff St. John and casting director Marnie Saitta, Khalil was given the part. In 2005 (after portraying the character for three years) Khalil left the series, citing stress as the reason for her departure. The producers tried unsuccessfully to convince Khalil to stay, and recast her role with Sherwood. Sherwood said that while the character Lily was the same, she and Khalil were not the same actress so it would be "a little different ''. Although she replaced a popular actress, Sherwood said she felt no anxiety over the recasting because Khalil chose to leave the part. After leaving the series, Khalil and the producers began discussing her possible return. In 2006 she agreed to come back, and Sherwood was released from her contract. Former executive producer and head writer Lynn Marie Latham said she was happy with the casting change; she was impressed by Khalil 's work, saying that she is a "brilliant actress ''. Latham noted that Sherwood did a "fine job '' as the character, but "shows generally prefer to have original players back when they can get them ''. On her MySpace blog, Sherwood said she felt negativity from others on the set of the soap opera before her replacement; she was not told the reason for her firing, which she thought neither right nor fair. Khalil stated in 2007 that her return was a difficult decision to make, but was "the best decision ever ''. On August 21, 2012, The Young and the Restless put out a casting call for the role of "Sally Tate '', and the character description lead to speculation that it was a recast for Lily Winters and Khalil was exiting the soap. On August 22, Khalil 's official website confirmed that she was leaving the show due to a contract dispute and her contract was set to expire in late - September. On August 23, 2012, Khalil gave an interview to MSN Entertainment in which she expressed her desire to remain on the show. Saying that she hoped she and the show could come to a mutual agreement but the show was n't interested in negotiating with her. Upon learning of her impending exit, fans of Khalil began a letter write - in, snail mail, e-mail and phone call campaign in support of her remaining on the show. Fan outcry lead the show to rethink recasting the role with newly appointed executive producer Jill Farren Phelps later saying that negotiations with Khalil had resumed and she "did n't yet know '' how that would work out. On September 6, 2012 a plane carrying a banner stating "Y&R Fans Want Christel Khalil as Lily Ashby '' was flown over CBS Television City in support of Khalil. Fans did a similar campaign in spring 2011 when Khalil 's co-star Daniel Goddard was let go from the soap. In late September, newly appointed head writer Josh Griffith confirmed in an interview with TV Guide that contract negotiations had been resolved and Khalil would remain in the role. In 2002, when Lily was rapidly aged to a teenager, the character was designed as an "angst - ridden '' heroine who struggled with "trauma ''; she was also described as strong, rebellious, and sassy. Khalil said that Lily "does n't take anybody 's crap '' and "she 's her own person ''. Sherwood was said to have brought a "fire '' to the role, and was told to use it only when necessary. She described Lily as "a lot like her mother '': "It makes sense. She spent a lot of time with her mother growing up and she 's seen how her mother reacts to certain situations when there is a problem or a dilemma. '' When Khalil returned to the role she felt that Lily had changed "a great deal '' since she last played her; she was more immature and although it was more fun, it was "definitely different ''. In 2009, Soap Opera Digest said that Khalil and Lily had evolved from a "teen star '' into a "leading lady ''. Khalil described her happiness with her character 's evolution, with more adult storylines and having to "deal with things like losing a baby or breaking off her engagement (to Cane) ''. During her marital problems with Cane, Khalil described Lily as a "doormat '' and "hopeless romantic '', saying that her "daddy issues '' were part of that. One of Lily 's first storylines centered around her manipulation by internet predator Kevin Fisher (Greg Rikaart), who gives her the sexually - transmitted disease chlamydia. Khalil taped public service announcements related to the story, and considered the plot one of her favorites: "How many soaps have really covered that? The meeting on the Internet, getting an STD, it was really great stuff. '' Lily was next involved in a Romeo and Juliet - inspired romance (attracting a significant fan following) with Daniel Romalotti (Michael Graziadei), Kevin 's friend. Lily was said to have brought out a new side to Daniel 's character, "taming '' him. When Khalil left the show, former head writer John F. Smith promised the character 's recast would "bring an entirely new level '' to Lily and Daniel 's romance. They fell in love and were married; the pair 's popularity continued with Sherwood in the role. Sherwood gave Lily more feistiness, although the character was never written as timid. Sherwood 's interpretation drew comparisons to Lily 's mother, Drucilla; that "fire '' was brought into Daniel and Lily 's relationship. Sherwood said that "Dru can be a little dramatic '', and when Lily faces an issue with Daniel "she 's not going to remain calm, she 's going to do what she saw her mother do ''. The actress praised the pair 's storyline for not focusing on the different races of the characters. Khalil was surprised by the advancement of Lily and Daniel 's storyline when she returned, particularly the characters ' marriage. The plot ended with a social issue: Daniel 's addiction to pornography. Graziadei said, "My initial conflict was that Daniel has had so many problems with his wife that I could n't figure out why he 'd be doing this '', and was concerned that Daniel might be seen as "lecherous and creepy ''. The pair tried to work through Daniel 's addiction, but it ended their marriage. Lily was later written into a romance with Cane Ashby (Daniel Goddard) intertwined with a modeling career. The couple was designed as star - crossed true loves, and the relationship was said to add further growth to Lily 's character. Khalil said that Lily had been in "kind of an immature relationship '' and she thought being with a "real man '' would make Lily grow up and "start thinking about her life and situation in a different way '' and "would change Lily for the better ''. Goddard compared the romance to Lady Chatterley 's Lover, as both characters grew and learned from the relationship. Storylines for the lovers included the characters ' age gap, a miscarriage and a love rectangle with Chloe Mitchell (Elizabeth Hendrickson) and Billy Abbott (Billy Miller). In the love - rectangle story, Chloe deceives Cane into thinking they conceived a child. Goddard said he liked the storyline because of its originality. Love triangles and questioned paternity occur frequently in soap operas, but he felt that Maria Arena Bell made the plots fresh. Khalil said that she "loved '' the storyline and the actors in it; she thought it "was a possibility '' for Lily and Cane to have a happy ending, and Lily "can see the hope, and they can adapt and love each other in a more mature and honest way ''. In 2009, the pair were married. For their wedding, Lily wore the dress her mother Drucilla (Victoria Rowell) wore at her 1995 wedding to Neil. Rowell 's dress was altered, at Khalil 's request; she said it was an "old - fashioned, a typical ' 90s - style gown '', and she "did n't really like it ''. Khalil spoke with Bell and the head of the wardrobe department about updating the dress. Bell agreed; there were "little details '' about the original dress she wanted to keep, and it became "a really beautiful dress ''. In 2010, Global BC said Lily was the love of Cane 's life. The following year, she divorced him after his continued lies about his faked death. However, she eventually discovered that Cane was trying to protect her and they remarried. Khalil said that she never lost faith in the pair reuniting, since their romance is "so popular '': "No matter what happens, they 'll always get through it. '' Goddard noted that their relationship "had come full circle '' and "was being done well ''. About Cane and Lily 's second wedding, Goddard said that Cane and Lily have "certainly had a lot of ups and downs '' but he thought their fans "stayed true and they have expressed their desire for what they want to see ''. He thought a wedding of "this caliber '' would make their fans "very, very happy and that is what this is about ''. Lily was born into a paternity storyline, with brothers Neil or Malcolm Winters her father. Her mother, Drucilla, had been dating Neil but slept with Malcolm (thinking he was Neil when she was groggy from medication). The storyline continued unresolved for several years, with Neil believing he was Lily 's father. In 2006, former co-head writer Jack Smith decided to resolve Lily 's paternity by revealing that Malcolm was her father. About the storyline, Smith said: Well, if you think about it as a storyteller the potential for interesting drama is much more interesting if Malcolm is the biological father and not Neil. If Neil was the biological father, the whole sub textual romantic potential between Drucilla and Malcolm fades away. The relationship between Lily and Malcolm becomes your normal, traditional uncle / niece relationship. The relationship between Neil and Lily becomes your typical father / daughter relationship. But if Malcolm is the biological father then, wow! You 've got the potential for years to come for fireworks. In 2009, former head writer Maria Arena Bell developed a storyline about ovarian cancer for Lily. Bell said that the way Lily 's struggle was playing out "is very much how it would play out in real life '': "There 's days where you feel exhausted and you feel powerless... It helps that on our writing team, we have one writer who 's currently suffering from breast cancer, who put a lot of her own heart and soul into this story. I myself am a survivor (of) two different cancers. '' Khalil filmed a public - service announcement for CBS Cares about ovarian cancer and those affected by the disease. Lily shaves her head, requiring Khalil to wear hats, scarves, a bald cap and wigs. The wigs were shorter than the actress ' real hair because the writers wanted to make sure the audience knew they were wigs. In 2010 Lily went into remission, and has since been cancer - free. In 2002, Lily is a rebellious teenager. After living in Paris, her mother Drucilla (Victoria Rowell) moves her back to the United States after she sprayed graffiti in the city. Drucilla hopes that Lily 's father, Neil (Kristoff St. John), will reason with her; however, they end up helping him deal with his alcoholism. Lily 's parents reunite and plan to remarry -- to her dismay, since she wanted her mother to be with Wesley Carter (Ben Watkins). Lily comes to terms with their relationship, becoming friends with Colleen Carlton (Lyndsy Fonseca). In 2004, Lily is victimized by Internet predator Kevin Fisher (Greg Rikaart), who rapes her and gives her a sexually - transmitted disease. She forgives him after he saves her from another predator who is trying to rape her, but the situation was staged by Daniel Romalotti (Michael Grazaidei) to make Kevin look like a hero. Lily and Daniel begin dating, to their parents ' dismay. In 2006, they marry, and soon afterwards Lily discovers her biological father is her uncle Malcolm (Shemar Moore); this strains her relationship with her mother. They reconcile before Drucilla is presumed dead after falling off a cliff during an argument with Daniel 's mother, Phyllis Summers (Michelle Stafford). Lily discovers that Daniel has been hiding a pornography addiction which, despite counseling, ends their marriage. Lily is then attracted to Cane Ashby (Daniel Goddard), but they hesitate to begin a relationship because of their age difference. They eventually begin dating, despite disapproval from Neil. Chloe Mitchell (Elizabeth Hendrickson) deceives Cane into believing he fathered her child; however, the child 's biological father is Billy Abbott (Billy Miller). Cane 's relationship with Lily is interrupted, but they become engaged when the truth about the child 's paternity is revealed, and marry in February 2009. They briefly separate when Cane 's true identity is revealed, but are reunited when Lily is diagnosed with ovarian cancer (and mourns the death of her best friend, Colleen). During her hysterectomy, two of her eggs are preserved; Cane and Lily want to have children, using Mackenzie Browning (Clementine Ford) as their surrogate mother. She gives birth to twins, Charlie and Mattie Ashby, in June 2010. Soon afterwards, Lily goes into remission; an Australian (Blake Joseph) arrives in Genoa City and blackmails Cane, followed by his father Colin Atkinson (Tristan Rogers) in December 2010. Colin is later engaged to Jill Abbott (Jess Walton), and Cane is shot to death by Blake as he tries to stop their wedding. After Cane 's death, Lily sees hallucinations of him in the afterlife, leading her family to suggest therapy. After her "hallucination '' leaves footprints in the snow, Lily realizes that Cane is alive, having faked his death; his twin brother, Caleb, was the one who died. Lily feels betrayed and decides to divorce Cane, but later realizes that the story surrounding his faked death was to protect her. They decide to remarry in February 2012 and work at Jabot Cosmetics, where Lily develops an attraction to Tyler Michaelson (Redaric Williams) which makes Cane jealous. Lily and Tyler share a kiss, but she turns him down and returns to Cane. Afterward, Cane hires an assistant at Chancellor Industries, Hilary Curtis (Mishael Morgan), whom Jill and then Lily become suspicious of. Meanwhile, an unknown blogger is targeting the Winters family online, with photos of Hilary kissing Cane as well as the two of them in a hotel room. After a private investigation, the Winters figure out Hilary is the blogger (because she blames Neil for her mother 's death years prior) just as Hilary attempts to drug Cane. She is fired from Chancellor Industries and shunned by the family. After repairing their marriage, Cane and Lily agree to become the new managers of the Genoa City Athletic Club after her brother Devon Hamilton (Bryton James) buys it. Khalil as Winters has grown in popularity among viewers, who voted her onto "Top Actress '' lists in publications such as Soap Opera Digest, Soaps In Depth and Soap Opera Update. Critics have also praised Khalil for her portrayal; Soap Opera Digest named her performer of the week during Lily 's internet - predator storyline, citing the subtlety of her performance. Mark McGarry of Soap Opera Weekly named the actress outstanding performer of the week on February 28, 2005, praising Khalil 's "remarkable range ''. CBS Soaps In Depth said Sherwood "got off to a slow start '', but praised her work during the revelation that Lily 's husband Daniel was responsible for her attempted rape by Alex. Khalil 's return in 2006 was greeted positively by viewers. Lily 's cancer storyline was praised by critics and viewers. Janet Di Lauro of Soap Opera Weekly praised the storyline for highlighting Neil and Lily 's relationship, saying that they "are one of the most effective and heartfelt father - daughter combos in daytime. Kristoff St. John and Christel Khalil share a chemistry that lets the viewers feel Neil 's pain when Lily is hurting, and relate to his anger when she has been wronged. '' Di Lauro criticized the writers for placing a young character such as Lily into so many traumatic stories, including the cancer and hysterectomy. Soap Opera Digest made the cancer story its editor 's choice; Di Lauro praised Khalil for her performance during the death of Lily 's best friend Colleen Carlton (Tammin Sursok), calling Lily and Colleen 's final scenes "a bona - fide tearjerker '' and "one of the most touching scenes to air '' during Colleen 's death: "Lily could have easily fallen apart and chastised Colleen for leaving her during her house of need. Instead, she held her head high and gave Colleen a proper sendoff... It was as if Lily was gathering strength from Colleen, even as Colleen let go. '' Lily 's relationships with Daniel and Cane were listed among Soaps In Depth 's 100 Greatest Soap Opera Couples. The Daniel - and - Lily storyline attracted viewer support for both Khalil and Sherwood, and the magazine called the scene when Daniel and Lily make love after his acquittal for the death of Cassie Newman (Camryn Grimes) one of the top three moments of 2005. Roscoe Born, who played Tom Fisher, praised their storyline: "It really brought the two families into so much conflict, and I thought they were very believable as young lovers. They were very passionate, and at the same time, really evoked that feeling of first love. '' When Lily and Daniel 's marriage ended, fans of the couple were saddened. Lily 's romance with Cane first received a mixed response; viewers were divided on the couple because of the age difference between the characters. Khalil said that she was sure there were going to be people "who will always feel '' that Cane is too old for Lily, but there are others "who just do n't care about the age difference '': "You ca n't please everyone. You just have to do your best with the storyline and hope that people will like it. '' Soap Opera Digest gave the couple a thumbs - up: "On paper, a Cane - and - Lily pairing should n't work. They 've both just left marriages (to Amber and Daniel, though Cane 's was n't legal), their exes are living together, and Cane is older than Lily. Yet, the adorable Aussie and the cute coed make a charming match. '' The magazine praised the couple because they united the core families, the Winters and the Chancellors. Soap Opera Weekly considered their Valentine 's Day surprise in 2008 "a hit ''. Michael Fairman of On - Air On - Soaps called Cane and Lily "one of daytime 's most popular couples '', and their story with Billy and Chloe "one of soaps all - time best quadrangle story arcs ''. Mallory Harlen of Soap Opera Digest praised the quadrangle for adding another layer to Lily: "The always prim, always perfect Lily reminded me way too much of Christine Blair... in a bad way. But being a woman scorned really worked for her; her newfound feistiness is completely fitting for Drucilla 's daughter. '' Nelson Branco of TV Guide Canada criticized the couple; he thought they had no chemistry and wanted Cane "in the big leagues and not with little girls '', but conceded that they had "a very vocal, and loyal fanbase ''. Soap Opera Update named Cane and Lily the best couple on The Young and the Restless in 2008, and viewers voted them into top - couple polls in soap - opera magazines. Khalil received two nominations for Outstanding Younger Actress at the 2004 and 2006 Daytime Emmy Awards, and two Young Artist Award nominations for Leading Young Actress in 2003 and 2004. Khalil and Sherwood received NAACP Award nominations for Lead Actress in a Daytime Drama Series in 2007. The following year, Khalil won the award, receiving another nomination in 2009. She earned a third Daytime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Younger Actress in 2010, for the episode when Lily learns she has cancer. In 2012 Khalil received another NAACP Award nomination, winning her first Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series in the role after four nominations.

when is a court bound by an earlier decision

Precedent - wikipedia In common law legal systems, a precedent, or authority, is a principle or rule established in a previous legal case that is either binding on or persuasive for a court or other tribunal when deciding subsequent cases with similar issues or facts. Common - law legal systems place great value on deciding cases according to consistent principled rules, so that similar facts will yield similar and predictable outcomes, and observance of precedent is the mechanism by which that goal is attained. The principle by which judges are bound to precedents is known as stare decisis. Black 's Law Dictionary defines "precedent '' as a "rule of law established for the first time by a court for a particular type of case and thereafter referred to in deciding similar cases ''. Common - law precedent is a third kind of law, on equal footing with statutory law (statutes and codes enacted by legislative bodies), and delegated legislation, in U.K. parlance, or regulatory law, in U.S. parlance (regulations promulgated by executive branch agencies). Case law, in common - law jurisdictions, is the set of decisions of adjudicatory tribunals or other rulings that can be cited as precedent. In most countries, including most European countries, the term is applied to any set of rulings on law, which is guided by previous rulings, for example, previous decisions of a government agency. Essential to the development of case law is the publication and indexing of decisions for use by lawyers, courts, and the general public, in the form of law reports. While all decisions are precedent (though at varying levels of authority as discussed throughout this article), some become "leading cases '' or "landmark decisions '' that are cited especially often. Stare decisis (/ ˈsteɪri dɪˈsaɪsɪs, ˈstɑːreɪ /) is a legal principle by which judges are obligated to respect the precedent established by prior decisions. The words originate from the phrasing of the principle in the Latin maxim Stare decisis et non quieta movere: "to stand by decisions and not disturb the undisturbed ''. In a legal context, this means that courts should abide by precedent and not disturb settled matters. The principle can be divided into two components: The second principle, regarding persuasive precedent, reflects the broad precedent guidance a court may draw upon in reaching all of its decisions. In the common - law tradition, courts decide the law applicable to a case by interpreting statutes and applying precedent, which record how and why prior cases have been decided. Unlike most civil - law systems, common - law systems follow the doctrine of stare decisis, by which most courts are bound by their own previous decisions in similar cases, and all lower courts should make decisions consistent with previous decisions of higher courts. For example in England, the High Court and the Court of Appeal are each bound by their own previous decisions, but the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is able to deviate from its earlier decisions, although in practice it rarely does so. Generally speaking, higher courts do not have direct oversight over day - to - day proceedings in lower courts, in that they can not reach out on their own initiative (sua sponte) at any time to reverse or overrule judgments of the lower courts. Normally, the burden rests with litigants to appeal rulings (including those in clear violation of established case law) to the higher courts. If a judge acts against precedent and the case is not appealed, the decision will stand. A lower court may not rule against a binding precedent, even if the lower court feels that the precedent is unjust; the lower court may only express the hope that a higher court or the legislature will reform the rule in question. If the court believes that developments or trends in legal reasoning render the precedent unhelpful, and wishes to evade it and help the law evolve, the court may either hold that the precedent is inconsistent with subsequent authority, or that the precedent should be "distinguished: by some material difference between the facts of the cases. If that judgment goes to appeal, the appellate court will have the opportunity to review both the precedent and the case under appeal, perhaps overruling the previous case law by setting a new precedent of higher authority. This may happen several times as the case works its way through successive appeals. Lord Denning, first of the High Court of Justice, later of the Court of Appeal, provided a famous example of this evolutionary process in his development of the concept of estoppel starting in the High Trees case: Central London Property Trust Ltd v. High Trees House Ltd (1947) K.B. 130. Judges may refer to various types of persuasive authority to reach a decision in a case. Widely cited nonbinding sources include legal encyclopedias such as Corpus Juris Secundum and Halsbury 's Laws of England, or the published work of the Law Commission or the American Law Institute. Some bodies are given statutory powers to issue guidance with persuasive authority or similar statutory effect, such as the Highway Code. In federal or multijurisdictional law systems, conflicts may exist between the various lower appellate courts. Sometimes these differences may not be resolved and distinguishing how the law is applied in one district, province, division or appellate department may be necessary. Usually, only an appeal accepted by the court of last resort will resolve such differences, and for many reasons, such appeals are often not granted. Any court may seek to distinguish its present case from that of a binding precedent, to reach a different conclusion. The validity of such a distinction may or may not be accepted on appeal. An appellate court may also propound an entirely new and different analysis from that of junior courts, and may or may not be bound by its own previous decisions, or in any case may distinguish the decisions based on significant differences in the facts applicable to each case. Or, a court may view the matter before it as one of "first impression '', not governed by any controlling precedent. Where several members of a court are present, one or more judgments may be given; only the ratio decidendi of the majority can constitute a binding precedent, but all may be cited as persuasive, or their reasoning may be adopted in argument. Quite apart from the rules of precedent, the weight actually given to any reported judgment may depend on the reputation of both the court and the judges. Generally, a common law court system has trial courts, intermediate appellate courts and a supreme court. The inferior courts conduct almost all trial proceedings. The inferior courts are bound to obey precedent established by the appellate court for their jurisdiction, and all supreme court precedent. The Supreme Court of California 's explanation of this principle is that (u) nder the doctrine of stare decisis, all tribunals exercising inferior jurisdiction are required to follow decisions of courts exercising superior jurisdiction. Otherwise, the doctrine of stare decisis makes no sense. The decisions of this court are binding upon and must be followed by all the state courts of California. Decisions of every division of the District Courts of Appeal are binding upon all the justice and municipal courts and upon all the superior courts of this state, and this is so whether or not the superior court is acting as a trial or appellate court. Courts exercising inferior jurisdiction must accept the law declared by courts of superior jurisdiction. It is not their function to attempt to overrule decisions of a higher court. An Intermediate state appellate court is generally bound to follow the decisions of the highest court of that state. The application of the doctrine of stare decisis from a superior court to an inferior court is sometimes called vertical stare decisis. The idea that a judge is bound by (or at least should respect) decisions of earlier judges of similar or coordinate level is called horizontal stare decisis. In the United States federal court system, the intermediate appellate courts are divided into thirteen "circuits, '' each covering some range of territory ranging in size from the District of Columbia alone up to seven states. Each panel of judges on the court of appeals for a circuit is bound to obey the prior appellate decisions of the same circuit. Precedent of a United States court of appeals may be overruled only by the court en banc, that is, a session of all the active appellate judges of the circuit, or by the United States Supreme Court, not simply by a different three - judge panel. When a court binds itself, this application of the doctrine of precedent is sometimes called horizontal stare decisis. The state of New York has a similar appellate structure as it is divided into four appellate departments supervised by the final New York Court of Appeals. Decisions of one appellate department are not binding upon another, and in some cases the departments differ considerably on interpretations of law. In federal systems the division between federal and state law may result in complex interactions. In the United States, state courts are not considered inferior to federal courts but rather constitute a parallel court system. In practice, however, judges in one system will almost always choose to follow relevant case law in the other system to prevent divergent results and to minimize forum shopping. Precedent that must be applied or followed is known as binding precedent (alternately metaphorically precedent, mandatory or binding authority, etc.). Under the doctrine of stare decisis, a lower court must honor findings of law made by a higher court that is within the appeals path of cases the court hears. In state and federal courts in the United States of America, jurisdiction is often divided geographically among local trial courts, several of which fall under the territory of a regional appeals court. All appellate courts fall under a highest court (sometimes but not always called a "supreme court ''). By definition, decisions of lower courts are not binding on courts higher in the system, nor are appeals court decisions binding on local courts that fall under a different appeals court. Further, courts must follow their own proclamations of law made earlier on other cases, and honor rulings made by other courts in disputes among the parties before them pertaining to the same pattern of facts or events, unless they have a strong reason to change these rulings (see Law of the case re: a court 's previous holding being binding precedent for that court). In law, a binding precedent (also known as a mandatory precedent or binding authority) is a precedent which must be followed by all lower courts under common law legal systems. In English law it is usually created by the decision of a higher court, such as the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, which took over the judicial functions of the House of Lords in 2009. In Civil law and pluralist systems precedent is not binding but case law is taken into account by the courts. Binding precedent relies on the legal principle of stare decisis. Stare decisis means to stand by things decided. It ensures certainty and consistency in the application of law. Existing binding precedent from past cases are applied in principle to new situations by analogy. One law professor has described mandatory precedent as follows: In extraordinary circumstances a higher court may overturn or overrule mandatory precedent, but will often attempt to distinguish the precedent before overturning it, thereby limiting the scope of the precedent. Under the U.S. legal system, courts are set up in a hierarchy. At the top of the federal or national system is the Supreme Court, and underneath are lower federal courts. The state court systems have hierarchy structures similar to that of the federal system. The U.S. Supreme Court has final authority on questions about the meaning of federal law, including the U.S. Constitution. For example, when the Supreme Court says that the First Amendment applies in a specific way to suits for slander, then every court is bound by that precedent in its interpretation of the First Amendment as it applies to suits for slander. If a lower court judge disagrees with a higher court precedent on what the First Amendment should mean, the lower court judge must rule according to the binding precedent. Until the higher court changes the ruling (or the law itself is changed), the binding precedent is authoritative on the meaning of the law. Lower courts are bound by the precedent set by higher courts within their region. Thus, a federal district court that falls within the geographic boundaries of the Third Circuit Court of Appeals (the mid-level appeals court that hears appeals from district court decisions from Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and the Virgin Islands) is bound by rulings of the Third Circuit Court, but not by rulings in the Ninth Circuit (Alaska, Arizona, California, Guam, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Northern Mariana Islands, Oregon, and Washington), since the Circuit Courts of Appeals have jurisdiction defined by geography. The Circuit Courts of Appeals can interpret the law how they want, so long as there is no binding Supreme Court precedent. One of the common reasons the Supreme Court grants certiorari (that is, they agree to hear a case) is if there is a conflict among the circuit courts as to the meaning of a federal law. There are three elements needed for a precedent to work. Firstly, the hierarchy of the courts needs to be accepted, and an efficient system of law reporting. ' A balance must be struck between the need on one side for the legal certainty resulting from the binding effect of previous decisions, and on the other side the avoidance of undue restriction on the proper development of the law (1966 Practice Statement (Judicial Precedent) by Lord Gardiner L.C.) '. Judges are bound by the law of binding precedent in England and Wales and other common law jurisdictions. This is a distinctive feature of the English legal system. In Scotland and many countries throughout the world, particularly in mainland Europe, civil law means that judges take case law into account in a similar way, but are not obliged to do so and are required to consider the precedent in terms of principle. Their fellow judges ' decisions may be persuasive but are not binding. Under the English legal system, judges are not necessarily entitled to make their own decisions about the development or interpretations of the law. They may be bound by a decision reached in a previous case. Two facts are crucial to determining whether a precedent is binding: In a conflict of laws situation, jus cogens erga omnes norms and principles of the common law such as in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, to a varying degree in different jurisdictions, are deemed overriding which means they are used to "read down '' legislation, that is giving them a particular purposive interpretation, for example applying European Court of Human Rights jurisprudence of courts (case law). "Super stare decisis '' is a term used for important precedent that is resistant or immune from being overturned, without regard to whether correctly decided in the first place. It may be viewed as one extreme in a range of precedential power, or alternatively, to express a belief, or a critique of that belief, that some decisions should not be overturned. In 1976, Richard Posner and William Landes coined the term "super-precedent '' in an article they wrote about testing theories of precedent by counting citations. Posner and Landes used this term to describe the influential effect of a cited decision. The term "super-precedent '' later became associated with different issue: the difficulty of overturning a decision. In 1992, Rutgers professor Earl Maltz criticized the Supreme Court 's decision in Planned Parenthood v. Casey for endorsing the idea that if one side can take control of the Court on an issue of major national importance (as in Roe v. Wade), that side can protect its position from being reversed "by a kind of super-stare decisis ''. The controversial idea that some decisions are virtually immune from being overturned, regardless of whether they were decided correctly in the first place, is the idea to which the term "super-stare decisis '' now usually refers. The concept of super-stare decisis (or "super-precedent '') was mentioned during the interrogations of Chief Justice John Roberts and Justice Samuel Alito before the Senate Judiciary Committee. Prior to the commencement of the Roberts hearings, the chair of that committee, Senator Arlen Specter of Pennsylvania, wrote an op / ed in The New York Times referring to Roe as a "super-precedent ''. He revisited this concept during the hearings, but neither Roberts nor Alito endorsed the term or the concept. Persuasive precedent (also persuasive authority) is precedent or other legal writing that is not binding precedent but that is useful or relevant and that may guide the judge in making the decision in a current case. Persuasive precedent includes cases decided by lower courts, by peer or higher courts from other geographic jurisdictions, cases made in other parallel systems (for example, military courts, administrative courts, indigenous / tribal courts, state courts versus federal courts in the United States), statements made in dicta, treatises or academic law reviews, and in some exceptional circumstances, cases of other nations, treaties, world judicial bodies, etc. In a "case of first impression '', courts often rely on persuasive precedent from courts in other jurisdictions that have previously dealt with similar issues. Persuasive precedent may become binding through its adoption by a higher court. In civil law and pluralist systems, as under Scots law, precedent is not binding but case law is taken into account by the courts. A lower court 's opinion may be considered as persuasive authority if the judge believes they have applied the correct legal principle and reasoning. A court may consider the ruling of a higher court that is not binding. For example, a district court in the United States First Circuit could consider a ruling made by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit as persuasive authority. Courts may consider rulings made in other courts that are of equivalent authority in the legal system. For example, an appellate court for one district could consider a ruling issued by an appeals court in another district. Courts may consider obiter dicta in opinions of higher courts. Dicta of a higher court, though not binding, will often be persuasive to lower courts. The phrase obiter dicta is usually translated as "other things said '', but due to the high number of judges and individual concurring opinions, it is often hard to distinguish from the ratio decidendi (reason for the decision). For these reasons, the obiter dicta may often be taken into consideration by a court. A litigant may also consider obiter dicta if a court has previously signaled that a particular legal argument is weak and may even warrant sanctions if repeated. A case decided by a multijudge panel could result in a split decision. While only the majority opinion is considered precedential, an outvoted judge can still publish a dissenting opinion. Common patterns for dissenting opinions include: A judge in a subsequent case, particularly in a different jurisdiction, could find the dissenting judge 's reasoning persuasive. In the jurisdiction of the original decision, however, a judge should only overturn the holding of a court lower or equivalent in the hierarchy. A district court, for example, could not rely on a Supreme Court dissent as a basis to depart from the reasoning of the majority opinion. However, lower courts occasionally cite dissents, either for a limiting principle on the majority, or for propositions that are not stated in the majority opinion and not inconsistent with that majority, or to explain a disagreement with the majority and to urge reform (while following the majority in the outcome). Courts may consider the writings of eminent legal scholars in treatises, restatements of the law, and law reviews. The extent to which judges find these types of writings persuasive will vary widely with elements such as the reputation of the author and the relevance of the argument. The courts of England and Wales are free to consider decisions of other jurisdictions, and give them whatever persuasive weight the English court sees fit, even though these other decisions are not binding precedent. Jurisdictions that are closer to modern English common law are more likely to be given persuasive weight (for example Commonwealth states such as Canada, Australia, or New Zealand). Persuasive weight might be given to other common law courts, such as from the United States, most often where the American courts have been particularly innovative, e.g. in product liability and certain areas of contract law. In the United States, in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the concept of a U.S. court considering foreign law or precedent has been considered controversial by some parties. The Supreme Court splits on this issue. This critique is recent, as in the early history of the United States, citation of English authority was ubiquitous. One of the first acts of many of the new state legislatures was to adopt the body of English common law into the law of the state. See here. Citation to English cases was common through the 19th and well into the 20th centuries. Even in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, it is relatively uncontroversial for American state courts to rely on English decisions for matters of pure common (i.e. judge - made) law. Within the federal legal systems of several common - law countries, and most especially the United States, it is relatively common for the distinct lower - level judicial systems (e.g. state courts in the United States and Australia, provincial courts in Canada) to regard the decisions of other jurisdictions within the same country as persuasive precedent. Particularly in the United States, the adoption of a legal doctrine by a large number of other state judiciaries is regarded as highly persuasive evidence that such doctrine is preferred. A good example is the adoption in Tennessee of comparative negligence (replacing contributory negligence as a complete bar to recovery) by the 1992 Tennessee Supreme Court decision McIntyre v. Balentine (by this point all US jurisdictions save Tennessee, five other states, and the District of Columbia had adopted comparative negligence schemes). Moreover, in American law, the Erie doctrine requires federal courts sitting in diversity actions to apply state substantive law, but in a manner consistent with how the court believes the state 's highest court would rule in that case. Since such decisions are not binding on state courts, but are often very well - reasoned and useful, state courts cite federal interpretations of state law fairly often as persuasive precedent, although it is also fairly common for a state high court to reject a federal court 's interpretation of its jurisprudence. Nonpublication of opinions, or unpublished opinions, are those decisions of courts that are not available for citation as precedent because the judges making the opinion deem the cases as having less precedential value. Selective publication is the legal process which a judge or justices of a court decide whether a decision is to be or not published in a reporter. "Unpublished '' federal appellate decisions are published in the Federal Appendix. Depublication is the power of a court to make a previously published order or opinion unpublished. Litigation that is settled out of court generates no written decision, thus has no precedential effect. As one practical effect, the U.S. Department of Justice settles many cases against the federal government simply to avoid creating adverse precedent. Several rules may cause a decision to apply as narrow "precedent '' to preclude future legal positions of the specific parties to a case, even if a decision is non-precedential with respect to all other parties. Once a case is decided, the same plaintiff can not sue the same defendant again on any claim arising out of the same facts. The law requires plaintiffs to put all issues on the table in a single case, not split the case. For example, in a case of an auto accident, the plaintiff can not sue first for property damage, and then personal injury in a separate case. This is called res judicata or claim preclusion ("' Res judicata ' '' is the traditional name going back centuries; the name shifted to "claim preclusion '' in the United States over the late 20th century). Claim preclusion applies regardless of the plaintiff wins or loses the earlier case, even if the later case raises a different legal theory, even the second claim is unknown at the time of the first case. Exceptions are extremely limited, for example if the two claims for relief must necessarily be brought in different courts (for example, one claim might be exclusively federal, and the other exclusively state). Once a case is finally decided, any issues decided in the previous case may be binding against the party who lost the issue in later cases, even in cases involving other parties. For example, if a first case decides that a party was negligent, then other plaintiffs may rely on that earlier determination in later cases, and need not reprove the issue of negligence. For another example, if a patent is shown to be invalid in a case against one accused infringer, that same patent is invalid against all other accused infringers -- invalidity need not be reproven. Again, limits and exceptions on this principle exist. The principle is called collateral estoppel or issue preclusion. Within a single case, once there 's been a first appeal, both the lower court and the appellate court itself will not further review the same issue, and will not re-review an issue that could have been appealed in the first appeal. Exceptions are limited to three "exceptional circumstances: '' (1) when substantially different evidence is raised at a subsequent trial, (2) when the law changes after the first appeal, for example by a decision of a higher court, or (3) when a decision is clearly erroneous and would result in a manifest injustice. This principle is called "law of the case ''. On many questions, reasonable people may differ. When two of those people are judges, the tension among two lines of precedent may be resolved as follows. If the two courts are in separate, parallel jurisdictions, there is no conflict, and two lines of precedent may persist. Courts in one jurisdiction are influenced by decisions in others, and notably better rules may be adopted over time. Courts try to formulate the common law as a "seamless web '' so that principles in one area of the law apply to other areas. However, this principle does not apply uniformly. Thus, a word may have different definitions in different areas of the law, or different rules may apply so that a question has different answers in different legal contexts. Judges try to minimize these conflicts, but they arise from time to time, and under principles of ' stare decisis ', may persist for some time. A case of first impression (known as primae impressionis in Latin) is a legal case in which there is no binding authority on the matter presented. This case is also not regulated by statutory law. Such a case can set forth a completely original issue of law for decision by the courts. A first impression case may be a first impression in only a particular jurisdiction. In that situation, courts will look to holdings of other jurisdictions for persuasive authority. In the latter meaning, the case in question can not be decided through referring to and / or relying on precedent. Since the legal issue under consideration has never been decided by an appeals court and, therefore, there is no precedent for the court to follow, the court uses analogies from prior rulings by appeals courts, refers to commentaries and articles by legal scholars, and applies its own logic. In cases of first impression, the trial judge will often ask both sides ' attorneys for legal briefs. In some situations, a case of first impression may exist in a jurisdiction until a reported appellate court decision is rendered. The different roles of case law in civil law and common law traditions create differences in the way that courts render decisions. Common law courts generally explain in detail the legal rationale behind their decisions, with citations of both legislation and previous relevant judgments, and often an exegesis of the wider legal principles. These are called ratio decidendi and constitute a precedent binding on other courts; further analyses not strictly necessary to the determination of the current case are called obiter dicta, which have persuasive authority but are not technically binding. By contrast, decisions in civil law jurisdictions are generally very short, referring only to statutes. The reason for this difference is that these civil law jurisdictions apply legislative positivism -- a form of extreme legal positivism -- which holds that legislation is the only valid source of law because it has been voted on democratically; thus, it is not the judiciary 's role to create law, but rather to interpret and apply statute, and therefore their decisions must reflect that. Stare decisis is not usually a doctrine used in civil law systems, because it violates the legislative positivist principle that only the legislature may make law. Instead, the civil law system relies on the doctrine of jurisprudence constante, according to which if a court has adjudicated a consistent line of cases that arrive at the same holdings using sound reasoning, then the previous decisions are highly persuasive but not controlling on issues of law. This doctrine is similar to stare decisis insofar as it dictates that a court 's decision must condone a cohesive and predictable result. In theory, lower courts are generally not bound by the precedents of higher courts. In practice, the need for predictability means that lower courts generally defer to the precedent of higher courts. As a result, the precedent of courts of last resort, such as the French Cassation Court and the Council of State, is recognized as being de facto binding on lower courts. The doctrine of jurisprudence constante also influences how court decisions are structured. In general, court decisions of common law jurisdictions give a sufficient ratio decidendi as to guide future courts. The ratio is used to justify a court decision on the basis of previous case law as well as to make it easier to use the decision as a precedent for future cases. By contrast, court decisions in some civil law jurisdictions (most prominently France) tend to be extremely brief, mentioning only the relevant legislation and codal provisions and not going into the ratio decidendi in any great detail. This is the result of the legislative positivist view that the court is only interpreting the legislature 's intent and therefore detailed exposition is unnecessary. Because of this, ratio decidendi is carried out by legal academics (doctrinal writers) who provide the explanations that in common law jurisdictions would be provided by the judges themselves. In other civil law jurisdictions, such as the German - speaking countries, ratio decidendi tend to be much more developed than in France, and courts will frequently cite previous cases and doctrinal writers. However, some courts (such as German courts) have less emphasis on the particular facts of the case than common law courts, but have more emphasis on the discussion of various doctrinal arguments and on finding what the correct interpretation of the law is. The mixed systems of the Nordic countries are sometimes considered a branch of the civil law, but they are sometimes counted as separate from the civil law tradition. In Sweden, for instance, case law arguably plays a more important role than in some of the continental civil law systems. The two highest courts, the Supreme Court (Högsta domstolen) and the Supreme Administrative Court (Högsta förvaltningsdomstolen), have the right to set precedent which has persuasive authority on all future application of the law. Appellate courts, be they judicial (hovrätter) or administrative (kammarrätter), may also issue decisions that act as guides for the application of the law, but these decisions are persuasive, not controlling, and may therefore be overturned by higher courts. Some mixed systems, such as Scots law in Scotland, South - African law, and the law of Quebec and Louisiana, do not fit into the civil vs. common law dichotomy because they mix portions of both. Such systems may have been heavily influenced by the common law tradition; however, their private law is firmly rooted in the civil law tradition. Because of their position between the two main systems of law, these types of legal systems are sometimes referred to as "mixed '' systems of law. Louisiana courts, for instance, operate under both stare decisis and jurisprudence constante. In South Africa, the precedent of higher courts is absolutely or fully binding on lower courts, whereas the precedent of lower courts only has persuasive authority on higher courts; horizontally, precedent is prima facie or presumptively binding between courts. Law professors in common law traditions play a much smaller role in developing case law than professors in civil law traditions. Because court decisions in civil law traditions are brief and not amenable to establishing precedent, much of the exposition of the law in civil law traditions is done by academics rather than by judges; this is called doctrine and may be published in treatises or in journals such as Recueil Dalloz in France. Historically, common law courts relied little on legal scholarship; thus, at the turn of the twentieth century, it was very rare to see an academic writer quoted in a legal decision (except perhaps for the academic writings of prominent judges such as Coke and Blackstone). Today academic writers are often cited in legal argument and decisions as persuasive authority; often, they are cited when judges are attempting to implement reasoning that other courts have not yet adopted, or when the judge believes the academic 's restatement of the law is more compelling than can be found in precedent. Thus common law systems are adopting one of the approaches long common in civil law jurisdictions. Justice Louis Brandeis, in a heavily footnoted dissent to Burnet v. Coronado Oil & Gas Co., 285 U.S. 393, 405 -- 411 (1932), explained (citations and quotations omitted): The United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit has stated: The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit has stated: Justice McHugh of the High Court of Australia in relation to precedents remarked in Perre v Apand: Precedent viewed against passing time can serve to establish trends, thus indicating the next logical step in evolving interpretations of the law. For instance, if immigration has become more and more restricted under the law, then the next legal decision on that subject may serve to restrict it further still. The existence of submerged precedent (reasoned opinions not made available through conventional legal research sources) has been identified as a potentially distorting force in the evolution of law. Scholars have recently attempted to apply network theory to precedent in order to establish which precedent is most important or authoritative, and how the court 's interpretations and priorities have changed over time. Early English common law did not have or require the stare decisis doctrine for a range of legal and technological reasons: These features changed over time, opening the door to the doctrine of stare decisis: By the end of the eighteenth century, the common law courts had absorbed most of the business of their nonroyal competitors, although there was still internal competition among the different common law courts themselves. During the nineteenth century, legal reform movements in both England and the United States brought this to an end as well by merging the various common law courts into a unified system of courts with a formal hierarchical structure. This and the advent of reliable private case reporters made adherence to the doctrine of stare decisis practical and the practice soon evolved of holding judges to be bound by the decisions of courts of superior or equal status in their jurisdiction. Stare decisis applies to the holding of a case, rather than to obiter dicta ("things said by the way ''). As the United States Supreme Court has put it: "dicta may be followed if sufficiently persuasive but are not binding. '' In the United States Supreme Court, the principle of stare decisis is most flexible in constitutional cases: Stare decisis is usually the wise policy, because in most matters it is more important that the applicable rule of law be settled than that it be settled right... But in cases involving the Federal Constitution, where correction through legislative action is practically impossible, this Court has often overruled its earlier decisions... This is strikingly true of cases under the due process clause. For example, in the years 1946 -- 1992, the U.S. Supreme Court reversed itself in about 130 cases. The U.S. Supreme Court has further explained as follows: (W) hen convinced of former error, this Court has never felt constrained to follow precedent. In constitutional questions, where correction depends upon amendment, and not upon legislative action, this Court throughout its history has freely exercised its power to reexamine the basis of its constitutional decisions. The United States Supreme Court has stated that where a court gives multiple reasons for a given result, each alternative reason that is "explicitly '' labeled by the court as an "independent '' ground for the decision is not treated as "simply a dictum ''. The doctrine of binding precedent or stare decisis is basic to the English legal system. Special features of the English legal system include the following: The British House of Lords, as the court of last appeal outside Scotland before it was replaced by the UK Supreme Court, was not strictly bound to always follow its own decisions until the case London Street Tramways v London County Council (1898) AC 375. After this case, once the Lords had given a ruling on a point of law, the matter was closed unless and until Parliament made a change by statute. This is the most strict form of the doctrine of stare decisis (one not applied, previously, in common law jurisdictions, where there was somewhat greater flexibility for a court of last resort to review its own precedent). This situation changed, however, after the issuance of the Practice Statement of 1966. It enabled the House of Lords to adapt English law to meet changing social conditions. In R v G & R 2003, the House of Lords overruled its decision in Caldwell 1981, which had allowed the Lords to establish mens rea ("guilty mind '') by measuring a defendant 's conduct against that of a "reasonable person, '' regardless of the defendant 's actual state of mind. However, the Practice Statement has been seldom applied by the House of Lords, usually only as a last resort. As of 2005, the House of Lords has rejected its past decisions no more than 20 times. They are reluctant to use it because they fear to introduce uncertainty into the law. In particular, the Practice Statement stated that the Lords would be especially reluctant to overrule themselves in criminal cases because of the importance of certainty of that law. The first case involving criminal law to be overruled with the Practice Statement was Anderton v Ryan (1985), which was overruled by R v Shivpuri (1986), two decades after the Practice Statement. Remarkably, the precedent overruled had been made only a year before, but it had been criticised by several academic lawyers. As a result, Lord Bridge stated he was "undeterred by the consideration that the decision in Anderton v Ryan was so recent. The Practice Statement is an effective abandonment of our pretension to infallibility. If a serious error embodied in a decision of this House has distorted the law, the sooner it is corrected the better. '' Still, the House of Lords has remained reluctant to overrule itself in some cases; in R v Kansal (2002), the majority of House members adopted the opinion that R v Lambert had been wrongly decided and agreed to depart from their earlier decision. A precedent does not bind a court if it finds there was a lack of care in the original "Per Incuriam ''. For example, if a statutory provision or precedent had not been brought to the previous court 's attention before its decision, the precedent would not be binding. One of the most important roles of precedent is to resolve ambiguities in other legal texts, such as constitutions, statutes, and regulations. The process involves, first and foremost, consultation of the plain language of the text, as enlightened by the legislative history of enactment, subsequent precedent, and experience with various interpretations of similar texts. A judge 's normal aids include access to all previous cases in which a precedent has been set, and a good English dictionary. Judges and barristers in the U.K use three primary rules for interpreting the law. Under the literal rule, the judge should do what the actual legislation states rather than trying to do what the judge thinks that it means. The judge should use the plain everyday ordinary meaning of the words, even if this produces an unjust or undesirable outcome. A good example of problems with this method is R v Maginnis (1987), in which several judges in separate opinions found several different dictionary meanings of the word supply. Another example is Fisher v Bell, where it was held that a shopkeeper who placed an illegal item in a shop window with a price tag did not make an offer to sell it, because of the specific meaning of "offer for sale '' in contract law. As a result of this case, Parliament amended the statute concerned to end this discrepancy. The golden rule is used when use of the literal rule would obviously create an absurd result. There are two ways in which the golden rule can be applied: a narrow method, and a broad method. Under the narrow method, when there are apparently two contradictory meanings to the wording of a legislative provision, or the wording is ambiguous, the least absurd is to be preferred. Under the broad method, the court modifies the literal meaning in such a way as to avoid the absurd result. An example of the latter approach is Adler v George (1964). Under the Official Secrets Act 1920 it was an offence to obstruct HM Forces "in the vicinity of '' a prohibited place. Adler argued that he was not in the vicinity of such a place but was actually in it. The court chose not to read the statutory wording in a literal sense to avoid what would otherwise be an absurd result, and Adler was convicted. The mischief rule is the most flexible of the interpretation methods. Stemming from Heydon 's Case (1584), it allows the court to enforce what the statute is intended to remedy rather than what the words actually say. For example, in Corkery v Carpenter (1950), a man was found guilty of being drunk in charge of a carriage, although in fact he only had a bicycle. In the United States, the courts have stated consistently that the text of the statute is read as it is written, using the ordinary meaning of the words of the statute. However, most legal texts have some lingering ambiguity -- inevitably, situations arise in which the words chosen by the legislature do not address the precise facts in issue, or there is some tension among two or more statutes. In such cases, a court must analyze the various available sources, and reach a resolution of the ambiguity. The "Canons of statutory construction '' are discussed in a separate article. Once the ambiguity is resolved, that resolution has binding effect as described in the rest of this article. Although inferior courts are bound in theory by superior court precedent, in practice a judge may believe that justice requires an outcome at some variance with precedent, and may distinguish the facts of the individual case on reasoning that does not appear in the binding precedent. On appeal, the appellate court may either adopt the new reasoning, or reverse on the basis of precedent. On the other hand, if the losing party does not appeal (typically because of the cost of the appeal), the lower court decision may remain in effect, at least as to the individual parties. Occasionally, a lower court judge explicitly states personal disagreement with the judgment he or she has rendered, but that he or she is required to do so by binding precedent. Note that inferior courts can not evade binding precedent of superior courts, but a court can depart from its own prior decisions. In the United States, stare decisis can interact in counterintuitive ways with the federal and state court systems. On an issue of federal law, a state court is not bound by an interpretation of federal law at the district or circuit level, but is bound by an interpretation by the United States Supreme Court. On an interpretation of state law, whether common law or statutory law, the federal courts are bound by the interpretation of a state court of last resort, and are required normally to defer to the precedent of intermediate state courts as well. Courts may choose to obey precedent of international jurisdictions, but this is not an application of the doctrine of stare decisis, because foreign decisions are not binding. Rather, a foreign decision that is obeyed on the basis of the soundness of its reasoning will be called persuasive authority -- indicating that its effect is limited to the persuasiveness of the reasons it provides. Originalism is an approach to interpretation of a legal text in which controlling weight is given to the intent of the original authors (at least the intent as inferred by a modern judge). In contrast, a non-originalist looks at other cues to meaning, including the current meaning of the words, the pattern and trend of other judicial decisions, changing context and improved scientific understanding, observation of practical outcomes and "what works, '' contemporary standards of justice, and stare decisis. Both are directed at interpreting the text, not changing it -- interpretation is the process of resolving ambiguity and choosing from among possible meanings, not changing the text. The two approaches look at different sets of underlying facts that may or may not point in the same direction -- stare decisis gives most weight to the newest understanding of a legal text, while originalism gives most weight to the oldest. While they do n't necessarily reach different results in every case, the two approaches are in direct tension. Originalists such as Justice Antonin Scalia argue that "Stare decisis is not usually a doctrine used in civil law systems, because it violates the principle that only the legislature may make law. '' Justice Scalia argues that America is a civil law nation, not a common law nation. By principle, originalists are generally unwilling to defer to precedent when precedent seems to come into conflict with the originalist 's own interpretation of the Constitutional text or inferences of original intent (even in situations where there is no original source statement of that original intent). However, there is still room within an originalist paradigm for stare decisis; whenever the plain meaning of the text has alternative constructions, past precedent is generally considered a valid guide, with the qualifier being that it can not change what the text actually says. Originalists vary in the degree to which they defer to precedent. In his confirmation hearings, Justice Clarence Thomas answered a question from Senator Strom Thurmond, qualifying his willingness to change precedent in this way: I think overruling a case or reconsidering a case is a very serious matter. Certainly, you would have to be of the view that a case is incorrectly decided, but I think even that is not adequate. There are some cases that you may not agree with that should not be overruled. Stare decisis provides continuity to our system, it provides predictability, and in our process of case - by - case decision - making, I think it is a very important and critical concept. A judge that wants to reconsider a case and certainly one who wants to overrule a case has the burden of demonstrating that not only is the case incorrect, but that it would be appropriate, in view of stare decisis, to make that additional step of overruling that case. Possibly he has changed his mind, or there are a very large body of cases which merit "the additional step '' of ignoring the doctrine; according to Scalia, "Clarence Thomas does n't believe in stare decisis, period. If a constitutional line of authority is wrong, he would say, let 's get it right. '' Professor Caleb Nelson, a former clerk for Justice Thomas and law professor at the University of Virginia, has elaborated on the role of stare decisis in originalist jurisprudence: American courts of last resort recognize a rebuttable presumption against overruling their own past decisions. In earlier eras, people often suggested that this presumption did not apply if the past decision, in the view of the court 's current members, was demonstrably erroneous. But when the Supreme Court makes similar noises today, it is roundly criticized. At least within the academy, conventional wisdom now maintains that a purported demonstration of error is not enough to justify overruling a past decision... (T) he conventional wisdom is wrong to suggest that any coherent doctrine of stare decisis must include a presumption against overruling precedent that the current court deems demonstrably erroneous. The doctrine of stare decisis would indeed be no doctrine at all if courts were free to overrule a past decision simply because they would have reached a different decision as an original matter. But when a court says that a past decision is demonstrably erroneous, it is saying not only that it would have reached a different decision as an original matter, but also that the prior court went beyond the range of indeterminacy created by the relevant source of law... Americans from the Founding on believed that court decisions could help "liquidate '' or settle the meaning of ambiguous provisions of written law. Later courts generally were supposed to abide by such "liquidations. ''... To the extent that the underlying legal provision was determinate, however, courts were not thought to be similarly bound by precedent that misinterpreted it... Of the Court 's current members, Justices Scalia and Thomas seem to have the most faith in the determinacy of the legal texts that come before the Court. It should come as no surprise that they also seem the most willing to overrule the Court 's past decisions... Prominent journalists and other commentators suggest that there is some contradiction between these Justices ' mantra of "judicial restraint '' and any systematic re-examination of precedent. But if one believes in the determinacy of the underlying legal texts, one need not define "judicial restraint '' solely in terms of fidelity to precedent; one can also speak of fidelity to the texts themselves. There are disadvantages and advantages of binding precedent, as noted by scholars and jurists. In a 1997 book, attorney Michael Trotter blamed over-reliance by American lawyers on binding and persuasive authority, rather than the merits of the case at hand, as a major factor behind the escalation of legal costs during the 20th century. He argued that courts should ban the citation of persuasive precedent from outside their jurisdiction, with two exceptions: The disadvantages of stare decisis include its rigidity, the complexity of learning law, the differences between some cases may be very small and appear illogical, and the slow growth or incremental changes to the law that are in need of major overhaul. An argument often used against the system is that it is undemocratic as it allows judges, which may or may not be elected, to make law. Regarding constitutional interpretations, there is concern that over-reliance on the doctrine of stare decisis can be subversive. An erroneous precedent may at first be only slightly inconsistent with the Constitution, and then this error in interpretation can be propagated and increased by further precedent until a result is obtained that is greatly different from the original understanding of the Constitution. Stare decisis is not mandated by the Constitution, and if it causes unconstitutional results then the historical evidence of original understanding can be re-examined. In this opinion, predictable fidelity to the Constitution is more important than fidelity to unconstitutional precedent. See also the living tree doctrine. A counter-argument (in favor of the advantages of stare decisis) is that if the legislature wishes to alter the case law (other than constitutional interpretations) by statute, the legislature is empowered to do so. Critics sometimes accuse particular judges of applying the doctrine selectively, invoking it to support precedent that the judge supported anyway, but ignoring it in order to change precedent with which the judge disagreed. There is much discussion about the virtue of using stare decisis. Supporters of the system, such as minimalists, argue that obeying precedent makes decisions "predictable ''. For example, a business person can be reasonably assured of predicting a decision where the facts of his or her case are sufficiently similar to a case decided previously. This parallels the arguments against retroactive (ex post facto) laws banned by the U.S. Constitution. Some instances of disregarding precedent are almost universally considered inappropriate. For example, in a rare showing of unity in a Supreme Court opinion discussing judicial activism, Justice Stevens wrote that a circuit court "engaged in an indefensible brand of judicial activism '' when it "refused to follow '' a "controlling precedent '' of the Supreme Court. The rule that lower courts should abide by controlling precedent, sometimes called "vertical precedent, '' can safely be called settled law. It appears to be equally well accepted that the act of disregarding vertical precedent qualifies as one kind of judicial activism. "Horizontal precedent, '' the doctrine requiring a court "to follow its own prior decisions in similar cases, '' is a more complicated and debatable matter... (A) cademics argue that it is sometimes proper to disregard horizontal precedent. Professor Gary Lawson, for example, has argued that stare decisis itself may be unconstitutional if it requires the Court to adhere to an erroneous reading of the Constitution. "If the Constitution says X and a prior judicial decision says Y, a court has not merely the power, but the obligation, to prefer the Constitution. '' In the same vein, Professors Ahkil Amar and Vikram Amar have stated, "Our general view is that the Rehnquist Court 's articulated theory of stare decisis tends to improperly elevate judicial doctrine over the Constitution itself. '' It does so, they argue, "by requiring excessive deference to past decisions that themselves may have been misinterpretations of the law of the land. For Lawson, Akhil Amar, and Vikram Amar, dismissing erroneous horizontal precedent would not be judicial activism; instead, it would be appropriate constitutional decisionmaking.

who plays rob lowe’s father on code black

Code Black (TV series) - wikipedia Code Black is an American medical drama television series created by Michael Seitzman which premiered on CBS on September 30, 2015. It takes place in an overcrowded and understaffed emergency room in Los Angeles, California, and is based on a documentary by Ryan McGarry. On May 16, 2016, the show was renewed for a 13 - episode second season which premiered on September 28, 2016. On November 14, 2016, CBS added three more episodes to bring the season two total to 16. On May 14, 2017, the series was renewed for a third season, which premiered on April 25, 2018. On May 24, 2018, CBS cancelled the series after three seasons. The series finale aired on July 18, 2018. The show centers on the fictional Angels Memorial Hospital, where four first - year residents and their colleagues must tend to patients in an understaffed, busy emergency room that lacks sufficient resources. On January 27, 2015, the show 's pilot episode was greenlighted by CBS. On June 4, Brett Mahoney was appointed as executive producer for Code Black. On October 23, 2015, CBS ordered six new scripts for Code Black. The following month, CBS ordered five additional episodes. CBS renewed the show for a second season in May 2016. On February 17, 2015, Marcia Gay Harden was cast as Christa, a soccer mom who lost her son to cancer. On February 23, Melanie Chandra was cast as Malaya, a doctor beginning her residency. Maggie Grace was cast as Dr. Leanne Rorish, the lead of the show, the following day. On March 3, Luis Guzman was set to star as Jose Santiago, a senior nurse. The character 's name was later changed to Jesse Salander. The following day, Raza Jaffrey was cast as Neal, and Ben Hollingsworth was set to star as Mario, a new resident. When Grace left the show before filming began, the role of Leanne was then given to Harden, and Bonnie Somerville was cast in Harden 's role as Christa. At the end of season 1, Somerville and Jaffrey departed the main cast, and recurring actors Jillian Murray and Boris Kodjoe joined the main cast, reprising their roles of Dr. Heather Pickney and Dr. Will Campbell respectively. Rob Lowe also joined the main cast as Colonel Ethan Willis, a Combat Casualty Care doctor assigned to Angels as part of a U.S. Army training program. In 2017, Moon Bloodgood was cast in the recurring role of paramedic Rox Valenzuela for the series ' third season, and was subsequently promoted to series regular as of the third season 's fourth episode. Bloodgood 's casting followed the departures of both Chandra and Murray. Former recurring actors Emily Alyn Lind, Noah Gray - Cabey and Emily Tyra were also promoted to the main cast for the third season. In the UK the show is shown on W! with Season 3 premiering in late May 2018. Code Black has received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the series has a rating of 54 %, based on 39 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads, "While not reinventing the stethoscope, Code Black is an above - average medical drama, with appropriately theatrical storylines that make up for sometimes cheesy dialogue. '' On Metacritic, the series has a score of 53 out of 100, based on 26 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. However on IMDB Code Black received an average score of 8.1 / 10 based on 8832 votes. At the 2016 Monte - Carlo Television Festival, Harden won the Best Actress in a TV Series Golden Nymph Award, while Code Black was nominated for Best TV Series Drama.

which of these is true of russian soldiers during world war i

Women in World War I - wikipedia Women in World War I were mobilized in unprecedented numbers on all sides. The vast majority of these women were drafted into the civilian work force to replace conscripted men or work in greatly expanded munitions factories. Thousands served in the military in support roles, e.g. as nurses, but in Russia some saw combat as well. Viktoria Savs served as a soldier in the Imperial Austrian army in the guise of a man and was awarded with the Medal for Bravery (Austria - Hungary) for valor in combat for her service in the Dolomitian front. Women also volunteered and served in a non-combatant role; by the end of the war, 80,000 had enlisted. They mostly served as nurses in the Queen Alexandra 's Imperial Military Nursing Service (QAIMNS), the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry (FANY), founded in 1907, also known as the "Princess Royal 's Volunteer Corps ''; the Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD); and from 1917, in the Army when the Queen Mary 's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), was founded. The WAAC was divided into four sections: cookery; mechanical; clerical and miscellaneous. Most stayed on the Home Front, but around 9,000 served in France. Many women volunteered on the home front as nurses, teachers, and workers in traditionally male jobs. Large numbers were hired in the munitions industries. The latter were let go when the munitions industries downsized at the end of the war. They volunteered for the money, and for patriotism. The wages were doubled of what they had previously made. The women working in these munitions factories were called Munitionettes; another nickname for these women was the "Canaries '' because of the yellow skin which came from working with toxic chemicals. The work which these women did was long, tiring and exhausting as well as dangerous and hazardous to their health. Wealthy women set up an organization called the American Women 's War Relief Fund in England in 1914 order to buy ambulances, support hospitals and provide economic opportunities to women during the war. The women working in munitions factories were from mainly lower - class families and were between the ages of 18 and 29 years old. A critical role consisted of making gun shells, explosives, aircraft and other materials that supplied the war at the front, which was dangerous and repetitive work because they were constantly around and encased in toxic fumes as well as handling dangerous machinery and explosives. Some women would work long hours. The factories all over Britain in which women worked were often unheated, deafeningly noisy, and full of noxious fumes and other dangers. Some of the common diseases and illness which occurred were drowsiness, headaches, eczema, loss of appetite, cyanosis, shortness of breath, vomiting, anaemia, palpitation, bile stained urine, constipation, rapid weak pulse, pains in the limbs and jaundice and mercury poisoning. Propaganda, in the form of posters to entice women to join the factory industry in World War I, did not represent the dangerous aspects of female wartime labour conditions. The posters failed to represent an accurate account of reality by creating a satisfactory appeal for women who joined the workforce and did their part in the war. Designed for women to persuade their men to join the armed forces, one propaganda poster is a romantic setting as the women look out an open window into nature as the soldiers march off to war. The poster possesses a sentimental and romantic appeal when the reality of the situation was that many women endured extreme hardships when their husbands enlisted. It was this narrative of a false reality conveyed in the visual propaganda that aimed to motivate war effort. The Edwardian social construction of gender was that women should be passive and emotional, and have moral virtue and domestic responsibility. Men on the other hand were expected to be active and intelligent, and to provide for their families. It was this idea of gender roles that poster propaganda aimed to reverse. In one war propaganda poster, titled "These Women Are Doing Their Bit '', a woman is represented as making a sacrifice by joining the munitions industry while the men are at the front. The woman in this particular persuasive poster is depicted as cheerful and beautiful, ensuring that her patriotic duty will not reduce her femininity. These posters do not communicate the reality that munitions labour entails. There is no reference to highly explosive chemicals or illnesses due to harsh work environments. The persuasive images of idealized female figures and idyllic settings were designed to solicit female involvement in the war and greatly influenced the idea of appropriate feminine behavior in the wartime Britain. As a result, many women left their domestic lives to join munitions work as they were enticed by what they thought were better living conditions, patriotic duty and high pay. According to Hupfer, the female role in the social sphere was expanded as they joined previously male - dominated and hazardous occupations (325). Hupfer remarks that attitudes regarding the capabilities of women through the war effort sank back into the previously idealized roles of women and men once the war was over. Women went back to their duty in the home as they lost their jobs to returning soldiers and female labour statistics decreased to pre-war levels. Not until 1939 would the expansion of the role of women once again occur. The role of Australian women in World War I was focused mainly upon their involvement in the provision of nursing services. 2,139 Australian nurses served during World War I. Their contributions were more important than initially expected, resulting in more respect for women in medical professions. Some women made ANZAC biscuits which were shipped to the soldiers. The biscuits were made using a recipe that would allow them to remain edible for a long time without refrigeration. In December 1914, Julia Grace Wales published the Canada Plan, a proposal to set up a mediating conference consisting of intellectuals from neutral nations who would work to find a suitable solution for the First World War. The plan was presented to the United States Congress, but despite arousing the interest of President Wilson, failed when the US entered the war. During World War One, there was virtually no female presence in the Canadian armed forces, with the exception of the 3141 nurses serving both overseas and on the home front. Of these women, 328 had been decorated by King George V, and 46 gave their lives in the line of duty. Even though a number of these women received decorations for their efforts, many high - ranking military personnel still felt that they were unfit for the job. Although the Great War, had not officially been opened up to women, they did feel the pressures at home. There had been a gap in employment when the men enlisted; many women strove to fill this void along with keeping up with their responsibilities at home. When war broke out Laura Gamble enlisted in the Canadian Army Medical Corps, because she knew that her experience in a Toronto hospital would be an asset to the war efforts. Canadian nurses were the only nurses of the Allied armies that held the rank of officers. Gamble was presented with a Royal Red Cross, 2nd Class medal, for her show of "greatest possible tact and extreme devotion to duty. '' This was awarded to her at Buckingham Palace during a special ceremony for Canadian nurses. Health care practitioners had to deal with medical anomalies they had never seen before during the First World War. The chlorine gas that was used by the Germans caused injuries that treatment protocols had not yet been developed for. The only treatment that soothed the Canadian soldiers affected by the gas was the constant care they received from the nurses. Canadian nurses were especially well known for their kindness. Canadians had expected that women would feel sympathetic to the war efforts, but the idea that they would contribute in such a physical way was absurd to most. Because of the support that women had shown from the beginning of the war, people began to see their value in the war. In May 1918, a meeting was held to discuss the possible creation of the Canadian Women 's Corps. In September, the motion was approved, but the project was pushed aside because the war 's end was in sight. On the Canadian home front, there were many ways which women could participate in the war effort. Lois Allan joined the Farm Services Corps in 1918, to replace the men who were sent to the front. Allan was placed at E.B. Smith and Sons where she hulled strawberries for jam. Jobs were opened up at factories as well, as industrial production increased. Work days for these women consisted of ten to twelve hours, six days a week. Because the days consisted of long monotonous work, many women made of parodies of popular songs to get through the day and boost morale. Depending on the area of Canada, some women were given a choice to sleep in either barracks or tents at the factory or farm that they were employed at. According to a brochure that was issued by the Canadian Department of Public Works, there were several areas in which it was appropriate for women to work. These were: In addition, many women were involved in charitable organization such as the Ottawa Women 's Canadian Club, which helped provide the needs of soldiers, families of soldiers and the victims of war. Women were deemed ' soldiers on the home front ', encouraged to use less of nearly everything, and to be frugal in order to save supplies for the war efforts. In the 1918 Finnish Civil War, more than 2,000 women fought in the Women 's Red Guards. Women had limited homefront roles as in nursing. During the war there were some discredited stories that Ottoman women took main roles in combat. A Telegraph - Press Association news says: "A territorial from Dardanelles says that a Turkish girl was discovered sniping. She had round her neck thirty identification discs of the men she had shot and fifty pounds in English money. '' These stories have however mostly been discredited, and it 's very unlikely any women actually fought for the Ottoman Empire. The only belligerent to deploy female combat troops in substantial numbers was the Russian Provisional Government in 1917. Its few "Women 's Battalions '' fought well, but failed to provide the propaganda value expected of them and were disbanded before the end of the year. In the later Russian Civil War, the Bolsheviks would also employ women infantry. Examples of women serving in the Serbian army: soldier and foreigner Flora Sandes, soldier Sofija Jovanović, sergeant Milunka Savić, and sergeant Slavka Tomić. During the course of the war, approximately 21,498 U.S. Army nurses (military nurses were all women then) served in military hospitals in the United States and overseas. More than 1,476 U.S. Navy nurses served in military hospitals stateside and overseas. The first American women enlisted into the regular armed forces were 13,000 women admitted into active duty in the Navy. They served stateside in jobs and received the same benefits and responsibilities as men, including identical pay (US $28.75 per month), and were treated as veterans after the war. These women were quickly demobilized when hostilities ceased, and aside from the Nurse Corps the uniformed army and navy became once again exclusively male. The U.S. Army recruited and trained 233 female bilingual telephone operators to work at switchboards near the front in France and sent 50 skilled female stenographers to France to work with the Quartermaster Corps. The U.S. Marine Corps enlisted 305 female Marine Reservists (F) to "free men to fight '' by filling positions such as clerks and telephone operators on the home front. More than 400 U.S. military nurses died in service, almost all from the Spanish Flu epidemic which swept through crowded military camps, hospitals, and ports of embarkation. In 1942, women were brought into the military again, largely following the British model.

where do green sea turtles lay their eggs

Green sea turtle - wikipedia The green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), also known as the green turtle, black (sea) turtle or Pacific green turtle, is a large sea turtle of the family Cheloniidae. It is the only species in the genus Chelonia. Its range extends throughout tropical and subtropical seas around the world, with two distinct populations in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, but it is also found in the Indian Ocean. The common name comes from the usually green fat found beneath its carapace; these turtles ' shells are olive to black. This sea turtle 's dorsoventrally flattened body is covered by a large, teardrop - shaped carapace; it has a pair of large, paddle - like flippers. It is usually lightly colored, although in the eastern Pacific populations parts of the carapace can be almost black. Unlike other members of its family, such as the hawksbill sea turtle, C. mydas is mostly herbivorous. The adults usually inhabit shallow lagoons, feeding mostly on various species of seagrasses. The turtles bite off the tips of the blades of seagrass, which keeps the grass healthy. Like other sea turtles, green sea turtles migrate long distances between feeding grounds and hatching beaches. Many islands worldwide are known as Turtle Island due to green sea turtles nesting on their beaches. Females crawl out on beaches, dig nests and lay eggs during the night. Later, hatchlings emerge and scramble into the water. Those that reach maturity may live to 80 years in the wild. C. mydas is listed as endangered by the IUCN and CITES and is protected from exploitation in most countries. It is illegal to collect, harm or kill them. In addition, many countries have laws and ordinances to protect nesting areas. However, turtles are still in danger due to human activity. In some countries, turtles and their eggs are hunted for food. Pollution indirectly harms turtles at both population and individual scales. Many turtles die after being caught in fishing nets. Also, real estate development often causes habitat loss by eliminating nesting beaches. The green sea turtle is a member of the tribe Chelonini. A 1993 study clarified the status of genus Chelonia with respect to the other marine turtles. The carnivorous Eretmochelys (hawksbill), Caretta (loggerhead) and Lepidochelys (Ridley) were assigned to the tribe Carettini. Herbivorous Chelonia warranted their status as a genus, while Natator (flatback) was further removed from the other genera than previously believed. The species was originally described by Linnaeus in 1758 as Testudo mydas. In 1868, Marie Firmin Bocourt named a particular species of sea turtle Chelonia agassizii. This "species '' was referred to as the "black sea turtle ''. Later research determined Bocourt 's "black sea turtle '' was not genetically distinct from C. mydas, and thus taxonomically not a separate species. These two "species '' were then united as Chelonia mydas and populations were given subspecies status: C. mydas mydas referred to the originally described population, while C. mydas agassizi referred only to the Pacific population known as the Galápagos green turtle. This subdivision was later determined to be invalid and all species members were then designated Chelonia mydas. The oft - mentioned name C. agassizi remains an invalid junior synonym of C. mydas. Other authorities claim that the two populations are phenotypically distinct and treat the East Pacific form as a full species. The species ' common name does not derive from any particular green external coloration of the turtle. Its name comes from the greenish color of the turtles ' fat, which is only found in a layer between their inner organs and their shell. As a species found worldwide, the green turtle is called differently in some languages and dialects. In the Hawaiian language, honu is used to refer to this species, and it is locally known as a symbol of good luck and longevity. Female returning to the sea after nesting in Redang Island, Malaysia Immature Hawaiian C. mydas Swimming in a Mexican coral reef Heading for the ocean on a beach at the Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park Green sea turtle near Marsa Alam, Egypt Green sea turtle near Marsa Alam, Egypt Green sea turtle Its appearance is that of a typical sea turtle. C. mydas has a dorsoventrally flattened body, a beaked head at the end of a short neck, and paddle - like arms well - adapted for swimming. Adult green turtles grow to 1.5 metres (5 ft) long. The average weight of mature individuals is 68 -- 190 kg (150 -- 419 lb) and the average carapace length is 78 -- 112 cm (31 -- 44 in). Exceptional specimens can weigh 315 kg (694 lb) or even more, with the largest known C. mydas having weighed 395 kg (871 lb) and measured 153 cm (60 in) in carapace length. Anatomically, a few characteristics distinguish the green turtle from the other members of its family. Unlike the closely related hawksbill turtle, the green turtle 's snout is very short and its beak is unhooked. The neck can not be pulled into the shell. The sheath of the turtle 's upper jaw possesses a denticulated edge, while its lower jaw has stronger, serrated, more defined denticulation. The dorsal surface of the turtle 's head has a single pair of prefrontal scales. Its carapace is composed of five central scutes flanked by four pairs of lateral scutes. Underneath, the green turtle has four pairs of inframarginal scutes covering the area between the turtle 's plastron and its shell. Mature C. mydas front appendages have only a single claw (as opposed to the hawksbill 's two), although a second claw is sometimes prominent in young specimens. The carapace of the turtle has various color patterns that change over time. Hatchlings of Chelonia mydas, like those of other marine turtles, have mostly black carapaces and light - colored plastrons. Carapaces of juveniles turn dark brown to olive, while those of mature adults are either entirely brown, spotted or marbled with variegated rays. Underneath, the turtle 's plastron is hued yellow. C. mydas limbs are dark - colored and lined with yellow, and are usually marked with a large dark brown spot in the center of each appendage. The diet of green turtles changes with age. Juveniles are carnivorous, but as they mature they become omnivorous. The young eat fish eggs, mollusks, jellyfish, small invertebrates, worms, sponges, algae, and crustaceans. Green sea turtles have a relatively slow growth rate because of the low nutritional value of their diet. Body fat turns green because of the consumed vegetation. This diet shift has an effect on the green turtle 's skull morphology. Their serrated jaw helps them chew algae and sea grasses. Most adult sea turtles are strictly herbivorous. The range of the green sea turtle extends throughout tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide. The two major subpopulations are the Atlantic and the eastern Pacific subpopulations. Each population is genetically distinct, with its own set of nesting and feeding grounds within the population 's known range. One of the genetic differences between the two subpopulations is the type of mitochondrial DNA found in individual 's cells. Individuals from rookeries in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea have a similar type of mitochondrial DNA, and individuals from The Pacific and Atlantic Oceans have another type of Mitochondrial DNA. Their native range includes tropical to subtropical waters along continental coasts and islands between 30 ° N and 30 ° S. Since green sea turtles are a migrating species, their global distribution spans into the open ocean. The differences in mitochondrial DNA more than likely stems from the populations being isolated from each other by the southern tips of both South America and Africa with no warm waters for the green sea turtles to migrate through. The green sea turtle is estimated to inhabit coastal areas of more than 140 countries, with nesting sites in over 80 countries worldwide throughout the year. In the United States Atlantic coast, green sea turtles can be found from Texas and north to Massachusetts. In the United States Pacific coast, they have been found from southern California north to the southernmost tip of Alaska. The largest populations of green sea turtles within the United States coastline are in the Hawaiian Islands and Florida. Globally, the largest populations of sea turtles are in the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and the Caribbean islands. The green sea turtle can generally be found throughout the Atlantic Ocean. Individuals have been spotted as far north as Canada in the western Atlantic, and the British Isles in the east. The subpopulation 's southern range is known until past the southern tip of Africa in the east and Argentina in the western Atlantic. The major nesting sites can be found on various islands in the Caribbean, along the eastern shores of the continental United States, the eastern coast of the South American continent and most notably, on isolated North Atlantic islands. In the Caribbean, major nesting sites have been identified on Aves Island, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and Costa Rica. In recent years there are signs of increased nesting in the Cayman Islands. One of the region 's most important nesting grounds is in Tortuguero in Costa Rica. In fact, the majority of the Caribbean region 's C. mydas population hails from a few beaches in Tortuguero. Within United States waters, minor nesting sites have been noted in the states of Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and all along the east coast of Florida. Hutchinson Island in particular is a major nesting area in Florida waters. Notable locations in South America include secluded beaches in Suriname and French Guiana. In the Southern Atlantic Ocean, the most notable nesting grounds for Chelonia mydas are found on the island of Ascension, hosts 6,000 -- 13,000 turtle nests. In contrast with the sporadic distribution of nesting sites, feeding grounds are much more widely distributed throughout the region. Important feeding grounds in Florida include Indian River Lagoon, the Florida Keys, Florida Bay, Homosassa, Crystal River, and Cedar Key. In the Pacific, its range reaches as far north as the southern coast of Alaska and as far south as Chile in the east. The turtle 's distribution in the western Pacific reaches north to Japan and southern parts of Russia 's Pacific coast, and as far south as the northern tip of New Zealand and a few islands south of Tasmania. The turtles can be found throughout the Indian Ocean. Significant nesting grounds are scattered throughout the entire Pacific region, including Mexico, the Hawaiian Islands, the South Pacific, the northern coast of Australia, and Southeast Asia. Major Indian Ocean nesting colonies include India, Pakistan, and other coastal countries. The east coast of the African continent hosts a few nesting grounds, including islands in the waters around Madagascar. Nesting grounds are found all along the Mexican coast. These turtles feed in seagrass pastures in the Gulf of California. Green turtles belonging to the distinct Hawaiian subpopulation nest at the protected French Frigate Shoals some 800 kilometers (500 mi) west of the Hawaiian Islands. In the Philippines, green turtles nest in the Turtle Islands along with closely related hawksbill turtles. Indonesia has a few nesting beaches, one in the Meru Betiri National Reserve in East Java. The Coral Sea has nesting areas of world significance. The Great Barrier Reef has two genetically distinct populations; one north and one south. Within the reef, twenty separate locations consisting of small islands and cays were identified as nesting sites for either population of C. mydas. Of these, the most important is on Raine Island. Major nesting sites are common on either side of the Arabian Sea, both in Ash Sharqiyah, Oman, and along the coast of Karachi, Pakistan. Some specific beaches there, such as Hawke 's Bay and Sandspit, are common to both C. mydas and L. olivacea subpopulation. Sandy beaches along Sindh and Balochistan are nesting sites. Some 25 kilometers (16 mi) off the Pakistani coast, Astola island is another nesting beach. On 30 December 2007, fishermen using a hulbot - hulbot (a type of fishnet) accidentally caught an 80 kg (180 lb), 93 cm (37 in) long and 82 cm (32 in) wide turtle off Barangay Bolong, Zamboanga City, Philippines. December is breeding season near the Bolong beach. Green sea turtles move across three habitat types, depending on their life stage. They lay eggs on beaches. Mature turtles spend most of their time in shallow, coastal waters with lush seagrass beds. Adults frequent inshore bays, lagoons and shoals with lush seagrass meadows. Entire generations often migrate between one pair of feeding and nesting areas. Green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, are classified as an aquatic species and are distributed around the globe in warm tropical to subtropical waters. The environmental parameter that limits the distribution of the turtles is ocean temperatures below 7 to 10 degrees Celsius. Within their geographical range, the green sea turtles generally stay near continental and island coastlines. Near the coastlines, the green sea turtles live within shallow bays and protected shores. In these protected shores and bays, the green sea turtle habitats include coral reefs, salt marshes, and nearshore seagrass beds. The coral reefs provide red, brown, and green algae for their diet and gives protection from predators and rough storms within the ocean. The salt marshes and seagrass beds contain seaweed and grass vegetation, allowing ample habitat for the sea turtles. Turtles spend most of their first five years in convergence zones within the bare open ocean that surround them. These young turtles are rarely seen as they swim in deep, pelagic waters. Green sea turtles typically swim at 2.5 -- 3 km / h (1.6 -- 1.9 mph). As one of the first sea turtle species studied, much of what is known of sea turtle ecology comes from studies of green turtles. The ecology of C. mydas changes drastically with each stage of its life history. Newly emerged hatchlings are carnivorous, pelagic organisms, part of the open ocean mini nekton. In contrast, immature juveniles and adults are commonly found in seagrass meadows closer inshore as herbivorous grazers. Only human beings and the larger sharks feed on C. mydas adults. Specifically, tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) hunt adults in Hawaiian waters. Juveniles and new hatchlings have significantly more predators, including crabs, small marine mammals and shorebirds. In Turkey, their eggs are vulnerable to predation by red foxes and golden jackals. Green sea turtles have a variety of parasites including barnacles, leeches, protozoans, cestodes, and nematodes. Barnacles and leeches attach to the carapace and flippers of the turtles, which damage their tissues, shells, and lead to blood loss. Protozoans, cestodes and nematodes lead to many turtle deaths because of the infections in the liver and intestinal tract. The greatest disease threat to the turtle population is fibropapilloma, which produces lethal tumor growth on scales, lungs, stomach, and kidneys. Fibropapilloma is caused by a herpesvirus that is transmitted via leeches. Green sea turtles migrate long distances between feeding sites and nesting sites; some swim more than 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) to reach their spawning grounds. Beaches in Southeast Asia, India, islands in the western Pacific, and Central America are where Green sea turtles breed. Mature turtles often return to the exact beach from which they hatched. Females usually mate every two to four years. Males, on the other hand, visit the breeding areas every year, attempting to mate. Mating seasons vary between populations. For most C. mydas in the Caribbean, mating season is from June to September. The French Guiana nesting subpopulation nests from March to June. In the tropics, green turtles nest throughout the year, although some subpopulations prefer particular times of the year. In Pakistan, Indian Ocean turtles nest year - round, but prefer the months of July to December. Sea turtles return to the beaches on which they were born to lay their own eggs. The reason for returning to native beaches may be that it guarantees the turtles an environment that has the necessary components for their nesting to be successful. These include a sandy beach, easy access for the hatchlings to get to the ocean, the right incubation temperatures, and low probability of predators that may feed on their eggs. Over time these turtles have evolved these tendencies to return to an area that has provided reproductive success for many generations. Their ability to return to their birthplace is known as natal homing. The males also return to their birthplaces in order to mate. These males that return to their homes know they will be able to find mates because the females born there also return to breed. By doing this, the green sea turtles are able to improve their reproductive success and is why they are willing to expend the energy to travel thousands of miles across the ocean in order to reproduce. Mating behaviour is similar to other marine turtles. Female turtles control the process. A few populations practice polyandry, although this does not seem to benefit hatchlings. After mating in the water, the female moves above the beach 's high tide line, where she digs a hole 11 - 22 inches in depth with her hind flippers and deposits her eggs. The hole is then covered up again. Clutch size ranges between 85 and 200, depending on the age of the female. This process takes about an hour to an hour and a half. After the nest is completely covered, she returns to the sea. The female will do this 3 to 5 times in one season. The eggs are round and white, and about 45 mm in diameter. The hatchlings remain buried for days until they all emerge together at night. At around 50 to 70 days, the eggs hatch during the night, and the hatchlings instinctively head directly into the water. This is the most dangerous time in a turtle 's life. As they walk, predators, such as gulls and crabs, feed on them. A significant percentage never make it to the ocean. Little is known of the initial life history of newly hatched sea turtles. Juveniles spend three to five years in the open ocean before they settle as still - immature juveniles into their permanent shallow - water lifestyle. It is speculated that they take twenty to fifty years to reach sexual maturity. Individuals live up to eighty years in the wild. It is estimated that only 1 % of hatchlings reach sexual maturity. Each year on Ascension Island in the South Atlantic, C. mydas females create 6,000 to 25,000 nests. They are among the largest green turtles in the world; many are more than a metre in length and weigh up to 300 kilograms (660 lb). Sea turtles spend almost all their lives submerged, but must breathe air for the oxygen needed to meet the demands of vigorous activity. With a single explosive exhalation and rapid inhalation, sea turtles can quickly replace the air in their lungs. The lungs permit a rapid exchange of oxygen and prevent gases from being trapped during deep dives. Sea turtle blood can deliver oxygen efficiently to body tissues even at the pressures encountered during diving. During routine activity, green and loggerhead turtles dive for about four to five minutes, and surface to breathe for one to three seconds. Turtles can rest or sleep underwater for several hours at a time, but submergence time is much shorter while diving for food or to escape predators. Breath - holding ability is affected by activity and stress, which is why turtles quickly drown in shrimp trawlers and other fishing gear. During the night while sleeping and to protect themselves from potential predators, the adults wedge themselves under rocks below the surface and under ledges in reefs and coastal rocks. Many green sea turtles have been observed in returning to the same sleeping location night after night. Green sea turtles tend to have good vision, well adapted to a life at sea. The turtles can see many colors, but are most sensitive to light from violet to yellow or wavelengths of 400 to 600 nanometers. They do not see many colors in the orange to red portion of the light spectrum. On land, however, the sea turtles are nearsighted because the lenses in the eyes are spherical and adjusted to refraction underwater. Sea turtles have no external ear and only one ear bone, called the columella. With one ear bone, the turtles can only hear low frequency sounds, from 200 to 700 Hz. Sounds can also be detected through vibrations of the head, backbone, and shell. The nose of the turtle has two external openings and connects to the roof of the mouth through internal openings. The lower surface of the nasal passage has two sets of sensory cells called the Jacobson 's organ. The turtle can use this organ to smell by pumping water in and out of its nose. Since green sea turtles migrate long distances during breeding seasons, they have special adaptive systems in order to navigate. In the open ocean, the turtles navigate using wave directions, sun light, and temperatures. The sea turtles also contain an internal magnetic compass. They can detect magnetic information by using magnetic forces acting on the magnetic crystals in their brains. Through these crystals, they can sense the intensity Earth 's magnetic field and are able to make their way back to their nesting grounds or preferred feeding grounds. Natal homing is an animals ability to return to its birthplace in order to reproduce. Natal homing is found in all species of sea turtles and in other animals such as salmon. How these turtles are able to return to their birthplace is an interesting phenomenon. Many researchers believe that sea turtle use a process called imprinting, which is a special type of learning that occurs when turtles first hatch that allows them to recognize their native beach. There are two types of imprinting that are thought to be the reason turtles can find these beaches. The first is the chemical imprinting hypothesis. This hypothesis states that much like salmon, sea turtles are able to use olfactory cues and senses to smell their way home. However, a problem with this hypothesis is that some turtles travel thousands of miles to return to their native beaches, and the scents from that area are n't likely to travel and be distinguishable from that distance. The second hypothesis is the geomagnetic hypothesis. This hypothesis states that as it hatches, a young turtle will imprint on the magnetic field of the beach they are born on. This hypothesis strongly correlates to the method which sea turtles use to navigate the earth. In order to tolerate the constant heat loss in the water, sea turtles have the ability to shunt blood away from tissues that are tolerant of low oxygen levels toward the heart, brain, and central nervous system. Other mechanisms include basking on warm beaches and producing heat through their activity and movements of their muscles. In the winter months, turtles living at higher latitudes can hibernate for a short period in the mud. The green sea turtles exhibit sex differences by their development and appearance. As adult turtles, males are easily distinguishable from the females by having a larger tail and longer claws on the front flippers. The hatching time and sex of the turtles are determined by the incubation temperature of the nest. Hatchings occur more quickly in nests that are warmer than nests that are in cooler conditions. Warm nesting sites above 30 degrees Celsius favor the development of females, whereas nesting sites below 30 degrees Celsius produce males. The position of the egg in the nest also affects sex - determination. Eggs in the center tend to hatch as females due to the warmer conditions within the nest. Green sea turtles play an essential role within the ecosystem in which they live. In the seagrass beds, the turtles feed on the seagrass by trimming only the top and leaving the roots of the plant. Through their feeding technique, the turtles help to improve the health and growth of the seagrass beds. The healthy seagrass beds that the turtles provide give habitat and feeding grounds for many species of fish and crustaceans. On the nesting beaches, the green sea turtles provide key nutrients for the ecosystem through their hatched egg shells. In their coral reef habitat, the green sea turtles have a symbiotic interaction with reef fish, including the yellow tang. The yellow tang fish swims along with the turtle and feeds on the algae, barnacles, and parasites on its shell and flippers. This species interaction provides food for the yellow tang and provides a necessary cleaning and smoothing of the turtle 's shell. This cleaning helps the turtle swim by reducing the amount of drag and improves their health. Historically, the turtles ' skin was tanned and used to make handbags, especially in Hawaii. Ancient Chinese considered the flesh of sea turtles a culinary delicacy, including and especially C. mydas. Particularly for this species, the turtle 's fat, cartilage, and flesh, known as calipee, are sought as ingredients for making turtle soup, a popular 19th century American dish. In Java, Indonesia, sea turtle eggs were a popular delicacy. However, the turtle 's flesh is regarded as ḥarām or "unclean '' under Islamic law (Islam is Java 's primary religion). In Bali, turtle meat was a prominent feature at ceremonial and religious feasts. Turtles were harvested in the remotest parts of the Indonesian archipelago. Bali has been importing sea turtles since the 1950s, as its own turtle supplies became depleted. The mostly Hindu Balinese do not eat the eggs, but sell them instead to local Muslims. Commercial farms, such as the Cayman Turtle Farm in the West Indies, once bred them for commercial sale of turtle meat, turtle oil (rendered from the fat), turtle shell, and turtle leather made from the skin. The farm 's initial stock was in large part from "doomed '' eggs removed from nests threatened by erosion, flooding, or in chemically hostile soil. The farms held as many as 100,000 turtles at any one time. When the international markets were closed by regulations that did not allow even farm - bred turtle products to be exported internationally, the surviving farm became primarily a tourist attraction, supporting 11,000 turtles. Inintially started as Mariculture Ltd., then Cayman Turtle Farm Ltd and subsequently branded Boatswain 's Beach, in 2010 the farm 's brandname was changed to Cayman Turtle Farm: Island Wildlife Encounter. Sea turtles are integral to the history and culture of the Cayman Islands. When the islands were first discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1503, he named them "Las Tortugas '' because of the abundance of sea turtles in the waters around the islands. Many of the earliest visitors came to the Cayman Islands to capture the turtles as a source of fresh meat during long voyages. The Green Turtle is a national symbol displayed as part of the Coat of Arms of the Cayman Islands, which also forms part of the national flag of the Cayman Islands. The country 's currency uses a turtle as the watermark in its banknotes. A stylised sea turtle nicknamed "Sir Turtle '' is the mascot of the national airline Cayman Airways and is part of the livery of its aircraft. A ki ' pohaku (petroglyph) of a turtle (or honu) can be found on The Big Island of Hawaii in the Pu'u Loa lava fields. The green sea turtle (called Honu) has always held a special meaning for Hawaiians and this petroglyph shows its importance dating to possibly when the islands first became populated. The turtle symbolizes a navigator that can find his way home time after time. This symbol mirrors the real life of the green Hawaiian turtle as it will swim hundreds of miles to lay its eggs at its own place of birth. Though there are other myths as well, some Hawaiian legends say the honu were the first to guide the Polynesians to the Hawaiian Islands. Hawaiians revere the turtle and the legend of Kailua, a turtle who could take the form of a girl at will. In human form, she looked after the children playing on Punalu'u beach. In recent decades, sea turtles have moved from unrestricted exploitation to global protection, with individual countries providing additional protection, although serious threats remain unabated. Human action presents both intentional and unintentional threats to the species ' survival. Intentional threats include continued hunting, poaching and egg harvesting. More dangerous are unintentional threats, including boat strikes, fishermen 's nets that lack turtle excluder devices, pollution and habitat destruction. Chemical pollution may create tumors; effluent from harbors near nesting sites may create disturbances; and light pollution may disorient hatchlings. Habitat loss usually occurs due to human development of nesting areas. Beach - front construction, land "reclamation '' and increased tourism are examples of such development. An infectious tumor - causing disease, fibropapillomatosis, is also a problem in some populations. The disease kills a sizeable fraction of those it infects, though some individuals seem to resist the disease. In addition, at least in the Southwestern Atlantic (Río de la Plata, Uruguay), exotic invasive species such as the rapa whelk Rapana venosa, were reported massively bio-fouling immature green turtles, reducing buoyancy, increasing drag, and causing severe injuries to the carapace. Because of these threats, many populations are in a vulnerable state. Pacific green turtles ' foraging habitats are poorly understood and mostly unknown. These foraging grounds are most likely along the coast of Baja California, Mexico and southern California, in which these turtle 's have a high risk of incidental capture by coastal fisheries. The main mortality factor for these turtles is the shrimp trawlers in Mexico, in which many of these turtles go undocumented. The only foraging area that has been identified is the San Diego Bay, but it is heavily polluted with metals and PCBs. These contaminants have a negative effect on the ocean environment, and have been shown to cause lesions and sometimes mortality. Green turtles also are threatened by entanglement and ingestion of plastic. In San Diego Bay, an adult green turtle was found dead with monofilament netting tightly packed in its esophagus. Green sea turtles are the most commonly traded species along Java 's south coast and are sold in the form of whole, stuffed animals or turtle oil, locally known as "minyak bulus '' The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has repeatedly listed green sea turtles in its Red List under differing criteria. In 1982, they officially classified it as an endangered species. The 1986, 1988, 1990, 1994, and the landmark 1996 edition of the IUCN Red List, retained the listing. In 2001, Nicholas Mrosovsky filed a delisting petition, claiming some green turtle populations were large, stable and in some cases, increasing. At the time, the species was listed under the strict EN A1abd criteria. The IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee ruled that visual counts of nesting females could not be considered "direct observation '' and thus downgraded the species ' status to EN A1bd -- retaining the turtle 's endangered status. In 2004, the IUCN reclassified C. mydas as endangered under the EN A2bd criteria, which essentially states the wild populations face a high risk of extinction because of several factors. These factors include a probable population reduction of more than 50 % over the past decade as estimated from abundance indices and by projecting exploitation levels. On 3 May 2007, C. mydas was listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) as a member of the family Cheloniidae. The species was originally listed on Appendix II in 1975. The entire family was moved to Appendix I in 1977, with the exception of the Australian population of C. mydas. In 1981, the Australian population joined the rest. It is therefore illegal to import, export, kill, capture or harass green turtles. The Mediterranean population is listed as critically endangered. The eastern Pacific, Hawaiian and Southern California subpopulations are designated threatened. Specific Mexican subpopulations are listed as endangered. The Florida population is listed as endangered. The World Wide Fund for Nature has labeled populations in Pakistan as "rare and declining ''. In the State of Hawaii, specifically on the Island of Hawaii (Hawaii County), state representative Faye Hanohano, a Native Hawaiian rights activist, pressed for a measure to delist C. mydas from protected status so that Native Hawaiians could legally harvest the turtles and possibly their eggs as well. The bill, HCR14, was largely overlooked by the media since at that point it was only a local issue. While the bill was passed in the House, the Senate 's Committee on Energy and Environment refused to hear it, which meant that the bill did not go on to be heard by the Senate. In addition to management by global entities such as the IUCN and CITES, specific countries around the world have undertaken conservation efforts. Bali has traditional uses that were considered sustainable, but have been questioned considering greater demand from the larger and wealthier human population. The harvest was the most intensive in the world. In 1999, Indonesia restricted turtle trade and consumption because of the decreasing population and threat of a tourist boycott. It rejected a request made by Bali Governor I Made Mangku Pastika in November 2009 to set a quota of 1,000 turtles to be killed in Hindu religious ceremonies. While conservationists respect the need for turtles in rituals, they wanted a smaller quota. Ecotourism is one initiative in Sabah, Malaysia. The island of Pulau Selingan is home to a turtle hatchery. Staff people place some of the eggs laid each night in a hatchery to protect them from predators. Incubation takes around sixty days. When the eggs hatch, tourists assist in the release of the baby turtles into the sea. All populations are listed as "Threatened ''. The Hawaiian subpopulation has made a remarkable comeback and is now one focus of ecotourism and has become something of a state mascot. Students of Hawaii Preparatory Academy on the Big Island have tagged thousands of specimens since the early 1990s. In the United Kingdom the species is protected by a Biodiversity Action Plan, due to excess harvesting and marine pollution. The Pakistani - branch of the World Wide Fund for Nature has been initiating projects for secure turtle hatching since the 1980s. However, the population has continued to decline. In the Atlantic, conservation initiatives have centered around Caribbean nesting sites. The Tortuguero nesting beaches in Costa Rica have been the subject of egg - collection limits since the 1950s. The Tortuguero National Park was formally established in 1976, in part, to protect that region 's nesting grounds. On Ascension Island, which contains some of the most important nesting beaches, an active conservation program has been implemented. Karumbé has been monitoring foraging and developmental areas of juvenile green turtles in Uruguay since 1999. Cayman Turtle Farm located in Grand Cayman in the northwest Caribbean Sea is the first farm to have achieved the second generation of Green Sea turtles bred, laid, hatched, and raised in captivity. Since its beginning in 1968, the farm has released over 31,000 turtles into the wild, and each year more captive - bred turtles are released into the Caribbean Sea from beaches around the island of Grand Cayman. Captive - bred turtles released from the farm as hatchlings or yearlings with "living tags, '' have now begun to return to nest on Grand Cayman as adults. On February 19, 2012 the farm released the first 2nd - generation captive - bred Green Sea turtle equipped with a Position Tracking Transponder -- PTT (also known as a satellite tag). In addition, the farm provides turtle meat products to the local population for whom turtle has been part of the traditional cuisine for centuries. In so doing, the farm curtails the incentive to take turtles from the wild, which over the years in addition to the Cayman Turtle Farm 's release of captive - bred turtles has enabled an increase in the number of turtles sighted in the waters around the island of Grand Cayman and nesting on its beaches. In the Pacific, green sea turtles nest on the motu (islets) in the Funafuti Conservation Area, a marine conservation area covering 33 square kilometers (12.74 square miles) of reef, lagoon and motu on the western side of Funafuti atoll in Tuvalu. The genome of Chelonia mydas was sequenced in 2013 to examine the development and evolution of the turtle body plan.

tom clay what the world needs now is love/abraham martin and john

What the World Needs Now is Love - wikipedia "What the World Needs Now Is Love '' is a 1965 popular song with lyrics by Hal David and music composed by Burt Bacharach. First recorded and made popular by Jackie DeShannon, it was released on April 15, 1965, on the Imperial label after a release on sister label Liberty records the previous month was canceled. It peaked at number seven on the US Hot 100 in July of that year. In Canada, the song reached number one. The song was originally offered to Dionne Warwick, who turned it down at the time, though she later recorded it for her album Here Where There Is Love. (Warwick also recorded a second version in 1996, which scraped the lower reaches of the US Hot 100.) Bacharach initially did not believe in the song, and was reluctant to play it for DeShannon. DeShannon 's version was recorded on March 23, 1965, at New York 's Bell Sound studios. Bacharach arranged, conducted and produced the session. In 1966, The Supremes recorded the song for their album Reflections. In 2011, Ronan Keating recorded the song for his album When Ronan Met Burt. Kree Harrison, in 2013, made a cover of the song in the 12th season of American Idol. The studio version was recorded by Idol Studio Recordings. On June 15, 2016, the song was recorded by Broadway for Orlando, with all proceeds going to the victims of the Orlando nightclub shooting. On Dec. 22, 2016 the Mighty Mighty Bosstones announced the upcoming release of their version of the song On Mar. 24, 2017 it was re-recorded by Hans Zimmer, Steve Mazzaro & Missi Hale for the movie The Boss Baby. "What the World Needs Now Is Love '' has been recorded or performed live by over 100 artists, including: In addition to the DeShannon hit recording and the numerous cover versions, "What the World Needs Now is Love '' served as the basis for a distinctive 1971 remix. Disc jockey Tom Clay was working at radio station KGBS in Los Angeles, California, when he created the single "What the World Needs Now is Love / Abraham, Martin and John '', a social commentary that became a surprise hit record that summer. The song begins with a man asking a young boy to define such words as bigotry, segregation, and hatred (to which the boy says he does n't know); he says that prejudice is "when someone 's sick ''. Following that is a soundbite of a drill sergeant leading a platoon into training, along with gunfire sound effects, after which are snippets of the two songs -- both as recorded by The Blackberries, a session recording group. Interspersed are excerpts of speeches by John F. Kennedy, Robert F. Kennedy, the eulogy (given by Ted Kennedy) after Robert 's assassination, and Martin Luther King, Jr., and soundbites of news coverage of each one 's assassination. The ending of the song is a reprise of the introduction. "What the World Needs Now is Love / Abraham, Martin and John '' rose to No. 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 in August 1971, and was Clay 's only Top 40 hit. "What the World Needs Now is Love '' has been used in many film soundtracks, notably Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice and For the Love of Fred (used as the film 's closing theme song in both), Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery, My Best Friend 's Wedding, Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason, Hot Shots!, Happy Gilmore, and Forrest Gump. In the Danish zodiac porn comedy I Jomfruens tegn (1973), an extended version is used for the hardcore underwater orgy that ends the film. The song contains the memorable lines: The song builds upon the theme of "Stowaway in the Sky '', composed in 1960 by Jean Prodromidès for the film of the same title.

what is the market cap of the us dollar

Market capitalization - wikipedia Market capitalization (market cap) is the market value at a point in time of the shares outstanding of a publicly traded company, being equal to the share price at that point of time times the number of shares outstanding. As outstanding stock is bought and sold in public markets, capitalization could be used as an indicator of public opinion of a company 's net worth and is a determining factor in some forms of stock valuation. Market capitalization is used by the investment community in ranking the size of companies, as opposed to sales or total asset figures. It is also used in ranking the relative size of stock exchanges, being a measure of the sum of the market capitalizations of all companies listed on each stock exchange. (See List of stock exchanges.) In performing such rankings, the market capitalizations are calculated at some significant date, such as 30 June or 31 December. The total capitalization of stock markets or economic regions may be compared with other economic indicators. The total market capitalization of all publicly traded companies in the world was US $51.2 trillion in January 2007 and rose as high as US $57.5 trillion in May 2008 before dropping below US $50 trillion in August 2008 and slightly above US $40 trillion in September 2008. In 2014 and 2015, global market capitalization was US $68 trillion and US $67 trillion, respectively. Market cap is given by the formula M C = N × P (\ textstyle MC = N \ times P), where MC is the market capitalization, N is the number of shares outstanding, and P is the closing price per share. For example, if some company has 4 million shares outstanding and the closing price per share is $20, its market cap is then $80 million. If the closing price per share rises to $21, the market cap becomes $84 million. If it drops to $19 per share, the market cap falls to $76 million. This is in contrast to mercantile pricing where purchase price, average price and sale price may differ due to transaction costs. Traditionally, companies were divided into large - cap, mid-cap, and small - cap. The terms mega-cap and micro-cap have also since come into common use, and nano - cap is sometimes heard. Different numbers are used by different indexes; there is no official definition of, or full consensus agreement about, the exact cutoff values. The cutoffs may be defined as percentiles rather than in nominal dollars. The definitions expressed in nominal dollars need to be adjusted over decades due to inflation, population change, and overall market valuation (for example, $1 billion was a large market cap in 1950, but it is not very large now), and market caps are likely to be different country to country. Market cap reflects only the equity value of a company. It is important to note that a firm 's choice of capital structure has a significant impact on how the total value of a company is allocated between equity and debt. A more comprehensive measure is enterprise value (EV), which gives effect to outstanding debt, preferred stock, and other factors. For insurance firms, a value called the embedded value (EV) has been used.

who is the fastest star in a reasonably priced car

Top Gear test track - Wikipedia The Top Gear test track is used by the BBC automotive television programme Top Gear. It is located at Dunsfold Aerodrome in Surrey, United Kingdom. The track was designed by Lotus Cars as a testing facility, with many of its Formula One cars tested there. It is used to test both cars and drivers seen on the programme, mainly in Power Laps and Star in a Reasonably Fast Car (Star in a Reasonably Priced Car series 1 - 22). For the 23rd series of Top Gear the track was expanded with a rallycross section for the new "Star in a Rallycross Car '' segment, but it was abandoned at the end of series 23. In December 2016 planning permission was granted for 1,800 homes to be built on the current site of the aerodrome. As part of the redevelopment, it is proposed that the track (and associated aerodrome infrastructure such as the runway drag strip) be demolished. The track is on a former Royal Canadian Air Force airbase constructed during the Second World War and later used by British Aerospace as a manufacturing and test facility. The track 's main route, marked by painted lines and simple structures such as stacks of tyres, was designed by test drivers from Lotus. The layout of the track is designed to put the car through various conditions, ranging from provoking understeer to testing brake balance and tyres. The track is approximately 1.75 miles (2.82 km) long. It is considered to be an equaliser for cars since, according to Richard Hammond, both 0 -- 60 miles per hour (0 -- 96.6 km / h) times and top speed are totally meaningless. The track also incorporates a drag strip; although this is not used for timed segments, it does feature in some challenges and other features on the show. The course starts on the perimeter road outside the Top Gear studio. The first bend is a fast right - left kink named "Crooner Curves. '' "Willson Bend '' is the first proper turn on the track and the first corner usually seen when The Stig is lapping a car. "Chicago '', a long right - hand around a tyre wall onto the main runway, was designed by Lotus as a steady state corner, designed to highlight understeer or oversteer of the chassis. Next is "Hammerhead '', a left - then - right corner, which again highlights understeer and oversteer. The track comes to a right - hand curve, then the course turns right through the flat - out section called the "Follow Through ''. After the left hand "Bentley Bend '' named after the person who first "discovered '' Jeremy Clarkson and former Top Gear presenter, Jon Bentley, but commonly referred to simply as "the tyres '', the course comes to "Bacharach Bend '', which, after the first series, has been referred to as the "Penultimate Corner '' or the "Second - to - last Corner '' and is often regarded as one of the most challenging on the course. The final turn before the finish line is "Gambon '' in honour of Sir Michael Gambon, who completed the turn on two wheels in episode 8 of Series 1. Prior to this, the corner was known as "Carpenters Corner ''. The track is used routinely for the Star in a Reasonably - Priced Car and Power Laps segments on Top Gear. It also serves myriad roles in other portions of the programme, especially in testing cars and in challenges. When testing cars, they are often driven around the airfield by the presenters. Afterwards, they are taken around the test track by The Stig to set a lap time. Occasionally, drag races and speed tests are held on the runway. Cars acquired during challenges must often post lap times (driven by either one of the presenters or The Stig) around the track against either a target time or a time set by The Stig in another vehicle. During many challenges, the track is used in more unorthodox fashions -- for instance, serving as a makeshift motorway lane during a challenge testing tailgating prowess with vans. Power Laps is a segment of the programme in which The Stig completes a lap around the track in a reviewed car to compare its performance to previous contenders. To be eligible to appear on the Power Lap Times board, a vehicle must be a road - legal production car and must have sufficient ride height to clear a standard speed bump (referred to by the presenters as a sleeping policeman), although occasionally vehicles that can not appear on the list are still timed. Whenever a non-qualifying vehicle is raced, the time is compared to the official Power Laps but then removed from the board, for example - the Ferrari FXX owned by Michael Schumacher (1: 10.7) was taken off the board after because it both failed to meet road legal standards and used slick tyres. All laps are timed with the car 's manufacturer - provided adjustable settings configured for maximum performance -- all adjustable suspensions are set at their most efficient, all gear shift maps are at their most aggressive, and driving aids such as traction control are deactivated. Lap times do not offer complete comparisons between the cars, mainly because wet or otherwise poor weather conditions (see time deductions below) can negatively affect lap times. Due to the size of the list, only the top 20 are shown. See List of Top Gear test track Power Lap Times for the full list. The second most powerful production car ever featured on Top Gear, the 1001 PS (987 bhp; 736 kW) Bugatti Veyron, was taken around the track by The Stig in Series 12, Episode 4, after 3 years of waiting. However, it disappointed the team by only managing fifth place on the Power Board (currently 16th), an unexpectedly low position ultimately attributed to the car 's kerb weight of 1,888 kg (4,162 lb), more than any of the four faster cars. In Series 15 Episode 5 however, the Stig took the 1,200 PS Super Sport version around the track in 1: 16.8, thus setting a new lap record. For the 1: 17.6 lap, the Koenigsegg CCX (written as "Koeniggggsenisseggsegnignigsegigisegccx2 with the Top Gear wing '' on a much - longer magnetic strip, because none of the presenters were able to spell Koenigsegg) was fitted with an optional rear spoiler to provide downforce after The Stig spun the unmodified version off the track. The Stig allegedly recommended this modification, correctly predicting that the car would then be the fastest ever round the track, although Koenigsegg stated that the improvement was due to other adjustments. A "non-qualifying '' vehicle is one that does not meet the presenters ' requirements to remain on the board; that is, one that is not a "road car '', which according to Top Gear means being: available to buy, fully road - legal (lights, indicators, registration, profile tyres, etc.), and street - worthy (i.e. able to negotiate a speed bump). The Caparo, Radical, and Westfield are road - legal in the UK but are unable to clear a speed bump. According to Caparo, the car driven by Top Gear was a prototype that did n't feature the adjustable ride height found on the production model. Because The Stig set his time in the non-adjustable prototype and the production version has not been driven around the track, the Caparo 's time remains ineligible for the Power Lap board. Occasionally attempts at the Power Lap record are made without the support of the BBC. The following laps of Dunsfold were recorded, filmed and promoted independently of the Top Gear television programme. Ultima claim that their motive for running a non-televised lap was that they felt that the GTR was being specifically ignored by the producers of Top Gear. Why Dunlop -- Injection chose to run a lap of the Dunsfold circuit is not stated, although it is noticeable that the slower "official '' Caterham run was limited by cold tyres. Star in a Reasonably Priced Car was a recurring segment on Top Gear. During most programmes, a celebrity (usually, but not exclusively of British fame) is interviewed by Jeremy Clarkson. Discussion is normally amusing, and focuses on car - related matters, such as the celebrity 's car history. Then Clarkson and the studio audience watch the guest 's fastest lap on the Top Gear test track, after which Clarkson puts the celebrity 's time on the time board. For the first seven series the car driven for lap times was a Suzuki Liana. When first introduced, the car was worth £ 9995. The car used is stock except for a roll cage and racing seats added as safety measures. Each guest practises with The Stig before making several attempts to complete the test track in the fastest time. The guest does not learn their time until the interview. Practice laps, crashes and the drivers ' facial expressions are also shown during the segment. The two slowest laps on the Liana celebrity list are held by Terry Wogan and Richard Whiteley, both of whom were beaten by Billy Baxter, a Bosnian war veteran who is completely blind. He guided the Liana through the track under direction from Clarkson in the passenger seat in a time of 2 minutes 2 seconds, which was 1.4 seconds quicker than Terry Wogan, and 4 seconds faster than Richard Whiteley. The fastest non-professional driver was Ellen MacArthur. Unlike most contenders she made no comments to the camera during her lap. She completed the lap in 1 minute 46.7 seconds, beating Jimmy Carr by 0.2 seconds. The current fastest professional driver in the Liana is Daniel Ricciardo with 1: 42.2. The Liana endured considerable abuse from the stars while undertaking their laps. In one incident, actor Michael Gambon clipped the final corner, taking the car onto two wheels. It was done in such a spectacular fashion that the corner was named "Gambon Corner ''. When Lionel Richie drove the Liana, one of the front wheels fell off, invoking Clarkson to coin the term "pulling a Lionel ''. Trevor Eve also lost a wheel. The former British transport minister Stephen Ladyman added further injury to the Liana by denting the boot when he lost control during practice and slid backwards into a tyre wall. David Soul destroyed the gearbox of two Lianas during his time on the show due to his rough driving style. Patrick Kielty broke the Liana 's front suspension during series 4 when he drove on the grass. Christopher Eccleston was the only celebrity to use a Liana with an automatic transmission, because a hesitant Eccleston admitted he was "only qualified to drive an automatic. '' To accommodate his needs, Top Gear succeeded in borrowing an automatic Liana, of which only 40 existed in the UK. As a reference to his role in Doctor Who, the automatic Liana was shown materialising onto the racing track, with a TARDIS materialisation sound effect played over it. The Liana has also been modified on several occasions. David Soul 's Liana featured a red police light and a white stripe in reference to his Starsky and Hutch role. Johnny Vegas was provided with L - plates as he had not passed his driving test at the time. When Justin Hawkins came on the show, the Liana he drove had flame decals pasted on it. Actor Sanjeev Bhaskar had an ornate tissue box placed in the back, an homage to Indian drivers. In its service, the Liana covered 1,600 laps of the circuit; went through 400 tyres; its brakes were changed 100 times; and it required six new clutches, two new hubs, driveshafts, wishbones, struts and gear linkages and a replacement wing mirror. In July 2005, Formula One driver Damon Hill appeared on the show for the first time as the star. This was kept a surprise to the audience and the viewing public, and when Nigel Mansell came on the show, it was covered up in magazines and on the internet by saying that the Star in a Reasonably Priced Car would be Alan Titchmarsh. Since Mansell 's appearance the Liana has remained in use as a vehicle reserved for Formula 1 drivers. For some of the laps more than one person has been present in the car. This was the case for Clarkson 's run when he had both Hammond and Jason Dawe in the car. Trinny and Susannah were both in the car for each other 's runs. Denise Van Outen was in the car when Johnny Vaughan did his lap; Van Outen never did a lap driving the car. Clarkson was also present as a navigator for Billy Baxter 's laps. Starting with the eighth series the Liana was replaced by a Chevrolet Lacetti and a new blank scoreboard. The format was changed so that each star would have five practice laps, and then a final timed lap, with no allowance being given for mishaps. As a starter for the new car and format, an open day was held for any celebrity who wanted to take part. Seven stars recorded times that day: James Hewitt (who Jeremy and Richard referred to as the ' Well Spoken Man ' after failing to recognise him), comedians Alan Davies and Jimmy Carr, rock stars Rick Wakeman and Justin Hawkins, footballer Les Ferdinand, and actor Trevor Eve who topped the time at 1 minute 47.0 seconds. Jimmy Carr, who held second place in the Liana behind Ellen MacArthur, spun off while doing his timed lap and got the second slowest time ever around the track at 2 minutes, 8.91 seconds. On 28 January 2007, Jamie Oliver posted a time of 1: 47.70 in melted snow and standing water. Given the rivalry Oliver felt towards fellow celebrity chef, and then - lapboard leader, Gordon Ramsay, Oliver asked that the 4 - second allowance normally granted for wet laps be used to put him at the top of the leaderboard "just for a day ''. Actress Billie Piper posted a time of 1: 48.3 but was deemed by The Stig to have failed to complete a lap properly, as she failed to negotiate some corners. The Stig suggested a three - second time penalty, but after Clarkson consulted the audience, it was decided to let the time stand, which her Doctor Who co-star, David Tennant, tried to overturn on 23 December 2007 show, at the end of the following series. Clarkson remarked that if Tennant had worn a see through top (like Piper for her interview), he "would have been faster than Simon Cowell ''. In the 11 November 2007 episode, Simon Cowell retook his status as the holder of the fastest lap with a time of 1: 45.90. According to Clarkson, the cameramen said they had never seen such consistency in the practice laps. However, Cowell was knocked off the top spot in Series 11 by Jay Kay, who now holds the fastest time in the Lacetti, although Clarkson selected the fastest of Jay Kay 's times rather than the last run, which was slower than Cowell 's time, seemingly due to a dislike of Cowell (he claimed earlier in the episode that Cowell had been at the top of the leaderboard for too long). Had this not happened, Cowell would have been knocked off the top by Grand Designs host Kevin McCloud. Clarkson has referred to the part of the board with times of 1: 51 and over as the ' Thespian Zone ' due to the propensity for classically trained actors to post slow times. Series 11 featured a slight change to the format, with two ' Stars ' per episode instead of the previous one (although there had been a couple of editions in previous series ' with more than one guest). Each of the pair are professionally associated with their fellow guest, usually both either act in or present the same TV show. Unlike previous episodes where two stars have appeared, the stars drove individual laps without the other present in the car. On 28 March 2010, Richard Hammond attended the demolition of the two 550 ft chimneys at Lafarge Cement 's Northfleet Works. On the first episode of Series 15, it was shown that the Lacetti was partially crushed by placing it in the path of one of the falling chimneys. In the last episode of the fourteenth series of the show, Clarkson revealed that they were thinking about getting a new Reasonably Priced Car for the next series. On 27 June, during the first episode of the fifteenth series, it was revealed to be the Kia Cee 'd and, as with the Chevrolet Lacetti, another open day was held to welcome the new car. Nick Robinson, Peter Jones, Al Murray, Bill Bailey, Peta Todd, Louie Spence and Amy Williams were among the initial drivers. Clarkson commonly refers to the Kia phonetically as the "Cee - apostrophe - d ''. Sophie Raworth, Bill Turnbull and Fiona Bruce all did the Star in a Reasonably Priced Car for Children in Need 2012. In the first episode of series 20, Clarkson Hammond and May revealed their new Reasonably Priced Car -- A 1.6 Tech Line Vauxhall Astra. In similar fashion to earlier "new starts '', an open day was held for multiple stars to drive the car. Following the abrupt end of Series 22 as a result of Clarkson 's dismissal from the show, the Astra was returned to Vauxhall before being auctioned off for charity on 27 December 2015 for £ 17,800. All Formula One drivers are put into their own list with regard to lap times because of their exceptional skill level. When the Liana was pulled out from retirement to allow Jenson Button to make a time, Clarkson noted that the Liana would be pulled out for use by Formula 1 drivers in the future. The original ' black ' Stig and the first ' white ' Stig have done laps around the track in the Suzuki Liana. Both had their times removed from the leaderboard upon their departure. The first Stig was Perry McCarthy, who once test drove for the Williams F1 team, and drove for the ill - fated Andrea Moda Formula One team. The second Stig was Ben Collins; in the first episode of Series 13 the Stig was "revealed '' to be Michael Schumacher, although this was a joke in the vein of the rest of his appearance on the show. On 6 July 2011, Sebastian Vettel managed to top the board with a time of 1: 44.0. Vettel 's lap was the first time someone taking a ' Formula One drivers ' line through the first corner was able to top The Stig 's time, as Rubens Barrichello took the tighter line. Clarkson also mentioned on this episode that the current Stig has yet to do a lap of the track in the Liana, therefore there is currently no time on the board for the Stig. On 17 February 2013, Lewis Hamilton returned to do a dry lap and lowered the F1 Drivers record by 1.1 s to 1: 42.9. This was in the wake of his move to Mercedes AMG for the 2013 season. On 8 February 2015, Daniel Ricciardo topped the board with a lap time of 1: 42.2. Ricciardo took the tighter line through the first corner, claiming that it covered less distance. The times and details of the F1 drivers ' laps are as follows: For series 23, "Star in a Reasonably Priced Car '' was renamed as "Star in a Rally - Cross Car '' segment, with the track expanded to include a "Rallycross '' route, featuring the addition of a jump and a water splash obstacle, but retaining the use of some of the corners. Two celebrities were invited to partake in setting a fast lap time with the use of a Mini Rallycross Car. This segment was used only in this series, as following Chris Evans ' resignation, it was scrapped due to negative feedback. Starting from the twenty - fourth series, the format of "Star in a Reasonably Priced Car '' was revived following the axing of the rally - cross format, though the name was changed to "Star in a Reasonably Fast Car '' for its return. The car introduced for this segment was the Toyota GT86, with both The Stig and Chris Harris going out to instruct the celebrities on how to drive the new car. Footage of several celebrities who drove the car before the first episode of the twenty - fourth series, was aired on spin - off programme Extra Gear. Sometimes an additional term is written next to the time (such as H for hot). This indicates that The Stig and the Top Gear team consider that the prevalent weather conditions have affected the lap time or car 's performance. The time on the board is not adapted: e.g. 1: 50.0 MM (mildly moist) is deemed to be equivalent to 1: 48.0 on a normal dry track, but is listed amongst the 1: 50 times. The only lap ever done in the snow was that of Damian Lewis, whose time of 2: 09.1 holds the record as the slowest ever completed lap; due to this, he was placed on a special separate "snow board ''. Lewis Hamilton on his first appearance had his lap listed as W + O (wet and oily) due to large slicks of oil left on the track after an earlier car test. The following list describes how many seconds it costs a car or gives a car an advantage. On 24 October 2007, it was announced that players of the PlayStation 3 game, Gran Turismo 5 Prologue, would be able to download episodes of Top Gear within the game, and that the test track would be one of the included circuits in the full game (Gran Turismo 5). A very basic yet driveable version of the track appeared around 2003 for the PC hardcore racing simulation Grand Prix Legends. There is also a version of the test track for the realistic PC racing simulation rFactor, produced with permission from Dunsfold park. The track has also been produced as an add - on for World Racing 2. Top Gear have also added a basic version of the test track on the games section of their own website, with the title of "Be a star in our reasonably priced car ''. A Top Gear mobile phone game also features the track. The game Gran Turismo 5, developed by Polyphony Digital features a fully rendered version of the Top Gear track. Players have the ability to drive and race on the track. The track also appeared in Forza Motorsport 4; the Top Gear logo appeared in a trailer for Forza 4 on the Top Gear website. Cars were shown racing in the follow - through section during the E3 2011 trailer. It is known that in the actual game there is options to race on the full track, race both of the rings in separate races and race on Top Gear 's drag race mile. There is also an achievement in Forza 4 for completing a lap of the Top Gear Test Track in the Kia Cee 'd fittingly named "Star in a reasonably priced car ''. Forza Motorsport 4 's sequel, Forza Motorsport 5, also features the Top Gear test track. The track layouts from Forza Motorsport 4 return, with the exception of the drag race mile, which has been removed. Forza Motorsport 5 's sequel, Forza Motorsport 6, also features the Top Gear Test Track, with the full track and both separated rings. This time, the rings are able to race frontward and backward. All the layouts are available with sunny or rainy weather. Top Gear - Extreme Parking, Android game. The Top Gear test track is also available in Automation The Car Company Tycoon Game as "Airport Track '' for players to test their cars on.

what is the movie brawl in cell block 99 about

Brawl in Cell Block 99 - Wikipedia Brawl in Cell Block 99 is a 2017 American action thriller film written, directed and scored by S. Craig Zahler. It stars Vince Vaughn, Jennifer Carpenter, Don Johnson, Udo Kier, Marc Blucas and Tom Guiry. It was screened out of competition at the 74th Venice International Film Festival. The film was released in theaters on October 6, 2017, and on digital HD and video on demand on October 13, 2017, by RLJE Films. Former boxer and drug mule, Bradley Thomas (Vince Vaughn) goes to his current job at an auto - repair shop and discovers he has been laid - off by his employer. As he arrives home, he sees his wife, Lauren (Jennifer Carpenter), sitting in her car using her cellphone. Bradley approaches her and sees a lovebite on her neck. Lauren confesses that she has been seeing somebody else. Bradley orders her inside the house before he violently dismantles her car with his bare hands. When calm, he enters the house to discuss with Lauren their failing relationship. Bradley decides to forgive Lauren and returns to work as a drug mule. Eighteen months later, Bradley and a now pregnant Lauren have relocated to a larger, more expensive home. Bradley 's boss, Gil (Marc Blucas), introduces him to Eleazar (Dion Mucciacito), a new business associate, and gives him a new task. Bradley is to sail off the coast with two of Eleazar 's men to pick up a package of crystal meth. Bradley does not trust the larger of the two men, Roman (Geno Segers), but accepts the job when Gil offers him three months paternity leave. As they arrive at the pier, Bradley senses they are walking into a police trap and dumps his bag into the water. Bradley instructs the other two men to do the same, but they ignore his order and confront the police in a firefight, wounding three officers. Bradley intervenes by knocking out Roman in order to assist the police. The third drug trafficker dies in the shootout. Bradley is taken into custody and sentenced to seven years in a medium - security prison. During the night, Lauren is kidnapped by men under orders of Eleazar. On the second day of his incarceration, Bradley is visited by the Placid Man (Udo Kier), who informs Bradley that he works for Eleazar. He tells Bradley that, unless Bradley assassinates an inmate named Christopher Bridge, located in Redleaf Correctional Facility, a separate maximum - Secruity prison. the limbs of his unborn child will be surgically removed by a Korean abortionist and sent to him. Bradley relcuntaly accepts. Bradley picks a fight with multiple guards, until he 's overpowered and transferred to Redleaf. There, he meets Warden Tuggs (Don Johnson), who subjects Bradley to a cavity search outside of the prison entrance. Bradley is put into a horrible cell, where the toilet is clogged with feces. Eventually, he is able to go outside for yard time. When a fellow inmate informs him that Christopher Bridge is not located in this section of the prison but in another section known as cell block 99. Bradley fights some other inmates and consequently is thrown into cell block 99. Warden Tuggs explains that cell block 99 is where he devises special punishments for society 's most despised criminals. Bradley is forced to wear a belt that gives him electric shocks at a push of a button, as a punishment for the fight. His cell in block 99 is lined with broken glass and only contains a crude squat toilet hole. Bradley speaks to the man in an adjacent cell, who informs him that Christopher Bridge does not exist at all. During the night, a young guard named Wilson (Tom Guiry) escorts Bradley to another, larger cell in block 99, where Eleazar, Roman, and two other gangsters are. The gang torture Bradley with the electric belt, and taunt him by threatening to call the abortionist. He is shocked so badly that he needs to be dragged back to the cell unconscious. Bradley devises a plan and tears the lining out of his shoes: he places the rubber between his body and the belt to prevent the shocks. This enables him to ambush Wilson and another guard; resulting in him killing Wilson. Bradley locks the second guard inside the cell. Bradley confronts Eleazar, and brutally kills all three henchmen in hand - to - hand combat: degloving the face of the first man, gouging the eyes and breaking the neck of the second, and stomping Roman 's face in. During the brawl, Eleazar telephones the Placid Man and instructs him to activate the abortionist. Bradley first tortures Eleazar by breaking his leg, then calls The Placid Man to negotiate for Lauren 's freedom. It is agreed that the Placid Man will deliver Lauren to Gil 's house. Bradley drags Eleazar into his own cell, across the broken glass, to await confirmation of Lauren 's freedom. Warden Tuggs and his men arrive at block 99, but Bradley threatens to kill his two hostages. Bradley states he is waiting for a phone call, and promises that he will surrender peacefully, exactly one minute after the call ends. The Placid Man and the abortionist follow Eleazar 's instructions and drive Lauren unharmed to Gil 's house. As they drive away, Gil retrieves a hidden assault rifle and kills the Placid Man. Lauren then takes the rifle and shoots the abortionist. Gil phones Bradley to inform him that his family is finally safe. Bradley speaks to Lauren for the last time, and shares a few words with their unborn child. Bradley destroys the cell phone, then reminds Warden Tuggs that he still has 60 seconds of freedom remaining. Bradley shoves Eleazar 's face into the squat hole and stomps several times on his neck, decapitating Eleazar and leaving the head at the bottom of the toilet. Warden Tuggs and his men finally enter the cell. Bradley gives one last look at Tuggs, before he shoots Bradley twice, once in the chest and once in the head. The screen cuts to black on the third gunshot and Bradley 's body hitting the floor is heard. Principal photography began on August 15, 2016, in New York City. On August 17, 2016, Jennifer Carpenter joined the cast of the film. Principal photography wrapped on October 17, 2016. The film premiered at the 74th Venice International Film Festival on September 2, 2017. The film was released in theaters on October 6, 2017, and on digital HD and video on demand on October 13, 2017, by RLJE Films. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 92 % based on 77 reviews, with an average rating of 7.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Brawl in Cell Block 99 rides a committed Vince Vaughn performance into the brutally violent -- and undeniably entertaining -- depths of prison - set grindhouse genre fare. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 79 out of 100, based on 21 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. The film made year - end best of lists for Newsweek, Los Angeles Times, Collider, JoBlo.com, The A.V. Club, and others. The picture was a New York Times Critics Pick and was screened at the Museum of Modern Art, where it was added to the permanent collection. Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars and praised Vaughn 's performance, saying: "In the middle of all the wince - inducing, limb - bending, bone - crunching, face - exploding bloodshed, Vaughn turns in a legitimately great performance that ranks among the finest work he 's ever done. ''

what is it called when a brand becomes a verb

Generic trademark - wikipedia A generic trademark, also known as a genericized trademark or proprietary eponym, is a trademark or brand name that, due to its popularity or significance, has become the generic name for, or synonymous with, a general class of product or service, usually against the intentions of the trademark 's holder. The process of a product 's name becoming genericized is known as genericide. A trademark is said to become genericized when it begins as a distinctive product identifier but changes in meaning to become generic. This typically happens when the products or services with which the trademark is associated have acquired substantial market dominance or mind share, such that the primary meaning of the genericized trademark becomes the product or service itself rather than an indication of source for the product or service. A trademark thus popularized has its legal protection at risk in some countries such as the United States and United Kingdom, as its intellectual property rights in the trademark may be lost and competitors enabled to use the genericized trademark to describe their similar products, unless the owner of an affected trademark works sufficiently to correct and prevent such broad use. Thermos, Kleenex, ChapStick, Aspirin, Dumpster, Band - Aid, Velcro, Hoover, and Speedo are examples of trademarks that have become genericized in the US and elsewhere. Genericization or "loss of secondary meaning '' may be either among the general population or among just a subpopulation, for example, people who work in a particular industry. Some examples of the latter type from the vocabulary of physicians include the names Luer - Lok (Luer lock), Phoroptor (phoropter), and Port - a-Cath (portacath), which have genericized mind share (among physicians) because (1) the users may not realize that the term is a brand name rather than a medical eponym or generic - etymology term, and (2) no alternative generic name for the idea readily comes to mind. Most often, genericization occurs because of heavy advertising that fails to provide an alternative generic name or that uses the trademark in similar fashion to generic terms. Thus, when the Otis Elevator Company advertised that it offered "the latest in elevator and escalator design, '' it was using the well - known generic term "elevator '' and Otis 's trademark "Escalator '' for moving staircases in the same way. The Trademark Office and the courts concluded that, if Otis used their trademark in that generic way, they could not stop Westinghouse from calling its moving staircases "escalators '', and a valuable trademark was lost through genericization. The pharmaceutical industry affords some protection from genericization of trade names due to the modern practice of assigning a nonproprietary name for a drug based upon chemical structure. Brand - name drugs have well - known nonproprietary names from the beginning of their commercial existence, even while still under patent, preventing the aforementioned problem of "no alternative generic name for the idea readily coming to mind ''. For example, even when Abilify was new, its nonproprietary name, Aripiprazole, was well documented. Another example is Warfarin, which was known as an ingredient in rat poison before it was approved for human use under the brand name of Coumadin. Examples of genericization before the modern system of generic drugs include aspirin, introduced to the market in 1897, and heroin, introduced in 1898. Both were originally trademarks of Bayer AG. However, U.S. court rulings in 1918 and 1921 found the terms to be genericized, stating the company 's failure to reinforce the brand 's connection with their product as the reason. Bayer 's involvement in the Great Phenol Plot during World War I, and subsequently the U.S. declaration of war on Germany, were also involved in the case of aspirin and heroin. A different sense of the word genericized in the pharmaceutical industry refers to products whose patent protection has expired. For example, Lipitor was genericized in the U.S. when the first competing generic version was approved by the FDA in November 2011. In this same context, the term genericization refers to the process of a brand drug losing market exclusivity to generics. Trademark erosion, or genericization, is a special case of antonomasia related to trademarks. It happens when a trademark becomes so common that it starts being used as a common name and the original company has failed to prevent such use. Once it has become an appellative, the word can not be registered any more; this is why companies try hard not to let their trademark become too common, a phenomenon that could otherwise be considered a successful move since it would mean that the company gained an exceptional recognition. Nintendo is an example of a brand that successfully fought trademark erosion, having managed to replace excessive use of its name by the then - neologism game console. Whether or not a mark is popularly identified as genericized, the owner of the mark may still be able to enforce the proprietary rights that attach to the use or registration of the mark, as long as the mark continues to exclusively identify the owner as the commercial origin of the applicable products or services. If the mark does not perform this essential function and it is no longer possible to legally enforce rights in relation to the mark, the mark may have become generic. In many legal systems (e.g., in the United States but not in Germany) a generic mark forms part of the public domain and can be commercially exploited by anyone. Nevertheless, there exists the possibility of a trademark becoming a revocable generic term in German (and European) trademark law. The process by which trademark rights are diminished or lost as a result of common use in the marketplace is known as genericization. This process typically occurs over a period of time in which a mark is not used as a trademark (i.e., where it is not used to exclusively identify the products or services of a particular business), where a mark falls into disuse entirely, or where the trademark owner does not enforce its rights through actions for passing off or trademark infringement. One risk factor that may lead to genericization is the use of a trademark as a verb, plural or possessive, unless the mark itself is possessive or plural (e.g., "Friendly 's '' restaurants). However, in highly inflected languages, a tradename may have to carry case endings in usage. An example is Finnish, where "Microsoft in '' is the genitive case and "Facebook ista '' is the elative case. Generic use of a trademark presents an inherent risk to the effective enforcement of trademark rights and may ultimately lead to genericization. The legal team of Velcro created a music video highlighting the tragedy of genericide. Trademark owners may take various steps to reduce the risk, including educating businesses and consumers on appropriate trademark use, avoiding use of their marks in a generic manner, and systematically and effectively enforcing their trademark rights. If a trademark is associated with a new invention, the trademark owner may also consider developing a generic term for the product to be used in descriptive contexts, to avoid inappropriate use of the "house '' mark. Such a term is called a generic descriptor, and is frequently used immediately after the trademark to provide a description of the product or service. For example, "Kleenex tissues '' ("facial tissues '' being the generic descriptor) or "Velcro brand fasteners '' for Velcro brand name hook - and - loop fasteners. Another common practice among trademark owners is to follow their trademark with the word brand to help define the word as a trademark. Johnson & Johnson changed the lyrics of their Band - Aid television commercial jingle from, "I am stuck on Band - Aids, ' cause Band - Aid 's stuck on me '' to "I am stuck on Band - Aid brand, ' cause Band - Aid 's stuck on me. '' Google has gone to lengths to prevent this process, discouraging publications from using the term ' googling ' in reference to Web searches. In 2006, both the Oxford English Dictionary and the Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary struck a balance between acknowledging widespread use of the verb coinage and preserving the particular search engine 's association with the coinage, defining google (all lower case, with - le ending) as a verb meaning "use the Google search engine to obtain information on the Internet ''. Where a trademark is used generically, a trademark owner may need to take aggressive measures to retain exclusive rights to the trademark. Xerox corporation attempted to prevent the genericization of its core trademark through an extensive public relations campaign advising consumers to "photocopy '' instead of "xerox '' documents. One example of an active effort to prevent the genericization of a trademark was that of the Lego Company, which printed in manuals in the 1970s and 1980s a request to customers that they call the company 's interlocking plastic building blocks "' Lego bricks ', ' blocks ' or ' toys ', and not ' Legos '. '' While this went largely unheeded, and many children and adults in the U.S. referred to and continue to refer to the pieces as "Legos '', use of the deprecated term remained largely confined to the Lego Company 's own products -- and not, for example, to Tyco 's competing and interchangeable product -- so genericization of the Lego trademark did not occur. Adobe Systems is working to prevent the genericization of their trademarks, such as Photoshop, but has mixed success. This is shown via recurring use of the verb "photoshopped '', or the shortened version "shopped '', throughout the Internet and mass media. Since 2003, the European Union has actively sought to restrict the use of geographical indications by third parties outside the EU by enforcing laws regarding "protected designation of origin ''. Although a geographical indication for specialty food or drink may be generic, it is not a trademark because it does not serve to identify exclusively a specific commercial enterprise and therefore can not constitute a genericized trademark. The extension of protection for geographical indications is somewhat controversial. A geographical indication may have been registered as a trademark elsewhere; for example, if "Parma Ham '' was part of a trademark registered in Canada by a Canadian manufacturer, then ham manufacturers in Parma, Italy, might be unable to use this name in Canada. Wines (such as Bordeaux, Port and Champagne), cheeses (such as Roquefort, Parmesan, and Feta), Pisco liquor, and Scotch whisky are examples of geographical indications. Compare Russian use of "Шампанское '' (= Shampanskoye) for champagne - type wine made in Russia. In the 1990s, the Parma consortium successfully sued the Asda supermarket chain to prevent it using the description "Parma ham '' on prosciutto produced in Parma but sliced outside the Parma region. The European Court ruled that pre-packaged ham must be produced, sliced, and packaged in Parma in order to be labeled for sale as "Parma ham ''. A trademark is said to fall somewhere along a scale from being "distinctive '' to "generic '' (used primarily as a common name for the product or service rather than an indication of source). Among distinctive trademarks the scale goes from strong to weak:

where is jamaica located from the united states

Jamaica - wikipedia Jamaica (/ dʒ əˈmeɪkə / (listen)) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of the third - largest island of the Greater Antilles. The island, 10,990 square kilometres (4,240 sq mi) in area, lies about 145 kilometres (90 mi) south of Cuba, and 191 kilometres (119 mi) west of Hispaniola (the island containing the countries of Haiti and the Dominican Republic). Jamaica is the fourth - largest island country in the Caribbean, by area. Inhabited by the indigenous Arawak and Taíno peoples, the island came under Spanish rule following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1494. Many of the indigenous people died of disease, and the Spanish imported African slaves as labourers. Named Santiago, the island remained a possession of Spain until 1655, when England (later Great Britain) conquered it and renamed it Jamaica. Under British colonial rule Jamaica became a leading sugar exporter, with its plantation economy highly dependent on slaves forcibly transported from Africa. The British fully emancipated all slaves in 1838, and many freedmen chose to have subsistence farms rather than to work on plantations. Beginning in the 1840s, the British imported Chinese and Indian indentured labour to work on plantations. The island achieved independence from the United Kingdom on 6 August 1962. With 2.9 million people, Jamaica is the third-most populous Anglophone country in the Americas (after the United States and Canada), and the fourth-most populous country in the Caribbean. Kingston is the country 's capital and largest city, with a population of 937,700. Jamaicans predominately have African ancestry, with significant European, Chinese, Indian, and mixed - race minorities. Due to a high rate of emigration for work since the 1960s, Jamaica has a large diaspora around the world, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Jamaica is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch and head of state. Her appointed representative in the country is the Governor - General of Jamaica, an office held by Sir Patrick Allen since 2009. Andrew Holness has served as the head of government and Prime Minister of Jamaica from March 2016. Jamaica is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with legislative power vested in the bicameral Parliament of Jamaica, consisting of an appointed Senate and a directly elected House of Representatives. The indigenous people, the Taíno, called the island Xaymaca in Arawakan, meaning the "Land of Wood and Water '' or the "Land of Springs ''. Colloquially Jamaicans refer to their home island as the "Rock. '' Slang names such as "Jamrock '', "Jamdown '' ("Jamdung '' in Jamaican Patois), or briefly "Ja '', have derived from this. The Arawak and Taíno indigenous people, originating in South America, settled on the island between 4000 and 1000 BC. When Christopher Columbus arrived in 1494, there were more than 200 villages ruled by caciques (chiefs of villages). The south coast of Jamaica was the most populated, especially around the area now known as Old Harbour. The Taino still inhabited Jamaica when the English took control of the island in 1655. The Jamaican National Heritage Trust is attempting to locate and document any evidence of the Taino / Arawak. Christopher Columbus claimed Jamaica for Spain after landing there in 1494. His probable landing point was Dry Harbour, called Discovery Bay, St. Ann 's Bay was named "Saint Gloria '' by Columbus, as the first sighting of the land. One and a half kilometres west of St. Ann 's Bay is the site of the first Spanish settlement on the island, Sevilla, which was established in 1509 and abandoned around 1524 because it was deemed unhealthy. The capital was moved to Spanish Town, then called St. Jago de la Vega, around 1534 (at present - day St. Catherine). Spanish Town has the oldest cathedral of the British colonies in the Caribbean. The Spanish were forcibly evicted by the English at Ocho Rios in St. Ann. In 1655, the English, led by Sir William Penn and General Robert Venables, took over the last Spanish fort in Jamaica. The name of Montego Bay, the capital of the parish of St. James, was derived from the Spanish name manteca bahía (or Bay of Lard), alluding to the lard - making industry based on processing the numerous boars in the area. The English continued to import African slaves as labourers. In 1660, the population of Jamaica was about 4,500 white and 1,500 black. By the early 1670s, as the English developed sugar cane plantations and imported more slaves, black people formed a majority of the population. The Irish in Jamaica also formed a large part of the island 's early population, making up 2 thirds of the white population on the island in the late 17th century, twice that of the English population. They were brought in as indentured labourers and soldiers after the conquest of Jamaica by Cromwells forces in 1655, The majority of Irish were transported by force as political prisoners of war from Ireland as a result of the ongoing Wars of the Three Kingdoms at the time. Migration of large numbers Irish to the island continued into the 18th century. Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492 and then forcibly converted to Christianity in Portugal, during a period of persecution by the Inquisition. Some Spanish and Portuguese Jewish refugees went to the Netherlands and England, and from there to Jamaica. Others were part of the Iberian colonisation of the New World, after overtly converting to Catholicism, as only Catholics were allowed in the Spanish colonies. By 1660, Jamaica had become a refuge for Jews in the New World, also attracting those who had been expelled from Spain and Portugal. An early group of Jews arrived in 1510, soon after the son of Christopher Columbus settled on the island. Primarily working as merchants and traders, the Jewish community was forced to live a clandestine life, calling themselves "Portugals ''. After the British took over rule of Jamaica, the Jews decided the best defense against Spain 's regaining control was to encourage making the colony a base for Caribbean pirates. With the pirates installed in Port Royal, the Spanish would be deterred from attacking. The British leaders agreed with the viability of this strategy to forestall outside aggression. When the English captured Jamaica in 1655, the Spanish colonists fled after freeing their slaves. The slaves dispersed into the mountains, joining the maroons, those who had previously escaped to live with the Taíno native people. During the centuries of slavery, Maroons established free communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica, where they maintained their freedom and independence for generations. The Jamaican Maroons fought the British during the 18th century. Under treaties of 1738 and 1739, the British agreed to stop trying to round them up in exchange for their leaving the colonial settlements alone, but serving if needed for military actions. Some of the communities were broken up and the British deported Maroons to Nova Scotia and, later, Sierra Leone. The name is still used today by modern Maroon descendants, who have certain rights and autonomy at the community of Accompong. During its first 200 years of British rule, Jamaica became one of the world 's leading sugar - exporting, slave - dependent colonies, producing more than 77,000 tons of sugar annually between 1820 and 1824. After the abolition of the international slave trade in 1807, the British began to import indentured servants to supplement the labour pool, as many freedmen resisted working on the plantations. After slavery was abolished, workers recruited from India began arriving in 1845, Chinese workers in 1854, as many freedmen resisted working on the plantations. Many South Asian and Chinese descendants continue to reside in Jamaica today. By the beginning of the 19th century, Jamaica 's dependence on slave labour and a plantation economy had resulted in black people outnumbering white people by a ratio of almost 20 to 1. Although the UK had outlawed the importation of slaves, some were still smuggled in from Spanish colonies and directly. While planning the abolition of slavery, the British Parliament passed laws to improve conditions for slaves. They banned the use of whips in the field and flogging of women; informed planters that slaves were to be allowed religious instruction, and required a free day during each week when slaves could sell their produce, prohibiting Sunday markets to enable slaves to attend church. The House of Assembly in Jamaica resented and resisted the new laws. Members (then restricted to European - Jamaicans) claimed that the slaves were content and objected to Parliament 's interference in island affairs. Slave owners feared possible revolts if conditions were lightened. Following a series of rebellions on the island and changing attitudes in Great Britain, the British government formally abolished slavery by an 1833 act, beginning in 1834, with full emancipation from chattel slavery declared in 1838. The population in 1834 was 371,070, of whom 15,000 were white, 5,000 free black; 40,000 ' coloured ' or free people of color (mixed race); and 311,070 were slaves. In the 19th century, the British established a number of botanical gardens. These included the Castleton Botanical Gardens, developed in 1862 to replace the Bath Botanical Gardens (created in 1779) which was subject to flooding. Bath Botanical Gardens was the site for planting breadfruit, brought to Jamaica from the Pacific by Captain William Bligh. It became a staple in island diets. Other gardens were the Cinchona Plantation, founded in 1868, and the Hope Botanical Gardens founded in 1874. In 1872, Kingston was designated as the island 's capital. In 1945, Sir Horace Hector Hearne became Chief Justice and Keeper of the Records in Jamaica. He headed the Supreme Court, Kingston between 1945 and 1950 / 1951. After Kenya achieved independence, its government appointed him as Chief Justice and he moved there. Jamaica slowly gained increasing independence from the United Kingdom. In 1958, it became a province in the Federation of the West Indies, a federation among the British West Indies. Jamaica attained full independence by leaving the federation in 1962. Strong economic growth, averaging approximately 6 % per annum, marked the first ten years of independence under conservative Jamaica Labour Party governments; they were led successively by Prime Ministers Alexander Bustamante, Donald Sangster and Hugh Shearer. The growth was fueled by strong private investments in bauxite / alumina, tourism, the manufacturing industry and, to a lesser extent, the agricultural sector. The optimism of the first decade was accompanied by a growing sense of inequality among many Afro - Jamaicans, and a concern that the benefits of growth were not being shared by the urban poor. Combined with the effects of a slowdown in the global economy in 1970, the voters elected the PNP (People 's National Party) in 1972. They tried to implement more socially equitable policies in education and health, but the economy suffered under their leadership. By 1980, Jamaica 's gross national product had declined to some 25 % below the 1972 level. Due to rising foreign and local debt, accompanied by large fiscal deficits, the government sought International Monetary Fund (IMF) financing from the United States and others. Economic deterioration continued into the mid-1980s, exacerbated by a number of factors. The first and third largest alumina producers, Alpart and Alcoa, closed, and there was a significant reduction in production by the second - largest producer, Alcan. Reynolds Jamaica Mines, Ltd. left the Jamaican industry. There was also a decline in tourism, which was important to the economy. Independence, however widely celebrated in Jamaica, has been questioned in the early 21st century. In 2011, a survey showed that approximately 60 % of Jamaicans would prefer to become a British territory again, citing as problems years of social and fiscal mismanagement in the country. Jamaica is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II serving as the Jamaican monarch. As Elizabeth II is shared as head of state of fifteen other countries and resides mostly in the United Kingdom, she is thus often represented as Queen of Jamaica in Jamaica and abroad by the Governor - General of Jamaica. The governor - general is nominated by the Prime Minister of Jamaica and the entire Cabinet and appointed by the monarch. All the members of the Cabinet are appointed by the governor - general on the advice of the prime minister. The monarch and the governor - general serve largely ceremonial roles, apart from their reserve powers for use in certain constitutional crisis situations. Jamaica 's current constitution was drafted in 1962 by a bipartisan joint committee of the Jamaican legislature. It came into force with the Jamaica Independence Act, 1962 of the United Kingdom parliament, which gave Jamaica independence. The Parliament of Jamaica is bicameral, consisting of the House of Representatives (Lower House) and the Senate (Upper House). Members of the House (known as Members of Parliament or MPs) are directly elected, and the member of the House of Representatives who, in the governor - general 's best judgement, is best able to command the confidence of a majority of the members of that House, is appointed by the governor - general to be the prime minister. Senators are nominated jointly by the prime minister and the parliamentary Leader of the Opposition and are then appointed by the governor - general. Jamaica has traditionally had a two - party system, with power often alternating between the People 's National Party (PNP) and Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). The party with current administrative and legislative power is the Jamaica Labour Party, with a one - seat parliamentary majority as of 2016. There are also several minor parties who have yet to gain a seat in parliament; the largest of these is the National Democratic Movement (NDM). Jamaica is divided into 14 parishes, which are grouped into three historic counties that have no administrative relevance. The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) is the small but professional military force of Jamaica. The JDF is based on the British military model with similar organisation, training, weapons and traditions. Once chosen, officer candidates are sent to one of several British or Canadian basic officer courses depending on the arm of service. Enlisted soldiers are given basic training at Up Park Camp or JDF Training Depot, Newcastle, both in St. Andrew. As with the British model, NCOs are given several levels of professional training as they rise up the ranks. Additional military schools are available for speciality training in Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom. The JDF is directly descended from the British Army 's West India Regiment formed during the colonial era. The West India Regiment was used extensively by the British Empire in policing the empire from 1795 to 1926. Other units in the JDF heritage include the early colonial Jamaica Militia, the Kingston Infantry Volunteers of WWI and reorganised into the Jamaican Infantry Volunteers in World War II. The West Indies Regiment was reformed in 1958 as part of the West Indies Federation, after dissolution of the Federation the JDF was established. The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) comprises an infantry Regiment and Reserve Corps, an Air Wing, a Coast Guard fleet and a supporting Engineering Unit. The infantry regiment contains the 1st, 2nd and 3rd (National Reserve) battalions. The JDF Air Wing is divided into three flight units, a training unit, a support unit and the JDF Air Wing (National Reserve). The Coast Guard is divided between seagoing crews and support crews who conduct maritime safety and maritime law enforcement as well as defence - related operations. The role of the support battalion is to provide support to boost numbers in combat and issue competency training in order to allow for the readiness of the force. The 1st Engineer Regiment was formed due to an increased demand for military engineers and their role is to provide engineering services whenever and wherever they are needed. The Headquarters JDF contains the JDF Commander, Command Staff as well as Intelligence, Judge Advocate office, Administrative and Procurement sections. In recent years the JDF has been called on to assist the nation 's police, the Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF), in fighting drug smuggling and a rising crime rate which includes one of the highest murder rates in the world. JDF units actively conduct armed patrols with the JCF in high - crime areas and known gang neighbourhoods. There has been vocal controversy as well as support of this JDF role. In early 2005, an Opposition leader, Edward Seaga, called for the merger of the JDF and JCF. This has not garnered support in either organisation nor among the majority of citizens. Jamaica is the third largest island in the Caribbean. It lies between latitudes 17 ° and 19 ° N, and longitudes 76 ° and 79 ° W. Mountains, including the Blue Mountains, dominate the inland. They are surrounded by a narrow coastal plain. Jamaica only has two cities, the first being Kingston, the capital city and centre of business, located on the south coast and the ' second ' city being Montego Bay, one of the best known cities in the Caribbean for tourism, located on the north coast. Other towns include Portmore, Spanish Town, Mandeville and the resort towns of Ocho Ríos, Port Antonio and Negril. Kingston Harbour is the seventh - largest natural harbour in the world, which contributed to the city being designated as the capital in 1872. Tourist attractions include Dunn 's River Falls in St. Ann, YS Falls in St. Elizabeth, the Blue Lagoon in Portland, believed to be the crater of an extinct volcano. Port Royal was the site of a major earthquake in 1692 that helped form the island 's Palisadoes. The climate in Jamaica is tropical, with hot and humid weather, although higher inland regions are more temperate. Some regions on the south coast, such as the Liguanea Plain and the Pedro Plains, are relatively dry rain - shadow areas. Jamaica lies in the hurricane belt of the Atlantic Ocean and because of this, the island sometimes suffers significant storm damage. Hurricanes Charlie and Gilbert hit Jamaica directly in 1951 and 1988, respectively, causing major damage and many deaths. In the 2000s (decade), hurricanes Ivan, Dean, and Gustav also brought severe weather to the island. Among the variety of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems are dry and wet limestone forests, rainforest, riparian woodland, wetlands, caves, rivers, seagrass beds and coral reefs. The authorities have recognised the tremendous significance and potential of the environment and have designated some of the more ' fertile ' areas as ' protected '. Among the island 's protected areas are the Cockpit Country, Hellshire Hills, and Litchfield forest reserves. In 1992, Jamaica 's first marine park, covering nearly 15 square kilometres (5.8 sq mi), was established in Montego Bay. Portland Bight Protected Area was designated in 1999. The following year Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park was created on roughly 300 square miles (780 km) of wilderness, which supports thousands of tree and fern species and rare animals. Jamaica 's climate is tropical, supporting diverse ecosystems with a wealth of plants and animals. Jamaica 's plant life has changed considerably over the centuries. When the Spanish arrived in 1494, except for small agricultural clearings, the country was deeply forested. The European settlers cut down the great timber trees for building and ships ' supplies, and cleared the plains, savannas, and mountain slopes for intense agricultural cultivation. Many new plants were introduced including sugarcane, bananas, and citrus trees. Areas of heavy rainfall contain stands of bamboo, ferns, ebony, mahogany, and rosewood. Cactus and similar dry - area plants are found along the south and southwest coastal area. Parts of the west and southwest consist of large grasslands, with scattered stands of trees. The Jamaican animal life, typical of the Caribbean, includes highly diversified wildlife with many endemic species found nowhere else on earth. As with other oceanic islands, land mammals are mostly bats. The only non-bat native mammal extant in Jamaica is the Jamaican hutia, locally known as the coney. Introduced mammals such as wild boar and the small Asian mongoose are also common. Jamaica is also home to about 50 species of reptiles, the largest of which is the American crocodile; however, it is only present within the Black River and a few other areas. Lizards such as anoles, iguanas and snakes such as racers and the Jamaican boa (the largest snake on the island), are common in areas such as the Cockpit Country. None of Jamaica 's eight species of native snakes is venomous. One species of freshwater turtle is native to Jamaica, the Jamaican slider. It is found only on Jamaica, Cat Island, and a few other islands in the Bahamas. In addition, many types of frogs are common on the island, especially treefrogs. Birds are abundant, and make up the bulk of the endemic and native vertebrate species. Beautiful and exotic birds, such as the Jamaican tody and the doctor bird (the national bird), can be found among a large number of others. Jamaican waters contain considerable resources of fresh - and saltwater fish. The chief varieties of saltwater fish are kingfish, jack, mackerel, whiting, bonito, and tuna. Fish that occasionally enter freshwater and estuarine environments include snook, jewfish, mangrove snapper, and mullets. Fish that spend the majority of their lives in Jamaica 's fresh waters include many species of livebearers, killifish, freshwater gobies, the mountain mullet, and the American eel. Tilapia have been introduced from Africa for aquaculture, and are very common. Insects and other invertebrates are abundant, including the world 's largest centipede, the Amazonian giant centipede, and the Homerus swallowtail, the western hemisphere 's largest butterfly. According to the most recent census, conducted in 2011, the majority of Jamaicans identify as black. Much of Jamaica 's black population are of African or partially African descent with many being able to trace their origins to West Africa, as well as Europe and Asia. Like many other anglophone Caribbean countries, many Jamaicans with mixed ancestry self - report as black. Asians form the second largest group and include Indo - Jamaicans and Chinese Jamaicans. Most are descended from indentured workers brought by the British colonial government to fill labour shortages following the abolition of slavery in 1838. In recent years, immigration has increased, coming mainly from China, Haiti, Cuba, Colombia, and Latin America; 20,000 Latin Americans reside in Jamaica. About 7,000 Americans also reside in Jamaica, as well as many first - generation American, British and Canadians of Jamaican descent. A study found that the average admixture on the island was 78.3 % Sub-Saharan African, 16.0 % European, and 5.7 % East Asian. Jamaica is regarded as a bilingual country, with two major languages in use by the population. The official language is Jamaican Standard English (JSE) or Standard Jamaican English (SJE), which is "used in all domains of public life '', including the government, the legal system, the media, and education. However, the primary spoken language is an English - based creole called Jamaican Patois (or Patwa). A 2007 survey by the Jamaican Language Unit found that 17.1 percent of the population were monolingual in JSE, 36.5 percent were monolingual in Patois, and 46.4 percent were bilingual, although earlier surveys had pointed to a greater degree of bilinguality (up to 90 percent). The Jamaican education system has only recently begun to offer formal instruction in Patois, while retaining JSE as the "official language of instruction ''. Additionally, some Jamaicans speak one or more of Jamaican Sign Language, American Sign Language or the indigenous Jamaican Country Sign Language (Konchri Sain). Both JSL and ASL are rapidly replacing Konchri Sain for a variety of reasons. Many Jamaicans have emigrated to other countries, especially to the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. In the case of the United States, about 20,000 Jamaicans per year are granted permanent residence. The great number of Jamaicans living abroad has become known as the Jamaican diaspora. There has also been emigration of Jamaicans to Cuba. The scale of emigration has been widespread and similar to other Caribbean entities such as Puerto Rico, Guyana, and The Bahamas. It was estimated in 2004 that up to 2.5 million Jamaicans and Jamaican descendants live abroad. Jamaicans in the United Kingdom number an estimated 800,000 making them by far the country 's largest African - Caribbean group. Large - scale migration from Jamaica to the UK occurred primarily in the 1950s and 1960s (when the country was still under British rule). Jamaican communities exist in most large UK cities. Concentrations of expatriate Jamaicans are quite considerable in numerous cities in the United States, including New York City, Buffalo, the Miami metro area, Atlanta, Chicago, Orlando, Tampa, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Hartford, Providence and Los Angeles. In Canada, the Jamaican population is centred in Toronto, and there are smaller communities in cities such as Hamilton, Montreal, Winnipeg, Vancouver and Ottawa. When Jamaica gained independence in 1962, the murder rate was 3.9 per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the lowest in the world. By 2009, the rate was 62 per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest in the world. Jamaica has had one of the highest murder rates in the world for many years, according to UN estimates. Some areas of Jamaica, particularly cities such as Kingston, experience high levels of crime and violence. Some Jamaicans are hostile towards LGBT and intersex people, and there have been reported cases of mob attacks against gay people. However, crime in Jamaica has recently shown a downward trend. There were 1,682 reported murders in 2009 and 1,428 in 2010. Since 2011 the murder rate has continued to fall following the downward trend started in 2010, with increases in police patrols, curfews and more effective anti-gang activities. In 2012, the Ministry of National Security reported a 30 percent decrease in murders. Christianity is the largest religion practised in Jamaica. Protestants form the majority of approximately 70 % in the country, and Roman Catholics are a minority with 2 % of the population. According to the 2001 census, the country 's largest Protestant denominations are the Church of God (24 %), Seventh - day Adventist Church (11 %), Pentecostal (10 %), Baptist (7 %), Anglican (4 %), United Church (2 %), Methodist (2 %), Moravian (1 %) and Plymouth Brethren (1 %) The Christian faith gained acceptance as British Christian abolitionists and Baptist missionaries joined educated former slaves in the struggle against slavery. The Rastafari movement has 29,026 adherents, according to the 2011 census, with 25,325 Rastafarian males and 3,701 Rastafarian females. Other religions in Jamaica include Jehovah 's Witnesses (2 % population), the Bahá'í faith, which counts perhaps 8,000 adherents and 21 Local Spiritual Assemblies, Buddhism, and Hinduism. There is a small population of Jews, about 200, who describe themselves as Liberal - Conservative. The first Jews in Jamaica trace their roots back to early 15th century Spain and Portugal. Other small groups include Muslims, who claim 5,000 adherents, as do the Mormons. Though a small nation, Jamaican culture has a strong global presence. The musical genres reggae, ska, mento, rocksteady, dub, and, more recently, dancehall and ragga all originated in the island 's vibrant, popular urban recording industry. Jamaica also played an important role in the development of punk rock, through reggae and ska. Reggae has also influenced American rap music, as they share roots as rhythmic, African styles of music. Some rappers, such as The Notorious B.I.G., Busta Rhymes, and Heavy D, are of Jamaican descent. Internationally known reggae musician Bob Marley was also Jamaican. Many other internationally known artists were born in Jamaica, including Millie Small, Lee "Scratch '' Perry, Gregory Isaacs, Half Pint, Protoje, Peter Tosh, Bunny Wailer, Big Youth, Jimmy Cliff, Dennis Brown, Desmond Dekker, Beres Hammond, Beenie Man, Shaggy, Grace Jones, Shabba Ranks, Super Cat, Buju Banton, Sean Paul, I Wayne, Bounty Killer and many others. Bands that came from Jamaica include Black Uhuru, Third World Band, Inner Circle, Chalice Reggae Band, Culture, Fab Five and Morgan Heritage. The genre jungle emerged from London 's Jamaican diaspora. The birth of hip - hop in New York City owed much to the city 's Jamaican community. Ian Fleming, who lived in Jamaica, repeatedly used the island as a setting in his James Bond novels, including Live and Let Die, Doctor No, "For Your Eyes Only '', The Man with the Golden Gun, and Octopussy and The Living Daylights. In addition, James Bond uses a Jamaica - based cover in Casino Royale. So far, the only James Bond film adaptation to have been set in Jamaica is Doctor No. Filming for the fictional island of San Monique in Live and Let Die took place in Jamaica. The journalist and author H.G. de Lisser (1878 -- 1944) used his native country as the setting for his many novels. Born in Falmouth, Jamaica, de Lisser worked as a reporter for the Jamaica Times at a young age and in 1920 began publishing the magazine Planters ' Punch. The White Witch of Rosehall is one of his better - known novels. He was named Honorary President of the Jamaican Press Association; he worked throughout his professional career to promote the Jamaican sugar industry. Marlon James (1970), novelist has published three novels: John Crow 's Devil (2005), The Book of Night Women (2009) and A Brief History of Seven Killings (2014), winner of the 2015 Man Booker Prize The cinema actor Errol Flynn lived with his third wife Patrice Wymore in Port Antonio in the 1950s. He helped develop tourism to this area, popularising trips down rivers on bamboo rafts. Jamaica has a long history in the film industry dating from the early 1960s. A look at delinquent youth in Jamaica is presented in the 1970s musical crime film The Harder They Come, starring Jimmy Cliff as a frustrated (and psychopathic) reggae musician who descends into a murderous crime spree. The American film Cocktail (1988), starring Tom Cruise, is one of the more popular films to depict Jamaica. Another popular Jamaican - based film is the 1993 Disney comedy Cool Runnings, which is loosely based on the true story of Jamaica 's first bobsled team trying to make it in the Winter Olympics. The island is famous for its Jamaican jerk spice, which is integral to Jamaican cuisine. Jamaica is also home to Red Stripe beer and Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee. (From the Jamaica Information Service) Sport is an integral part of national life in Jamaica and the island 's athletes tend to perform to a standard well above what might ordinarily be expected of such a small country. While the most popular local sport is cricket, on the international stage Jamaicans have tended to do particularly well at track and field athletics. Jamaica has produced some of the world 's most famous cricketers, including George Headley, Courtney Walsh, and Michael Holding. The country was one of the venues of 2007 Cricket World Cup and the West Indies cricket team is one of 10 ICC full member teams that participate in international Test cricket. The Jamaica national cricket team competes regionally, and also provides players for the West Indies team. Sabina Park is the only Test venue in the island, but the Greenfield Stadium is also used for cricket. Chris Gayle is the most renowned batsman from Jamaica currently representing the West Indies cricket team. Since independence Jamaica has consistently produced world class athletes in track and field. In Jamaica involvement in athletics begins at a very young age and most high schools maintain rigorous athletics programs with their top athletes competing in national competitions (most notably the VMBS Girls and Boys Athletics Championships) and international meets (most notably the Penn Relays). In Jamaica it is not uncommon for young athletes to attain press coverage and national fame long before they arrive on the international athletics stage. Over the past six decades Jamaica has produced dozens of world class sprinters including Olympic and World Champion Usain Bolt, world record holder in the 100m for men at 9.58 s, and 200m for men at 19.19 s. Other noteworthy Jamaican sprinters include Arthur Wint, the first Jamaican Olympic Gold Medalist; Donald Quarrie, Elaine Thompson double Olympic champion from Rio 2016 in the 100m and 200m, Olympic Champion and former 200m world record holder; Roy Anthony Bridge, part of the International Olympic Committee; Merlene Ottey; Delloreen Ennis - London; Shelly - Ann Fraser - Pryce, the former World and two time Olympic 100m Champion; Kerron Stewart; Aleen Bailey; Juliet Cuthbert; three - time Olympic gold medalist; Veronica Campbell - Brown; Sherone Simpson; Brigitte Foster - Hylton; Yohan Blake; Herb McKenley; George Rhoden, Olympic Gold Medalist; Deon Hemmings, Olympic Gold Medalist; as well as Asafa Powell, former 100m world record holder and 2x 100m Olympic finalist and Gold medal winner in the men 's 2008 Olympic 4 × 100 m. Jamaica has also produced several world class amateur and professional boxers including Trevor Berbick and Mike McCallum. First - generation Jamaican athletes have continued to make a significant impact on the sport internationally, especially in the United Kingdom where the list of top British boxers born in Jamaica or of Jamaican parents includes Lloyd Honeyghan, Chris Eubank, Audley Harrison, David Haye, Lennox Lewis and Frank Bruno. Association football and horse - racing are other popular sports in Jamaica. The national football team qualified for the 1998 FIFA World Cup. The Jamaica national bobsled team was once a serious contender in the Winter Olympics, beating many well - established teams. Chess and basketball are widely played in Jamaica and are supported by the Jamaica Chess Federation (JCF) and the Jamaica Basketball Federation (JBF), respectively. Netball is also very popular on the island, with the Jamaica national netball team called The Sunshine Girls consistently ranking in the top five in the world. The Jamaica national rugby league team is made up of players who play in Jamaica, and UK - players from professional and semi professional teams in the UK. Their first international was a 37 -- 22 loss to the United States national rugby league team in November 2009. Rugby league in Jamaica is growing with universities and high schools taking up the sport. The JRLA Championship is the main rugby league competition in the country. The Hurricanes Rugby League are a professional rugby league team who are hoping to compete in either the USA Rugby League or the AMNRL by 2013 during that time they will be training young players aged 14 -- 19 who will be part of the Hurricanes RL Academy in the hope of developing into full - time professional players. According to ESPN, the highest paid Jamaican professional athlete in 2011 was Justin Masterson, starting pitcher for the Cleveland Indians. The emancipation of the slaves heralded in the establishment of the Jamaican education system for the masses. Prior to emancipation there were few schools for educating locals. Many sent their children off to England to access quality education. After emancipation the West Indian Commission granted a sum of money to establish Elementary Schools, now known as All Age Schools. Most of these schools were established by the churches. This was the genesis of the modern Jamaican school system. Presently the following categories of schools exist: Additionally, there are many community and teacher training colleges. Education is free from the early childhood to secondary levels. There are also opportunities for those who can not afford further education in the vocational arena through the Human Employment and Resource Training - National Training Agency (HEART Trust - NTA) programme, which is opened to all working age national population and through an extensive scholarship network for the various universities. Students are taught Spanish in school from the primary level upwards; about 40 -- 45 % of educated people in Jamaica knows some form of Spanish. Jamaica is a mixed economy with both state enterprises and private sector businesses. Major sectors of the Jamaican economy include agriculture, mining, manufacturing, tourism, and financial and insurance services. Tourism and mining are the leading earners of foreign exchange. Half the Jamaican economy relies on services, with half of its income coming from services such as tourism. An estimated 1.3 million foreign tourists visit Jamaica every year. Supported by multilateral financial institutions, Jamaica has, since the early 1980s, sought to implement structural reforms aimed at fostering private sector activity and increasing the role of market forces in resource allocation. Since 1991, the government has followed a programme of economic liberalisation and stabilisation by removing exchange controls, floating the exchange rate, cutting tariffs, stabilising the Jamaican currency, reducing inflation and removing restrictions on foreign investment. Emphasis has been placed on maintaining strict fiscal discipline, greater openness to trade and financial flows, market liberalisation and reduction in the size of government. During this period, a large share of the economy was returned to private sector ownership through divestment and privatisation programmes. The macroeconomic stabilisation programme introduced in 1991, which focused on tight fiscal and monetary policies, has contributed to a controlled reduction in the rate of inflation. The annual inflation rate decreased from a high of 80.2 % in 1991 to 7.9 % in 1998. Inflation for FY1998 / 99 was 6.2 % compared to 7.2 % in the corresponding period in CUU1997 / 98. The Government of Jamaica remains committed to lowering inflation, with a long - term objective of bringing it in line with that of its major trading partners. After a period of steady growth from 1985 to 1995, real GDP decreased by 1.8 % and 2.4 % in 1996 and 1997, respectively. The decrease in GDP in 1996 and 1997 was largely due to significant problems in the financial sector and, in 1997, a severe island - wide drought (the worst in 70 years) that drastically reduced agricultural production. In 1997, nominal GDP was approximately J $220,556.2 million (US $6,198.9 million based on the average annual exchange rate of the period). The economy in 1997 was marked by low levels of import growth, high levels of private capital inflows and relative stability in the foreign exchange market. Recent economic performance shows the Jamaican economy is recovering. Agricultural production, an important engine of growth increased 15.3 % in third quarter of 1998 compared to the corresponding period in 1997, signaling the first positive growth rate in the sector since January 1997. Bauxite and alumina production increased 5.5 % from January to December, 1998 compared to the corresponding period in 1997. January 's bauxite production recorded a 7.1 % increase relative to January 1998 and continued expansion of alumina production through 2009 is planned by Alcoa. Jamaica is the fifth largest exporter of bauxite in the world, after Australia, China, Brazil and Guinea. Tourism, which is the largest foreign exchange earner, showed improvement as well. In the third quarter of 1998, growth in tourist arrivals accelerated with an overall increase of 8.5 % in tourism earnings in 1998 when compared to the corresponding period in 1997. Jamaica 's agricultural exports are sugar, bananas, coffee, rum, and yams. Jamaica has a wide variety of industrial and commercial activities. The aviation industry is able to perform most routine aircraft maintenance, except for heavy structural repairs. There is a considerable amount of technical support for transport and agricultural aviation. Jamaica has a considerable amount of industrial engineering, light manufacturing, including metal fabrication, metal roofing, and furniture manufacturing. Food and beverage processing, glassware manufacturing, software and data processing, printing and publishing, insurance underwriting, music and recording, and advanced education activities can be found in the larger urban areas. The Jamaican construction industry is entirely self - sufficient, with professional technical standards and guidance. Since the first quarter of 2006, the economy of Jamaica has undergone a period of staunch growth. With inflation for the 2006 calendar year down to 6.0 % and unemployment down to 8.9 %, the nominal GDP grew by an unprecedented 2.9 %. An investment programme in island transportation and utility infrastructure and gains in the tourism, mining, and service sectors all contributed this figure. All projections for 2007 show an even higher potential for economic growth with all estimates over 3.0 % and hampered only by urban crime and public policies. In 2006, Jamaica became part of the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) as one of the pioneering members. The global economic downturn had a significant impact on the Jamaican economy for the years 2007 to 2009, resulting in negative economic growth. The government implemented a new Debt Management Initiative, the Jamaica Debt Exchange (JDX) on 14 January 2010. The initiative would see holders of Government of Jamaica (GOJ) bonds returning the high interest earning instruments for bonds with lower yields and longer maturities. The offer was taken up by over 95 % of local financial institutions and was deemed a success by the government. Owing to the success of the JDX program, the Bruce Golding - led government was successful in entering into a borrowing arrangement with the IMF on 4 February 2010 for the amount of US $1.27 b. The loan agreement is for a period of three years. In April 2014, the Governments of Jamaica and China signed the preliminary agreements for the first phase of the Jamaican Logistics Hub (JLH) -- the initiative that aims to position Kingston as the fourth node in the global logistics chain, joining Rotterdam, Dubai and Singapore, and serving the Americas. The Project, when completed, is expected to provide many jobs for Jamaicans, Economic Zones for multinational companies and much needed economic growth to alleviate the country 's heavy debt - to - GDP ratio. Strict adherence to the IMF 's refinancing programme and preparations for the JLH has favourably affected Jamaica 's credit rating and outlook from the three biggest rating agencies. The transport infrastructure in Jamaica consists of roadways, railways and air transport, with roadways forming the backbone of the island 's internal transport system. The Jamaican road network consists of almost 21,000 kilometres (13,000 mi) of roads, of which over 15,000 kilometres (9,300 mi) is paved. The Jamaican Government has, since the late 1990s and in cooperation with private investors, embarked on a campaign of infrastructural improvement projects, one of which includes the creation of a system of freeways, the first such access - controlled roadways of their kind on the island, connecting the main population centres of the island. This project has so far seen the completion of 33 kilometres (21 mi) of freeway. Railways in Jamaica no longer enjoy the prominent position they once did, having been largely replaced by roadways as the primary means of transport. Of the 272 kilometres (169 mi) of railway found in Jamaica, only 57 kilometres (35 mi) remain in operation, currently used to transport bauxite. On 13 April 2011, limited passenger service was resumed between May Pen, Spanish Town and Linstead. There are three international airports in Jamaica with modern terminals, long runways, and the navigational equipment required to accommodate the large jet aircraft used in modern and air travel: Norman Manley International Airport in Kingston; Ian Fleming International Airport in Boscobel, Saint Mary Parish; and the island 's largest and busiest airport, Sir Donald Sangster International Airport in the resort city of Montego Bay. Manley and Sangster International airports are home to the country 's national airline, Air Jamaica. In addition there are local commuter airports at Tinson Pen (Kingston), Port Antonio, and Negril, which cater to internal flights only. Many other small, rural centres are served by private fields on sugar estates or bauxite mines. Owing to its location in the Caribbean Sea in the shipping lane to the Panama Canal and relative proximity to large markets in North America and emerging markets in Latin America, Jamaica receives high container traffic. The container terminal at the Port of Kingston has undergone large expansion in capacity in recent years to handle growth both already realised as well as that which is projected in coming years. Montego Freeport in Montego Bay also handles a variety of cargo like (though more limited than) the Port of Kingston, mainly agricultural products. There are several other ports positioned around the island, including Port Esquivel in St. Catherine (WINDALCO), Rocky Point in Clarendon, Port Kaiser in St. Elizabeth, Port Rhoades in Discovery Bay, Reynolds Pier in Ocho Rios, and Boundbrook Port in Port Antonio. To aid the navigation of shipping, Jamaica operates nine lighthouses. Jamaica depends on petroleum imports to satisfy its national energy needs. Many test sites have been explored for oil, but no commercially viable quantities have been found. The most convenient sources of imported oil and motor fuels (diesel, gasoline, and jet fuel) are from Mexico and Venezuela. Jamaica 's electrical power is produced by diesel (bunker oil) generators located in Old Harbour. Other smaller power stations (most owned by the Jamaica Public Service Company -- the island 's electricity provider) support the island 's electrical grid including the Hunts Bay Power Station, the Bogue Power Station, the Rockfort Power Station and small hydroelectric plants on the White River, Rio Bueno, Morant River, Black River (Maggotty) and Roaring River. A wind farm, owned by the Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, was established at Wigton, Manchester. Jamaica has successfully operated a SLOWPOKE - 2 nuclear reactor of 20 kW capacity since the early 1980s, but there are no plans to expand nuclear power at present. Jamaica imports approximately 80,000 barrels (13,000 m) of oil energy products per day, including asphalt and lubrication products. Just 20 % of imported fuels are used for road transportation, the rest being used by the bauxite industry, electricity generation, and aviation. 30,000 barrels / day of crude imports are processed into various motor fuels and asphalt by the Petrojam Refinery in Kingston. Jamaica produces enormous quantities of drinking alcohol (at least 5 % water content), most of which appears to be consumed as beverages, and none of it used as motor fuel. Facilities exist to refine hydrous ethanol feedstock into anhydrous ethanol (0 % water content), but as of 2007, the process appeared to be uneconomic and the production plant was idle. Water supply and sanitation is characterised by high levels of access to an improved water source, while access to adequate sanitation stands at only 80 %. This situation affects especially the poor, including the urban poor many of which live in the country 's over 595 unplanned squatter settlements in unhealthy and unsanitary environments with a high risk of waterborne disease. Despite a number of policy papers that were mainly focused on water supply and despite various projects funded by external donors, increases in access have remained limited (1 % for water and 5 % for sanitation between 1990 and 2004). The responsibility for water and sanitation policies within the government rests with the Ministry of Water and Housing, and the main service provider is the National Water Commission. An autonomous regulatory agency, the Office of Utilities Regulation, approves tariffs and establishes targets for efficiency increases. Jamaica has a fully digital telephone communication system with a mobile penetration of over 95 %. The country 's two mobile operators -- FLOW Jamaica (formerly LIME, bMobile and Cable and Wireless Jamaica) and Digicel Jamaica have spent millions in network upgrades and expansion. The newest operator, Digicel was granted a licence in 2001 to operate mobile services in the newly liberalised telecom market that had once been the sole domain of the incumbent FLOW (then Cable and Wireless Jamaica) monopoly. Digicel opted for the more widely used GSM wireless system, while a past operator, Oceanic (which became Claro Jamaica and later merged with Digicel Jamaica in 2011) opted for the CDMA standard. FLOW (formerly "LIME '' -- pre-Columbus Communications merger) which had begun with TDMA standard, subsequently upgraded to GSM in 2002, decommissioned TDMA in 2006 and only utilised that standard until 2009 when LIME launched its 3G network. Both operators currently provide islandwide coverage with HSPA+ (3G) technology. Currently, only Digicel offers LTE to its customers whereas FLOW Jamaica has committed to launching LTE in the cities of Kingston and Montego Bay, places where Digicel 's LTE network is currently only found in, in short order. A new entrant to the Jamaican communications market, Flow Jamaica, laid a new submarine cable connecting Jamaica to the United States. This new cable increases the total number of submarine cables connecting Jamaica to the rest of the world to four. Cable and Wireless Communications (parent company of LIME) acquired the company in late 2014 and replaced their brand LIME with FLOW. FLOW Jamaica currently has the most broadband and cable subscribers on the island and also has 1 million mobile subscribers, second to Digicel (which had, at its peak, over 2 Million mobile subscriptions on its network). Digicel entered the broadband market in 2010 by offering WiMAX broadband, capable of up to 6 Mbit / s per subscriber. To further their broadband share post-LIME / FLOW merger in 2014, the company introduced a new broadband service called Digicel Play, which is Jamaica 's second FTTH offering (after LIME 's deployment in selected communities in 2011). It is currently only available in the parishes of Kingston, Portmore and St. Andrew. It offers speeds of up to 200 Mbit / s down, 100 Mbit / s up via a pure fibre optic network. Digicel 's competitor, FLOW Jamaica, has a network consisting of ADSL, Coaxial and Fibre to the Home (inherited from LIME) and only offers speeds up to 100 Mbit / s. FLOW has committed to expanding its Fibre offering to more areas in order to combat Digicel 's entrance into the market. It was announced that the Office and Utilities Regulations (OUR), Ministry of Science, Technology, Energy and Mining (MSTEM) and the Spectrum Management Authority (SMA) have given approval for another mobile operator licence in January 2016. The identity of this entrant was ascertained on May 20, 2016, when the Jamaican Government named the new carrier as Symbiote Investments Limited operating under the name Caricel. The company will focus on 4G LTE data offerings and will first go live in the Kingston Metropolitan Area and will expand to the rest of Jamaica thereafter. Click on a coloured area to see an article about English in that country or region Coordinates: 18 ° N 77 ° W  /  18 ° N 77 ° W  / 18; - 77

when is season seven of game of thrones coming out

Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also incorporating material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines, featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters, Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenerys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army, Arya and Bran Stark returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa, and the army of the dead breaching the Wall (with the help of a reanimated wight dragon) and entering the Seven Kingdoms. HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland. Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper. The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear. Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season. Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter, the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. According to previous reports, some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin. Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. '' Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada. Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons. On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season, Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season, and Joe Dempsie as Gendry, who last appeared in the third season and maintains his status as starring cast member. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season. On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. According to a report by Entertainment Weekly, the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran 69 minutes. On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark. On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams. On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017. Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season. On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 96 percent approval rating from 37 critics with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10, and a 93 % average episode score, with the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. '' The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform. ^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead. The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release. The season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017. The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed. Data from by piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times.

what type of metal are guns made of

Gunmetal - wikipedia Gunmetal, also known as red brass in the United States, is a type of bronze -- an alloy of copper, tin, and zinc. Proportions vary by source, but 88 % copper, 8 -- 10 % tin, and 2 -- 4 % zinc is an approximation. Originally used chiefly for making guns, it was eventually superseded in this department by steel. Gunmetal, which casts and machines well and is resistant to corrosion from steam and salt water, is used to make steam and hydraulic castings, valves, gears, statues, and various small objects, such as buttons. It has a tensile strength of 221 to 310 MPa, a specific gravity of 8.7, a Brinell hardness of 65 to 74, and a melting point of around 1,000 degrees Celsius. Gunmetal can also mean steel treated to simulate gunmetal bronze. Bushings made of this metal are used in machinery. The Victoria Cross, Britain 's highest award for military valour, is traditionally made using gunmetal from a cannon captured at the Siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War. The British Gwalior Star medal, awarded to the British participants in the 1843 campaign against the Scindias, is made from guns captured at the Battles of Maharajpur and Punniar, during the Gwalior Campaign. Gun money, Irish late 17th - century emergency coins, contain gunmetal, as worn and scrapped guns were used to make them; but also many other metals, in particular brass and bronze, as people donated pots and pans and other metal objects. Gunmetal as a colour is entirely different from the reddish alloy of the same name described above. It is a shade of grey that has a bluish purplish tinge.

when does chapter 14 of riverdale come out on netflix

Riverdale (2017 TV series) - wikipedia Riverdale is an American television series based on the characters by Archie Comics. The series was adapted for The CW by Archie Comics ' chief creative officer Roberto Aguirre - Sacasa. The series is produced by CBS Television Studios and Warner Bros. Television, in association with Berlanti Productions and Archie Comics. Originally conceived as a feature film adaptation for Warner Bros. Pictures, the idea was re-imagined as a television series for Fox. In 2015, development on the project moved to The CW, where the series was ordered for a pilot. Filming takes place in Vancouver, British Columbia. The series features an ensemble cast based on the characters of Archie Comics, with KJ Apa in the role of Archie Andrews; Lili Reinhart as Betty Cooper, Camila Mendes as Veronica Lodge, and Cole Sprouse as Jughead Jones, the series ' narrator. The cast also features Ashleigh Murray as Josie McCoy and Madelaine Petsch as Cheryl Blossom. Other characters in the series include Fred Andrews, Alice Cooper, FP Jones, and Hermione Lodge, the parents of Archie, Betty, Jughead, and Veronica respectively. The thirteen - episode first season premiered on January 26, 2017 to positive reviews, before concluding on May 11, 2017. On March 7, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on October 11, 2017. In September 2017, a spin - off series, titled The Chilling Adventures of Sabrina, was revealed to be in development. The series follows Archie Andrews ' life in the small town of Riverdale and explores the darkness hidden behind its seemingly perfect image. Warner Bros. began development on an Archie feature film in 2013, after a pitch from writer Roberto Aguirre - Sacasa and director Jason Moore that would place Archie 's gang into a teen comedy feature film in the John Hughes tradition. Dan Lin and Roy Lee became producers on the project, which eventually stalled as priorities shifted at Warner Bros. towards larger tentpole films and was reimagined as a television series. Riverdale was originally in development at Fox, with the network landing the project in 2014 with a script deal plus penalty. However, Fox did not go forward with the project. In 2015, the show 's development was moved to The CW, which officially ordered a pilot on January 29, 2016. On March 7, 2017, The CW announced that the series had been renewed for a second season. Casting Archie was a difficult process, with Aguirre - Sacasa stating "I think we literally saw every redheaded young guy in L.A. It certainly felt that way. '' The production team found KJ Apa just three days before they had to present screen tests to the network, which created tension in the last few days leading up to the studio presentation. In April 2017, it was announced Mark Consuelos had signed on for the second season to play Veronica Lodge 's father, Hiram Lodge. The role was in second position to his existing role on Pitch but the cancellation of that series was announced on May 1, 2017. The next month, it was announced Charles Melton was cast to take over the role of Reggie from Ross Butler in season 2 due to his status as a series regular on 13 Reasons Why. It was also announced that Casey Cott was promoted to a series regular. In July 2017, it was announced that True Blood star Brit Morgan had been cast in the recurring role of Penny Peabody, an attorney the Southside Serpents call in case of any run - ins with the law. In August 2017, it was announced Graham Phillips had been cast to play Nick St. Clair, Veronica 's ex-boyfriend from New York. Filming of the pilot began on March 14 and ended on April 1, in Vancouver, British Columbia. Production on the remaining 12 episodes of season one began on September 7 in Vancouver. Sets include Pop Tate 's Chock'lit Shoppe, a copy of the functioning diner used in the pilot that is so realistic a truck driver parked his 18 - wheeler there, believing that it was open. Production of season two will return to Vancouver and the Fraser Valley. Principal photography began on June 22, 2017. Netflix acquired the exclusive international broadcast rights to Riverdale, making the series available as an original series to its platform less than a day after its original U.S. broadcast. In July 2016, members of the cast and the executive producers attended San Diego Comic - Con to promote the upcoming series, where they premiered the first episode "Chapter One: The River 's Edge ''. The first trailer for the series was released in early December 2016, while additional teasers followed later that month and into 2017. The CW also sponsored multiple Tastemade videos, where they cooked several foods that are popular in the Archie universe. Along with heavily promoting the TV series in their regular comics since January 2017, Archie Comics are planning to release a comic book adaptation of Riverdale, featuring auxiliary story arcs set within the television series ' own continuity. The comic book adaptation is being headed by Roberto Aguirre - Sacasa himself, along with various other writers from the show. Alongside a one - shot pilot issue, illustrated by Alitha Martinez, released in March 2017, the first issue of the ongoing Riverdale comic book series was set to release starting April 2017. In addition to the adaptation, Archie Comics are releasing a series of compilation graphic novels branded under the title Road to Riverdale. This series features early issues from the New Riverdale reboot line, introducing the audience of the TV series to the regular ongoing comic series that inspired it. Archie Comics plans to re-print the volumes of Road to Riverdale in subsequent months as digest magazines. The first volume was released in March 2017. The first season of Riverdale has received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a fresh rating of 87 % based on 53 reviews, with a weighted average of 7.27 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Riverdale offers an amusingly self - aware reimagining of its classic source material that proves eerie, odd, daring, and above all addictive. '' On Metacritic, the season has a score of 67 out of 100 based on 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Dave Nemetz of TVLine gave the series a "B + '' saying that it turned, "out to be an artfully crafted, instantly engaging teen soap with loads of potential. '' Some writers have criticized the series for its handling of minority characters. While reviewing the first season, Kadeen Griffiths of Bustle declared "the show marginalizes and ignores the (people of color) in the cast to the point where they may as well not be there. '' In an article for Vulture, Angelica Jade Bastien discussed the show 's treatment of Josie and the Pussycats (who are each played by African Americans), noting, "They 're not characters so much as they are a vehicle for a Message. Josie and her fellow pussycats are positioned to communicate the message that Riverdale is more modern and inclusive than teen dramas of the past, even though it has yet to prove it beyond its casting. '' Monique Jones of Ebony noted, "Despite the show 's multi-racial casting choices, it seems like Riverdale is still a mostly white town. '' She also expressed fondness for the relationship between Archie Andrews and Valerie Brown, but declared "Archie should n't be what makes Valerie interesting to us ''. In September 2017, it was reported that a live - action television series, The Chilling Adventures of Sabrina, was being developed for The CW by Warner Bros. Television and Berlanti Productions, with a planned release in the 2018 -- 2019 television season. Based on the comic series of the same name, featuring the Archie Comics character Sabrina the Teenage Witch, the series would be a companion series to Riverdale. Lee Toland Krieger will direct the pilot, which will be written by Aguirre - Sacasa. Both are executive producers along with Berlanti, Schechter, and Goldwater.

what is the literacy rate of north america

List of countries by Literacy rate - wikipedia This is a list of countries by literacy rate. The figures represented are almost entirely collected by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) on behalf of UNESCO with 2015 estimates based on people aged 15 or over who can read and write. Where data is taken from a different source, notes are provided. The data is collated by mostly using surveys within the last ten years which are self - declared by the persons in question. UIS provide estimates based on these for the year 2015 with a Global Age - specific Literacy Projections Model (GALP). The global literacy rate for all people aged 15 and above is 86.3 %. The global literacy rate for all males is 90.0 % and the rate for all females is 82.7 %. The rate varies throughout the world with developed nations having a rate of 99.2 % (2013); Oceania having 71.3 %; South and West Asia having 70.2 % (2015) and sub-Saharan Africa at 64.0 % (2015). Over 75 % of the world 's 781 million illiterate adults are found in South Asia, West Asia and sub-Saharan Africa and women represent almost two - thirds of all illiterate adults globally.

who does jenny end up with on gossip girl

Jenny Humphrey - wikipedia Jennifer Tallulah "Jenny '' Humphrey is one of the characters in both the Gossip Girl and The It Girl series of novels by Cecily von Ziegesar. She is portrayed by Taylor Momsen in the Gossip Girl television adaptation on The CW. Jennifer Humphrey is the daughter of Rufus Humphrey, an editor for beat poets who has never been published himself, and Jeanette Humphrey, who ran off with a European aristocrat. She has an older brother, Dan Humphrey, who is an aspiring writer. Jenny is a student at the Constance Billard School for Girls, a small, elite, all - girls school located on the Upper East Side, which Serena van der Woodsen and Blair Waldorf also attend. In the book series, Jenny Humphrey is described as a short, well endowed brunette while the television show depicts her as tall, skinny and blonde. In the Gossip Girl prequel It Had To Be You, Jenny is noted for having a rather flat chest until she begins taking breast enlargement supplements, which turns out are the cause of her double D cup size. Jenny is the protagonist in the book series, The It Girl, which shows her new life, after she gets expelled from Constance Billard, and starts at Waverly Academy in upstate New York. In The It Girl, Jenny tries to reinvent herself as a "popular and sophisticated city girl '' and leave behind the person she was at Constance. When Jenny arrives at Waverly, she finds the students even more attractive, athletic, and intimidating than she imagined. Jenny then meets her two new exceptionally beautiful and popular Junior year roommates: lithe and blonde Southern girl Callie Vernon, and red - headed, green eyed, and sophisticated New Jerseyan Brett Messerschmidt. She quickly learns that she has replaced their old best friend: extremely attractive and notorious Tinsley Carmichael. Jenny ca n't help but feel that sleeping in such a lucky bed must rub off. Jenny Humphrey is introduced in Season one. She is a pretty, blonde freshman at Constance Billard. Desperately trying to fit in with Blair 's clique, Blair makes fitting in difficult for her as she subjects Jenny to the rules of high school hierarchy. A possible friendship ends when Blair discovers Nate 's lingering feelings for Serena and Jenny 's interest in Nate that entails further cruelty on Jenny. However, when Blair 's affair with Chuck Bass is exposed, Nate approaches Jenny and rumors of Blair 's affair is made public. Blair 's friends shun her for her hypocrisy and establish Jenny as the new Queen Bee of Constance Billard. Despite being one of the school it - girls, she is driven to prove herself, but her low self - confidence that stems from not having the same privileged financial status as the other girls, provokes her to sell her sewing machine and barter an expensive dress she stole from one of her friends. When Blair throws her a surprise birthday party, the other girls discover that Jenny stole the dress, bringing Blair 's scheme full circle. Jenny retaliates by bringing Nate with her to Blair 's victory party and persuades the girls to her side. Jenny and Blair then struggle for the position of Queen Bee. When Jenny thinks she 's found true love with Asher Hornsby, their romance is short - lived when she discovers that he is gay. He convinces her to say that she lost her virginity to him in order to put the rumors of him being gay to rest, and as long as she pretends it 's true, he 'll give her privileges that Upper East Side can offer. However, Blair and Eric out Asher at his own party, and Jenny confesses that she lied about having sex with him. Blair 's clique abandons her once again, and she later finds Blair to tell her that she 's won as it 's "not worth it ''. In the season finale, Jenny receives an internship at Blair 's mother Eleanor 's company. At the beginning of season two, Jenny spends her summer working hard as a new intern for Eleanor Waldorf designs. She apologizes to Eric for her behavior the previous season. He forgives her and invites her to the White Party in the Hamptons where he introduces her to Tinsley Mortimer and where she proves her worth to one of Eleanor 's supervisors. Eleanor fires Jenny after a critical remark on one of her dresses, but during a citywide blackout, Eleanor realizes her talent and hires Jenny. After constant harassment by Blair 's minions, Jenny decides to skip school to pursue a future in fashion. When Blair and Serena have another fight concerning Serena 's growing popularity, Jenny is dragged into their fight during Eleanor 's fashion show and is subject to Blair 's torture when she changes the seating arrangement that Blair had initially planned. Blair informs Rufus that Jenny has been skipping school and he confronts her. Blair attempts to sabotage Jenny 's work in the show but Jenny improvises, proposing that Serena and the socialites walk the runway. In an effort to ruin Serena, Blair switches the final dress with one that Jenny made, drawing Eleanor 's ire. Despite this, the dress is a huge hit with the audience and the fashion show is a big success. Jenny realizes Blair 's frustrations regarding her friendship with Serena, commenting that they have worked hard for what they 've wanted and Serena just glides through. Eleanor later praises Jenny Humphrey for her work. Rufus eventually agrees to Jenny being home schooled after seeing how committed and good at her job she is. At work, Jenny befriends a model named Agnes Andrews (Willa Holland), who convinces her to start her own fashion line. Realizing that working for Eleanor wo n't help her develop as a designer and that Eleanor herself has begun to take advantage of Jenny 's talents in fashion, Jenny leaves. Jenny also begins a short relationship with Nate when they share a passionate kiss after he rescues her from being taken advantage of by an older photographer. Jenny and Rufus argue over her quitting Eleanor 's and Jenny moves out of the Humphrey 's apartment and moves in with Agnes, who suggests that they plan a guerrilla fashion show at the charity gala honoring Lily and Bart. The show is a big success but Vanessa witnesses her kissing Nate thereby straining their friendship and Rufus tries to get her arrested but was stopped by Lily. Due to Agnes ' fiery temper and their growing disagreements over the clothing line, the pair have trouble closing a business deal. Jenny steals Agnes ' contact list, attempting to make a deal by herself. Upon learning of Jenny 's betrayal, Agnes burns all of her dresses and kicks her out of her apartment, leaving her with nothing. Upon learning that she is too young to start her own business, she attempts to file for emancipation but Rufus refuses. On Thanksgiving, Lily finds the papers after discovering that Jenny has been hiding in their apartment with Eric, and warns Rufus. Rufus and Jenny reconcile their relationship, after a little persuasion from Eleanor and she returns home. During the Snowflake Ball, Jenny learns that Vanessa and Nate are back together even though Vanessa was aware of Nate 's feelings for her. Nate breaks up with her after she helps to humiliate Vanessa at the ball. Jenny returns to Constance and is forced to contend with Blair 's minions. During the season finale and Serena 's hunt for Gossip Girl, Jenny decides to compete to be the next Queen Bee after Blair leaves. She almost drops out, but Blair gives her a touching speech about keeping her eye on the prize. In the end Blair chooses Jenny and crowns her queen of Constance. After Jenny fails to bring about egalitarianism at Constance, she resolves to rule as Queen Bee with her own group of minions. With her new position and wealth, Jenny 's social climbing persona resurfaces and she begins to erase her former Brooklyn self, throwing away her homemade clothes and sewing machine. Worried that Jenny is turning into another regular Queen Bee, Eric and Jonathon attempt an intervention but as a result are humiliated by Jenny and her clique. Eric teams up with Blair to take down Jenny at the Cotillion Ball by sabotaging her escort. The plan backfires however and Jenny instead secures none other than Nate to escort her, winning her the respect of the other Queens at every other prep school on the Upper East Side. As a consequence of Eric 's scheming, Jonathan breaks up with him and a rift emerges in Jenny and Eric 's relationship. Chuck introduces her to Damien Dalgaard, son of the Belgian ambassador who works as a drug dealer to make his own money. Jenny liking his wild lifestyle, eventually strikes up a relationship with him and aids him in supplying drugs to his customers while sharing in some of the profit, even stealing some of Lily 's "headache pills ''. Eventually Lily and Rufus find out about the drugs, which Damien covers up with a story about his father. Against Rufus 's will, Jenny continues her relationship with Damien who seems interested in taking it further. Jenny, who is a virgin, backs out at the last minute causing Damien to break up with her, leaving her to face her family. On Rufus ' suggestion, Eleanor reemploys Jenny to help out with her upcoming fashion show. Jenny is happy to be back, but is shocked to learn that one of the models she 'll be working with is her old friend Agnes, who, after the show finishes, takes revenge on Jenny by drugging her and leaving her in a bar to be taken advantage of. Jenny is rescued by Nate, however before anything happens to her. Because of this though, Jenny 's feeling towards Nate reawakens and she aspires to win him over. She tries to kiss him but he resists her advances because he sees her only as a friend and because he is dating Serena. Jenny attempts to sabotage Serena and Nate 's relationship by lying to Serena and implying to Nate that she is having an affair with Carter Baizen. Jenny 's attempts fail, and her relationship with both is left tenuous after Nate kicks her out of his apartment. At a gala event where Serena 's recently returned father William Van Der Woodsen is making a speech, a former client of Damien 's approaches Jenny, angrily telling her the drugs she sold her (Lily 's cancer medication, as was recently revealed) gave her a yeast infection. Rufus overhears this and grounds Jenny to the Humphrey apartment in Brooklyn. During her punishment, Jenny researches Lily 's medicine and informs Chuck via telephone that there is something very wrong about the medication that Serena 's father is prescribing her. It is discovered that, William has lied to Lily about her condition and has been giving her drugs that in fact make her sick in a plot to win her back off Rufus. Seeing an opportunity to break up Rufus and Lily and return her family to the way it was before, Jenny attempts to sabotage Blair, Chuck, and Nate 's plan to unveil William 's deception. When William is about to be held accountable, she quickly runs to William and warns him, telling him that the police will be coming to get him, and urges him to escape. Back at the van der Woodsen penthouse she reveals that it was she who warned Dr. van der Woodsen and that she wishes her family can go back to normal stating "When I lived in Brooklyn, I may have had to ride the subway to school, and make my own clothes, but at least our family was happy ''. Rufus says that the only thing that needs to return to normal is Jenny. Eric is hurt by Jenny 's attempt to leave the family, and says that if she wants out, no one is forcing her to stay. Jenny hits rock bottom after sending a picture of Dan and Serena in bed together to Gossip Girl, jeopardizing Dan and Nate 's friendship, Dan and Vanessa 's relationship, and breaking up Nate and Serena 's relationship. Blair confronts Jenny telling her that "Nate loves Serena, Dan loves Vanessa - god knows why -, and Chuck loves me. But you Jenny? No one loves you, except your daddy. And after what you pulled yesterday, who knows if that 's even true anymore? '' Emotionally distressed, Jenny goes to Nate 's apartment but instead finds Chuck devastated over his break - up with Blair and in her state of vulnerability, Jenny loses her virginity to Chuck. However, afterwards, Blair arrives willing to take Chuck back and Jenny sneaks out. She breaks down in tears to Eric, telling him that everyone hates her and that she slept with Chuck. Eric tells Dan, who confronts Chuck just as he is about to propose to Blair. Jenny, in tears, leaves with Rufus and Lily. A week later, she says her goodbyes to her family and leaves to finish out high school with her mother in Hudson. Jenny has been living in Hudson with her mother since May due to the troubles that occurred in "Last Tango, Then Paris '', where she caused an uproar with Serena and Dan when she sent a picture of the two of them in bed together, which led to the breakup of both Dan and Vanessa & Serena and Nate. As she was upset, she later went to Chuck 's apartment and slept with Chuck, which led to Blair breaking up with Chuck and banishing Jenny from New York City. Jenny returns in episode "Easy J ''. Blair finds Jenny preparing for an interview with Tim Gunn, and grants her with a special day pass. However, when Chuck steals Jenny 's portfolio, she is forced to visit The Empire Hotel where Blair had forbidden her to go. This results in Blair and Jenny scheming against each other, and Jenny eventually telling Gossip Girl that she lost her Virginity to Chuck, not Damien Dalgaard. While Jenny is left feeling victorious, a defeated Blair blames Chuck. Jenny ultimately realises the damage of her return and decides to leave for good, telling Blair and Chuck that their vindictive games against each other will soon destroy them both. In "Juliet does n't live here anymore '' Juliet and Vanessa skype Jenny asking for help to take down Serena. Jenny knows that she does n't want to go back to her old tricks but also feels like Serena is the one to blame for everything that happened last year and how she can never take blame for anything, so, she agrees to help with the scheme. Jenny later becomes involved in a scheme with Juliet Sharp and Vanessa in order to bring down Serena and turn everyone against her. But when Serena ends up in the hospital after being drugged by Juliet, Jenny tells Juliet that she is going to come clean with everyone about their scheme, but Juliet warns her that she will be going down alone. When Jenny appears at the hospital, Vanessa has already pinned the entire scheme on her and unable to defend herself, she leaves, showing up at Blair 's later that night, telling her that Juliet was behind everything and that she and Vanessa were merely accomplices. To prove her story, she hands Blair Juliet 's masquerade mask and has temporarily earned Blair 's forgiveness. After confessing to Blair, she says that she would love to help her take down Juliet, but she should instead return to Hudson, rather than become involved in another scheme. In the premiere episode of season five, "Yes, Then Zero, '' it is revealed by Rufus that Jenny moved to London to attend Central Saint Martins. In the final episode of the series, it is revealed that Jenny knew that her brother, Dan Humphrey, was the mysterious blogger behind Gossip Girl. She returns to the Upper East Side, appearing in the five - year time jump for her brother 's wedding to Serena van der Woodsen. Jenny works as a designer for Blair 's fashion empire, implying that they have gotten over their past animosity. Together they create their own clothing line called "J for Waldorf ''. Rumors have been made throughout Gossip Girl 's first few seasons that Jenny would be given her own spin - off, in line with the character leaving for boarding school just like the novels. News later confirmed that producers did not pick up the spin - off. Jenny 's character further gained prominence during the show 's third season. Enid Portugez of the LA Times praised Jenny 's fashionable skills, stating that "Jenny capped off the drama by showing us she 's becoming extremely adept at becoming a drug dealer. Her brilliant idea to sew pills into jacket paillettes could have easily won her a "Project Runway '' challenge! Despite the illegality of it all, it was nice to see Jenny put her wit and wiles to use... '' Following the dramatic events during the third season finale, Michael Ausiello praised both Leighton Meester and Taylor Momsen 's performance. L.J. Gibbs, from TV Fanatic, gave the episode a 3.5 rating star out of 5, and said that he felt that Chuck being shot at the end of the episode was a very "cheap move by the writers '', and that the storyline involving Chuck and Jenny having sex was very "unlikely ''. Mark O. Estes, from TV Overmind, had also praised Taylor Momsen 's performance in the episode and said that he "wish that Jenny had of gotten her own spin - off '', and questions that if her send - off in this episode means that the show 's writers have a "Katherine Heigl '' situation on their hands ". However, Jenny was included in TV Guide 's list of The Most Loathed TV Characters. When asked during a Vanity Fair interview if "real '' girls could afford the looks from the show, costume designers Eric Daman and Meredith Markworth - Pollack commented on Jenny 's style and stated "Of course! Have fun with it like Jenny Humphrey does, and listen to your fashion sense. Go to a vintage or thrift store and have it tailored so it looks like Marc Jacobs (...) but it 's all about individuality. ''

what is the geography and climate of new hampshire

New Hampshire - wikipedia New Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. New Hampshire is the 5th smallest by land area and the 10th least populous of the 50 United States. In January 1776, it became the first of the British North American colonies to establish a government independent of the Kingdom of Great Britain 's authority, and it was the first to establish its own state constitution. Six months later, it became one of the original 13 states that founded the United States of America, and in June 1788 it was the ninth state to ratify the Constitution, bringing that document into effect. Concord is the state capital, while Manchester is the largest city in the state and in northern New England, including Vermont and Maine. It has no general sales tax, nor is personal income (other than interest and dividends) taxed at either the state or local level. The New Hampshire primary is the first primary in the U.S. presidential election cycle. Its license plates carry the state motto, "Live Free or Die ''. The state 's nickname, "The Granite State '', refers to its extensive granite formations and quarries. Among prominent individuals from New Hampshire are founding father Nicholas Gilman, Senator Daniel Webster, Revolutionary War hero John Stark, editor Horace Greeley, founder of the Christian Science religion Mary Baker Eddy, poet Robert Frost, astronaut Alan Shepard, rock musician Ronnie James Dio, author Dan Brown, actor Adam Sandler, inventor Dean Kamen, comedians Sarah Silverman and Seth Meyers, restaurateurs Richard and Maurice McDonald, and President of the United States Franklin Pierce. With some of the largest ski mountains on the East Coast, New Hampshire 's major recreational attractions include skiing, snowmobiling, and other winter sports, hiking and mountaineering, observing the fall foliage, summer cottages along many lakes and the seacoast, motor sports at the New Hampshire Motor Speedway, and Motorcycle Week, a popular motorcycle rally held in Weirs Beach near Laconia in June. The White Mountain National Forest links the Vermont and Maine portions of the Appalachian Trail, and boasts the Mount Washington Auto Road, where visitors may drive to the top of 6,288 - foot (1,917 m) Mount Washington. The state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire by Captain John Mason. New Hampshire is part of the New England region. It is bounded by Quebec, Canada, to the north and northwest; Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east; Massachusetts to the south; and Vermont to the west. New Hampshire 's major regions are the Great North Woods, the White Mountains, the Lakes Region, the Seacoast, the Merrimack Valley, the Monadnock Region, and the Dartmouth - Lake Sunapee area. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any U.S. coastal state, with a length of 18 miles (29 km), sometimes measured as only 13 miles (21 km). New Hampshire was home to the rock formation called the Old Man of the Mountain, a face - like profile in Franconia Notch, until the formation disintegrated in May 2003. The White Mountains range in New Hampshire spans the north - central portion of the state, with Mount Washington the tallest in the northeastern U.S. -- site of the second - highest wind speed ever recorded -- and other mountains like Mount Madison and Mount Adams surrounding it. With hurricane - force winds every third day on average, over 100 recorded deaths among visitors, and conspicuous krumholtz (dwarf, matted trees much like a carpet of bonsai trees), the climate on the upper reaches of Mount Washington has inspired the weather observatory on the peak to claim that the area has the "World 's Worst Weather ''. In the flatter southwest corner of New Hampshire, the landmark Mount Monadnock has given its name to a class of earth - forms -- a monadnock -- signifying, in geomorphology, any isolated resistant peak rising from a less resistant eroded plain. Major rivers include the 110 - mile (177 km) Merrimack River, which bisects the lower half of the state north -- south and ends up in Newburyport, Massachusetts. Its tributaries include the Contoocook River, Pemigewasset River, and Winnipesaukee River. The 410 - mile (660 km) Connecticut River, which starts at New Hampshire 's Connecticut Lakes and flows south to Connecticut, defines the western border with Vermont. The state border is not in the center of that river, as is usually the case, but at the low - water mark on the Vermont side; meaning that the entire river along the Vermont border (save for areas where the water level has been raised by a dam) lies within New Hampshire. Only one town -- Pittsburg -- shares a land border with the state of Vermont. The "northwesternmost headwaters '' of the Connecticut also define the Canada -- U.S. border. The Piscataqua River and its several tributaries form the state 's only significant ocean port where they flow into the Atlantic at Portsmouth. The Salmon Falls River and the Piscataqua define the southern portion of the border with Maine. The Piscataqua River boundary was the subject of a border dispute between New Hampshire and Maine in 2001, with New Hampshire claiming dominion over several islands (primarily Seavey 's Island) that include the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard. The U.S. Supreme Court dismissed the case in 2002, leaving ownership of the island with Maine. New Hampshire still claims sovereignty of the base, however. The largest of New Hampshire 's lakes is Lake Winnipesaukee, which covers 71 square miles (184 km) in the east - central part of New Hampshire. Umbagog Lake along the Maine border, approximately 12.3 square miles (31.9 km), is a distant second. Squam Lake is the second largest lake entirely in New Hampshire. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any state in the United States, approximately 18 miles (29 km) long. Hampton Beach is a popular local summer destination. About 7 miles (11 km) offshore are the Isles of Shoals, nine small islands (four of which are in New Hampshire) known as the site of a 19th - century art colony founded by poet Celia Thaxter, and the alleged location of one of the buried treasures of the pirate Blackbeard. It is the state with the highest percentage of timberland area in the country. New Hampshire is in the temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome. Much of the state, in particular the White Mountains, is covered by the conifers and northern hardwoods of the New England - Acadian forests. The southeast corner of the state and parts of the Connecticut River along the Vermont border are covered by the mixed oaks of the Northeastern coastal forests. The northern third of the state is locally referred to as the "north country '' or "north of the notches, '' in reference to White Mountain passes that channel traffic. It contains less than 5 % of the state 's population, suffers relatively high poverty, and is steadily losing population as the logging and paper industries decline. However, the tourist industry, in particular visitors who go to northern New Hampshire to ski, snowboard, hike and mountain bike, has helped offset economic losses from mill closures. New Hampshire experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa in some southern areas, Dfb in most of the state, and Dfc Subarctic in some northern areas), with warm, humid summers, cold, wet winters, and uniform precipitation all year. The climate of the southeastern portion is moderated by the Atlantic Ocean and averages relatively milder and wetter weather, while the northern and interior portions experience cooler temperatures and lower humidity. Winters are cold and snowy throughout the state, and especially severe in the northern and mountainous areas. Average annual snowfall ranges from 60 inches (150 cm) to over 100 inches (250 cm) across the state. Average daytime highs are in the mid 70s ° F to low 80s ° F (around 24 -- 28 ° C) throughout the state in July, with overnight lows in the mid 50s ° F to low 60s ° F (13 -- 15 ° C). January temperatures range from an average high of 34 ° F (1 ° C) on the coast to overnight lows below 0 ° F (− 18 ° C) in the far north and at high elevations. Average annual precipitation statewide is roughly 40 inches (100 cm) with some variation occurring in the White Mountains due to differences in elevation and annual snowfall. New Hampshire 's highest recorded temperature was 106 ° F (41 ° C) in Nashua on July 4, 1911, while the lowest recorded temperature was − 47 ° F (− 44 ° C) atop Mount Washington on January 29, 1934. Mount Washington also saw an unofficial − 50 ° F (− 46 ° C) reading on January 22, 1885, which, if made official, would tie the all - time record low for New England (also − 50 ° F (− 46 ° C) at Big Black River, Maine, on January 16, 2009, and Bloomfield, Vermont on December 30, 1933). Extreme snow is often associated with a nor'easter, such as the Blizzard of ' 78 and the Blizzard of 1993, when several feet accumulated across portions of the state over 24 to 48 hours. Lighter snowfalls of several inches occur frequently throughout winter, often associated with an Alberta Clipper. New Hampshire, on occasion, is affected by hurricanes and tropical storms although by the time they reach the state they are often extratropical, with most storms striking the southern New England coastline and moving inland or passing by offshore in the Gulf of Maine. Most of New Hampshire averages fewer than 20 days of thunderstorms per year and an average of two tornadoes occur annually statewide. The National Arbor Day Foundation plant hardiness zone map depicts zones 3, 4, 5, and 6 occurring throughout the state and indicates the transition from a relatively cooler to warmer climate as one travels southward across New Hampshire. The 1990 USDA plant hardiness zones for New Hampshire range from zone 3b in the north to zone 5b in the south. Metropolitan areas in the New England region are defined by the U.S. Census Bureau as New England City and Town Areas (NECTAs). The following is a list of NECTAs in New Hampshire: From "The New Hampshire Economic and Labor Market Information Bureau ''. Archived from the original on January 11, 2008. Retrieved June 16, 2014. Various Algonquin - speaking Abenaki tribes, largely divided between the Androscoggin and Pennacook nations, inhabited the area before European settlement. Despite the similar language, they had a very different culture and religion from other Algonquin peoples. English and French explorers visited New Hampshire in 1600 -- 1605, and David Thompson settled at Odiorne 's Point in present - day Rye in 1623. The first permanent settlement was at Hilton 's Point (present - day Dover). By 1631, the Upper Plantation comprised modern - day Dover, Durham and Stratham; in 1679, it became the "Royal Province ''. Father Rale 's War was fought between the colonists and the Wabanaki Confederacy throughout New Hampshire. New Hampshire was one of the thirteen colonies that rebelled against British rule during the American Revolution. By the time of the American Revolution, New Hampshire was a divided province. The economic and social life of the Seacoast region revolved around sawmills, shipyards, merchants ' warehouses, and established village and town centers. Wealthy merchants built substantial homes, furnished them with the finest luxuries, and invested their capital in trade and land speculation. At the other end of the social scale, there developed a permanent class of day laborers, mariners, indentured servants and even slaves. The only battle fought in New Hampshire was the raid on Fort William and Mary, December 14, 1774, in Portsmouth Harbor, which netted the rebellion sizable quantities of gunpowder, small arms and cannon. (General Sullivan, leader of the raid, described it as, "remainder of the powder, the small arms, bayonets, and cartouche - boxes, together with the cannon and ordnance stores '') over the course of two nights. This raid was preceded by a warning to local patriots the previous day, by Paul Revere on December 13, 1774, that the fort was to be reinforced by troops sailing from Boston. According to unverified accounts, the gunpowder was later used at the Battle of Bunker Hill, transported there by Major Demerit, who was one of several New Hampshire patriots who stored the powder in their homes until it was transported elsewhere for use in revolutionary activities. During the raid, the British soldiers fired upon the rebels with cannon and muskets. Although there were apparently no casualties, these were among the first shots in the American Revolutionary period, occurring approximately five months before the Battles of Lexington and Concord. The United States Constitution was ratified by New Hampshire on June 21, 1788, when New Hampshire became the ninth state to do so. New Hampshire was a Jacksonian stronghold; the state sent Franklin Pierce to the White House in the election of 1852. Industrialization took the form of numerous textile mills, which in turn attracted large flows of immigrants from Quebec (the "French Canadians '') and Ireland. The northern parts of the state produced lumber, and the mountains provided tourist attractions. After 1960, the textile industry collapsed, but the economy rebounded as a center of high technology and as a service provider. Starting in 1952, New Hampshire gained national and international attention for its presidential primary held early in every presidential election year. It immediately became the most important testing grounds for candidates for the Republican and Democratic nominations. The media gave New Hampshire (and Iowa) about half of all the attention paid to all states in the primary process, magnifying the state 's decision powers (and spurring repeated efforts by out - of - state politicians to change the rules.) The United States Census Bureau estimates the population of New Hampshire was 1,334,795 on July 1, 2016, a 1.39 % increase since the 2010 United States Census. The center of population of New Hampshire is located in Merrimack County, in the town of Pembroke. The center of population has moved south 12 miles (19 km) since 1950, a reflection of the fact that the fastest growth in the state has been along its southern border, which is within commuting range of Boston and other Massachusetts cities. As of the 2010 Census, the population of New Hampshire was 1,316,470. The gender makeup of the state was 49.3 % male and 50.7 % female. 21.8 % of the population were under the age of 18; 64.6 % were between the ages of 18 and 64; and 13.5 % were 65 years of age or older. The racial makeup of New Hampshire as of the 2010 Census was: Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.8 % of the population in 2010: 0.6 % were of Mexican, 0.9 % Puerto Rican, 0.1 % Cuban, and 1.2 % other Hispanic or Latino origin. According to the 2010 -- 2015 American Community Survey, the largest ancestry groups in the state were Irish (21.0 %), English (16.8 %), French (14.9 %), Italian (10.5 %), German (9.0 %), French Canadian (8.7 %), and American (5.6 %). New Hampshire has the highest percentage (23.4 %) of residents with French / French - Canadian / Acadian ancestry of any U.S. state. According to the Census Bureau 's American Community Survey estimates from 2015, 2.1 % of the population aged 5 and older speak Spanish at home, while 1.8 % speak French. In Coos County, 9.6 % of the population speaks French at home, down from 16 % in 2000. Note: Births in table do n't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number. A Pew survey showed that the religious affiliations of the people of New Hampshire was as follows: Protestant 30 %, Catholic 26 %, LDS (Mormon) 1 %, Jewish 1 %, Jehovah 's Witness 2 % and non-religious at 36 %. A survey suggests that people in New Hampshire and Vermont are less likely than other Americans to attend weekly services and only 54 % say that they are "absolutely certain there is a God '' compared to 71 % in the rest of the nation. New Hampshire and Vermont are also at the lowest levels among states in religious commitment. In 2012, 23 % of New Hampshire residents in a Gallup poll considered themselves "very religious '', while 52 % considered themselves "non-religious ''. According to the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) the largest denominations are the Roman Catholic Church with 311,028 members; The United Church of Christ with 26,321 members; and the United Methodist Church with 18,029 members. The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Hampshire 's total state product in 2014 was $66 billion, ranking 40th in the United States. Median household income in 2008 was $49,467, the seventh highest in the country. Its agricultural outputs are dairy products, nursery stock, cattle, apples and eggs. Its industrial outputs are machinery, electric equipment, rubber and plastic products and tourism. New Hampshire experienced a significant shift in its economic base during the last century. Historically, the base was composed of the traditional New England manufactures of textiles, shoe making, and small machining shops drawing upon low - wage labor from nearby small farms and from parts of Quebec. Today, these sectors contribute only 2 % for textiles, 2 % for leather goods, and 9 % for machining of the state 's total manufacturing dollar value (Source: U.S. Economic Census for 1997, Manufacturing, New Hampshire). They experienced a sharp decline due to obsolete plants and the lure of cheaper wages in the South. The state 's budget in FY2008 was $5.11 billion, including $1.48 billion in federal funds. The issue of taxation is controversial in New Hampshire, which has a property tax (subject to municipal control) but no broad sales tax or income tax. The state does have narrower taxes on meals, lodging, vehicles, business and investment income, and tolls on state roads. According to the Energy Information Administration, New Hampshire 's energy consumption and per capita energy consumption are among the lowest in the country. The Seabrook Station Nuclear Power Plant, located near Portsmouth, is the largest nuclear reactor in New England and provides about 30 percent of New Hampshire 's electricity. Two natural gas - fired plants and some fossil - fuel powered plants, including the coal - fired Merrimack Station plant in Bow, provide most of the rest. New Hampshire 's residential electricity use is low compared with the national average, in part because demand for air conditioning is low during the generally mild summer months and because few households use electricity as their primary energy source for home heating. Over half of New Hampshire households use fuel oil for winter heating. New Hampshire has potential for renewable energies like wind power, hydroelectricity, and wood fuel. The state has no general sales tax and no personal state income tax (the state does tax, at a 5 percent rate, income from dividends and interest), and the legislature has exercised fiscal restraint. Efforts to diversify the state 's general economy have been ongoing. New Hampshire 's lack of a broad - based tax system has resulted in the state 's local communities having some of the nation 's highest property taxes. However, the state 's overall tax burden is relatively low; in 2010 New Hampshire ranked 44th highest among states in combined average state and local tax burden. As of February 2010, the state 's unemployment rate was 7.1 %. By October 2010, the unemployment rate dropped to 5.4 %. According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, New Hampshire had the eighth - highest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 6.48 percent. In 2013, New Hampshire also had the nation 's lowest poverty rate at just 8.7 % of all residents according to the Census Bureau. The governor of New Hampshire, as of January 5, 2017, is Chris Sununu (Republican). New Hampshire 's two U.S. senators are Jeanne Shaheen and Maggie Hassan (both Democrats). New Hampshire 's two U.S. representatives are Carol Shea - Porter and Ann McLane Kuster (both Democrats). New Hampshire is an alcoholic beverage control state, and through the State Liquor Commission it takes in $100 million from the sale and distribution of liquor. New Hampshire is the only state in the US that does not require adults to wear seat belts in their vehicles. The New Hampshire State Constitution of 1783 is the supreme law of the state, followed by the New Hampshire Revised Statutes Annotated and the New Hampshire Code of Administrative Rules. These are roughly analogous to the federal United States Constitution, United States Code and Code of Federal Regulations respectively. New Hampshire has a bifurcated executive branch, consisting of the governor and a five - member executive council which votes on state contracts worth more than $5,000 and "advises and consents '' to the governor 's nominations to major state positions such as department heads and all judgeships and pardon requests. New Hampshire does not have a lieutenant governor; the Senate president serves as "acting governor '' whenever the governor is unable to perform the duties. The legislature is called the General Court. It consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate. There are 400 representatives, making it one of the largest elected bodies in the English - speaking world, and 24 senators. Most are effectively volunteers, nearly half of which are retirees. (For details, see the article on Government of New Hampshire.) The state 's sole appellate court is the New Hampshire Supreme Court. The Superior Court is the court of general jurisdiction and the only court which provides for jury trials in civil or criminal cases. The other state courts are the Probate Court, District Court, and the Family Division. New Hampshire has 10 counties and 234 cities and towns. New Hampshire is a "Dillon Rule '' state, meaning that the state retains all powers not specifically granted to municipalities. Even so, the legislature strongly favors local control, particularly with regard to land use regulations. New Hampshire municipalities are classified as towns or cities, which differ primarily by the form of government. Most towns generally operate on the town meeting form of government, where the registered voters in the town act as the town legislature, and a board of selectmen acts as the executive of the town. Larger towns and the state 's thirteen cities operate either on a council - manager or council - mayor form of government. There is no difference, from the point of view of the state government, between towns and cities besides the form of government. All state - level statutes treat all municipalities identically. New Hampshire has a small number of unincorporated areas that are titled as grants, locations, purchases, or townships. These locations have limited to no self - government, and services are generally provided for them by neighboring towns or the county or state where needed. As of the 2000 census, there were 25 of these left in New Hampshire, accounting for a total population of 173 people (as of 2000); several were entirely depopulated. All but two of these unincorporated areas are located in Coos County. The Republican Party and the Democratic Party are the two largest parties in the state. A plurality of voters are registered as undeclared, and can choose either ballot in the primary and then regain their undeclared status after voting. The Libertarian Party had official party status from 1990 to 1996. There is also a program known as the Free State Project with the goal of turning New Hampshire into a libertarian stronghold by suggesting that libertarians move there so they can concentrate their power. The Libertarian Party regained ballot access after the 2016 election because the gubernatorial candidate received over 4 % of the vote. As of February 5, 2016, there were 882,959 registered voters, of whom 389,472 (44.1 %) did not declare a political party affiliation, 262,111 (29.7 %) were Republican, and 231,376 (26.2 %) were Democratic. New Hampshire is internationally known for the New Hampshire primary, the first primary in the quadrennial American presidential election cycle. State law requires that the Secretary of State schedule this election at least one week before any "similar event. '' However, the Iowa caucus has preceded the New Hampshire primary. This primary, as the nation 's first contest that uses the same procedure as the general election, draws more attention than those in other states, and has often been decisive in shaping the national contest. State law permits a town with fewer than 100 residents to open its polls at midnight, and close when all registered citizens have cast their ballots. As such, the communities of Dixville Notch in Coos County and Hart 's Location in Carroll County, among others, have chosen to implement these provisions. Dixville Notch and Hart 's Location are traditionally the first places in both New Hampshire and the U.S. to vote in presidential primaries and elections. Nominations for all other partisan offices are decided in a separate primary election. In Presidential election cycles, this is the second primary election held in New Hampshire. Saint Anselm College in Goffstown has become a popular campaign spot for politicians as well as several national presidential debates because of its proximity to Manchester - Boston Regional Airport. In the past, New Hampshire has often voted Republican. Between 1856 and 1988, New Hampshire cast its electoral votes for the Democratic presidential ticket six times: Woodrow Wilson (twice), Franklin D. Roosevelt (three times), and Lyndon B. Johnson (once). Beginning in 1992, New Hampshire became a swing state in both national and local elections. The state supported Democrats Bill Clinton in 1992 and 1996, John Kerry in 2004, Barack Obama in 2008 and 2012, and Hillary Clinton in 2016. It was the only state in the country to switch from supporting Republican George W. Bush in the 2000 election to supporting his Democratic challenger in the 2004 election, when John Kerry, a senator from neighboring Massachusetts, won the state. Donald Trump very narrowly lost the state in 2016. The Democrats dominated elections in New Hampshire in 2006 and 2008. In 2006, Democrats won both congressional seats (electing Carol Shea - Porter in the 1st district and Paul Hodes in the 2nd district), re-elected Governor John Lynch, and gained a majority on the Executive Council and in both houses of the legislature for the first time since 1911. Democrats had not held both the legislature and the governorship since 1874. Neither U.S. Senate seat was up for a vote in 2006. In 2008, Democrats retained their majorities, governorship, and Congressional seats; and former governor Jeanne Shaheen defeated incumbent Republican John E. Sununu for the U.S. Senate in a rematch of the 2002 contest. The 2008 elections resulted in women holding a majority, 13 of the 24 seats, in the New Hampshire Senate, a first for any legislative body in the United States. In the 2010 midterm elections, Republicans made historic gains in New Hampshire, capturing veto - proof majorities in the state legislature, taking all five seats in the Executive Council, electing a new U.S. senator, Kelly Ayotte, winning both U.S. House seats, and reducing the margin of victory of incumbent Governor John Lynch compared to his 2006 and 2008 landslide wins. In the 2012 state legislative elections, Democrats took back the New Hampshire House of Representatives and narrowed the Republican majority in the New Hampshire Senate to 13 -- 11. In 2012, New Hampshire became the first state in U.S. history to elect an all - female federal delegation: Democratic Congresswomen Carol Shea - Porter of Congressional District 1 and Ann McLane Kuster of Congressional District 2 accompanied U.S. Senators Jeanne Shaheen and Kelly Ayotte in 2013. Further, the state elected its second female governor: Democrat Maggie Hassan. In the 2014 elections, Republicans retook the New Hampshire House of Representatives with a 239 -- 160 majority and expanded their majority in the New Hampshire Senate to 14 of the Senate 's 24 seats. On the national level, incumbent Democratic Senator Jeanne Shaheen defeated her Republican challenger, former Massachusetts senator Scott Brown. New Hampshire also elected Frank Guinta (R) for its First Congressional District representative and Ann Kuster (D) for its Second Congressional District representative. In the 2016 elections, Republicans held the New Hampshire House of Representatives with a majority of 220 -- 175, and held onto their 14 seats in the New Hampshire Senate. In the gubernatorial race, retiring Governor Maggie Hassan was succeeded by Republican Chris Sununu, who defeated Democratic nominee Colin Van Ostern. Sununu became the state 's first Republican governor since Craig Benson, who left office in 2005 following defeat by John Lynch. Republicans control the governor 's office and both chambers of the state legislature, a governing trifecta in which the Republicans have full governing power. In the presidential race, the state voted for the Democratic nominee, former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton over the Republican nominee, Donald Trump, by a margin of 2,736 votes, or 0.3 %, one of the closest results the state has ever seen in a presidential race, while Libertarian nominee Gary Johnson received 4.12 % of the vote. The Democrats also won a competitive race in the Second Congressional District, as well as a competitive senate race. New Hampshire 's congressional delegation currently consists of exclusively Democrats. It is one of only seven states with an entirely Democratic delegation, five of which are in New England (the others are Delaware and Hawaii). The Free State Project seeks to entice 20,000 individuals with libertarian - leaning views to move to New Hampshire with the intent of reducing the size and scope of government at the local, state and federal levels through active participation in the political process. On February 3, 2016, the project reached its goal of 20,000 signers. The Free State Project holds the annual New Hampshire Liberty Forum and the annual Porcupine Freedom Festival, also known as PorcFest. New Hampshire has a well - maintained, well - signed network of Interstate highways, U.S. highways, and state highways. State highway markers still depict the Old Man of the Mountain despite that rock formation 's demise in 2003. Several route numbers align with the same route numbers in neighboring states. State highway numbering does not indicate the highway 's direction. Major routes include: New Hampshire has 25 public - use airports, three with some scheduled commercial passenger service. The busiest airport by number of passengers handled is Manchester - Boston Regional Airport in Manchester and Londonderry, which serves the Greater Boston metropolitan area. Long - distance intercity passenger rail service is provided by Amtrak 's Vermonter and Downeaster lines. Greyhound, Concord Coach, Vermont Translines and Dartmouth Coach all provide intercity bus connections to and from points in New Hampshire and to long - distance points beyond and in between. As of 2013, Boston - centered MBTA Commuter Rail services reach only as far as northern Massachusetts. The New Hampshire Rail Transit Authority is working to extend "Capital Corridor '' service from Lowell, Massachusetts, to Nashua, Concord, and Manchester, including Manchester - Boston Regional Airport; and "Coastal Corridor '' service from Haverhill, Massachusetts, to Plaistow, New Hampshire. Legislation in 2007 created the New Hampshire Rail Transit Authority (NHRTA) with the goal of overseeing the development of commuter rail in the state of New Hampshire. In 2011, Governor John Lynch vetoed HB 218, a bill passed by Republican lawmakers, which would have drastically curtailed the powers and responsibilities of NHRTA. The I - 93 Corridor transit study suggested a rail alternative along the Manchester and Lawrence branch line which could provide freight and passenger service. This rail corridor would also have access to Manchester - Boston Regional Airport. Eleven public transit authorities operate local and regional bus services around the state, and eight private carriers operate express bus services which link with the national intercity bus network. The New Hampshire Department of Transportation operates a statewide ride - sharing match service, in addition to independent ride matching and guaranteed ride home programs. Tourist railroads include the Conway Scenic Railroad, Hobo - Winnipesaukee Railroad, and the Mount Washington Cog Railway. Freight railways in New Hampshire include Claremont & Concord Railroad (CCRR), Pan Am Railways via subsidiary Springfield Terminal Railway (ST), the New England Central Railroad (NHCR), the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad (SLR), and New Hampshire Northcoast Corporation (NHN). The first public high schools in the state were the Boys ' High School and the Girls ' High School of Portsmouth, established either in 1827 or 1830 depending on the source. New Hampshire has more than 80 public high schools, many of which serve more than one town. The largest is Pinkerton Academy in Derry, which is owned by a private non-profit organization and serves as the public high school of a number of neighboring towns. There are at least 30 private high schools in the state. New Hampshire is also the home of several prestigious university - preparatory schools, such as Phillips Exeter Academy, St. Paul 's School, Brewster Academy, and Kimball Union Academy. In 2008 the state tied with Massachusetts as having the highest scores on the SAT and ACT standardized tests given to high school students. The following professional and professional development sports teams are located in New Hampshire: The New Hampshire Motor Speedway in Loudon is an oval track and road course which has been visited by national motorsport championship series such as the NASCAR Monster Energy Cup Series, the NASCAR Xfinity Series, the NASCAR Camping World Truck Series, NASCAR Whelen Modified Tour, American Canadian Tour (ACT), the Champ Car and the IndyCar Series. Other motor racing venues include Star Speedway and New England Dragway in Epping, Lee Speedway in Lee, Twin State Speedway in Claremont, Monadnock Speedway in Winchester and Canaan Fair Speedway in Canaan. New Hampshire has two NCAA Division I teams: the Dartmouth Big Green (Ivy League) and the New Hampshire Wildcats (America East Conference), as well as three Division II teams: Franklin Pierce Ravens, Saint Anselm Hawks and Southern New Hampshire Penmen (Northeast - 10 Conference). The Seacoast United Phantoms are a soccer team based in Hampton, New Hampshire. Founded in 1996, the team plays in the USL Premier Development League (PDL), the fourth tier of the American Soccer Pyramid, in the Northeast Division of the Eastern Conference. The team plays its home games at Amesbury Sports Park, where they have played since 2017. Annually since 2002, high - school statewide all - stars compete against Vermont in ten sports during "Twin State '' playoffs. In the spring, New Hampshire 's many sap houses hold sugaring - off open houses. In summer and early autumn, New Hampshire is home to many county fairs, the largest being the Hopkinton State Fair, in Contoocook. New Hampshire 's Lakes Region is home to many summer camps, especially around Lake Winnipesaukee, and is a popular tourist destination. The Peterborough Players have performed every summer in Peterborough, New Hampshire since 1933. The Barnstormers Theatre in Tamworth, New Hampshire, founded in 1931, is one of the longest - running professional summer theaters in the United States. In September, New Hampshire is host to the New Hampshire Highland Games. New Hampshire has also registered an official tartan with the proper authorities in Scotland, used to make kilts worn by the Lincoln Police Department while its officers serve during the games. The fall foliage peaks in mid-October. In the winter, New Hampshire 's ski areas and snowmobile trails attract visitors from a wide area. After the lakes freeze over they become dotted with ice fishing ice houses, known locally as bobhouses. Funspot, the world 's largest video arcade (now termed a museum), is located in Laconia. Many novels, plays and screenplays have been set in New Hampshire. The state has played other roles in fiction, including: See article List of people from New Hampshire. State government U.S. Government Other Coordinates: 44 ° 00 ′ N 71 ° 30 ′ W  /  44 ° N 71.5 ° W  / 44; - 71.5

what country has a aristocracy form of government

Aristocracy - wikipedia Aristocracy (Greek ἀριστοκρατία aristokratía, from ἄριστος aristos "excellent '', and κράτος, kratos ' rule ') is a form of government that places strength in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning "rule of the best - born ''. The term is synonymous with hereditary government, and hereditary succession is its primary philosophy, after which the hereditary monarch appoints officers as they see fit. At the time of the word 's origins in ancient Greece, the Greeks conceived it as rule by the best qualified citizens -- and often contrasted it favourably with monarchy, rule by an individual. In later times, aristocracy was usually seen as rule by a privileged group, the aristocratic class, and has since been contrasted with democracy. The idea of hybrid forms which have aspects of both aristocracy and democracy are in use in the parliament form. The concept evolved in Ancient Greece, whereby a council of leading citizens was commonly empowered and contrasted with representative democracy, in which a council of citizens was appointed as the "senate '' of a city state or other political unit. The Greeks did not like the concept of monarchy, and as their democratic system fell, aristocracy was upheld. In the 1651 book Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes describes an aristocracy as a commonwealth in which the representative of the citizens is an assembly by part only. It is a system in which only a small part of the population represents the government; "certaine men distinguished from the rest ''. Modern depictions of aristocracy tend to regard it not as the ancient Greek concept of rule by the best, but more as an oligarchy or plutocracy -- rule by the few or the wealthy. The concept of aristocracy per Plato, has an ideal state ruled by the philosopher king. Plato describes these "philosopher kings '' as "those who love the sight of truth '' (Republic 475c) and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. According to him, sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the Republic then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings.

in chloroplasts the enzyme atp synthase couples the synthesis of atp to

ATP synthase - wikipedia ATP synthase is an enzyme that creates the energy storage molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the most commonly used "energy currency '' of cells for all organisms. It is formed from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (P). The overall reaction catalyzed by ATP synthase is: The formation of ATP from ADP and P is energetically unfavorable and would normally proceed in the reverse direction. In order to drive this reaction forward, ATP synthase couples ATP synthesis during cellular respiration to an electrochemical gradient created by the difference in proton (H) concentration across the mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes or the plasma membrane in bacteria. During photosynthesis in plants, ATP is synthesized by ATP synthase using a proton gradient created in the thylakoid lumen through the thylakoid membrane and into the chloroplast stroma. ATP synthase consists of two main subunits, F and F, which has a rotational motor mechanism allowing for ATP production. Because of its rotating subunit, ATP synthase is a molecular machine. The F fraction derives its name from the term "Fraction 1 '' and F (written as a subscript letter "o '', not "zero '') derives its name from being the binding fraction for oligomycin, a type of naturally - derived antibiotic that is able to inhibit the F unit of ATP synthase. These functional regions consist of different protein subunits -- refer to tables. This enzyme is used in synthesis of ATP through aerobic respiration. Located within the thylakoid membrane and the inner mitochondrial membrane, ATP synthase consists of two regions F and F. F causes rotation of F and is made of c - ring and subunits a, b, d, F6. F is made of α, β, γ, δ (\ displaystyle \ alpha, \ beta, \ gamma, \ delta) subunits. F has a water - soluble part that can hydrolyze ATP. F on the other hand has mainly hydrophobic regions. F F creates a pathway for protons movement across the membrane. The F portion of ATP synthase is hydrophilic and responsible for hydrolyzing ATP. This portion is located through the intermembrane space between the inter membrane space of the mitochondria. Subunits α (\ displaystyle \ alpha) and β (\ displaystyle \ beta) make a hexamer with 6 binding sites. Three of them are catalytically inactive and they bind ADP. Other three subunits catalyze the ATP synthesis. The other F subunits γ, δ, ε (\ displaystyle \ gamma, \ delta, \ epsilon) are a part of a rotational motor mechanism. γ (\ displaystyle \ gamma) subunit allows β (\ displaystyle \ beta) to go through conformational changes, i.e. closed, half open and open states allows for ATP to be bound and released once synthesized. The F particle is large and can be seen in the transmission electron microscope by negative staining. These are particles of 9 nm diameter that pepper the inner mitochondrial membrane. F is a water insoluble protein with eight subunits and a transmembrane ring. The ring has a tetramer shape with a helix loop helix protein that goes though conformational changes when protonated and deprotonated, pushing neighboring subunits to rotate, causing the spinning of F which then also affects conformation of F, resulting in switching of states of alpha and beta subunits. The F region of ATP synthase is a proton pore that is embedded in the mitochondrial membrane. It consists of three main subunits, a, b, and c, and (in humans) six additional subunits, d, e, f, g, F6, and 8 (or A6L). An atomic model for the dimeric yeast F region was determined by cryo - EM at an overall resolution of 3.6 Å. This part of the enzyme is located inside the intermembrane space and is the portion that actually catalyzes the reaction between ADP and the inorganic phosphate. In the 1960s through the 1970s, Paul Boyer, a UCLA Professor, developed the binding change, or flip - flop, mechanism theory, which postulated that ATP synthesis is dependent on a conformational change in ATP synthase generated by rotation of the gamma subunit. The research group of John E. Walker, then at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, crystallized the F catalytic - domain of ATP synthase. The structure, at the time the largest asymmetric protein structure known, indicated that Boyer 's rotary - catalysis model was, in essence, correct. For elucidating this, Boyer and Walker shared half of the 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The crystal structure of the F showed alternating alpha and beta subunits (3 of each), arranged like segments of an orange around a rotating asymmetrical gamma subunit. According to the current model of ATP synthesis (known as the alternating catalytic model), the transmembrane potential created by (H+) proton cations supplied by the electron transport chain, drives the (H+) proton cations from the intermembrane space through the membrane via the F region of ATP synthase. A portion of the F (the ring of c - subunits) rotates as the protons pass through the membrane. The c - ring is tightly attached to the asymmetric central stalk (consisting primarily of the gamma subunit), causing it to rotate within the alpha beta of F causing the 3 catalytic nucleotide binding sites to go through a series of conformational changes that lead to ATP synthesis. The major F subunits are prevented from rotating in sympathy with the central stalk rotor by a peripheral stalk that joins the alpha beta to the non-rotating portion of F. The structure of the intact ATP synthase is currently known at low - resolution from electron cryo - microscopy (cryo - EM) studies of the complex. The cryo - EM model of ATP synthase suggests that the peripheral stalk is a flexible structure that wraps around the complex as it joins F to F. Under the right conditions, the enzyme reaction can also be carried out in reverse, with ATP hydrolysis driving proton pumping across the membrane. The binding change mechanism involves the active site of a β subunit 's cycling between three states. In the "loose '' state, ADP and phosphate enter the active site; in the adjacent diagram, this is shown in pink. The enzyme then undergoes a change in shape and forces these molecules together, with the active site in the resulting "tight '' state (shown in red) binding the newly produced ATP molecule with very high affinity. Finally, the active site cycles back to the open state (orange), releasing ATP and binding more ADP and phosphate, ready for the next cycle of ATP production. Like other enzymes, the activity of F F ATP synthase is reversible. Large - enough quantities of ATP cause it to create a transmembrane proton gradient, this is used by fermenting bacteria that do not have an electron transport chain, but rather hydrolyze ATP to make a proton gradient, which they use to drive flagella and the transport of nutrients into the cell. In respiring bacteria under physiological conditions, ATP synthase, in general, runs in the opposite direction, creating ATP while using the proton motive force created by the electron transport chain as a source of energy. The overall process of creating energy in this fashion is termed oxidative phosphorylation. The same process takes place in the mitochondria, where ATP synthase is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane and the F - part projects into mitochondrial matrix. The consumption of ATP by ATP - synthase pumps proton cations into the matrix. The evolution of ATP synthase is thought to have been modular whereby two functionally independent subunits became associated and gained new functionality. This association appears to have occurred early in evolutionary history, because essentially the same structure and activity of ATP synthase enzymes are present in all kingdoms of life. The F - ATP synthase displays high functional and mechanistic similarity to the V - ATPase. However, whereas the F - ATP synthase generates ATP by utilising a proton gradient, the V - ATPase generates a proton gradient at the expense of ATP, generating pH values of as low as 1. The F region also shows significant similarity to hexameric DNA helicases, and the F region shows some similarity to H - powered flagellar motor complexes. The α β hexamer of the F region shows significant structural similarity to hexameric DNA helicases; both form a ring with 3-fold rotational symmetry with a central pore. Both have roles dependent on the relative rotation of a macromolecule within the pore; the DNA helicases use the helical shape of DNA to drive their motion along the DNA molecule and to detect supercoiling, whereas the α β hexamer uses the conformational changes through the rotation of the γ subunit to drive an enzymatic reaction. The H motor of the F particle shows great functional similarity to the H motors that drive flagella. Both feature a ring of many small alpha - helical proteins that rotate relative to nearby stationary proteins, using a H potential gradient as an energy source. This link is tenuous, however, as the overall structure of flagellar motors is far more complex than that of the F particle and the ring with about 30 rotating proteins is far larger than the 10, 11, or 14 helical proteins in the F complex. The modular evolution theory for the origin of ATP synthase suggests that two subunits with independent function, a DNA helicase with ATPase activity and a H motor, were able to bind, and the rotation of the motor drove the ATPase activity of the helicase in reverse. This complex then evolved greater efficiency and eventually developed into today 's intricate ATP synthases. Alternatively, the DNA helicase / H motor complex may have had H pump activity with the ATPase activity of the helicase driving the H motor in reverse. This may have evolved to carry out the reverse reaction and act as an ATP synthase. E. coli ATP synthase is the simplest known form of ATP synthase, with 8 different subunit types. Yeast ATP synthase is one of the best - studied eukaryotic ATP synthases; and five F, eight F subunits, and seven associated proteins have been identified. Most of these proteins have homologues in other eukaryotes. In plants, ATP synthase is also present in chloroplasts (CF F - ATP synthase). The enzyme is integrated into thylakoid membrane; the CF - part sticks into stroma, where dark reactions of photosynthesis (also called the light - independent reactions or the Calvin cycle) and ATP synthesis take place. The overall structure and the catalytic mechanism of the chloroplast ATP synthase are almost the same as those of the bacterial enzyme. However, in chloroplasts, the proton motive force is generated not by respiratory electron transport chain but by primary photosynthetic proteins. The ATP synthase isolated from bovine (Bos taurus) heart mitochondria is, in terms of biochemistry and structure, the best - characterized ATP synthase. Beef heart is used as a source for the enzyme because of the high concentration of mitochondria in cardiac muscle. The following is a list of humans genes that encode components of ATP synthases:

dionne warwick songs written by the bee gees

Still Waters (Bee Gees album) - wikipedia Still Waters is the twenty - first studio album by the pop group the Bee Gees, released on 10 March 1997 in the UK by Polydor, and on 6 May the same year in the US by A&M. In 1994, the Bee Gees and Polydor Records had planned a major tour to promote Size Is n't Everything (1993) but it was postponed in February the same year due to Barry Gibb 's trouble with arthritis in his back, right hand and right knee. Following the cancellation of the tour, Robin Gibb told the press that the group was working on an album of acoustic versions of songs they had written for other artists. The project was later called Love Songs which featured some new recordings. However, their record company rejected the album and the new songs were included on a new studio album instead, announced in September 1994 and released on 14 February (Valentine 's Day) of 1995. Around 1994, the Bee Gees did record six songs, one of which was called "Miracles Happen '' which was written and recorded to be the title song for a new film version of Miracle on 34th Street; the Bee Gees got the job in June 1994 and quickly returned this recording, with a boys ' choir and a big string section backing them. The filmmakers however decided later to use only old Christmas songs. On the same session, they also did their own version of their compositions such as "Emotion '' (Samantha Sang), "Heartbreaker '' (Dionne Warwick), "Love Never Dies '' and "Rings Around the Moon '', which were later released as B - sides. In July 1995, they started with seven demos for what would become included on the album, along with four demos recorded in the second quarter of 1995. In the October 1995 sessions they recorded their rendition of "Will You Love Me Tomorrow '' for a Carole King tribute album Tapestry Revisited: A Tribute to Carole King. In March 1996, they relocated to The Hit Factory in New York to record two songs. Around 1996, the Bee Gees used session musicians to complete the entire album, produced by Russ Titelman. Also in 1996, the Bee Gees recorded two songs with two members of P.M. Dawn, Attrel Cordes and Jarett Cordes. The producer on "With My Eyes Closed '' was Raphael Saadiq. "Still Waters (Run Deep) '' was produced by Hugh Padgham. The last song recorded for the album was "Closer than Close '' which features Maurice Gibb 's lead vocals produced by the brothers themselves. The Bee Gees recorded further new songs in 1996 and 1997, and Still Waters was released in March 1997. Though receiving lukewarm reviews from critics, the album was their most successful album in almost twenty years; it was released at a time when the Bee Gees were being awarded for lifetime achievements, had recently been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and were regaining high exposure on television, particularly VH1. The album sold over 5 million copies worldwide, peaking at No. 2 on the UK Albums Chart and reaching No. 11 in the United States. The Bee Gees made the album with a variety of top producers, including Russ Titelman, David Foster, Hugh Padgham, and Arif Mardin. The first single off the album, "Alone '', was a worldwide hit, peaking at No. 5 in the UK and No. 28 in the United States, where it began as a "hot shot debut '' at No. 34. "I Could Not Love You More '' and "Still Waters (Run Deep) '' also reached the UK top 20. In a special agreement with Target, Polydor also sold a special edition of the album which included a bonus CD of songs from their VH1 Storytellers concert. This CD has never been made commercially available outside of the Target agreement. In 2003 Robin Gibb re-recorded the track "My Lover 's Prayer '' as a duet with Alistair Griffin. This reached No. 5 on the UK Singles Chart as a double A-side single with Griffin 's solo recording of "Bring It On ''. It also appears on Griffin 's debut album Bring It On, which reached No. 12 on the UK Albums Chart. The album became one of the first of the Bee Gees ' catalogue to be re-released on Reprise Records after the group regained the rights to all of their recordings in 2006. All songs written by Barry, Robin and Maurice Gibb. Bonus tracks sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone

who has the lowest approval rating as a president

United States Presidential Approval rating - wikipedia In the United States, presidential job approval ratings were introduced by George Gallup in the late 1930s (probably 1937) to gauge public support for the President of the United States during his term. An approval rating is a percentage determined by a polling which indicates the percentage of respondents to an opinion poll who approve of a particular person or program. Typically, an approval rating is given to a political figure based on responses to a poll in which a sample of people are asked whether they approve or disapprove of that particular political figure. A typical question might ask: Like most surveys that predict public opinion, the approval rating is subjective. Many unscientific approval rating systems exist that skew popular opinion. However, the approval rating is generally accepted as a statistically valid indicator of the comparative changes in the popular United States mood regarding a president. Most recent polls for President Donald Trump: Historical Gallup Poll approval highs and lows for each president since 1937: Franklin D. Roosevelt Harry S. Truman Dwight D. Eisenhower John F. Kennedy Lyndon B. Johnson Richard Nixon Gerald Ford Jimmy Carter Ronald Reagan George H.W. Bush Bill Clinton George W. Bush Barack Obama Donald Trump

who helped israel in the yom kippur war

Yom Kippur war - wikipedia Israeli military victory Israel Supported by: Expeditionary forces: Supported by: Egyptian front International front The Yom Kippur War, Ramadan War, or October War (Hebrew: מלחמת יום הכיפורים ‎, Milẖemet Yom HaKipurim, or מלחמת יום כיפור, Milẖemet Yom Kipur; Arabic: حرب أكتوبر ‎, Ḥarb ʾUktōbar, or حرب تشرين, Ḥarb Tišrīn), also known as the 1973 Arab -- Israeli War, was a war fought by a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria against Israel from October 6 to 25, 1973. The fighting mostly took place in the Sinai and the Golan Heights, territories that had been occupied by Israel since the end of the Six - Day War of 1967. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat also wanted to reopen the Suez Canal. Neither Egypt nor Syria specifically planned to destroy Israel, although the Israeli leaders could not be sure of that. The war began when the Arab coalition launched a joint surprise attack on Israeli positions in the Israeli - occupied territories on Yom Kippur, the holiest day in Judaism, which also occurred that year during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan. Egyptian and Syrian forces crossed ceasefire lines to enter the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights respectively. Both the United States and the Soviet Union initiated massive resupply efforts to their respective allies during the war, and this led to a near - confrontation between the two nuclear superpowers. The war began with a massive and successful Egyptian crossing of the Suez Canal. Egyptian forces crossed the cease - fire lines, then advanced virtually unopposed into the Sinai Peninsula. After three days, Israel had mobilized most of its forces and halted the Egyptian offensive, resulting in a military stalemate. The Syrians coordinated their attack on the Golan Heights to coincide with the Egyptian offensive and initially made threatening gains into Israeli - held territory. Within three days, however, Israeli forces had pushed the Syrians back to the pre-war ceasefire lines. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) then launched a four - day counter-offensive deep into Syria. Within a week, Israeli artillery began to shell the outskirts of Damascus, and Egyptian President Sadat began to worry about the integrity of his major ally. He believed that capturing two strategic passes located deeper in the Sinai would make his position stronger during post-war negotiations; he therefore ordered the Egyptians to go back on the offensive, but their attack was quickly repulsed. The Israelis then counter-attacked at the seam between the two Egyptian armies, crossed the Suez Canal into Egypt, and began slowly advancing southward and westward towards the city of Suez in over a week of heavy fighting that resulted in heavy casualties on both sides. On October 22, a United Nations -- brokered ceasefire unraveled, with each side blaming the other for the breach. By October 24, the Israelis had improved their positions considerably and completed their encirclement of Egypt 's Third Army and the city of Suez. This development led to tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, and a second ceasefire was imposed cooperatively on October 25 to end the war. The war had far - reaching implications. The Arab world had experienced humiliation in the lopsided rout of the Egyptian -- Syrian -- Jordanian alliance in the Six - Day War but felt psychologically vindicated by early successes in this conflict. The war led Israel to recognize that, despite impressive operational and tactical achievements on the battlefield, there was no guarantee that they would always dominate the Arab states militarily, as they had consistently through the earlier First Arab -- Israeli War, the Suez War, and the Six - Day War. These changes paved the way for the subsequent peace process. The 1978 Camp David Accords that followed led to the return of the Sinai to Egypt and normalized relations -- the first peaceful recognition of Israel by an Arab country. Egypt continued its drift away from the Soviet Union and eventually left the Soviet sphere of influence entirely. The war was part of the Arab -- Israeli conflict, an ongoing dispute that included many battles and wars since 1948, when the state of Israel was formed. During the Six - Day War of 1967, Israel had captured Egypt 's Sinai Peninsula, roughly half of Syria 's Golan Heights, and the territories of the West Bank which had been held by Jordan since 1948. On June 19, 1967, shortly after the Six - Day War, the Israeli government voted to return the Sinai to Egypt and the Golan Heights to Syria in return for peace agreements. This decision was not made public or conveyed to the Arab states; the public position of the Israeli government was that they were willing to return both Sinai and the Golan Heights, with exception of some strategically important points, in exchange for a permanent peace settlement and a demilitarization of the returned territories. They rejected a full return to the boundaries and the situation before the war and also insisted on direct negotiations with the Arab governments as opposed to accepting negotiation through a third party. The Arab position, as it emerged in September 1967 at the Khartoum Arab Summit, was to reject any peaceful settlement with the state of Israel. The eight participating states -- Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq, Algeria, Kuwait, and Sudan -- passed a resolution that would later become known as the "three no 's '': there would be no peace, no recognition and no negotiation with Israel. Prior to that, King Hussein of Jordan had stated that he could not rule out a possibility of a "real, permanent peace '' between Israel and the Arab states. Armed hostilities continued on a limited scale after the Six - Day War and escalated into the War of Attrition, an attempt to wear down the Israeli position through long - term pressure. A ceasefire was signed in August 1970. President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt died in September 1970. He was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. A peace initiative led by both Sadat and UN intermediary Gunnar Jarring was tabled in 1971. Sadat set forth to the Egyptian Parliament his intention of arranging an interim agreement as a step towards a settlement on 4 February 1971, which extended the terms of the ceasefire and envisaged a reopening of the Suez Canal in exchange for a partial Israeli pullback. It resembled a proposal independently made by Moshe Dayan. Sadat had signaled in an interview with the New York Times in December 1970 that, in return for a total withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula, he was ready "to recognize the rights of Israel as an independent state as defined by the Security Council of the United Nations. '' Gunnar Jarring coincidentally proposed a similar iniative four days later, on 8 February 1971. Egypt responded by accepting much of Jarring 's proposals, though differing on several issues, regarding the Gaza Strip, for example, and expressed its willingness to reach an accord if it also implemented the provisions of United Nations Security Council Resolution 242. This was the first time an Arab government had gone public declaring its readiness to sign a peace agreement with Israel. In addition, the Egyptian response included a statement that the lasting peace could not be achieved without "withdrawal of the Israeli armed forces from all the territories occupied since 5 June 1967. '' Golda Meir reacted to the overture by forming a committee to examine the proposal and vet possible concessions. When the committee unanimously concluded that Israel 's interests would be served by full withdrawal to the internationally recognized lines dividing Israel from Egypt and Syria, returning the Gaza Strip and, in a majority view, returning most of the West Bank and East Jerusalem, Meir was angered and shelved the document. The United States was infuriated by the cool Israeli response to Egypt 's proposal, and Joseph Sisco informed Yitzhak Rabin that "Israel would be regarded responsible for rejecting the best opportunity to reach peace since the establishment of the state. '' Israel responded to Jarring 's plan also on 26 of February by outlining its readiness to make some form of withdrawal, while declaring it had no intention of returning to the pre-5 June 1967 lines. Jarring was disappointed and blamed Israel for refusing to accept a complete pullout from the Sinai peninsula. Sadat hoped that by inflicting even a limited defeat on the Israelis, the status quo could be altered. Hafez al - Assad, the leader of Syria, had a different view. He had little interest in negotiation and felt the retaking of the Golan Heights would be a purely military option. After the Six - Day War, Assad had launched a massive military buildup and hoped to make Syria the dominant military power of the Arab states. With the aid of Egypt, Assad felt that his new army could win convincingly against Israel and thus secure Syria 's role in the region. Assad only saw negotiations beginning once the Golan Heights had been retaken by force, which would induce Israel to give up the West Bank and Gaza, and make other concessions. Sadat also had important domestic concerns in wanting war. "The three years since Sadat had taken office... were the most demoralized in Egyptian history... A desiccated economy added to the nation 's despondency. War was a desperate option. '' In his biography of Sadat, Raphael Israeli argued that Sadat felt the root of the problem was the great shame over the Six - Day War, and before any reforms could be introduced, he believed that that shame had to be overcome. Egypt 's economy was in shambles, but Sadat knew that the deep reforms that he felt were needed would be deeply unpopular among parts of the population. A military victory would give him the popularity he needed to make changes. A portion of the Egyptian population, most prominently university students who launched wide protests, strongly desired a war to reclaim the Sinai and was highly upset that Sadat had not launched one in his first three years in office. The other Arab states showed much more reluctance to fully commit to a new war. Jordanian King Hussein feared another major loss of territory, as had occurred in the Six - Day War, in which Jordan lost all of the West Bank, territory it had conquered and annexed in 1948 -- 49, which had doubled its population. Sadat also backed the claim of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) to the West Bank and Gaza and, in the event of a victory, promised Yasser Arafat that he would be given control of them. Hussein still saw the West Bank as part of Jordan and wanted it restored to his kingdom. Moreover, during the Black September crisis of 1970, a near civil war had broken out between the PLO and the Jordanian government. In that war, Syria had intervened militarily on the side of the PLO, estranging Hussein. Iraq and Syria also had strained relations, and the Iraqis refused to join the initial offensive. Lebanon, which shared a border with Israel, was not expected to join the Arab war effort because of its small army and already evident instability. The months before the war saw Sadat engage in a diplomatic offensive to try to win support for the war. By the fall of 1973, he claimed the backing of more than a hundred states. These were most of the countries of the Arab League, Non-Aligned Movement, and Organization of African Unity. Sadat had also worked to curry favour in Europe and had some success before the war. Britain and France for the first time sided with the Arab powers against Israel on the United Nations Security Council. Four months before the war broke out, Henry Kissinger made an offer to Ismail, Sadat 's emissary. Kissinger proposed returning the Sinai Peninsula to Egyptian control and an Israeli withdrawal from all of Sinai, except for some strategic points. Ismail said he would return with Sadat 's reply, but never did. Sadat was already determined to go to war. Only an American guarantee that the United States would fulfill the entire Arab program in a brief time could have dissuaded Sadat. Sadat declared that Egypt was prepared to "sacrifice a million Egyptian soldiers '' to recover its lost territory. From the end of 1972, Egypt began a concentrated effort to build up its forces, receiving MiG - 21 jet fighters, SA - 2, SA - 3, SA - 6 and SA - 7 antiaircraft missiles, T - 55 and T - 62 tanks, RPG - 7 antitank weapons, and the AT - 3 Sagger anti-tank guided missile from the Soviet Union and improving its military tactics, based on Soviet battlefield doctrines. Political generals, who had in large part been responsible for the rout in 1967, were replaced with competent ones. The role of the superpowers, too, was a major factor in the outcome of the two wars. The policy of the Soviet Union was one of the causes of Egypt 's military weakness. President Nasser was only able to obtain the materiel for an anti-aircraft missile defense wall after visiting Moscow and pleading with Kremlin leaders. He said that if supplies were not given, he would have to return to Egypt and tell the Egyptian people Moscow had abandoned them, and then relinquish power to one of his peers who would be able to deal with the Americans. The Americans would then have the upper hand in the region, which Moscow could not permit. Nasser 's policy following the 1967 defeat conflicted with that of the Soviet Union. The Soviets sought to avoid a new conflagration between the Arabs and Israelis so as not to be drawn into a confrontation with the United States. The reality of the situation became apparent when the superpowers met in Oslo and agreed to maintain the status quo. This was unacceptable to Egyptian leaders, and when it was discovered that the Egyptian preparations for crossing the canal were being leaked, it became imperative to expel the Soviets from Egypt. In July 1972, Sadat expelled almost all of the 20,000 Soviet military advisers in the country and reoriented the country 's foreign policy to be more favourable to the United States. The Syrians remained close to the Soviet Union. The Soviets thought little of Sadat 's chances in any war. They warned that any attempt to cross the heavily fortified Suez Canal would incur massive losses. Both the Soviets and Americans were then pursuing détente and had no interest in seeing the Middle East destabilized. In a June 1973 meeting with American President Richard Nixon, Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev had proposed Israel pull back to its 1967 border. Brezhnev said that if Israel did not, "we will have difficulty keeping the military situation from flaring up '' -- an indication that the Soviet Union had been unable to restrain Sadat 's plans. In an interview published in Newsweek (April 9, 1973), Sadat again threatened war with Israel. Several times during 1973, Arab forces conducted large - scale exercises that put the Israeli military on the highest level of alert, only to be recalled a few days later. The Israeli leadership already believed that if an attack took place, the Israeli Air Force (IAF) could repel it. Almost a full year before the war, in an October 24, 1972, meeting with his Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, Sadat declared his intention to go to war with Israel even without proper Soviet support. Planning had begun in 1971 and was conducted in absolute secrecy -- even the upper - echelon commanders were not told of the war plans until less than a week prior to the attack, and the soldiers were not told until a few hours beforehand. The plan to attack Israel in concert with Syria was code - named Operation Badr (Arabic for "full moon ''), after the Battle of Badr, in which Muslims under Muhammad defeated the Quraish tribe of Mecca. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) Directorate of Military Intelligence 's (abbreviated as "Aman '') Research Department was responsible for formulating Israel 's intelligence estimate. Their assessments on the likelihood of war were based on several assumptions. First, it was assumed correctly that Syria would not go to war with Israel unless Egypt did so as well. Second, the department learned from Ashraf Marwan, former President Nasser 's son - in - law and also a senior Mossad agent, that Egypt wanted to regain all of the Sinai, but would not go to war until they were supplied MiG - 23 fighter - bombers to neutralize the Israeli Air Force and Scud missiles to be used against Israeli cities as a deterrent against Israeli attacks on Egyptian infrastructure. Since they had not received MiG - 23s and Scud missiles had only arrived in Egypt from Bulgaria in late August and it would take four months to train the Egyptian ground crews, Aman predicted war with Egypt was not imminent. This assumption about Egypt 's strategic plans, known as "the concept '', strongly prejudiced the department 's thinking and led it to dismiss other war warnings. By mid-1973, Aman was almost completely aware of the Arab war plans. It knew that the Egyptian Second and Third Armies would attempt to cross the Suez Canal and advance ten kilometres into the Sinai, followed by armored divisions that would advance towards the Mitla and Gidi Passes, and that naval units and paratroopers would then attempt to capture Sharm el - Sheikh. Aman was also aware of many details of the Syrian war plan. However, Israeli analysts, following "the concept '', did not believe the Arabs were serious about going to war. The Egyptians did much to further this misconception. Both the Israelis and the Americans felt that the expulsion of the Soviet military observers had severely reduced the effectiveness of the Egyptian army. The Egyptians ensured that there was a continual stream of false information regarding maintenance problems and a lack of personnel to operate the most advanced equipment. The Egyptians made repeated misleading reports about lack of spare parts that made their way to the Israelis. Sadat had so long engaged in brinkmanship that his frequent war threats were being ignored by the world. In April and May 1973, Israeli intelligence began picking up clear signals of Egypt 's intentions for war, recognizing that it had the necessary divisions and bridging equipment to cross the Suez Canal and a missile umbrella to protect any crossing operation from air attack. However, Aman Chief Eli Zeira was still confident that the probability of war was low. In May and August 1973, the Egyptian Army conducted military exercises near the border, and Ashraf Marwan inaccurately warned that Egypt and Syria would launch a surprise attack on May 15. The Israeli Army mobilized in response to both exercises at considerable cost. These exercises were to ensure that the Israelis would dismiss the actual war preparations right before the attack was launched as another exercise. For the week leading up to Yom Kippur, the Egyptian army staged a week - long training exercise adjacent to the Suez Canal. Israeli intelligence, detecting large troop movements towards the canal, dismissed them as mere training exercises. Movements of Syrian troops towards the border were also detected, as were the cancellation of leaves and a call - up of reserves in the Syrian army. These activities were considered puzzling, but not a threat because, Aman believed, they would not attack without Egypt and Egypt would not attack until the weaponry they wanted arrived. Despite this belief, Israel sent reinforcements to the Golan Heights. These forces were to prove critical during the early days of the war. On September 27 and 30, two batches of reservists were called up by the Egyptian army to participate in these exercises. Two days before the outbreak of the war, on October 4, the Egyptian command publicly announced the demobilization of part of the reservists called up during September 27 to lull Israeli suspicions. Around 20,000 troops were demobilized, and subsequently some of these men were given leave to perform the Umrah (pilgrimage) to Mecca. Reports were also given instructing cadets in military colleges to resume their courses on October 9. On October 1, an Aman researcher, Lieutenant Binyamin Siman - Tov, submitted an assessment arguing that the Egyptian deployments and exercises along the Suez Canal seemed to be a camouflage for an actual crossing of the canal. Siman - Tov sent a more comprehensive assessment on October 3. Both were ignored by his superior. According to Egyptian General El - Gamasy, "On the initiative of the operations staff, we reviewed the situation on the ground and developed a framework for the planned offensive operation. We studied the technical characteristics of the Suez Canal, the ebb and the flow of the tides, the speed of the currents and their direction, hours of darkness and of moonlight, weather conditions, and related conditions in the Mediterranean and Red sea. '' He explained further by saying: "Saturday 6 October 1973 (10 Ramadan 1393) was the day chosen for the September -- October option. Conditions for a crossing were good, it was a fast day in Israel, and the moon on that day, 10 Ramadan, shone from sunset until midnight. '' The war coincided that year with the Muslim month of Ramadan, when many Arab Muslim soldiers fast. On the other hand, the fact that the attack was launched on Yom Kippur may have helped Israel to more easily marshal reserves from their homes and synagogues because roads and communication lines were largely open, easing the mobilization and transportation of the military. Despite refusing to participate, King Hussein of Jordan "had met with Sadat and Assad in Alexandria two weeks before. Given the mutual suspicions prevailing among the Arab leaders, it was unlikely that he had been told any specific war plans. But it was probable that Sadat and Assad had raised the prospect of war against Israel in more general terms to feel out the likelihood of Jordan joining in. '' On the night of September 25, Hussein secretly flew to Tel Aviv to warn Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir of an impending Syrian attack. "Are they going to war without the Egyptians, asked Mrs. Meir. The king said he did n't think so. ' I think they (Egypt) would cooperate. ' '' This warning was ignored, and Aman concluded that the king had not told anything that was not already known. Throughout September, Israel received eleven warnings of war from well - placed sources. However, Mossad Director - General Zvi Zamir continued to insist that war was not an Arab option, even after Hussein 's warning. Zamir would later remark that "We simply did n't feel them capable (of war). '' On the day before the war, General Ariel Sharon was shown aerial photographs and other intelligence by Yehoshua Saguy, his divisional intelligence officer. General Sharon noticed that the concentration of Egyptian forces along the canal was far beyond anything observed during the training exercises, and that the Egyptians had amassed all of their crossing equipment along the canal. He then called General Shmuel Gonen, who had replaced him as head of Southern Command, and expressed his certainty that war was imminent. On October 4 -- 5, Zamir 's concern grew, as additional signs of an impending attack were detected. Soviet advisers and their families left Egypt and Syria, transport aircraft thought to be laden with military equipment landed in Cairo and Damascus, and aerial photographs revealed that Egyptian and Syrian concentrations of tanks, infantry, and surface - to - air (SAM) missiles were at an unprecedented high. According to declassified documents from the Agranat Commission, Brigadier General Yisrael Lior, Prime Minister Golda Meir 's military secretary / attaché, claimed that Mossad knew from Ashraf Marwan that an attack was going to occur under the guise of a military drill a week before it occurred, but the process of passing along the information to the Prime Minister 's office failed. The information ended up with Mossad head Zvi Zamir 's aide, who passed it along to Zamir at 12: 30 am on 5 October. According to the claim, an unfocused and groggy Zamir thanked the aide for the information and said he would pass it along to the Prime Minister 's office in the morning. On the night of October 5 / 6, Zamir personally went to Europe to meet with Marwan at midnight. Marwan informed him that a joint Syrian - Egyptian attack was imminent. However, Marwan incorrectly told Zamir that the attack would take place at sunset. It was this warning in particular, combined with the large number of other warnings, that finally goaded the Israeli High Command into action. Just hours before the attack began, orders went out for a partial call - up of the Israeli reserves. The attack by the Egyptian and Syrian forces caught the United States by surprise. According to future CIA Director and Defense Secretary Robert Gates, he was briefing an American arms negotiator on the improbability of armed conflict in the region when he heard the news of the outbreak of war on the radio. On the other hand, the KGB learned about the attack in advance, probably from its intelligence sources in Egypt. The Israeli strategy was, for the most part, based on the precept that if war was imminent, Israel would launch a pre-emptive strike. It was assumed that Israel 's intelligence services would give, in the worst case, about 48 hours notice prior to an Arab attack. Prime Minister Golda Meir, Minister of Defense Moshe Dayan, and Chief of General Staff David Elazar met at 8: 05 am the morning of Yom Kippur, six hours before the war began. Dayan opened the meeting by arguing that war was not a certainty. Elazar then presented his argument in favor of a pre-emptive attack against Syrian airfields at noon, Syrian missiles at 3: 00 pm, and Syrian ground forces at 5: 00 pm "When the presentations were done, the prime minister hemmed uncertainly for a few moments but then came to a clear decision. There would be no preemptive strike. Israel might be needing American assistance soon and it was imperative that it would not be blamed for starting the war. ' If we strike first, we wo n't get help from anybody ', she said. '' Prior to the war, Kissinger and Nixon consistently warned Meir that she must not be responsible for initiating a Middle east war. On October 6, 1973, the war opening date, Kissinger told Israel not to go for a preemptive strike, and Meir confirmed to him that Israel would not. Other developed nations, being more dependent on OPEC oil, took more seriously the threat of an Arab oil embargo and trade boycott, and had stopped supplying Israel with munitions. As a result, Israel was totally dependent on the United States for military resupply, and particularly sensitive to anything that might endanger that relationship. After Meir had made her decision, at 10: 15 am, she met with American ambassador Kenneth Keating in order to inform the United States that Israel did not intend to preemptively start a war, and asked that American efforts be directed at preventing war. An electronic telegram with Keating 's report on the meeting was sent to the United States at 16: 33 GMT (6: 33 pm local time). A message arrived later from United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger saying, "Do n't preempt. '' At the same time, Kissinger also urged the Soviets to use their influence to prevent war, contacted Egypt with Israel 's message of non-preemption, and sent messages to other Arab governments to enlist their help on the side of moderation. These late efforts were futile. According to Henry Kissinger, had Israel struck first, it would not have received "so much as a nail ''. David Elazar proposed a mobilization of the entire air force and four armored divisions, a total of 100,000 to 120,000 troops, while Dayan favored a mobilization of the air force and two armored divisions, totaling around 70,000 troops. Meir chose Elazar 's proposal. The Sinai was once again the arena of conflict between Israel and Egypt. The Egyptians had prepared for an assault across the canal and deployed five divisions totaling 100,000 soldiers, 1,350 tanks and 2,000 guns and heavy mortars for the onslaught. Facing them were 450 soldiers of the Jerusalem Brigade, spread out in 16 forts along the length of the Canal. There were 290 Israeli tanks in all of Sinai divided into three armored brigades, and only one of these was deployed near the Canal when hostilities commenced. Large bridgeheads were established on the east bank on October 6. Israeli armoured forces launched counterattacks from October 6 to 8, but they were often piecemeal and inadequately supported and were beaten back principally by Egyptians using portable anti-tank missiles. Between October 9 and October 12 the American response was a call for cease - fire in place. Arms for Israel began to flow in modest quantities. The Egyptian units generally would not advance beyond a shallow strip for fear of losing the protection of their surface - to - air missile (SAM) batteries, which were situated on the west bank of the canal. In the Six - Day War, the Israeli Air Force had pummeled the defenseless Arab armies. Egypt (and Syria) had heavily fortified their side of the ceasefire lines with SAM batteries provided by the Soviet Union, against which the Israeli Air Force had no time to execute a Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) operation due to the element of surprise. Israel, which had invested much of its defense budget building the region 's strongest air force, would see the effectiveness of its air force curtailed in the initial phases of the conflict by the SAM presence. On October 9, the IDF chose to concentrate its reserves and build up its supplies while the Egyptians remained on the strategic defensive. Nixon and Kissinger held back on a full - scale resupply of arms to Israel. Short of supplies, the Israeli government reluctantly accepted a cease - fire in place on October 12 but Sadat refused. The Soviets started an airlift of arms to Syria and Egypt. The American global interest was to prove that Soviet arms could not dictate the outcome of the fighting, by supplying Israel. With an airlift in full swing, Washington was prepared to wait until Israeli success on the battlefield might persuade the Arabs and the Soviets to bring the fighting to an end. It was decided to counterattack once Egyptian armor attempted to expand the bridgehead beyond the protective SAM umbrella. The riposte, codenamed Operation Gazelle, was launched on October 15. IDF forces spearheaded by Ariel Sharon 's division broke through the Tasa corridor and crossed the Suez Canal to the north of the Great Bitter Lake. After intense fighting, the IDF progressed towards Cairo and advanced southwards on the east bank of the Great Bitter Lake and in the southern extent of the canal right up to Port Suez. It was important for the Americans that the fighting should be ended, when all parties could still emerge from the conflict with their vital interests and self - esteem intact. Hence they indicated an acceptance of Israeli advance while violating the ceasefire, but the U.S. did not permit the destruction of the Egyptian 3rd army corps. Israeli progress towards Cairo was brought to a halt when the ceasefire was declared on October 24. Anticipating a swift Israeli armored counterattack by three armored divisions, the Egyptians had armed their assault force with large numbers of man - portable anti-tank weapons -- rocket - propelled grenades and the less numerous but more advanced Sagger guided missiles, which proved devastating to the first Israeli armored counterattacks. Each of the five infantry divisions that was to cross the canal had been equipped with RPG - 7 rockets and RPG - 43 grenades, and reinforced with an anti-tank guided missile battalion, as they would not have any armor support for nearly 12 hours. In addition, the Egyptians had built separate ramps at the crossing points, reaching as high as 21 metres (69 ft) to counter the Israeli sand wall, provide covering fire for the assaulting infantry and to counter the first Israeli armored counterattacks. The scale and effectiveness of the Egyptian strategy of deploying these anti-tank weapons coupled with the Israelis ' inability to disrupt their use with close air support (due to the SAM shield) greatly contributed to Israeli setbacks early in the war. The Egyptian Army put great effort into finding a quick and effective way of breaching the Israeli defenses. The Israelis had built large 18 metre (59 foot) high sand walls with a 60 degree slope and reinforced with concrete at the water line. Egyptian engineers initially experimented with explosive charges and bulldozers to clear the obstacles, before a junior officer proposed using high pressure water cannons. The idea was tested and found to be a sound one, and several high pressure water cannons were imported from Britain and East Germany. The water cannons effectively breached the sand walls using water from the canal. At 2: 00 pm on October 6, Operation Badr began with a large airstrike. More than 200 Egyptian aircraft conducted simultaneous strikes against three airbases, Hawk missile batteries, three command centers, artillery positions, and several radar installations. Airfields at Refidim and Bir Tamada were temporarily put out of service, and damage was inflicted on a Hawk battery at Ophir. The aerial assault was coupled with a barrage from more than 2,000 artillery pieces for a period of 53 minutes against the Bar Lev Line and rear area command posts and concentration bases. Author Andrew McGregor claimed that the success of the first strike negated the need for a second planned strike. Egypt acknowledged the loss of 5 aircraft during the attack. Kenneth Pollack wrote that 18 Egyptian aircraft were shot down, and that these losses prompted the cancellation of the second planned wave. In one notable engagement during this period, a pair of Israeli F - 4E Phantoms challenged 28 Egyptian MiGs over Sharm el - Sheikh and within half an hour, shot down seven or eight MiGs with no losses. One of the Egyptian pilots killed was Captain Atif Sadat, President Sadat 's half - brother. Simultaneously, 14 Egyptian Tupolev Tu - 16 bombers attacked Israeli targets in the Sinai with Kelt missiles, while another two Egyptian Tupolevs fired two Kelt missiles at a radar station in central Israel. One missile was shot down by a patrolling Israeli Mirage fighter, and the second fell into the sea. The attack was an attempt to warn Israel that Egypt could retaliate if it bombed targets deep in Egyptian territory. Under cover of the initial artillery barrage, the Egyptian assault force of 32,000 infantry began crossing the canal in twelve waves at five separate crossing areas, from 14: 05 to 17: 30, in what became known as The Crossing. The Egyptians prevented Israeli forces from reinforcing the Bar Lev Line and proceeded to attack the Israeli fortifications. Meanwhile, engineers crossed over to breach the sand wall. The Israeli Air Force conducted air interdiction operations to try to prevent the bridges from being erected, but took losses from Egyptian SAM batteries. The air attacks were ineffective overall, as the sectional design of the bridges enabled quick repairs when hit. Despite fierce resistance, the Israeli reserve brigade garrisoning the Bar - Lev forts was overwhelmed. According to Shazly, within six hours, fifteen strongpoints had been captured as Egyptian forces advanced several kilometres into the Sinai. Shazly 's account was disputed by Kenneth Pollack, who noted that for the most part, the forts only fell to repeated assaults by superior forces or prolonged sieges over many days. The northernmost fortification of the Bar Lev Line, code - named ' Fort Budapest ', withstood repeated assaults and remained in Israeli hands throughout the war. Once the bridges were laid, additional infantry with the remaining portable and recoilless anti-tank weapons began to cross the canal, while the first Egyptian tanks started to cross at 20: 30. The Egyptians also attempted to land several heli - borne commando units in various areas in the Sinai to hamper the arrival of Israeli reserves. This attempt met with disaster as the Israelis shot down up to twenty helicopters, inflicting heavy casualties. Israeli Major General (res.) Chaim Herzog placed Egyptian helicopter losses at fourteen. Other sources claim that "several '' helicopters were downed with "total loss of life '' and that the few commandos that did filter through were ineffectual and presented nothing more than a "nuisance ''. Kenneth Pollack asserted that despite their heavy losses, the Egyptian commandos fought exceptionally hard and created considerable panic, prompting the Israelis to take precautions that hindered their ability to concentrate on stopping the assault across the canal. Egyptian forces advanced approximately 4 to 5 km into the Sinai Desert with two armies (both corps - sized by western standards, included the 2nd Infantry Division in the northern Second Army). By the following morning, some 850 tanks had crossed the canal. In his account of the war, Saad El Shazly noted that by the morning of October 7, the Egyptians had lost 280 soldiers and 20 tanks, though this account is disputed. Most Israeli soldiers defending the Bar Lev Line were casualties, and some 200 were taken prisoner. In the subsequent days, some defenders of the Bar Lev Line managed to break through Egyptian encirclement and return to their lines, or were extracted during Israeli counterattacks that came later on. For the next several days, the Israeli Air Force (IAF) played a minimal role in the fighting largely because it was needed to deal with the simultaneous, and ultimately more threatening, Syrian invasion of the Golan Heights. Egyptian forces then consolidated their initial positions. On October 7, the bridgeheads were enlarged an additional 4 km, at the same time repulsing Israeli counterattacks. In the north, the Egyptian 18th Division attacked the town of El - Qantarah el - Sharqiyya, engaging Israeli forces in and around the town. The fighting there was conducted at close quarters, and was sometimes hand - to - hand. The Egyptians were forced to clear the town building by building. By evening, most of the town was in Egyptian hands. El - Qantarah was completely cleared by the next morning. Meanwhile, the Egyptian commandos airdropped on October 6 began encountering Israeli reserves the following morning. Both sides suffered heavy losses, but the commandos were at times successful in delaying the movement of Israeli reserves to the front. These special operations often led to confusion and anxiety among Israeli commanders, who commended the Egyptian commandos. This view was contradicted by another source that stated that few commandos made it to their objectives, and were usually nothing more than a nuisance. According to Abraham Rabinovich, only the commandos near Baluza and those blocking the road to Fort Budapest had measurable successes. Of the 1,700 Egyptian commandos inserted behind Israeli lines during the war, 740 were killed -- many in downed helicopters -- and 330 taken prisoner. On October 7, David Elazar visited Shmuel Gonen, commander of the Israeli Southern front -- who had only taken the position three months before at the retirement of Ariel Sharon -- and met with Israeli commanders. The Israelis planned a cautious counterattack for the following day by Abraham Adan 's 162nd Armored Division. The same day, the Israeli Air Force carried out Operation Tagar, aiming to neutralize Egyptian Air Force bases and its missile defense shield. Seven Egyptian airbases were damaged with the loss of two A-4 Skyhawks and their pilots. Two more planned attacks were called off because of the increasing need for air power on the Syrian front. The IAF carried out additional air attacks against Egyptian forces on the east bank of the canal, reportedly inflicting heavy losses. Israeli jets had carried out hundreds of sorties against Egyptian targets by the following day, but the Egyptian SAM shield inflicted heavy losses. IAF aircraft losses mounted to three aircraft for every 200 sorties, an unsustainable rate. The Israelis responded by rapidly devising new tactics to thwart Egyptian air defenses. On October 8, after Elazar had left, Gonen changed the plans on the basis of unduly optimistic field reports. Adan 's division was composed of three brigades totaling 183 tanks. One of the brigades was still en route to the area, and would participate in the attack by noon, along with a supporting mechanized infantry brigade with an additional 44 tanks. The Israeli counterattack was in the direction of the Bar Lev strongpoints opposite the city of Ismailia, against entrenched Egyptian infantry. In a series of ill - coordinated attacks, which were met by stiff resistance, the Israelis suffered heavy losses. That afternoon, Egyptian forces advanced once more to deepen their bridgeheads, and as a result the Israelis lost several strategic positions. Further Israeli attacks to regain the lost ground proved futile. Towards nightfall, an Egyptian counterattack was repulsed with the loss of 50 Egyptian tanks by the Israeli 143rd Armored Division, which was led by General Ariel Sharon, who had been reinstated as a division commander at the outset of the war. Garwych, citing Egyptian sources, documented Egyptian tank losses up to October 13 at 240. According to Herzog, by October 9 the front lines had stabilized. The Egyptians were unable to advance further, and Egyptian armored attacks on October 9 and 10 were repulsed with heavy losses. However, this claim was disputed by Shazly, who claimed that the Egyptians continued to advance and improve their positions well into October 10. He pointed to one engagement, which involved elements of the 1st Infantry Brigade, attached to the 19th Division, which captured Ayoun Mousa, south of Suez. The Egyptian 1st Mechanized Brigade launched a failed attack southward along the Gulf of Suez in the direction of Ras Sudar. Leaving the safety of the SAM umbrella, the force was attacked by Israeli aircraft and suffered heavy losses. Shazly cited this experience as a basis to resist pressure by Minister of War, General Ahmad Ismail Ali to attack eastward toward the Mitla and Gidi Passes. Between October 10 and 13, both sides refrained from any large - scale actions, and the situation was relatively stable. Both sides launched small - scale attacks, and the Egyptians used helicopters to land commandos behind Israeli lines. Some Egyptian helicopters were shot down, and those commando forces that managed to land were quickly destroyed by Israeli troops In one key engagement on October 13, a particularly large Egyptian incursion was stopped and close to a hundred Egyptian commandos were killed. General Shazly strongly opposed any eastward advance that would leave his armor without adequate air cover. He was overruled by General Ismail and Sadat, whose aims were to seize the strategic Mitla and Gidi Passes and the Israeli nerve centre at Refidim, which they hoped would relieve pressure on the Syrians (who were by now on the defensive) by forcing Israel to shift divisions from the Golan to the Sinai. The 2nd and 3rd Armies were ordered to attack eastward in six simultaneous thrusts over a broad front, leaving behind five infantry divisions to hold the bridgeheads. The attacking forces, consisting of 800 -- 1,000 tanks would not have SAM cover, so the Egyptian Air Force (EAF) was tasked with the defense of these forces from Israeli air attacks. Armored and mechanized units began the attack on October 14 with artillery support. They were up against 700 -- 750 Israeli tanks. Preparatory to the tank attack, Egyptian helicopters set down 100 commandos near the Lateral Road to disrupt the Israeli rear. An Israeli reconnaissance unit quickly subdued them, killing 60 and taking numerous prisoners. Still bruised by the extensive losses their commandos had suffered on the opening day of the war, the Egyptians were unable or unwilling to implement further commando operations that had been planned in conjunction with the armored attack. The Egyptian armored thrust suffered heavy losses. Instead of concentrating forces of maneuvering, except for the wadi thrust, Egyptian units launched head - on - attacks against the waiting Israeli defenses. The Egyptian attack was decisively repelled. At least 250 Egyptian tanks and some 200 armored vehicles were destroyed. Egyptian casualties exceeded 1,000. Fewer than 40 Israeli tanks were hit and all but six of them were repaired by Israeli maintenance crews and returned to service, while Israeli casualties numbered 665. Kenneth Pollack credited a successful Israeli commando raid early on October 14 against an Egyptian signals - intercept site at Jebel Ataqah with seriously disrupting Egyptian command and control and contributing to its breakdown during the engagement. With the situation on the Syrian front stabilizing, the Israeli High Command agreed that the time was ripe for an Israeli counterattack and strike across the canal. General Sharon advocated an immediate crossing at Deversoir at the northern edge of Great Bitter Lake. On October 9, a reconnaissance force attached to Colonel Amnon Reshef 's Brigade detected a gap between the Egyptian Second and Third armies in this sector. According to General Gamasy, the gap had been detected by an American SR - 71 spy plane. Chief of Staff Elazar and General Chaim Bar - Lev, who had by now replaced Gonen as Chief of Southern Command, agreed that this was the ideal spot for a crossing. However, given the size of the Egyptian armored reserves, the Israelis chose to wait for an opportunity that would allow them to reduce Egyptian armored strength before initiating any crossing. The opportunity arrived on October 12, when Israeli intelligence detected signs that the Egyptians were gearing up for a major armored thrust. This was precisely the moment the Israelis were waiting for. They could finally utilize their advantages in speed, maneuver and tank gunnery, areas in which they excelled. Once Egyptian armored strength was sufficiently degraded, the Israelis would commence their own canal crossing. The Israelis immediately followed the Egyptian failed attack of October 14 with a multidivisional counterattack through the gap between the Egyptian 2nd and 3rd Armies. Sharon 's 143rd Division, now reinforced with a paratroop brigade commanded by Colonel Danny Matt, was tasked with establishing bridgeheads on the east and west banks of the canal. The 162nd and 252nd Armored Divisions, commanded by Generals Avraham Adan and Kalman Magen respectively, would then cross through the breach to the west bank of the canal and swing southward, encircling the 3rd Army. The offensive was code - named Operation Stouthearted Men or alternatively, Operation Valiant. On the night of October 15, 750 of Colonel Matt 's paratroopers crossed the canal in rubber dinghies. They were soon joined by tanks ferried on motorized rafts and additional infantry. The force encountered no resistance initially and fanned out in raiding parties, attacking supply convoys, SAM sites, logistic centers and anything of military value, with priority given to the SAMs. Attacks on SAM sites punched a hole in the Egyptian anti-aircraft screen and enabled the Israeli Air Force to strike Egyptian ground targets more aggressively. On the night of October 15, 20 Israeli tanks and 7 APCs under the command of Colonel Haim Erez crossed the canal and penetrated 12 kilometres into mainland Egypt, taking the Egyptians by surprise. For the first 24 hours, Erez 's force attacked SAM sites and military columns with impunity. On the morning of October 17, it was attacked by the 23rd Egyptian Armored Brigade, but managed to repulse the attack. By this time, the Syrians no longer posed a credible threat and the Israelis were able to shift their air power to the south in support of the offensive. The combination of a weakened Egyptian SAM umbrella and a greater concentration of Israeli fighter - bombers meant that the IAF was capable of greatly increasing sorties against Egyptian military targets, including convoys, armor and airfields. The Egyptian bridges across the canal were damaged in Israeli air and artillery attacks. Israeli jets began attacking Egyptian SAM sites and radars, prompting General Ismail to withdraw much of the Egyptians ' air defense equipment. This in turn gave the IAF still greater freedom to operate in Egyptian airspace. Israeli jets also attacked and destroyed underground communication cables at Banha in the Nile Delta, forcing the Egyptians to transmit selective messages by radio, which could be intercepted. Aside from the cables at Banha, Israel refrained from attacking economic and strategic infrastructure following an Egyptian threat to retaliate against Israeli cities with Scud missiles. Israeli aircraft bombed Egyptian Scud batteries at Port Said several times. The Egyptian Air Force attempted to interdict IAF sorties and attack Israeli ground forces, but suffered heavy losses in dogfights and from Israeli air defenses, while inflicting light aircraft losses on the Israelis. The heaviest air battles took place over the northern Nile Delta, where the Israelis repeatedly attempted to destroy Egyptian airbases. Despite the success the Israelis were having on the west bank, Generals Bar - Lev and Elazar ordered Sharon to concentrate on securing the bridgehead on the east bank. He was ordered to clear the roads leading to the canal as well as a position known as the Chinese Farm, just north of Deversoir, the Israeli crossing point. Sharon objected and requested permission to expand and breakout of the bridgehead on the west bank, arguing that such a maneuver would cause the collapse of Egyptian forces on the east bank. But the Israeli high command was insistent, believing that until the east bank was secure, forces on the west bank could be cut off. Sharon was overruled by his superiors and relented. On October 16, he dispatched Amnon Reshef 's Brigade to attack the Chinese Farm. Other IDF forces attacked entrenched Egyptian forces overlooking the roads to the canal. After three days of bitter and close - quarters fighting, the Israelis succeeded in dislodging the numerically superior Egyptian forces. The Israelis lost about 300 dead, 1,000 wounded, and 56 tanks. The Egyptians suffered heavier casualties, including 118 tanks destroyed and 15 captured. The Egyptians meanwhile failed to grasp the extent and magnitude of the Israeli crossing, nor did they appreciate its intent and purpose. This was partly due to attempts by Egyptian field commanders to obfuscate reports concerning the Israeli crossing and partly due to a false assumption that the canal crossing was merely a diversion for a major IDF offensive targeting the right flank of the Second Army. Consequently, on October 16, General Shazly ordered the 21st Armored Division to attack southward and the T - 62 - equipped 25th Independent Armored Brigade to attack northward in a pincer action to eliminate the perceived threat to the Second Army. The Egyptians failed to scout the area and were unaware that by now, Adan 's 162nd Armored Division was in the vicinity. Moreover, the 21st and 25th failed to coordinate their attacks, allowing General Adan 's Division to meet each force individually. Adan first concentrated his attack on the 21st Armored Division, destroying 50 -- 60 Egyptian tanks and forcing the remainder to retreat. He then turned southward and ambushed the 25th Independent Armored Brigade, destroying 86 of its 96 tanks and all of its APCs while losing three tanks. Egyptian artillery shelled the Israeli bridge over the canal on the morning of October 17, scoring several hits. The Egyptian Air Force launched repeated raids, some with up to twenty aircraft, to take out the bridge and rafts, damaging the bridge. The Egyptians had to shut down their SAM sites during these raids, allowing Israeli fighters to intercept the Egyptians. The Egyptians lost 16 planes and 7 helicopters, while the Israelis lost 6 planes. The bridge was damaged, and the Israeli Paratroop Headquarters, which was near the bridge, was also hit, wounding the commander and his deputy. During the night, the bridge was repaired, but only a trickle of Israeli forces crossed. According to Chaim Herzog, the Egyptians continued attacking the bridgehead until the cease - fire, using artillery and mortars to fire tens of thousands of shells into the area of the crossing. Egyptian aircraft attempted to bomb the bridge every day, and helicopters launched suicide missions, making attempts to drop barrels of napalm on the bridge and bridgehead. The bridges were damaged multiple times, and had to be repaired at night. The attacks caused heavy casualties, and many tanks were sunk when their rafts were hit. Egyptian commandos and frogmen with armored support launched a ground attack against the bridgehead, which was repulsed with the loss of 10 tanks. Two subsequent Egyptian counterattacks were also beaten back. After the failure of the October 17 counterattacks, the Egyptian General Staff slowly began to realize the magnitude of the Israeli offensive. Early on October 18, the Soviets showed Sadat satellite imagery of Israeli forces operating on the west bank. Alarmed, Sadat dispatched Shazly to the front to assess the situation first hand. He no longer trusted his field commanders to provide accurate reports. Shazly confirmed that the Israelis had at least one division on the west bank and were widening their bridgehead. He advocated withdrawing most of Egypt 's armor from the east bank to confront the growing Israeli threat on the west bank. Sadat rejected this recommendation outright and even threatened Shazly with a court martial. Ahmad Ismail Ali recommended that Sadat push for a cease - fire so as to prevent the Israelis from exploiting their successes. Israeli forces were by now pouring across the canal on two bridges, including one of indigenous design, and motorized rafts. Israeli engineers under Brigadier - General Dan Even had worked under heavy Egyptian fire to set up the bridges, and over 100 were killed and hundreds more wounded. The crossing was difficult because of Egyptian artillery fire, though by 4: 00 am, two of Adan 's brigades were on the west bank of the canal. On the morning of October 18, Sharon 's forces on the west bank launched an offensive toward Ismailia, slowly pushing back the Egyptian paratroop brigade occupying the sand rampart northward to enlarge the bridgehead. Some of his units attempted to move west, but were stopped at the crossroads in Nefalia. Adan 's division rolled south toward Suez City while Magen 's division pushed west toward Cairo and south toward Adabiya. On October 19, one of Sharon 's brigades continued to push the Egyptian paratroopers north towards Ismailia until the Israelis were within 8 or 10 km (5 or 6 mi) of the city. Sharon hoped to seize the city and thereby sever the logistical and supply lines for most of the Egyptian Second Army. Sharon 's second brigade began to cross the canal. The brigade 's forward elements moved to the Abu Sultan Camp, from where they moved north to take Orcha, an Egyptian logistics base defended by a commando battalion. Israeli infantrymen cleared the trenches and bunkers, often engaging in hand - to - hand combat, as tanks moved alongside them and fired into the trench sections to their front. The position was secured before nightfall. More than 300 Egyptians were killed and 50 taken prisoner, while the Israelis lost 18 dead. The fall of Orcha caused the collapse of the Egyptian defensive line, allowing more Israeli troops to get onto the sand rampart. There, they were able to fire in support of Israeli troops facing Missouri Ridge, an Egyptian - occupied position on the Bar - Lev Line that could pose a threat to the Israeli crossing. On the same day, Israeli paratroopers participating in Sharon 's drive pushed the Egyptians back far enough for the Israeli bridges to be out of sight of Egyptian artillery observers, though the Egyptians continued shelling the area. As the Israelis pushed towards Ismailia, the Egyptians fought a delaying battle, falling into defensive positions further north as they came under increasing pressure from the Israeli ground offensive, coupled with airstrikes. On October 21, one of Sharon 's brigades was occupying the city 's outskirts, but facing fierce resistance from Egyptian paratroopers and commandos. The same day, Sharon 's last remaining unit on the east bank attacked Missouri Ridge. Shmuel Gonen had demanded Sharon capture the position, and Sharon had reluctantly ordered the attack. The assault was preceded by an air attack that caused hundreds of Egyptian soldiers to flee and thousands of others to dig in. One battalion then attacked from the south, destroying 20 tanks and overrunning infantry positions before being halted by Sagger rockets and minefields. Another battalion attacked from southwest, and was stopped by fortified infantry. The Israelis managed to occupy one - third of Missouri Ridge. Defense Minister Moshe Dayan countermanded orders from Sharon 's superiors to continue the attack. However, the Israelis continued to expand their holdings on the east bank. According to the Israelis, the IDF bridgehead was 40 km (25 mi) wide and 32 km (20 mi) deep by the end of October 21. On October 22, Ismailia 's Egyptian defenders were occupying their last line of defense, but managed to repel an Israeli attempt to get behind Ismailia and encircle the city, then push some of Sharon 's forward troops back to the Sweetwater Canal. The Israeli advance on Ismailia had been stopped 10 km south of the city. Both sides had suffered heavy losses. On the northern front, the Israelis also attacked Port Said, facing Egyptian troops and a 900 - strong Tunisian unit, who fought a defensive battle. The Egyptian government claimed that the city was repeatedly bombed by Israeli jets, and that hundreds of civilians were killed or wounded. Adan and Magen moved south, decisively defeating the Egyptians in a series of engagements, though they often encountered determined Egyptian resistance, and both sides suffered heavy casualties. Adan advanced towards the Sweetwater Canal area, planning to break out into the surrounding desert and hit the Geneifa Hills, where many SAM sites were located. Adan 's three armored brigades fanned out, with one advancing through the Geneifa Hills, another along a parallel road south of them, and the third advancing towards Mina. Adan 's brigades met resistance from dug - in Egyptian forces in the Sweetwater Canal area 's greenbelt. Adan 's other brigades were also held by a line of Egyptian military camps and installations. Adan was also harassed by the Egyptian Air Force. The Israelis slowly advanced, bypassing Egyptian positions whenever possible. After being denied air support due to the presence of two SAM batteries that had been brought forward, Adan sent two brigades to attack them. The brigades slipped past the dug - in Egyptian infantry, moving out from the greenbelt for more than eight kilometres, and fought off multiple Egyptian counterattacks. From a distance of four kilometres, they shelled and destroyed the SAMs, allowing the IAF to provide Adan with close air support. Adan 's troops advanced through the greenbelt and fought their way to the Geneifa Hills, clashing with scattered Egyptian, Kuwaiti, and Palestinian troops. The Israelis clashed with an Egyptian armored unit at Mitzeneft and destroyed multiple SAM sites. Adan also captured Fayid Airport, which was subsequently prepared by Israeli crews to serve as a supply base and to fly out wounded soldiers. 16 kilometres (10 mi) west of the Bitter Lake, Colonel Natke Nir 's brigade overran an Egyptian artillery brigade that had been participating in the shelling of the Israeli bridgehead. Scores of Egyptian artillerymen were killed and many more taken prisoner. Two Israeli soldiers were also killed, including the son of General Moshe Gidron. Meanwhile, Magen 's division moved west and then south, covering Adan 's flank and eventually moving south of Suez City to the Gulf of Suez. The Israeli advance southward reached Port Suez, on the southern boundary of the Suez Canal. The United Nations Security Council passed (14 -- 0) Resolution 338 calling for a ceasefire, largely negotiated between the U.S. and Soviet Union, on October 22. It called upon the belligerents to immediately cease all military activity. The cease - fire was to come into effect 12 hours later at 6: 52 pm Israeli time. Because this was after dark, it was impossible for satellite surveillance to determine where the front lines were when the fighting was supposed to stop. U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger intimated to Prime Minister Meir that he would not object to offensive action during the night before the ceasefire was to come into effect. Several minutes before the ceasefire came into effect, three Scud missiles were fired at Israeli targets by either Egyptian forces or Soviet personnel in Egypt. This was the first combat use of Scud missiles. One Scud targeted the port of Arish and two targeted the Israeli bridgehead on the Suez Canal. One hit an Israeli supply convoy and killed seven soldiers. When the time for the ceasefire arrived, Sharon 's division had failed to capture Ismailia and cut off the Second Army 's supply lines, but Israeli forces were just a few hundred metres short of their southern goal -- the last road linking Cairo and Suez. Adan 's drive south had left Israeli and Egyptian units scattered throughout the battlefield, with no clear lines between them. As Egyptian and Israeli units tried to regroup, regular firefights broke out. During the night, Elazar reported that the Egyptians were attacking in an attempt to regain land at various locations, and that nine Israeli tanks had been destroyed. He asked permission from Dayan to respond to the attacks and Dayan agreed. Israel then resumed its drive south. It is unclear which side fired first but Israeli field commanders used the skirmishes as justification to resume the attacks. When Sadat protested alleged Israeli truce violations, Israel said that Egyptian troops had fired first. William B. Quandt noted that regardless of who fired the first post-ceasefire shot, it was the Israeli Army that was advancing beyond the October 22 ceasefire lines. Adan resumed his attack on October 23. Israeli troops finished the drive south, captured the last ancillary road south of the port of Suez, and encircled the Egyptian Third Army east of the Suez Canal. The Israelis then transported enormous amounts of military equipment across the canal, which Egypt claimed was in violation of the ceasefire. Egyptian aircraft launched repeated attacks in support of the Third Army, sometimes in groups of up to 30 planes, but took severe losses. Israeli armor and paratroopers also entered Suez in an attempt to capture the city, but they were confronted by Egyptian soldiers and hastily raised local militia forces. They were surrounded, but towards night the Israeli forces managed to extricate themselves. The Israelis had lost 80 dead and 120 wounded, with an unknown number of Egyptian casualties, for no tactical gain (see Battle of Suez). The next morning, October 23, a flurry of diplomatic activity occurred. Soviet reconnaissance flights had confirmed that Israeli forces were moving south, and the Soviets accused the Israelis of treachery. Kissinger called Meir in an effort to persuade her to withdraw a few hundred metres and she indicated that Israel 's tactical position on the ground had improved. Kissinger found out about the Third Army 's encirclement shortly thereafter. Kissinger considered that the situation presented the United States with a tremendous opportunity and that Egypt was dependent on the United States to prevent Israel from destroying its trapped army. The position could be parlayed later into allowing the United States to mediate the dispute and wean Egypt from Soviet influence. As a result, the United States exerted tremendous pressure on the Israelis to refrain from destroying the trapped army, even threatening to support a UN resolution demanding that the Israelis withdraw to their October 22 positions if they did not allow non-military supplies to reach the army. In a phone call with Israeli ambassador Simcha Dinitz, Kissinger told the ambassador that the destruction of the Egyptian Third Army "is an option that does not exist. '' Despite being surrounded, the Third Army managed to maintain its combat integrity east of the canal and keep up its defensive positions, to the surprise of many. According to Trevor N. Dupuy, the Israelis, Soviets and Americans overestimated the vulnerability of the Third Army at the time. It was not on the verge of collapse, and he wrote that while a renewed Israeli offensive would probably overcome it, this was not a certainty, and according to David Elazar chief of Israeli headquarter staff on December 3, 1973: "As for the third army, in spite of our encircling them they resisted and advanced to occupy in fact a wider area of land at the east. Thus, we can not say that we defeated or conquered them. '' David T. Buckwalter agrees that despite the isolation of the Third Army, it was unclear if the Israelis could have protected their forces on the west bank of the canal from a determined Egyptian assault and still maintain sufficient strength along the rest of the front. This assessment was challenged by Patrick Seale, who stated that the Third Army was "on the brink of collapse ''. Seale 's position was supported by P.R. Kumaraswamy, who wrote that intense American pressure prevented the Israelis from annihilating the stranded Third Army. Herzog noted that given the Third Army 's desperate situation, in terms of being cut off from re-supply and reassertion of Israeli air superiority, the destruction of the Third Army was inevitable and could have been achieved within a very brief period. Shazly himself described the Third Army 's plight as "desperate '' and classified its encirclement as a "catastrophe that was too big to hide ''. He further noted that, "the fate of the Egyptian Third Army was in the hands of Israel. Once the Third Army was encircled by Israeli troops every bit of bread to be sent to our men was paid for by meeting Israeli demands. '' Shortly before the ceasefire came into effect, an Israeli tank battalion advanced into Adabiya, and took it with support from the Israeli Navy. Some 1,500 Egyptian prisoners were taken, and about a hundred Egyptian soldiers assembled just south of Adabiya, where they held out against the Israelis. The Israelis also conducted their third and final incursion into Suez. They made some gains, but failed to break into the city center. As a result, the city was partitioned down the main street, with the Egyptians holding the city center and the Israelis controlling the outskirts, port installations and oil refinery, effectively surrounding the Egyptian defenders. On the morning of October 26, the Egyptian Third Army violated the ceasefire by attempting to break through surrounding Israeli forces. The attack was repulsed by Israeli air and ground forces. The Egyptians also made minor gains in attacks against Sharon 's forces in the Ismailia area. The Israelis reacted by bombing and shelling priority targets in Egypt, including command posts and water reserves. The front was quieter in the Second Army 's sector in the northern canal area, where both sides generally respected the ceasefire. Though most heavy fighting ended on October 28, the fighting never stopped until January 18, 1974. Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Dayan stated that "The cease - fire existed on paper, but the continued firing along the front was not the only characteristic of the situation between October 24, 1973 and January 18, 1974. This intermediate period also held the ever - present possibility of a renewal of full - scale war. There were three variations on how it might break out, two Egyptian and one Israeli. One Egyptian plan was to attack Israeli units west of the canal from the direction of Cairo. The other was to cut off the Israeli canal bridgehead by a link - up of the Second and Third Armies on the east bank. Both plans were based on massive artillery pounding of Israeli forces, who were not well fortified and who would suffer heavy casualties. It was therefore thought that Israel would withdraw from the west bank, since she was most sensitive on the subject of soldier 's lives. Egypt, at the time had a total of 1,700 first - line tanks on both sides of the canal front, 700 on the east bank and 1,000 on the west bank. Also on the west bank, in the second line, were an additional 600 tanks for the defense of Cairo. She had some 2,000 artillery pieces, about 500 operational aircraft, and at least 130 SAM missile batteries positioned around our forces so as to deny us air support. '' The IDF acknowledged the loss of 14 soldiers during this postwar period. Egyptian losses were higher, especially in the sector controlled by General Ariel Sharon, who ordered his troops to respond with massive firepower to any Egyptian provocation. Some aerial battles took place, and the Israelis also shot down several helicopters attempting to resupply the Third Army. By the end of the war, the Israelis had advanced to positions some 101 kilometres from Egypt 's capital, Cairo, and occupied 1,600 square kilometres west of the Suez Canal. They had also cut the Cairo - Suez road and encircled the bulk of Egypt 's Third Army. The Israelis had also taken many prisoners after Egyptian soldiers, including many officers, began surrendering in masses towards the end of the war. The Egyptians held a narrow strip on the east bank of the canal, occupying some 1,200 square kilometres of the Sinai. One source estimated that the Egyptians had 70,000 men, 720 tanks and 994 artillery pieces on the east bank of the canal. However, 30,000 to 45,000 of them were now encircled by the Israelis. Despite Israel 's tactical successes west of the canal, the Egyptian military was reformed and organized. Consequently, according to Gamasy, the Israeli military position became "weak '' for different reasons, "One, Israel now had a large force (about six or seven brigades) in a very limited area of land, surrounded from all sides either by natural or man - made barriers, or by the Egyptian forces. This put it in a weak position. Moreover, there were the difficulties in supplying this force, in evacuating it, in the lengthy communication lines, and in the daily attrition in men and equipment. Two, to protect these troops, the Israeli command had to allocate other forces (four or five brigades) to defend the entrances to the breach at the Deversoir. Three, to immobilize the Egyptian bridgeheads in Sinai the Israeli command had to allocate ten brigades to face the Second and Third army bridgeheads. In addition, it became necessary to keep the strategic reserves at their maximum state of alert. Thus, Israel was obliged to keep its armed force - and consequently the country - mobilized for a long period, at least until the war came to an end, because the ceasefire did not signal the end of the war. There is no doubt that this in total conflict with its military theories. '' For those reasons and according to Dayan, "It was therefore thought that Israel would withdraw from the west bank, since she was most sensitive on the subject of soldier 's lives. '' The Egyptian forces did n't pull to the west and held onto their positions east of the canal controlling both shores of the Suez Canal. None of the Canal 's main cities were occupied by Israel; however, the city of Suez was surrounded. Egypt wished to end the war when they realized that the IDF canal crossing offensive could result in a catastrophe. The Egyptian 's besieged Third Army could not hold on without supply. The Israeli Army advanced to 100 km from Cairo, which worried Egypt. The Israeli army had open terrain and no opposition to advance further to Cairo; had they done so, Sadat 's rule might have ended. In the Golan Heights, the Syrians attacked two Israeli brigades and eleven artillery batteries with five divisions (the 7th, 9th and 5th, with the 1st and 3rd in reserve) and 188 batteries. They began their attack with an airstrike by about 100 aircraft and a 50 - minute artillery barrage. The forward brigades of three divisions then penetrated the cease - fire lines and bypassed United Nations observer posts, followed by the main assault force, which was covered by mobile anti-aircraft batteries, bulldozers to penetrate anti-tank ditches, bridge - layers to overcome obstacles and mine - clearance vehicles. The engineering vehicles were priority targets for Israeli gunners and took heavy losses, but Syrian infantrymen, braving intense fire, advanced forward and used their entrenching tools to build up earthen causeways for the tanks, enabling them to overcome anti-tank ditches. At the onset of the battle, the Israeli brigades of some 3,000 troops, 180 tanks and 60 artillery pieces faced off against three infantry divisions with large armor components comprising 28,000 Syrian troops, 800 tanks and 600 artillery pieces. In addition, the Syrians deployed two armored divisions from the second day onwards. Every Israeli tank deployed on the Golan Heights was engaged during the initial attacks. Syrian commandos dropped by helicopter also took the most important Israeli stronghold at Mount Hermon, which had a variety of surveillance equipment. An Israeli force attempting to counterattack was stopped by a Syrian ambush. The Golan Heights front was given priority by the Israeli High Command because of its proximity to Israeli population centers. If the Syrians had regained the area, it would pose a serious threat to major Israeli cities such as Tiberias, Safed, Haifa and Netanya. Reservists were directed to the Golan as quickly as possible. They were assigned to tanks and sent to the front as soon as they arrived at army depots, without waiting for the crews they trained with to arrive, machine guns to be installed on the tanks, or taking the time to calibrate the tank guns (a time - consuming process known as bore - sighting). The Syrians had expected it to take at least 24 hours for Israeli reserves to reach the front lines; in fact, reserve units began reaching the battle lines only 15 hours after the war began. Israeli reserve forces approaching the Golan Heights were subjected to Syrian artillery fire directed from Mount Hermon. As the Egyptians had in the Sinai, the Syrians took care to stay under cover of their SAM batteries. Also as in the Sinai, the Syrians made use of Soviet anti-tank weapons, though they were not as effective as in the Sinai because of the uneven terrain. The Israeli Air Force initially lost 40 planes from Syrian anti-aircraft batteries, but Israeli pilots soon adopted a different tactic; flying in low over Jordan and diving in over the Golan heights, catching the Syrians in the flank and avoiding many of their batteries. Israeli aircraft dropped both conventional bombs and napalm, devastating Syrian armored columns. However, the Syrian Air Force repeatedly struck Israeli positions during this period. On the second day of the war, the Israeli Air Force attempted to take out the Syrian anti-aircraft batteries. Codenamed Doogman 5, the attempt was a costly failure. The Israelis destroyed one Syrian missile battery and lost six aircraft. Syrian forces suffered heavy losses as Israeli tanks and infantry fought desperately to buy time for reserve forces to reach the front lines, and conducted stopgap blocking actions whenever the Syrians were on the verge of breaking through. Having practiced on the Golan Heights numerous times, Israeli gunners made effective use of mobile artillery. However, the Syrians pressed the attack in spite of their losses, and the vastly outnumbered defenders lost a number of tanks. Within six hours of the initial assault, the first Israeli line of defense was overrun by sheer weight of numbers, but the Israelis continued to resist. A Syrian tank brigade passing through the Rafid Gap turned northwest up a little - used route known as the Tapline Road, which cut diagonally across the Golan. This roadway would prove one of the main strategic hinges of the battle. It led straight from the main Syrian breakthrough points to Nafah, which was not only the location of Israeli divisional headquarters but the most important crossroads on the Heights. During the night, Israeli forces successfully held back numerically superior Syrian forces. The Syrians were equipped with night - vision goggles, and struck with precision. The Israelis had to allow the Syrians to advance to ranges close enough for night fighting, and then open fire. Whenever Syrian tanks penetrated the Israeli lines, Israeli gunners would immediately rotate their turrets and destroy them before turning their attention back to the oncoming forces. Israeli tank commander Avigdor Kahalani lined up his tanks and began a barrage of gunfire into the valley beyond their position, leading the Syrians to believe that they were facing a vast Israeli tank armada. During the night, the Syrians regained some of the high ground that Israel had held since the Six - Day War, but were soon pushed off by an Israeli counterattack. Lieutenant Zvika Greengold, who arrived unattached to any unit, fought running battles with Syrian armor for 20 hours, sometimes with his single tank and other times as part of a larger unit, changing tanks half a dozen times as they were knocked out. Greengold suffered burn injuries, but stayed in action and repeatedly showed up at critical moments from an unexpected direction to change the course of a skirmish. For his actions, he received Israel 's highest decoration, the Medal of Valor. During over four days of fighting, the Israeli 7th Armored Brigade in the north (commanded by Avigdor Ben - Gal) managed to hold the rocky hill line defending the northern flank of their headquarters in Nafah, inflicting heavy losses on the Syrians. Syrian Brigadier - General Omar Abrash was killed on the third day of the fighting when his command tank was hit as he was preparing for an attack. However, the Syrians continued to press their attack, and the brigade began weakening as it took losses. By the afternoon of October 9, only six of the brigade 's tanks remained in action, defending a clear path into northern Israel. After the brigade 's tanks were down to their last few rounds, they began to pull back. However, right then, a force of some 15 tanks which had been scrambled by Lt. Col. Yossi Ben - Hanan arrived. Although the group was in fact a scratch force of repaired tanks which had injured men among their crews, the Syrians, who had been exhausted by three days of continuous fighting, believed that the Israeli reserves were now arriving, and began to retreat. To the south, the Israeli Barak Armored Brigade was bereft of any natural defenses. The Syrians were initially slowed down by a minefield. The Barak Brigade 's gunners inflicted severe losses on the Syrians with accurate cannon fire, but Syrians continued pushing and the Barak Brigade began to take heavy casualties. The Israelis continued to fight desperately, hoping to buy time for reserve forces to reach the front lines. In several instances, some tank crews sacrificed themselves rather than voluntarily give ground. At night, the Syrians made deadly use of infrared technology, while the Israelis responded by using illumination rounds and xenon light projectors on their tanks and carried out a series of small blocking actions. Brigade Commander Colonel Shoham was killed on the second day, along with his second - in - command and operations officer, as the Syrians desperately tried to advance towards the Sea of Galilee and Nafah. At this point, the Barak Brigade was no longer a cohesive force, although surviving tanks and crewmen continued fighting independently. The Syrians were close to reaching the Israeli defenders at Nafah, yet stopped the advance on Nafah 's fences at 1700; the pause lasted all night, allowing Israeli forces to form a defensive line. It is surmised that the Syrians had calculated estimated advances, and the commanders in the field did not want to diverge from the plan. The tide in the Golan began to turn as arriving Israeli reserve forces were able to contain the Syrian advance. Beginning on October 8, the Israelis began pushing the Syrians back towards the pre-war ceasefire lines, inflicting heavy tank losses. Another Syrian attack north of Quneitra was repulsed. The tiny Golan Heights were too small to act as an effective territorial buffer, unlike the Sinai Peninsula in the south, but it proved to be a strategic geographical stronghold and was a crucial key in preventing the Syrians from bombarding the cities below. The Israelis, who had suffered heavy casualties during the first three days of fighting, also began relying more heavily on artillery to dislodge the Syrians at long - range. On October 9, Syrian FROG - 7 surface - to - surface missiles struck the Israeli Air Force base of Ramat David, killing a pilot and injuring several soldiers. Additional missiles struck civilian settlements. In retaliation, seven Israeli F - 4 Phantoms flew into Syria and struck the Syrian General Staff Headquarters in Damascus. The jets struck from Lebanese airspace to avoid the heavily defended regions around the Golan Heights, attacking a Lebanese radar station along the way. The upper floors of the Syrian GHQ and the Air Force Command were badly damaged. A Soviet cultural center, a television station, and other nearby structures were also mistakenly hit. One Israeli Phantom was shot down. The strike prompted the Syrians to transfer air defense units from the Golan Heights to the home front, allowing the Israeli Air Force greater freedom of action. On October 9, as the last Syrian units were being driven from the Golan Heights, the Syrians launched a counterattack north of Quneitra. As part of the operation, they attempted to land heli - borne troops in the vicinity of El Rom. The counterattack was repulsed, and four Syrian helicopters were shot down with total loss of life. By October 10, the last Syrian unit in the central sector was pushed back across the Purple Line, the pre-war ceasefire line. After four days of intense and incessant combat, the Israelis had succeeded in ejecting the Syrians from the entire Golan. A decision now had to be made -- whether to stop at the post-1967 border or to continue advancing into Syrian territory. The Israeli High Command spent all of October 10 debating well into the night. Some favored disengagement, which would allow soldiers to be redeployed to the Sinai (Shmuel Gonen 's defeat at Hizayon in the Sinai had taken place two days earlier). Others favored continuing the attack into Syria, towards Damascus, which would knock Syria out of the war; it would also restore Israel 's image as the supreme military power in the Middle East and would give Israel a valuable bargaining chip once the war ended. Others countered that Syria had strong defenses -- antitank ditches, minefields, and strongpoints -- and that it would be better to fight from defensive positions in the Golan Heights (rather than the flat terrain deeper in Syria) in the event of another war with Syria. However, Prime Minister Golda Meir realized the most crucial point of the whole debate: It would take four days to shift a division to the Sinai. If the war ended during this period, the war would end with a territorial loss for Israel in the Sinai and no gain in the north -- an unmitigated defeat. This was a political matter and her decision was unmitigating -- to cross the purple line... The attack would be launched tomorrow, Thursday, October 11. On October 11, Israeli forces pushed into Syria and advanced towards Damascus along the Quneitra - Damascus road until October 14, encountering stiff resistance by Syrian reservists in prepared defenses. Three Israeli divisions broke the first and second defensive lines near Sasa, and conquered a further 50 square kilometres of territory in the Bashan salient. From there, they were able to shell the outskirts of Damascus, only 40 km away, using M107 heavy artillery. On October 12, Israeli paratroopers from the elite Sayeret Tzanhanim reconnaissance unit launched Operation Gown, infiltrating deep into Syria and destroying a bridge in the tri-border area of Syria, Iraq, and Jordan. The operation disrupted the flow of weapons and troops to Syria. During the operation, the paratroopers destroyed a number of tank transports and killed several Syrian soldiers. There were no Israeli casualties. As the Syrian position deteriorated, Jordan sent an expeditionary force into Syria. King Hussein, who had come under intense pressure to enter the war, told Israel of his intentions through U.S. intermediaries, in the hope that Israel would accept that this was not a casus belli justifying an attack on Jordan. Israeli Defense Minister Moshe Dayan declined to offer any such assurance, but said that Israel had no intention of opening another front. Iraq also sent an expeditionary force to Syria, consisting of the 3rd and 6th Armoured Divisions, some 30,000 men, 250 -- 500 tanks, and 700 APCs. Israeli jets attacked Iraqi forces as they arrived in Syria. The Iraqi divisions were a strategic surprise for the IDF, which had expected 24 - hour - plus advance intelligence of such moves. This turned into an operational surprise, as the Iraqis attacked the exposed southern flank of the advancing Israeli armor, forcing its advance units to retreat a few kilometres in order to prevent encirclement. Combined Syrian, Iraqi and Jordanian counterattacks prevented any further Israeli gains. However, they were unable to push the Israelis back from the Bashan salient, and suffered heavy losses in their engagements with the Israelis. The most effective attack took place on October 20, though Arab forces lost 120 tanks in that engagement. The Syrian Air Force attacked Israeli columns, but its operations were highly limited because of Israeli air superiority, and it suffered heavy losses in dogfights with Israeli jets. On October 23, a large air battle took place near Damascus during which the Israelis shot down 10 Syrian aircraft. The Syrians claimed a similar toll against Israel. The IDF also destroyed the Syrian missile defense system. The Israeli Air Force utilized its air superiority to attack strategic targets throughout Syria, including important power plants, petrol supplies, bridges and main roads. The strikes weakened the Syrian war effort, disrupted Soviet efforts to airlift military equipment into Syria, and disrupted normal life inside the country. On October 22, the Golani Brigade and Sayeret Matkal commandos recaptured the outpost on Mount Hermon, after a hard - fought battle that involved hand - to - hand combat and Syrian sniper attacks. An unsuccessful attack two weeks prior had cost the Israelis 23 dead and 55 wounded and the Syrians 29 dead and 11 wounded, while this second attack cost Israel an additional 55 dead and 79 wounded. An unknown number of Syrians were also killed and some were taken prisoner. An IDF D9 bulldozer supported by infantry forced its way to the peak. An Israeli paratroop force, landing by helicopter took the corresponding Syrian Hermon outposts on the mountain, killing more than a dozen Syrians while losing one dead and four wounded. Seven Syrian MiGs and two Syrian helicopters carrying reinforcements were shot down as they attempted to intercede. The Syrians prepared for a massive counteroffensive to drive Israeli forces out of Syria, scheduled for October 23. A total of five Syrian divisions were to take part, alongside the Iraqi and Jordanian expeditionary forces. The Soviets had replaced most of the losses Syria 's tank forces had suffered during the first weeks of the war. However, the day before the offensive was to begin, the United Nations imposed its ceasefire (following the acquiescence of both Israel and Egypt). Abraham Rabinovich claimed that "The acceptance by Egypt of the cease - fire on Monday (October 22) created a major dilemma for Assad. The cease - fire did not bind him, but its implications could not be ignored. Some on the Syrian General Staff favored going ahead with the attack, arguing that if it did so Egypt would feel obliged to continue fighting as well... Others, however, argued that continuation of the war would legitimize Israel 's efforts to destroy the Egyptian Third Army. In that case, Egypt would not come to Syria 's assistance when Israel turned its full might northward, destroying Syria 's infrastructure and perhaps attacking Damascus ''. Ultimately, Syrian President Hafez al - Assad decided to cancel the offensive. On October 23, the day the offensive was to begin, Syria announced that it had accepted the ceasefire, and ordered its troops to cease fire, while the Iraqi government ordered its forces home. Following the UN ceasefire, there were constant artillery exchanges and skirmishes, and Israeli forces continued to occupy positions deep within Syria. According to Syrian Foreign Minister Abdel Halim Khaddam, Syria 's constant artillery attacks were "part of a deliberate war of attrition designed to paralyse the Israeli economy '', and were intended to pressure Israel into yielding the occupied territory. Some aerial engagements took place, and both sides lost several aircraft. In spring 1974, the Syrians attempted to retake the summit of Mount Hermon. The fighting lasted for more than a month and saw heavy losses on both sides, but the Israelis held their positions. The situation continued until a May 1974 disengagement agreement. The U.S. pressed King Hussein to keep Jordan out of the war. Though King Hussein of Jordan initially refrained from entering the conflict, on the night of October 12 -- 13 Jordanian troops deployed to the Jordanian - Syrian frontier to buttress Syrian troops, and Jordanian forces joined Syrian and Iraqi assaults on Israeli positions on October 16 and October 19. Hussein sent a second brigade to the Golan front on October 21. According to historian Assaf David, declassified U.S. documents show that the Jordanian participation was only a token to preserve King Hussein 's status in the Arab world. The documents reveal that Israel and Jordan had a tacit understanding that the Jordanian units would try to stay out of the fighting and Israel would try to not attack them. The Israeli Army advanced to a 40 km distance from Damascus from where they were able to shell the outskirts of Damascus using M107 heavy artillery. On the first day of the war, Egyptian missile boats bombarded the Sinai Mediterranean coast, targeting Rumana and Ras Beyron, Ras Masala and Ras Sudar on the Gulf of Suez, and Sharm el - Sheikh. Egyptian naval frogmen also raided the oil installations at Bala'eem, disabling the massive driller. The Battle of Latakia, between the Israeli and Syrian navies, took place on October 7, the second day of the war. Five Israeli missile boats heading towards the Syrian port of Latakia, sank a Syrian torpedo boat and minesweeper before encountering five Syrian missile boats. The Israelis used electronic countermeasures and chaff to evade Syrian missiles, then sank all five Syrian missile boats. This revolutionary engagement, the first between missile boats using surface - to - surface missiles, proved the potency of small, fast missile boats equipped with advanced ECM packages. The battle also established the Israeli Navy, long derided as the "black sheep '' of the Israeli military, as a formidable and effective force in its own right. The port of Latakia was the site of another engagement between October 10 -- 11, when Israeli missile boats fired into the port, targeting two Syrian missile boats spotted maneuvering among merchant ships. Both Syrian vessels were sunk, and two merchant ships were mistakenly hit and sunk. October 7 also witnessed the Battle of Marsa Talamat. Two Israeli Dabur class patrol boats patrolling in the Gulf of Suez encountered two Egyptian Zodiac boats loaded with Egyptian naval commandos, a patrol boat, backed up by coastal guns. The Israeli patrol boats sank both Zodiacs and the patrol boat, though both suffered damage during the battle. The Battle of Baltim, which took place on October 8 -- 9 off the coast of Baltim and Damietta, ended in a decisive Israeli victory. Six Israeli missile boats heading towards Port Said encountered four Egyptian missile boats coming from Alexandria. In an engagement lasting about forty minutes, the Israelis evaded Egyptian Styx missiles using electronic countermeasures and sank three of the Egyptian missile boats with Gabriel missiles and gunfire. The Battles of Latakia and Baltim "drastically changed the operational situation at sea to Israeli advantage ''. Five nights after the Battle of Baltim, five Israeli patrol boats entered the Egyptian anchorage at Ras Ghareb, where over fifty Egyptian small patrol craft, including armed fishing boats mobilized for the war effort and loaded with troops, ammunition and supplies bound for the Israeli side of the Gulf, were based. In the battle that followed, 19 Egyptian boats were sunk, while others remained bottled up in port. The Israeli Navy had control of the Gulf of Suez during the war, which made possible the continued deployment of an Israeli SAM battery near an Israeli naval base close to the southern end of the Suez Canal, depriving the Egyptian Third Army of air support and preventing it from moving southward and attempting to capture the southern Sinai. Israeli commandos from Shayetet 13, the Israeli Navy 's elite special unit, infiltrated the Egyptian port of Hurghada on the night of October 9 -- 10 and sank a Komar - class missile boat after four previous attempts had failed. After another infiltration attempt failed, the commandos successfully infiltrated Hurghada again on the night of October 21 -- 22 and heavily damaged a missile boat with M72 LAW rockets. During one of the raids, the commandos also blew up the port 's main docking pier. On October 16, Shayetet 13 commandos infiltrated Port Said in two Hazir mini-submarines to strike Egyptian naval targets. During the raid, the commandos sank a torpedo boat, a coast guard boat, a tank landing craft, and a missile boat. Two frogmen went missing during the operation. On October 18, Israeli frogmen set off an explosion that severed two underwater communications cables off Beirut, one of which led to Alexandria and the other to Marseilles. As a result, telex and telecommunications between the West and Syria were severed, and were not restored until the cables were repaired on October 27. The cables had also been used by the Syrians and Egyptians to communicate with each other in preference to using radio, which was monitored by Israeli, U.S. and Soviet intelligence. Egypt and Syria resorted to communicating via a Jordanian radio station in Ajloun, bouncing the signals off a U.S. satellite. On October 11, Israeli missile boats sank two Syrian missile boats in an engagement off Tartus. During the battle, a Soviet merchant ship was hit by Israeli missiles and sank. Having decisively beaten the Egyptian and Syrian navies, the Israeli Navy had the run of the coastlines. Israeli missile boats utilized their 76mm cannons and other armaments to strike targets along the Egyptian and Syrian coastlines, including wharves, oil tank farms, coastal batteries, radar stations, airstrips, and other targets of military value. The Israeli Navy even attacked some of Egypt 's northernmost SAM batteries. The Israeli Navy 's attacks were carried out with minimal support from the Israeli Air Force (only one Arab naval target was destroyed from the air during the entire war). The Egyptian Navy managed to enforce a blockade at Bab - el - Mandeb. Eighteen million tons of oil had been transported yearly from Iran to Israel through the straits of Bab - el - Mandeb. The blockade was enforced by two Egyptian destroyers and two submarines, supported by ancillary craft. Shipping destined for Israel through the Gulf of Eilat was halted by the Egyptians. The Israeli Navy had no means of lifting the blockade due to the long range involved, and the Israeli Air Force, apparently also incapable of lifting the blockade, did not challenge it. The blockade was lifted on November 1, after Israel used the surrounded Egyptian Third Army as a bargaining chip. The Egyptians unsuccessfully attempted to blockade the Israeli Mediterranean coastline, and mined the Gulf of Suez to prevent the transportation of oil from the Bala'eem and Abu Rudeis oil fields in southwestern Sinai to Eilat in southern Israel. Two oil tankers, of 48,000 ton and 2,000 ton capacity, sank after hitting mines in the Gulf. According to Admiral Ze'ev Almog, the Israeli Navy escorted tankers from the Gulf to Eilat throughout the war, and Israeli tankers sailing from Iran were directed to bypass the Red Sea. As a result of these actions and the failure of Egypt 's Mediterranean blockade, the transport of oil, grain and weapons to Israeli ports was made possible throughout nearly the entire war. A post-war survey found that during the entire war period, Israel suffered no oil shortages, and even sold oil to third parties affected by the Arab oil embargo. This claim was disputed by Edgar O'Ballance, who claimed that no oil went to Israel during the blockade, and the Eilat - Ashdod pipeline was empty by the end of the war. Israel responded with a counter-blockade of Egypt in the Gulf of Suez. The Israeli blockade was enforced by naval vessels based at Sharm el - Sheikh and the Sinai coast facing the Gulf of Suez. The Israeli blockade substantially damaged the Egyptian economy. According to historian Gammal Hammad, Egypt 's principal ports, Alexandria and Port Safaga, remained open to shipping throughout the war. Throughout the war, the Israeli Navy enjoyed complete command of the seas both in the Mediterranean approaches and in the Gulf of Suez. During the last week of the war, Egyptian frogmen carried out three or four raids on Eilat. The attacks caused minor damage, but created some alarm. According to Israeli and Western sources, the Israelis lost no vessels in the war. Israeli vessels were "targeted by as many as 52 Soviet - made anti-ship missiles '', but none hit their targets. According to historian Benny Morris, the Egyptians lost seven missile boats and four torpedo boats and coastal defense craft, while the Syrians lost five missile boats, one minesweeper, and one coastal defense vessel. All together, the Israeli Navy suffered three dead or missing and seven wounded. Syria ignored the Geneva Conventions and many Israeli prisoners of war were tortured or killed. Advancing Israeli forces, re-capturing land taken by the Syrians early in the war, came across the bodies of 28 Israeli soldiers who had been blindfolded with their hands bound and summarily executed. In a December 1973 address to the National Assembly, Syrian Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass stated that he had awarded one soldier the Medal of the Republic for killing 28 Israeli prisoners with an axe, decapitating three of them and eating the flesh of one of his victims. The Syrians employed brutal interrogation techniques utilizing electric shocks to the genitals. A number of Israeli soldiers taken prisoner on Mount Hermon were executed. Near the village of Hushniye, the Syrians captured 11 administrative personnel from the Golan Heights Force, all of whom were later found dead, blindfolded and with their hands tied behind their backs. Within Hushniye, seven Israeli prisoners were found dead, and another three were executed at Tel Zohar. Syrian prisoners who fell into Israeli captivity confirmed that their comrades killed IDF prisoners. Some Israeli POWs reported having their fingernails ripped out while others were described as being turned into human ashtrays as their Syrian guards burned them with lit cigarettes. A report submitted by the chief medical officer of the Israeli army notes that, "the vast majority of (Israeli) prisoners were exposed during their imprisonment to severe physical and mental torture. The usual methods of torture were beatings aimed at various parts of the body, electric shocks, wounds deliberately inflicted on the ears, burns on the legs, suspension in painful positions and other methods. '' Following the conclusion of hostilities, Syria would not release the names of prisoners it was holding to the International Committee of the Red Cross and in fact, did not even acknowledge holding any prisoners despite the fact they were publicly exhibited by the Syrians for television crews. The Syrians, having been thoroughly defeated by Israel, were attempting to use their captives as their sole bargaining chip in the post-war negotiations. One of the most famous Israeli POWs was Avraham Lanir, an Israeli pilot who bailed out over Syria and was taken prisoner. Lanir died under Syrian interrogation. When his body was returned in 1974, it exhibited signs of torture. Israeli historian Aryeh Yitzhaki estimated that the Egyptians killed about 200 Israeli soldiers who had surrendered. Yitzhaki based his claim on army documents. In addition, dozens of Israeli prisoners were beaten and otherwise mistreated in Egyptian captivity. Individual Israeli soldiers gave testimony of witnessing comrades killed after surrendering to the Egyptians, or seeing the bodies of Israeli soldiers found blindfolded with their hands tied behind their backs. Avi Yaffe, a radioman serving on the Bar - Lev Line, reported hearing calls from other soldiers that the Egyptians were killing anyone who tried to surrender, and also obtained recordings of soldiers who were saved from Egyptian firing squads. Photographic evidence of such executions exists, though some of it has never been made public. Photos were also found of Israeli prisoners who were photographed alive in Egyptian captivity, but were returned to Israel dead. The order to kill Israeli prisoners came from General Shazly, who, in a pamphlet distributed to Egyptian soldiers immediately before the war, advised his troops to kill Israeli soldiers even if they surrendered. The U.S. intelligence community -- which includes the CIA -- failed to predict in advance the Egyptian - Syrian attack on Israel. A U.S. intelligence report as late as October 4 still stated that "We continue to believe that an outbreak of major Arab -- Israeli hostilities remains unlikely for the immediate future ''. However, one U.S. government source that was able to predict the approaching war was Roger Merrick, an analyst working for the INR (Intelligence and Research section in the State Department), but his conclusions were ignored at the time, and the report he had written to that effect was only rediscovered by U.S. government archive officials in 2013. Based on intelligence estimates at the commencement of hostilities, American leaders expected the tide of the war to quickly shift in Israel 's favor, and that Arab armies would be completely defeated within 72 to 96 hours. On October 6, Secretary of State Kissinger convened the National Security Council 's official crisis management group, the Washington Special Actions Group, which debated whether the U.S. should supply additional arms to Israel. High - ranking representatives of the Defense and State Departments opposed such a move. Kissinger was the sole dissenter; he said that if the U.S. refused aid, Israel would have little incentive to conform to American views in postwar diplomacy. Kissinger argued the sending of U.S. aid might cause Israel to moderate its territorial claims, but this thesis raised a protracted debate whether U.S. aid was likely to make it more accommodating or more intransigent toward the Arab world. By October 8, Israel had encountered military difficulties on both fronts. In the Sinai, Israeli efforts to break through Egyptian lines with armor had been thwarted, and while Israel had contained and begun to turn back the Syrian advance, Syrian forces were still overlooking the Jordan River and their air defense systems were inflicting a high toll on Israeli planes. It became clear by October 9 that no quick reversal in Israel 's favor would occur and that IDF losses were unexpectedly high. During the night of October 8 -- 9, an alarmed Dayan told Meir that "this is the end of the third temple. '' He was warning of Israel 's impending total defeat, but "Temple '' was also the code word for Israel 's nuclear weapons. Dayan raised the nuclear topic in a cabinet meeting, warning that the country was approaching a point of "last resort ''. That night Meir authorized the assembly of thirteen 20 - kiloton - of - TNT (84 TJ) tactical nuclear weapons for Jericho missiles at Sdot Micha Airbase and McDonnell Douglas F - 4 Phantom II aircraft at Tel Nof Airbase. They would be used if absolutely necessary to prevent total defeat, but the preparation was done in an easily detectable way, likely as a signal to the United States. Kissinger learned of the nuclear alert on the morning of October 9. That day, President Nixon ordered the commencement of Operation Nickel Grass, an American airlift to replace all of Israel 's material losses. Anecdotal evidence suggests that Kissinger told Sadat that the reason for the U.S. airlift was that the Israelis were close to "going nuclear ''. However, subsequent interviews with Kissinger, Schlesinger, and William Quandt suggested that the nuclear aspect was not a major factor in the decision to re-supply. These officials cited the ongoing Soviet re-supply effort and Sadat 's early rejection of a ceasefire as the primary motivators. European countries refused to allow U.S. airplanes carrying supplies for Israel to refuel at their bases, fearing an Arab oil embargo, with the exception of Portugal and the Netherlands. Portugal permitted the United States to use a leased base in the Azores, and the defence minister of the Netherlands, apparently acting without consulting his cabinet colleagues, secretly authorised the use of Dutch airfields. Israel began receiving supplies via U.S. Air Force cargo airplanes on October 14, although some equipment had arrived on planes from Israel 's national airline El Al before this date. By that time, the IDF had advanced deep into Syria and was mounting a largely successful invasion of the Egyptian mainland from the Sinai, but had taken severe material losses. According to Abraham Rabinovich, "while the American airlift of supplies did not immediately replace Israel 's losses in equipment, it did allow Israel to expend what it did have more freely ''. By the end of Nickel Grass, the United States had shipped 22,395 tons of matériel to Israel. 8,755 tons of it arrived before the end of the war. American C - 141 Starlifter and C - 5 Galaxy aircraft flew 567 missions throughout the airlift. El Al planes flew in an additional 5,500 tons of matériel in 170 flights. The airlift continued after the war until November 14. The United States delivered approximately 90,000 tons of materiel to Israel by sealift by the beginning of December, using 16 ships. 33,210 tons of it arrived by November. By the beginning of December, Israel had received between 34 and 40 F - 4 fighter - bombers, 46 A-4 attack airplanes, 12 C - 130 cargo airplanes, 8 CH - 53 helicopters, 40 unmanned aerial vehicles, 200 M - 60 / M - 48A3 tanks, 250 armored personnel carriers, 226 utility vehicles, 12 MIM - 72 Chaparral surface - to - air missile systems, three MIM - 23 Hawk surface - to - air missile systems, 36 155 mm artillery pieces, seven 175 mm artillery pieces, and large quantities of 105 mm, 155 mm and 175 mm ammunition. State of the art equipment, such as the AGM - 65 Maverick missile and the BGM - 71 TOW, weapons that had only entered production one or more years prior, as well as highly advanced electronic jamming equipment, was also sent. Most of the combat airplanes arrived during the war, and many were taken directly from United States Air Force units. Most of the large equipment arrived after the ceasefire. The total cost of the equipment was approximately US $800 million (US $4.41 billion today). On October 13 and 15, Egyptian air defense radars detected an aircraft at an altitude of 25,000 metres (82,000 ft) and a speed of Mach 3 (3,675 km / h; 2,284 mph), making it impossible to intercept either by fighter or SAM missiles. The aircraft proceeded to cross the whole of the canal zone, the naval ports of the Red Sea (Hurghada and Safaga), flew over the airbases and air defenses in the Nile delta, and finally disappeared from radar screens over the Mediterranean Sea. The speed and altitude were those of the U.S. Lockheed SR - 71 Blackbird, a long - range strategic - reconnaissance aircraft. According to Egyptian commanders, the intelligence provided by the reconnaissance flights helped the Israelis prepare for the Egyptian attack on October 14 and assisted it in conducting Operation Stouthearted Men. Starting on October 9, the Soviet Union began supplying Egypt and Syria by air and by sea. The Soviets airlifted 12,500 -- 15,000 tons of supplies, of which 6,000 tons went to Egypt, 3,750 tons went to Syria and 575 tons went to Iraq. General Shazly, the former Egyptian chief of staff, claimed that more than half of the airlifted Soviet hardware actually went to Syria. According to Ze'ev Schiff, Arab losses were so high and the attrition rate so great that equipment was taken directly from Soviet and Warsaw Pact stores to supply the airlift. Antonov An - 12 and AN - 22 aircraft flew over 900 missions during the airlift. The Soviets supplied another 63,000 tons, mainly to Syria, by means of a sealift by October 30. Historian Gamal Hammad asserts that 400 T - 55 and T - 62 tanks supplied by the sealift were directed towards replacing Syrian losses, transported from Odessa on the Black Sea to the Syrian port of Latakia. Hammad claimed that Egypt did not receive any tanks from the Soviets, a claim disputed by Schiff, who stated that Soviet freighters loaded with tanks and other weapons reached Egyptian, Algerian and Syrian ports throughout the war. The sealift may have included Soviet nuclear weapons, which were not unloaded but kept in Alexandria harbor until November to counter the Israeli nuclear preparations, which Soviet satellites had detected (Soviet intelligence informed Egypt that Israel had armed three nuclear weapons). American concern over possible evidence of nuclear warheads for the Soviet Scud missiles in Egypt contributed to Washington 's decision to go to DEFCON 3. According to documents declassified in 2016, the move to DEFCON 3 was motivated by Central Intelligence Agency reports indicating that the Soviet Union had sent a ship to Egypt carrying nuclear weapons along with two other amphibious vessels. Soviet troops never landed, though the ship supposedly transporting nuclear weapons did arrive in Egypt. Further details are unavailable and may remain classified. On the Golan front, Syrian forces received direct support from Soviet technicians and military personnel. At the start of the war, there were an estimated 2,000 Soviet personnel in Syria, of whom 1,000 were serving in Syrian air defense units. Soviet technicians repaired damaged tanks, SAMs and radar equipment, assembled fighter jets that arrived via the sealift, and drove tanks supplied by the sealift from ports to Damascus. On both the Golan and Sinai fronts, Soviet military personnel retrieved abandoned Israeli military equipment for shipment to Moscow. Soviet advisors were reportedly present in Syrian command posts "at every echelon, from battalion up, including supreme headquarters ''. Some Soviet military personnel went into battle with the Syrians, and it was estimated that 20 were killed in action and more were wounded. In July 1974, Israeli Defense Minister Shimon Peres informed the Knesset that high - ranking Soviet officers had been killed on the Syrian front during the war. There were strong rumors that a handful were taken prisoner, but this was denied. However, it was noted that certain Soviet Jews were allowed to emigrate just after the war, leading to suspicions of a covert exchange. The Observer wrote that seven Soviets in uniform were taken prisoner after surrendering when the Israelis overran their bunker. The Israelis reportedly took the prisoners to Ramat David Airbase for interrogation, and treated the incident with great secrecy. Israeli military intelligence reported that Soviet - piloted MiG - 25 Foxbat interceptor / reconnaissance aircraft overflew the Canal Zone. On October 9, the Soviet cultural center in Damascus was damaged during an Israeli airstrike, and two days later, the Soviet merchant ship Ilya Mechnikov was sunk by the Israeli Navy during a battle off Syria. The Soviets condemned Israeli actions, and there were calls within the government for military retaliation. The Soviets ultimately reacted by deploying two destroyers off the Syrian coast. Soviet warships in the Mediterranean were authorized to open fire on Israeli combatants approaching Soviet convoys and transports. There were several recorded instances of Soviet ships exchanging fire with Israeli forces. In particular, the Soviet minesweeper Rulevoi and the medium landing ship SDK - 137, guarding Soviet transport ships at the Syrian port of Latakia, fired on approaching Israeli jets. During the cease - fire, Henry Kissinger mediated a series of exchanges with the Egyptians, Israelis and the Soviets. On October 24, Sadat publicly appealed for American and Soviet contingents to oversee the ceasefire; it was quickly rejected in a White House statement. Kissinger also met with Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin to discuss convening a peace conference with Geneva as the venue. Later in the evening (9: 35 pm) of October 24 -- 25, Brezhnev sent Nixon a "very urgent '' letter. In that letter, Brezhnev began by noting that Israel was continuing to violate the ceasefire and it posed a challenge to both the U.S. and USSR. He stressed the need to "implement '' the ceasefire resolution and "invited '' the U.S. to join the Soviets "to compel observance of the cease - fire without delay ''. He then threatened "I will say it straight that if you find it impossible to act jointly with us in this matter, we should be faced with the necessity urgently to consider taking appropriate steps unilaterally. We can not allow arbitrariness on the part of Israel. '' The Soviets were threatening to militarily intervene in the war on Egypt 's side if they could not work together to enforce the ceasefire. Kissinger immediately passed the message to White House Chief of Staff Alexander Haig, who met with Nixon for 20 minutes around 10: 30 pm, and reportedly empowered Kissinger to take any necessary action. Kissinger immediately called a meeting of senior officials, including Haig, Defense Secretary James Schlesinger, and CIA Director William Colby. The Watergate scandal had reached its apex, and Nixon was so agitated and discomposed that they decided to handle the matter without him: When Kissinger asked Haig whether (Nixon) should be wakened, the White House chief of staff replied firmly ' No. ' Haig clearly shared Kissinger 's feelings that Nixon was in no shape to make weighty decisions. The meeting produced a conciliatory response, which was sent (in Nixon 's name) to Brezhnev. At the same time, it was decided to increase the Defense Condition (DEFCON) from four to three. Lastly, they approved a message to Sadat (again, in Nixon 's name) asking him to drop his request for Soviet assistance, and threatening that if the Soviets were to intervene, so would the United States. The Soviets placed seven airborne divisions on alert and airlift was marshaled to transport them to the Middle East. An airborne command post was set up in the southern Soviet Union, and several air force units were also alerted. "Reports also indicated that at least one of the divisions and a squadron of transport planes had been moved from the Soviet Union to an airbase in Yugoslavia ''. The Soviets also deployed seven amphibious warfare craft with some 40,000 naval infantry in the Mediterranean. The Soviets quickly detected the increased American defense condition, and were astonished and bewildered at the response. "Who could have imagined the Americans would be so easily frightened, '' said Nikolai Podgorny. "It is not reasonable to become engaged in a war with the United States because of Egypt and Syria, '' said Premier Alexei Kosygin, while KGB chief Yuri Andropov added that "We shall not unleash the Third World War. '' The letter from the U.S. cabinet arrived during the meeting. Brezhnev decided that the Americans were too nervous, and that the best course of action would be to wait to reply. The next morning, the Egyptians agreed to the American suggestion, and dropped their request for assistance from the Soviets, bringing the crisis to an end. In total, Arab countries added up to 100,000 troops to Egypt and Syria 's frontline ranks. Besides Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq, several other Arab states were also involved in this war, providing additional weapons and financing. In addition to its forces in Syria, Iraq sent a single Hawker Hunter squadron to Egypt. The squadron quickly gained a reputation amongst Egyptian field commanders for its skill in air support, particularly in anti-armor strikes. However, nearly all Arab reinforcements came with no logistical plan or support, expecting their hosts to supply them, and in several cases causing logistical problems. On the Syrian front, a lack of coordination between Arab forces led to several instances of friendly fire. Non-state participants: During the course of the war, Palestinian militias from southern Lebanon launched several attacks on Israeli border communities. All of the attempts to infiltrate Israel failed and in all clashes 23 militants were killed and 4 were captured. Most of the activity was focused on Katyusha rocket and anti-tank missile fire on Israeli border communities. In the attacks some civilians were injured, mostly lightly and damage was made to property. In 10 October, after Palestinian militants fired some 40 rockets on Israeli communities, Chief of Staff David Elazar and chief of the Northern Command, Yitzhak Hofi, requested to deploy a force which will cleanse Lebanese villages from Palestinian militants, but the request was declined by Defense Minister Moshe Dayan. The Arab armies (with the exception of the Jordanians), were equipped with predominantly Soviet - made weapons while Israel 's armaments were mostly Western - made. The Arabs ' T - 54 / 55s and T - 62s were equipped with night vision equipment, which the Israeli tanks lacked, giving them an advantage in fighting at night, while Israel tanks had better armor and / or better armament. Israeli tanks also had a distinct advantage while on the ramps, in the "hull - down '' position where steeper angles of depression resulted in less exposure. The main guns of Soviet tanks could only depress 4 degrees. By contrast, the 105 mm guns on Centurion and Patton tanks could depress 10 degrees. The war created a state of emergency in the countries involved in fighting. Upon the outbreak of war, air raid sirens sounded throughout Israel. During the war, blackouts were enforced in major cities. The Egyptian government began to evacuate foreign tourists, and on October 11, 1973, the Egyptian ship Syria left Alexandria to Piraeus with a load of tourists wishing to exit Egypt. The U.S. Interest Section in Cairo also requested U.S. government assistance in removing U.S. tourists to Greece. On October 12, Kissinger ordered the U.S. Interest Section in Cairo to speed up preparations for the departure of U.S. tourists staying in Egypt, while notifying such actions to the IDF in order to avoid accidental military operations against them. Israel suffered between 2,521 and 2,800 killed in action. An additional 7,250 to 8,800 soldiers were wounded. Some 293 Israelis were captured. Approximately 400 Israeli tanks were destroyed. Another 600 were disabled but returned to service after repairs. A major Israeli advantage, noted by many observers, was their ability to quickly return damaged tanks to combat. The Israeli Air Force lost 102 airplanes: 32 F - 4s, 53 A-4s, 11 Mirages and 6 Super Mysteres. Two helicopters, a Bell 205 and a CH - 53, were also lost. According to Defense Minister Moshe Dayan, nearly half of these were shot down during the first three days of the war. IAF losses per combat sortie were less than in the preceding Six - Day War of 1967. Arab casualties were known to be much higher than Israel 's, though precise figures are difficult to ascertain as Egypt and Syria never disclosed official figures. The lowest casualty estimate is 8,000 (5,000 Egyptian and 3,000 Syrian) killed and 18,000 wounded. The highest estimate is 18,500 (15,000 Egyptian and 3,500 Syrian) killed. Most estimates lie somewhere in between the two, with the Insight Team of the London The Sunday Times combined Egyptian and Syrian losses of 16,000 killed. and yet another source citing a figure of some 15,000 dead and 35,000 wounded. U.S. estimates placed Egyptian casualties at 13,000. Iraq lost 278 killed and 898 wounded, while Jordan suffered 23 killed and 77 wounded. Some 8,372 Egyptians, 392 Syrians, 13 Iraqis and 6 Moroccans were taken prisoner. Arab tank losses amounted to 2,250 though Garwych cites a figure of 2,300. 400 of these fell into Israeli hands in good working order and were incorporated into Israeli service. Between 341 and 514 Arab aircraft were shot down. According to Herzog, 334 of these aircraft were shot down by the Israeli Air Force in air - to - air combat for the loss of only five Israeli planes. The Sunday Times Insight Team notes Arab aircraft losses of 450. 19 Arab naval vessels, including 10 missile boats, were sunk for no Israeli losses. On October 24, the UNSC passed Resolution 339, serving as a renewed call for all parties to adhere to the ceasefire terms established in Resolution 338. Most heavy fighting on the Egyptian front ended by October 26, but clashes along the ceasefire lines and a few airstrikes on the Third Army took place. With some Israeli advances taking place, Kissinger threatened to support a UN withdrawal resolution, but before Israel could respond, Egyptian national security advisor Hafez Ismail sent Kissinger a stunning message -- Egypt was willing to enter into direct talks with Israel, provided that it agree to allow non-military supplies to reach the Third Army and to a complete ceasefire. About noon on October 25, Kissinger appeared before the press at the State Department. He described the various stages of the crisis and the evolution of U.S. policy. He reviewed the first two weeks of the crisis and the nuclear alert, reiterated opposition to U.S. and Soviet troops in the area and more strongly opposed unilateral Soviet moves. He then reviewed the prospects for a peace agreement, which he termed "quite promising '', and had conciliatory words for Israel, Egypt and even the USSR. Kissinger concluded his remarks by spelling out the principles of a new U.S. policy toward the Arab -- Israeli conflict saying: Our position is that... the conditions that produced this war were clearly intolerable to the Arab nations and that in the process of negotiations it will be necessary to make substantial concessions. The problem will be to relate the Arab concern for the sovereignty over the territories to the Israeli concern for secure boundaries. We believe that the process of negotiations between the parties is an essential component of this. Quandt considers, "It was a brilliant performance, one of his most impressive. '' One hour later the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 340. This time the ceasefire held, and the fourth Arab -- Israeli war was over. Disengagement talks took place on October 28, 1973, at "Kilometre 101 '' between Israeli Major General Aharon Yariv and Egyptian Major General Abdel Ghani el - Gamasy. Ultimately, Kissinger took the proposal to Sadat, who agreed. United Nations checkpoints were brought in to replace Israeli ones, nonmilitary supplies were allowed to pass, and prisoners - of - war were to be exchanged. A summit conference in Geneva followed in December 1973. All parties to the war -- Israel, Syria, Jordan and Egypt -- were invited to a joint effort by the Soviet Union and the United States to finally usher peace between the Arabs and Israelis. This conference was recognized by UN Security Council Resolution 344 and was based on the Resolution 338, calling for a "just and durable peace ''. Nevertheless, the conference was forced to adjourn on January 9, 1974, as Syria refused attendance. After the failed conference Henry Kissinger started conducting shuttle diplomacy, meeting with Israel and the Arab states directly. The first concrete result of this was the initial military disengagement agreement, signed by Israel and Egypt on January 18, 1974. The agreement commonly known as Sinai I had the official name of Sinai Separation of Forces Agreement. Under its terms, Israel agreed to pull back its forces from the areas West of Suez Canal, which it had occupied since the end of hostilities. Moreover, Israeli forces were also pulled back on the length of the whole front to create security zones for Egypt, UN and Israel, each roughly ten kilometres wide. Thus Israel gave up its advances reaching beyond the Suez canal, but it still held nearly all of Sinai. It became the first of many such Land for Peace agreements where Israel gave up territory in exchange for treaties. On the Syrian front, skirmishes and artillery exchanges continued taking place. Shuttle diplomacy by Henry Kissinger eventually produced a disengagement agreement on May 31, 1974, based on exchange of prisoners - of - war, Israeli withdrawal to the Purple Line and the establishment of a UN buffer zone. The agreement ended the skirmishes and exchanges of artillery fire that had occurred frequently along the Israeli - Syrian ceasefire line. The UN Disengagement and Observer Force (UNDOF) was established as a peacekeeping force in the Golan. The peace discussion at the end of the war was the first time that Arab and Israeli officials met for direct public discussions since the aftermath of the 1948 war. Though the war reinforced Israel 's military deterrence, it had a stunning effect on the population in Israel. Following their victory in the Six - Day War, the Israeli military had become complacent. The shock and sudden reversals that occurred at the beginning of the war inflicted a terrible psychological blow to the Israelis, who had hitherto experienced no serious military challenges. A protest against the Israeli government started four months after the war ended. It was led by Motti Ashkenazi, commander of Budapest, the northernmost of the Bar - Lev forts and the only one during the war not to be captured by the Egyptians. Anger against the Israeli government (and Dayan in particular) was high. Shimon Agranat, President of the Israeli Supreme Court, was asked to lead an inquiry, the Agranat Commission, into the events leading up to the war and the setbacks of the first few days. The Agranat Commission published its preliminary findings on April 2, 1974. Six people were held particularly responsible for Israel 's failings: Rather than quieting public discontent, the report -- which "had stressed that it was judging the ministers ' responsibility for security failings, not their parliamentary responsibility, which fell outside its mandate '' -- inflamed it. Although it had absolved Meir and Dayan of all responsibility, public calls for their resignations (especially Dayan 's) intensified. In the December 1973 legislative election, Meir 's Alignment party lost five Knesset seats. On April 11, 1974, Golda Meir resigned. Her cabinet followed suit, including Dayan, who had previously offered to resign twice and was turned down both times by Meir. A new government was seated in June, and Yitzhak Rabin, who had spent most of the war as an advisor to Elazar in an unofficial capacity, became Prime Minister. In 1999, the issue was revisited by the Israeli political leadership to prevent similar shortcomings from being repeated. The Israeli National Security Council was created to improve coordination between the different security and intelligence bodies, and the political branch of government. For the Arab states (and Egypt in particular), Arab successes during the war healed the psychological trauma of their defeat in the Six - Day War, allowing them to negotiate with the Israelis as equals. Because of the later setbacks in the war (which saw Israel gain a large salient on African soil and even more territory on the Syrian front), some believe that the war helped convince many in the Arab world that Israel could not be defeated militarily, thereby strengthening peace movements and delaying the Arab ambition of destroying Israel by force. General Shazly had angered Sadat for advocating the withdrawal of Egyptian forces from Sinai to meet the Israeli incursion on the West Bank of the Canal. Six weeks after the war, he was relieved of command and forced out of the army, ultimately going into political exile for years. Upon his return to Egypt, he was placed under house arrest. Following his release, he advocated the formation of a "Supreme High Committee '' modeled after Israel 's Agranat Commission in order to "probe, examine and analyze '' the performance of Egyptian forces and the command decisions made during the war, but his requests were completely ignored. He published a book, banned in Egypt, that described Egypt 's military failings and the sharp disagreements he had with Ismail and Sadat in connection with the prosecution of the war. The commanders of the Second and Third Armies, Generals Khalil and Wasel, were also dismissed from the army. The commander of the Egyptian Second Army at the start of the war, General Mamoun, suffered a heart attack, or, alternatively, a breakdown, after the Egyptian defeat during the October 14 Sinai tank battle, and was replaced by General Khalil. In Syria, Colonel Rafik Halawi, the Druze commander of an infantry brigade that had collapsed during the Israeli breakthrough, was executed before the war even ended. He was given a quick hearing and sentenced to death; his execution was immediate. Military historian Zeev Schiff referred to him as Syria 's "sacrificial lamb ''. The Syrians however offered vehement denials that Halawi was executed and expended great efforts trying to debunk the allegation. They claimed he was killed in battle with Israel and threatened severe punishment to anyone repeating the allegation of execution. Their concern stemmed from a desire to maintain Syrian Druze loyalty to Assad 's regime and prevent Syrian Druze from siding with their co-religionists in Israel. On July 7, 1974, Halawi 's remains were removed from a Syrian military hospital and he was interred in Damascus at the "Cemetery of the Martyrs of the October War '' in the presence of many Syrian dignitaries. One analyst noted that the presence of so many high - level officials was unusual and attributed it to Syrian efforts to quell any suggestion of execution. According to Chernyaev, on 4 November 1973, Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev said: We have offered them (the Arabs) a sensible way for so many years. But no, they wanted to fight. Fine! We gave them technology, the latest, the kind even Vietnam did n't have. They had double superiority in tanks and aircraft, triple in artillery, and in air defense and anti-tank weapons they had absolute supremacy. And what? Once again they were beaten. Once again they scrammed (sic). Once again they screamed for us to come save them. Sadat woke me up in the middle of the night twice over the phone, "Save me! '' He demanded to send Soviet troops, and immediately! No! We are not going to fight for them. In response to U.S. support of Israel, the Arab members of OPEC, led by Saudi Arabia, decided to reduce oil production by 5 % per month on October 17. On October 19, President Nixon authorized a major allocation of arms supplies and $2.2 billion in appropriations for Israel. In response, Saudi Arabia declared an embargo against the United States, later joined by other oil exporters and extended against the Netherlands and other states, causing the 1973 energy crisis. Another Egyptian -- Israeli disengagement agreement, the Sinai Interim Agreement, was signed in Geneva on September 4, 1975, and was commonly known as Sinai II. This agreement led Israel to withdraw from another 20 -- 40 km with UN forces buffering the vacated area. After the agreement, Israel still held more than two thirds of Sinai, which would prove to be a valuable bargaining chip in the coming negotiations. The Yom Kippur War upset the status quo in the Middle East, and the war served as a direct antecedent of the 1978 Camp David Accords. The Accords resulted in the Egypt -- Israel Peace Treaty, the first ever between Israel and an Arab state. According to George Friedman, the war gave the Israelis increased respect for the Egyptian military and decreased their confidence in their own, and caused the Israelis to be uncertain whether they could defeat Egypt in the event of another war. At the same time, the Egyptians recognized that despite their improvements, they were defeated in the end, and became doubtful that they could ever defeat Israel militarily. Therefore, a negotiated settlement made sense to both sides. Rabin 's government was hamstrung by a pair of scandals, and he was forced to step down in 1977. In the elections that followed, the right - wing Likud party won a majority in the Knesset, and Menachem Begin, the party 's founder and leader, was appointed Prime Minister. This marked a historic change in the Israeli political landscape: for the first time since Israel 's founding, a coalition not led by the Labor Party was in control of the government. Sadat, who had entered the war in order to recover the Sinai from Israel, grew frustrated at the slow pace of the peace process. In a 1977 interview with CBS News anchorman Walter Cronkite, Sadat admitted under pointed questioning that he was open to a more constructive dialog for peace, including a state visit. This seemed to open the floodgates, as in a later interview with the same reporter, the normally hard - line Begin -- perhaps not wishing to be compared unfavorably to Sadat -- said he too would be amenable to better relations. On November 9, 1977, Sadat stunned the world when he told parliament that he would be willing to visit Israel and address the Knesset. Shortly afterward, the Israeli government cordially invited him to address the Knesset. Thus, in November of that year, Sadat took the unprecedented step of visiting Israel, becoming the first Arab leader to do so, and so implicitly recognized Israel. The act jump - started the peace process. United States President Jimmy Carter invited both Sadat and Begin to a summit at Camp David to negotiate a final peace. The talks took place from September 5 -- 17, 1978. Ultimately, the talks succeeded, and Israel and Egypt signed the Egypt -- Israel Peace Treaty in 1979. Israel subsequently withdrew its troops and settlers in the Sinai, in exchange for normal relations with Egypt and a lasting peace, with last Israeli troops exiting on April 26, 1982. There is still no formal peace agreement between Israel and Syria to this day. Many in the Arab world were outraged at Egypt 's peace with Israel. Sadat, in particular, became deeply unpopular both in the Arab world and in his own country. Egypt was suspended from the Arab League until 1989. Until then, Egypt had been "at the helm of the Arab world ''. Egypt 's tensions with its Arab neighbors culminated in 1977 in the short - lived Libyan -- Egyptian War. Sadat was assassinated two years later on October 6, 1981, while attending a parade marking the eighth anniversary of the start of the war, by Islamist army members who were outraged at his negotiations with Israel. October 6 is a national holiday in Egypt called Armed Forces Day. It is a national holiday in Syria as well, where it is called "Tishreen Liberation Day ''. Marking the 35th anniversary in 2008, Hosni Mubarak said that the conflict "breathed new life '' into Egypt. He said Egypt and Syria 's initial victories in the conflict eased Arab bitterness over Israel 's victory in the 1967 Six - Day War and ultimately put the two nations on a path of peaceful coexistence. In Egypt, many places were named after the date of October 6th and Ramadan 10th, which is the equivalent day in the Islamic calendar. Examples of these commemorations are 6th October Bridge in Cairo and the cities of 6th of October and 10th of Ramadan. In addition, the Museum of the October 6 War was built in 1989 in the Heliopolis district of Cairo. The center of the museum is occupied by a rotunda housing a panoramic painting of the struggle between Egyptian and Israeli armed forces. The panorama, the creation of which was outsourced to a group of North Korean artists and architects, is equipped with engines to rotate it 360 ° during a 30 - minutes presentation accompanied by commentary in various languages. A similar museum, which was also built with North Korean assistance -- the October War Panorama -- operates in Damascus. In Latrun, a Yom Kippur War exhibit can be found at The Armored Corps Museum at Yad La - Shiryon.

when did cookies and cream ice cream come out

Cookies and cream - wikipedia Cookies and cream (or cookies ' n cream) is a variety of ice cream and milkshake based on flavoring from chocolate cookies. Cookies and cream ice cream uses sweet cream ice cream (often vanilla) and chocolate wafer cookies of any type. The flavor is widely associated with the Oreo cookie, a kind of cookie sandwich with a sweet, white crème filling commonly used in milkshakes and other frozen desserts. Though traditional cookies and cream ice cream is made with vanilla or sweet cream ice cream, there are variations that use chocolate, coffee or mint ice cream instead. There is some debate as to who first invented and marketed cookies and cream ice cream. In 1983, cookies and cream became one of the top five best - selling flavors of ice cream.

where can i drink at 18 in the us

U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by State - wikipedia The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time. This history is given in the table below. Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18 '', not "21 ''). In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same. As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states ' drinking ages since the repeal of Prohibition in 1933. Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s. From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. Many states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973. Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them. From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities. In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10 % of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age, while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010. For an established religious purpose; When a person under twenty - one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty - one years of age or older; For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution; In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling; The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty - one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.) 94. Citation for Wisconsin drinking law: https://www.revenue.wi.gov/Pages/FAQS/ise-atundrg.aspx

how is a money bill pass in the indian parliament

Money bill - wikipedia In the Westminster system (and, colloquially, in the United States), a money bill or supply bill is a bill that solely concerns taxation or government spending (also known as appropriation of money), as opposed to changes in public law. It is often a constitutional convention that the upper house may not block a money bill. There is often another requirement that non-money bill - type clauses may not be attached to a money bill. The rationale behind this convention is that the upper house, being appointed or indirectly elected, should not have any right to decide on taxation and public expenditure - related policies as may be framed by the directly elected representatives of the lower house. Therefore, money bills are an exception to the general rule that for a bill to be enacted into a law, it has to be approved by both Houses of the Parliament -- the lower house and the upper house. Loss of supply in the lower house is conventionally considered to be an expression of the house 's loss of confidence in the government resulting in the government 's fall. A supply bill in the Australian System is required to pass the House of Representatives, the Senate and be signed by the Governor - General. The Senate has no power or ability to introduce or modify a supply bill, but has the ability to block or defer the passing of a supply bill. The most famous instance where supply was blocked was during the 1975 constitutional crisis. This has resulted in agreements between political parties to prevent the blockage of supply bills through the Senate. A money bill is specifically defined by Article 81 of the Constitution of Bangladesh. The President of Bangladesh can send back all bills passed by the Parliament for a review except a money bill. However, a money bill can be introduced to the Parliament only at the President 's recommendation. Additionally, tax can only be levied by the Parliament. Procedure for a Money Bill: The concept of money bills in India came to the forefront during the enactment of the Aadhar Act, 2016. In spite of resistance by the opposition, the Aadhaar Bill was certified as a ' money bill ' by the Speaker of the Lower House. The Upper House proposed certain amendments, but ultimately the BJP - dominated Lower House rejected the amendments suggested by the Upper House and unilaterally enacted the Aadhar Act, 2016. Immediately thereafter, Jairam Ramesh, a senior Congress leader, challenged the speaker 's decision to treat the Aadhar Bill as a ' money bill ' before the Supreme Court of India. Article 110 (3) of the Constitution of India categorically states that ' if any question arises whether a Bill is a Money Bill or not, the decision of the Speaker of the House of the People thereon shall be final '. Therefore, one of the prime constitutional questions before the Supreme Court is whether it can review the speaker 's certificate classifying a bill as a ' money bill '. In three prior cases, the Supreme Court of India has refused to review the Speaker 's certificate. However, some commentators have argued that the Court 's earlier judgements were incorrect and Article 110 (3) made the Speaker 's decision "final '' for the purpose of the two Houses of the Parliament, not for the Supreme Court of India. This argument is further supported by the fact that in Kihoto Hollohan vs Zachillhu (AIR 1993 SC 412), the "final '' decision of the speaker regarding disqualification of members of the House under the Tenth Schedule of the Indian Constitution was held to be a judicial decision subject to judicial review. This suggests that the "final '' status given by the Indian constitution does not automatically immune the Indian speaker 's decision or certificate from judicial review. In view of this crucial constitutional question, it has been suggested that the Supreme Court in Jairam Ramesh v. Union of India should create a constitution bench of at least nine judges to settle the law on this issue. In the Republic of Ireland, the Senate may not delay a money bill (Irish: bille airgid) more than 21 days. The President of Ireland may not refuse to sign a money bill and may not refer such a bill to the Supreme Court to test its constitutionality. Procedures exist for resolution of disputes as to whether a Bill is a money bill. Since the 1922 constitution (as amended by the Constitution (Amendment No. 12) Act 1930) and under the 1937 constitution, such disputes can be resolved by a committee on privileges. In the United Kingdom, section 1 (1) of the Parliament Act 1911 provides that the House of Lords may not delay a money bill more than a month. It is at the discretion of the Speaker of the House of Commons to certify which bills are money bills, and his decision is final and is not subject to challenge. Section 1 (2) of the Act states: A Money Bill means a Public Bill which in the opinion of the Speaker of the House of Commons contains only provisions dealing with all or any of the following subjects, namely, the imposition, repeal, remission, alteration, or regulation of taxation; the imposition for the payment of debt or other financial purposes of charges on the Consolidated Fund, the National Loans Fund or on money provided by Parliament, or the variation or repeal of any such charges; supply; the appropriation, receipt, custody, issue or audit of accounts of public money; the raising or guarantee of any loan or the repayment thereof; or subordinate matters incidental to those subjects or any of them. In this subsection the expressions "taxation, '' "public money, '' and "loan '' respectively do not include any taxation, money, or loan raised by local authorities or bodies for local purposes. The Parliament Act 1911 was the product of the political crisis of 1909. The People 's Budget of 1909 proposed by the House of Commons was rejected by the House of Lords. A government whose budget (that is the Finance Bill) is rejected can only resign or dissolve Parliament, because without money it is impossible to govern. The rejection of the Finance Bill in 1909 by the Lords prompted the then British government to initiate steps to curtail the powers of the House of Lords in this regard. This is evident from the Preamble of the 1911 Act which states: "An Act to make provision with respect to the powers of the House of Lords in relation to those of the House of Commons... ''. The reference to the National Loans Fund was inserted on 1 April 1968 by section 1 (5) of the National Loans Act 1968. For this purpose, the expression "Public Bill '' does not include any Bill for confirming a Provisional Order. Bradley and Ewing said that the statutory definition of Money Bill is "strictly interpreted ''. Most annual Finance Bills have not been certified to be Money Bills. While the United States of America is not a parliamentary democracy, the Origination Clause of the U.S. Constitution requires that all bills raising revenue originate in the House of Representatives, consistent with British constitutional practice; by convention, appropriation bills (bills that spend money) also originate in the House. Unlike in most Westminster systems, there are no limits on the Senate 's ability to amend revenue bills or any requirement for the Senate to approve such bills within a certain timeframe. Both appropriations and revenue bills are often referred to as money bills to contrast them with authorization bills. The U.S. Supreme Court in United States v. Munoz - Flores (1990) held that: "A law passed in violation of the Origination Clause would thus be no more immune from judicial scrutiny because it was passed by both Houses and signed by the President than would be a law passed in violation of the First Amendment ''.

what is the order of the twilight saga

The Twilight Saga (film series) - wikipedia The Twilight Saga is a series of five romance fantasy films from Summit Entertainment based on the four novels by American author Stephenie Meyer. The films star Kristen Stewart, Robert Pattinson, and Taylor Lautner. The series has grossed over $3.3 billion in worldwide receipts and consists, to date, of five motion pictures. The first installment, Twilight, was released on November 21, 2008. The second installment, New Moon, followed on November 20, 2009, breaking box office records as the biggest midnight screening and opening day in history, grossing an estimated $72.7 million. The third installment, Eclipse, was released on June 30, 2010, and was the first Twilight film to be released in IMAX. The series was in development since 2004 at Paramount Pictures, during which time a screen adaptation of Twilight that differed significantly from the novel was written. Three years later, Summit Entertainment acquired the rights to the film. After Twilight grossed $35.7 million on its opening day, Summit Entertainment announced they would begin production on New Moon; they had acquired the rights to the remaining novels earlier that same month. A two - part adaptation of Breaking Dawn began shooting in November 2010 with release dates of November 18, 2011, and November 16, 2012, respectively. Twilight was in development for approximately three years at Paramount Pictures 's MTV Films, during which time a screen adaptation differing significantly from the novel was written. For example, the script transformed Bella into a star athlete. Stephenie Meyer stated that there was some debate in allowing the movie to be made because of the negative or positive outcome of the movie compared to the book, ' "They could have put that (earlier) movie out, called it something else, and no one would have known it was Twilight! '' The idea of seeing a scene converted correctly, specifically the meadow scene, convinced Meyer to sell the rights. In seeing the script, she was frightened that she had made the wrong decision. When Summit Entertainment reinvented itself as a full - service studio in April 2007, it successfully acquired the rights to the novel. Erik Feig, President of Production at Summit Entertainment, guaranteed a close adaptation to the book. The company perceived the film as an opportunity to launch a franchise based on the success of Meyer 's book and its sequels. Meyer felt that Summit was open to letting her be a part of the film. Catherine Hardwicke was hired to direct the film, and soon afterward, Melissa Rosenberg was selected to be the film 's structural base as the writer of the film. Rosenberg developed an outline by the end of August and collaborated with Hardwicke on writing the screenplay during the following month. "(She) was a great sounding board and had all sorts of brilliant ideas... I 'd finish off scenes and send them to her, and get back her notes. '' Because of the impending WGA strike, Rosenberg worked full - time to finish the screenplay before October 31. In adapting the novel for the screen, she "had to condense a great deal. '' Some characters were left out, and others were combined. "(O) ur intent all along was to stay true to the book, '' Rosenberg explained, "and it has to do less with adapting it word for word and more with making sure the characters ' arcs and emotional journeys are the same. '' Hardwicke suggested the use of voice over to convey the protagonist 's internal dialogue, since the novel is told from Bella 's point of view; and she sketched some of the storyboards during pre-production. Meyer, the author, and Hardwicke, the director, had a close relationship while developing Twilight. Hardwicke wanted to embrace the experience and make the characters in the books come to life. She would call Meyer after changing a scene slightly, which surprised the author because, "I 've heard the stories... I know it 's not normally like that when you adapt a book. '' Meyer, a natural pessimist, was waiting for the worst but, instead, called her experience in the book 's film adaptation "the best I could have hoped for. '' Originally scheduled for release in December 2008, Twilight was moved to a worldwide release of November 21, 2008, after Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince moved from a November 2008 release to being released in July 2009. Kristen Stewart was on the set of Adventureland when Hardwicke visited her for an informal screen test, which "captivated '' the director. Hardwicke did not initially choose Robert Pattinson for the role of Edward Cullen; but, after an audition at her home with Stewart, he was selected. Meyer allowed Pattinson to view a manuscript of the unfinished Midnight Sun, which chronicles the events in Twilight from Edward 's point of view. Meyer was "excited '' and "ecstatic '' in response to the casting of the two main characters. She had expressed interest in having Emily Browning and Henry Cavill cast as Bella and Edward, respectively, prior to pre-production. Peter Facinelli was not originally cast as Carlisle Cullen: "(Hardwicke) liked (him), but there was another actor that the studio was pushing for. '' For unknown reasons, that actor was not able to play the part, and Facinelli was selected in his place. The choice of Ashley Greene to portray Alice Cullen was criticized by some fans because Greene is 7 inches (18 cm) taller than her character as described in the novel. Meyer said that Rachael Leigh Cook resembled her vision of Alice. Nikki Reed had previously worked with Hardwicke on the successful Thirteen (2003), which they co-wrote, and Lords of Dogtown (2005). Kellan Lutz was in Africa, shooting the HBO miniseries Generation Kill, when the auditions for the character of Emmett Cullen were conducted. The role had already been cast by the time the HBO production ended in December 2007, but the selected actor "fell through ''. Lutz subsequently auditioned and was flown to Oregon, where Hardwicke personally chose him. Rachelle Lefèvre wanted a role in the film because Hardwicke was director; she saw "the potential to explore a character, hopefully, over three films ''; and she wanted to portray a vampire. "(She) thought that vampires were basically the best metaphor for human anxiety and questions about being alive. '' Christian Serratos initially auditioned for Jessica Stanley, but she "fell totally in love with Angela '' after reading the books and took advantage of a later opportunity to audition for Angela Weber. The role of Jessica Stanley went to Anna Kendrick, who got the part after two mix - and - match auditions with various actors. Because of major physical changes that occur in the character of Jacob Black between Twilight and New Moon, director Chris Weitz considered replacing Taylor Lautner in the sequel with an actor who could more accurately portray "the new, larger Jacob Black. '' Trying to keep the role, Lautner worked out extensively and put on 30 lbs. In January 2009, Weitz and Summit Entertainment announced that Lautner would continue as Jacob in The Twilight Saga: New Moon. In late March 2009, Summit Entertainment released a list of the actors who would be portraying the "wolf pack '' alongside Lautner. The casting for the rest of the Quileute tribe was headed by casting director Rene Haynes, who has worked on films with large American Indian casts, such as Dances with Wolves and Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee. In mid-2009, it was announced that Bryce Dallas Howard would be replacing Rachelle Lefevre as Victoria for the third Twilight film, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse. Summit Entertainment attributed the change to scheduling conflicts. Lefevre said she was "stunned '' and "greatly saddened '' by the decision. Jodelle Ferland was cast as the newly turned vampire, Bree. Other new cast members for the third film include Xavier Samuel as Riley, Jack Huston as Royce King II, Catalina Sandino Moreno as Maria, Julia Jones as Leah Clearwater, and BooBoo Stewart as Seth Clearwater. Principal photography for Twilight took 44 days, after more than a week of rehearsals, and completed on May 2, 2008. Similar to her directorial debut thirteen, Hardwicke opted for an extensive use of hand - held cinematography to make the film "feel real ''. Meyer visited the production set three times, and was consulted on different aspects of the story; she also has a brief cameo in the film. To make their bodily movements more elegant, and to get used to their characters ' fighting styles, the cast playing vampires participated in rehearsals with a dance choreographer and observed the physicality of different panthera. Instead of shooting at Forks High School itself, scenes taking place at the school were filmed at Kalama High School and Madison High School. Other scenes were also filmed in St. Helens, Oregon, and Hardwicke conducted some reshooting in Pasadena, California, in August. In early November 2008, Summit announced that they had obtained the rights to the remaining books in Stephenie Meyer 's Twilight series: New Moon, Eclipse, and Breaking Dawn. On November 22, 2008, one day after the theatrical release of Twilight, Summit confirmed that they would begin working on New Moon. Melissa Rosenberg had been working on adapting the novel prior to Twilight 's release and handed in the draft for New Moon during Twilight 's opening weekend in November 2008. In early December 2008, it was announced that Twilight director Catherine Hardwicke would not be returning to direct the sequel. Hardwicke cited time restrictions as the reason behind her leaving the project. Instead, Chris Weitz, director of The Golden Compass and co-director of American Pie, was hired to direct The Twilight Saga: New Moon. Filming for New Moon began in Vancouver in late March 2009, and in Montepulciano, Italy, in late May 2009. In early 2009, before the release of The Twilight Saga: New Moon, Summit confirmed that they would begin production on The Twilight Saga: Eclipse. Since Weitz would be in post-production for New Moon when The Twilight Saga: Eclipse began shooting, he would not be directing the third film. Instead, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse was helmed by director David Slade, with Melissa Rosenberg returning as screenwriter. Filming began on August 17, 2009 at Vancouver Film Studios and finished in late October, with post-production beginning early the following month. In April 2010, it was revealed that re-shoots of the film were needed. Slade, who previously said he would not be around for them, was seen, along with Stephenie Meyer, on set. The three main stars were also present. Wyck Godfrey, producer of the previous films in the series, stated in mid-2009 that they had every intention to make the film version of Breaking Dawn. Following months of speculation and cast rumors, it was officially announced on April 28, 2010, that Academy Award winner Bill Condon, who directed Gods and Monsters and Dreamgirls, would direct Breaking Dawn; producing the film will be Wyck Godfrey, Karen Rosenfelt, and author Stephenie Meyer. "I 'm very excited to get the chance to bring the climax of this saga to life on - screen. As fans of the series know, this is a one - of - a-kind book -- and we 're hoping to create an equally unique cinematic experience, '' said Bill Condon. A November 18, 2011 release date has been set for the first part, while the second is scheduled for release on November 16, 2012. Following that announcement, Summit officially confirmed that a two - part adaption of the fourth book would start production in the fall on June 11, 2010. With this announcement, it was made clear that all major actors, including the three lead roles, the Cullen family, and Charlie Swan, would return for both parts. Bill Condon was also confirmed to direct both parts. In order to keep the budget on both parts of Breaking Dawn reasonable, which would be substantially greater than the previous installments in the series, filming in Louisiana is also being negotiated. Shooting in Louisiana would provide larger tax credits, which a studio as low - profile as Summit Entertainment would benefit from. Twilight was directed by Catherine Hardwicke and written by Melissa Rosenberg. It focuses on the development of a personal relationship between human teenager Bella Swan (Kristen Stewart) and vampire Edward Cullen (Robert Pattinson), and the subsequent efforts of Edward and his family to keep Bella safe from a separate group of hostile vampires. The film was released theatrically starting on November 21, 2008. It grossed $35.7 million on its opening day, and has come to gross US $ 408.9 million worldwide. The DVD was released on March 21, 2009 and grossed an additional $201 million from sales. The Twilight Saga: New Moon was directed by Chris Weitz and written by Melissa Rosenberg. The film follows Bella Swan 's fall into a deep depression until she develops a strong friendship with werewolf Jacob Black. Jacob and his tribe must protect Bella from Victoria, and a gregarious herd of vampires. The film was released theatrically starting on November 20, 2009, and set numerous records. It is currently the biggest advance - ticket seller on Fandango and held the biggest midnight opening in domestic (United States and Canada) box office history, grossing an estimated $26.3 million. Its sequel, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, broke that record in June 2010, grossing $72.7 million on its opening day domestically, $709 Million Worldwide and becoming the biggest single - day opening in domestic history. It is the twelfth highest opening weekend in domestic history with $142,839,137. The Twilight Saga: Eclipse was directed by David Slade and written by Melissa Rosenberg. The film follows Bella Swan as she develops awareness of the complications of marrying Edward Cullen. As Victoria draws nearer with a group of newborn vampires, Jacob Black and the rest of the werewolves form a temporary alliance to destroy her, in turn, to keep Bella safe. While Bella tries to decide who she is, a fight brews and the consequences are paid once Jacob gets hurt. Intent on keeping a compromise with Edward, she vows to keep true to her engagement and marry him. The film was released theatrically starting on June 30, 2010, and is the first Twilight film to be released in IMAX. It set a new record for biggest midnight opening in domestic (United States and Canada) in box office history, grossing an estimated $30 million in over 4,000 theaters. The previous record holder was the previous film in the series, The Twilight Saga: New Moon with $26.3 million in 3,514 theaters. The film then scored the biggest Wednesday opening in domestic history with $68,533,840 beating Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen 's $62 million. The Twilight Saga: Eclipse has also become the film with the widest release ever, playing in over 4,416 theaters. The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn was directed by Bill Condon, and author Stephenie Meyer co-produced the film along with Karen Rosenfelt and Wyck Godfrey, with Melissa Rosenberg penning the script. The book 's plot was split into two films, the first of which was released on November 18, 2011. The filming of Breaking Dawn began in November 2010. The first part follows Bella and Edward as they get married and then learn that Bella has become pregnant. They deal with her struggle of being pregnant and almost passing away because of the half vampire - half human child. The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn Part 2 was directed by Bill Condon, and author Stephenie Meyer co-produced the film along with Karen Rosenfelt and Wyck Godfrey, with Melissa Rosenberg penning the script. The book 's plot was split into two films, the first of which was released on November 18, 2011. The second was released on November 16, 2012. The second part of Breaking Dawn saw the climax of Bella and Edward 's relationship. Bella must learn, as a newly transformed vampire, to adapt both to immortality and to motherhood. The Twilight Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was chosen by music supervisor Alexandra Patsavas. The album was released on November 4, 2008 by Patsavas ' Chop Shop label, in conjunction with Atlantic Records. The album debuted at # 1 on the Billboard 200, having sold about 165,000 copies in its first week of release, 29 % of which were digital downloads. Twilight is the best - selling theatrical movie soundtrack in the United States since Chicago. Twilight: The Score was composed and orchestrated by Carter Burwell over a 9 - to 10 - week period, and was recorded and mixed in about 2 weeks in late September 2008. Burwell began the score with a "Love Theme '' for Bella and Edward 's relationship, a variation of which became "Bella 's Lullaby '' that Robert Pattinson plays in the film, and that is included on the Twilight Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. The original theme is featured throughout the film, and serves to "play the romance that drives the story ''. Another theme Burwell composed was a "Predator Theme '', which opens the film, and is intended to play Edward 's vampire nature. Other themes include a bass - line, drum beat and distorted guitar sound for the nomadic vampires, and a melody for the Cullen family. Twilight: The Score was released digitally on November 25, 2008 and in stores on December 9. The score for The Twilight Saga: New Moon was composed by Alexandre Desplat while Alexandra Patsavas returned as music supervisor for the rest of the soundtrack. Weitz has a working relationship with Desplat, who scored one of his previous films, The Golden Compass. The Twilight Saga: New Moon: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack was released on October 16, 2009 by Patsavas ' Chop Shop label, in conjunction with Atlantic Records. The album debuted at # 2 on the Billboard 200, later jumped to # 1 with 153,000 copies sold. The Twilight Saga: New Moon: The Score was released on November 24, 2009. The score for The Twilight Saga: Eclipse was composed by Howard Shore, who composed the scores for The Lord of the Rings trilogy. The film 's soundtrack was released on June 8, 2010 by Atlantic Records in conjunction with music supervisor Alexandra Patsavas ' Chop Shop label. The lead single from the soundtrack is "Neutron Star Collision (Love Is Forever) '', performed by the British band Muse. The soundtrack debuted at number two on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart with estimated sales of 144,000 copies. The Breaking Dawn -- Part 1 soundtrack saw the release of two singles: "A Thousand Years '' by Christina Perri and "It Will Rain '' by Bruno Mars. The former reached number one and the latter of the two number three on the Billboard Hot 100. Twilight grossed over $7 million in ticket sales from midnight showings alone on November 21, 2008. It grossed $35.7 million on its opening day. For its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, Twilight accumulated $69.6 million from 3,419 theaters at an average of $20,368 per theater. The film has made $192.7 million in the United States and Canada, and a further $200.8 million in international territories for a total of $393.6 million worldwide. The film was released on DVD in North America on March 21, 2009 through midnight release parties, and sold over 3 million units in its first day. It has continued to sell units, totaling as of July 2012, making $201,323,629. The Twilight Saga: New Moon set records for advance ticket sales, causing some theaters to add additional showings. The film set records as the biggest midnight opening in domestic (United States and Canada) box office history, grossing an estimated $26.3 million in 3,514 theatres, before expanding to 4,024 theaters. The record was previously held by Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince, which grossed $22.2 million domestically during its midnight premiere. The film grossed $72.7 million on its opening day domestically, becoming the biggest single - day opening in domestic history, beating The Dark Knight 's $67.2 million. This opening strongly contributed to another record: the first time that the top ten films at the domestic box office had a combined gross of over $100 million in a single day. The opening weekend of The Twilight Saga: New Moon is the ninth - highest opening weekend in domestic history with $142,839,137. The film also has the sixth highest worldwide opening weekend with $274.9 million total. While The Twilight Saga has been successful in the box office, critical reception of the films was mixed, and significantly declined as the series continued. New York Press critic Armond White called Twilight "a genuine pop classic '', and praised Hardwicke for turning "Meyer 's book series into a Brontë-esque vision ''. USA Today gave the film two out of four stars and Claudia Puig wrote: "Meyer is said to have been involved in the production of Twilight, but her novel was substantially more absorbing than the unintentionally funny and quickly forgettable film. '' Robert Ignizio of the Cleveland Scene described The Twilight Saga: New Moon as an "entertaining fantasy '', and noted that it "has a stronger visual look (than Twilight) and does a better job with its action scenes while still keeping the focus on the central love triangle. '' Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film two and half stars out of four, praised Kristen Stewart 's performance in the film and wrote: "Despite melodrama that, at times, is enough to induce diabetes, there 's enough wolf whistle in this sexy, scary romp to please anyone. '' The Seattle Post-Intelligencer gave the film a "B '' grading and said, "the movie looks tremendous, the dialogue works, there are numerous well placed jokes, the acting is on point. '' Mick LaSalle from the San Francisco Chronicle responded with a more mixed review, stating, "(E) xpect this film to satisfy its fans. Everybody else, get ready for a bizarre soap opera / pageant, consisting of a succession of static scenes with characters loping into the frame to announce exactly what they 're thinking. '' Roger Ebert gave the film 1 star out of 4 and said that it "takes the tepid achievement of Twilight, guts it, and leaves it for undead. '' The release of the movie has also inspired feminist criticism, with Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly making light of the claim that Edward Cullen is little better than a stalker. In any case, the influx of female viewers into the theaters indicates the increasing importance of the female demographic in dictating Hollywood 's tastes. The Hollywood Reporter posted a positive review of The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, saying the film "nails it ''. Variety reports that the film "finally feels more like the blockbuster this top - earning franchise deserves ''. One review stated the film was the best in The Twilight Saga so far, acknowledging that, "The person who should be worried is Bill Condon, the director tapped for the two - part finale, Breaking Dawn. He 's got a real challenge to make movies as good as Eclipse. '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised David Slade 's ability to make an entertaining film, calling it funny and better than its predecessors, but pointed out the acting has n't improved much. A more negative review said that while "Eclipse restores some of the energy New Moon zapped out of the franchise and has enough quality performances to keep it involving '', the film "is n't quite the adrenaline - charged game - changer for love story haters that its marketing might lead you to believe. The majority of the ' action ' remains protracted and not especially scintillating should - we - or - should n't - we conversations between the central triangle. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun Times gave the film a more positive review than for the first two films in the saga, but still felt the movie was a constant, unclever conversation between the three main characters. He criticized the "gazes '' both Edward and Jacob give Bella throughout the movie, and noted that the mountain range that appears in the film looks "like landscapes painted by that guy on TV who shows you how to paint stuff like that. '' He also predicted that a lack of understanding for the film series in general would not bode well with the audience, stating, "I doubt anyone not intimately familiar with the earlier installments could make head or tails of the opening scenes. '' He gave the film 2 stars out of 4. Breaking Dawn -- Part 1 received mostly negative reviews from critics. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that just 24 % of critics (of the 195 counted reviews) gave the film a positive review, and the site 's consensus reads "Slow, joyless and loaded with unintentionally humorous moments, Breaking Dawn Part 1 may satisfy the Twilight faithful, but it 's strictly for fans of the franchise ''. Part 2 had a mixed critical reception but was much more favorable than Part 1. Bruce Diones of New Yorkers gave the film a positive review, citing "A feast of ripe dialogue and bloodsucking action ''. On the other hand, Richard Roeper said that "The fifth and final entry in the historically successful Twilight franchise is the most self - aware and in some ways the most entertaining ''. List indicator (s) The 2010 Portuguese teen series Lua Vermelha (Red Moon) had a similar premise of vampire romance but differed in the story. A parody film released that same year titled, Vampires Suck spoofed the film series. A television show within the canon of Canadian teen vampire film My Babysitter 's a Vampire and the television series sequel called Dusk is a parody of Twilight. The 2012 film Breaking Wind (parodying the title of Breaking Dawn, but parodying the whole film series), directed by Craig Moss (best known for The 41 - Year - Old Virgin Who Knocked Up Sarah Marshall and Felt Superbad About It), is also a spoof of the films and a parody version of Breaking Dawn Part -- 1. The animated movie Hotel Transylvania was released the same year, and has a scene inspired by Twilight. The 2013 Filipino comedy sitcom entitled My Daddy is a Vampire resembled some Twilight scenes.

who sang the song i'll take you there

I 'll Take You There - wikipedia "I 'll Take You There '' is a song written by Al Bell (using his real name Alvertis Isbell), and originally performed by soul / gospel family band The Staple Singers. The Staple Singers version, produced by Bell, was released on Stax Records in February 1972, and spent a total of 15 weeks on the charts and reached number - one on the Billboard Hot 100. It is ranked as the 19th biggest American hit of 1972. The song was also a significant chart hit in two later cover versions. A 1991 cover version by BeBe & CeCe Winans, with Mavis Staples featured as a guest artist, made it to number one on the R&B chart, and also made No. 90 on the Hot 100. In 1994, the British band General Public released a cover of "I 'll Take You There '' which peaked at No. 22 on Hot 100. As well, female rap trio Salt - N - Pepa sampled "I 'll Take You There '' in their 1991 hit "Let 's Talk About Sex ''. Included on the group 's 1972 album Be Altitude: Respect Yourself, "I 'll Take You There '' features lead singer Mavis Staples inviting her listeners to seek heaven. The song is "almost completely a call - and - response chorus '', (1) with the introduction being lifted from "The Liquidator '', a 1969 reggae hit by the Harry J Allstars. In fact, the entire song, written in the key of C, contains but two chords, C and F. A large portion of the song is set aside for Mavis ' sisters Cleotha and Yvonne and their father "Pops '' to seemingly perform solos on their respective instruments. In actuality, these solos (and all music in the song) were recorded by the famed Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section. When Mavis Staples says "Daddy, now, Daddy, Daddy '' (referring to "Pop 's '' guitar solo), it is actually Eddie Hinton who performs the solo on record. Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section bass player David Hood performs the song 's famed bass line. Terry Manning added harmonica and lead electric guitar. Roger Hawkins played drums, Barry Beckett was on electric piano, and Jimmy Johnson and Raymond Banks contributed guitar parts. The horn and string parts were arranged by Detroit arranger Johnny Allen. The horns and strings were recorded at Artie Fields Recording Studios in Detroit Michigan. Quite a few Staples Singers songs reference civil rights and social conditions. Many people interpret this song as describing an imagined world in which the civil rights movement has succeeded: "No more smilin ' faces / lyin ' to the races. '' Rolling Stone editor David Fricke described this song as the "epitome of the Muscle Shoals Sound ''. It was recorded in Sheffield, AL at the famous Muscle Shoals Sound Studios, and overdubbed and mixed at Ardent Studios in Memphis by Engineer Terry Manning. Bolstered by a "feel - good '' vibe, "I 'll Take You There '' peaked at number - one on the Billboard R&B Singles chart for four weeks May 1972. In June, "I 'll Take You There '' reached the top of the Billboard Hot 100 for one week. Billboard ranked it as the No. 19 song for 1972. The song, ranked # 276 on the Rolling Stone list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999, remains the most successful and recognizable single of the Staples ' half - century - long career. The song has been heavily featured in numerous films. It was used in the 1986 film Children of a Lesser God. The song was used in the 1994 Spike Lee film Crooklyn The song can be heard during the end credits for Barbershop (2002) and Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous (2005). The song is also performed in the Australian musical film The Sapphires (2012). Additionally, the song was also used for the 2010 film Secretariat. The song was also used from 1997 -- 1999 in commercials for the Chevrolet Malibu. On October 30, 2010 Mavis Staples performed the song at the closing of comedian / commentators Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert 's Rally to Restore Sanity and / or Fear accompanied by Jeff Tweedy and The Roots, and joined on stage by the other performers in the show. The song was also featured in the pilot episode of Netflix 's Orange Is The New Black. The song is featured in a Walmart Christmas holiday television TV commercial which started airing in October 2017. This song is also featured in the Netflix original, Seeing Allred (2018) In 1994, the British band General Public released a cover of "I 'll Take You There '' featured in the film Threesome. It was an American hit, peaking at No. 22 on the weekly Hot 100 chart and No. 94 on its year - end chart. This version features an added toasted verse specific to this version of the song.

who sings the song ain't nobody loves me better

Ai n't Nobody - wikipedia "Ai n't Nobody '' is a song by American funk band Rufus and American singer Chaka Khan. It was released on November 4, 1983, as a bonus track for their live album Stompin ' at the Savoy (1983). "Ai n't Nobody '' quickly gathered popularity, and reached number one on the American R&B chart and number 22 on the Billboard Hot 100. It has become one of Khan 's signature songs. Rufus keyboardist David "Hawk '' Wolinski wrote the song around a repeating synthesizer loop backed by a Linn LM - 1 drum computer. However, drummer John J.R. Robinson played real drums for the recording session. The band did a democratic vote and they decided to include the song in their album repertoire. Once the song was recorded, Warner executives wanted to issue another song as the album 's first single. Wolinski threatened to give the song to American singer Michael Jackson and American producer Quincy Jones for Jackson 's album Thriller if the song was not the lead - off single. The label relented and "Ai n't Nobody '' was issued and hit number one on the R&B chart for the week ending October 15, 1983. The song was also included on the soundtrack album to the 1984 film Breakin '. The song is performed in the key of E ♭ minor with a tempo of 104 beats per minute in common time. Khan 's vocals span from G ♭ to E ♭ in the song. George Michael covered the song in his 1991 "Cover To Cover '' tour. In 1994, singer Jaki Graham recorded the song and released it as a single. It reached number 44 in the UK, number 11 in Iceland, 17 in Australia and number one on US Billboard Dance chart. Diana King recorded a cover single in 1995, reaching No. 95 on the Billboard Hot 100, No. 4 on Billboard 's Dance chart and No. 13 on the UK Singles Chart. A commercially successful cover of "Ai n't Nobody '' was a version by rapper LL Cool J, who recorded an interpolation of the song for the soundtrack to the 1996 film Beavis and Butt - Head Do America. Released as the soundtrack 's second single, this version reached No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart. In the US, the song peaked at No. 46 on the Billboard Hot 100, No. 4 on the Hot Rap Singles Chart and No. 27 on the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart. The song was also a hit in the UK for Gwen Dickey and KWS (reaching No. 21) and The Course (No. 8). In 2015, German music producer and DJ Felix Jaehn released a remix titled "Ai n't Nobody (Loves Me Better) '' featuring vocals by British singer Jasmine Thompson. It is the lead single for his eponymous 2016 debut EP Felix Jaehn. The remix was based on a solo release of the song by Thompson in 2013, when Thompson was 13, which had peaked at number 32 on the UK Singles Chart. However, the Felix Jaehn remix became a far bigger international chart success, peaking at number one or two in a number of European countries (including number two in the United Kingdom) as well as the top 10 in other European countries and Australia. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone

what does it mean to be in special education

Special education - Wikipedia Special education (also known as special needs education, aided education, exceptional education or Special Ed) is the practice of educating students with special educational needs in a way that addresses their individual differences and needs. Ideally, this process involves the individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted equipment and materials, and accessible settings. These interventions are designed to help individuals with special needs achieve a higher level of personal self - sufficiency and success in school and in their community, that may not be available if the student were only given access to a typical classroom education. Common special needs include learning disabilities (such as dyslexia), communication disorders, emotional and behavioral disorders (such as ADHD and ADD), physical disabilities (such as Brittle Bone Disease, Cerebral Palsy, Muscular Dystrophy, Spinal Bifida, and Frederich 's Ataxia), and developmental disabilities (such as autism spectrum disorders and intellectual disability). Students with these kinds of special needs are likely to benefit from additional educational services such as different approaches to teaching, the use of technology, a specifically adapted teaching area, or a resource room. Intellectual giftedness is a difference in learning and can also benefit from specialised teaching techniques or different educational programs, but the term "special education '' is generally used to specifically indicate instruction of students with disabilities. Gifted education is handled separately. Whereas special education is designed specifically for students with special needs, remedial education can be designed for any students, with or without special needs; the defining trait is simply that they have reached a point of unpreparedness, regardless of why. For example, even people of high intelligence can be under prepared if their education was disrupted, for example, by internal displacement during civil disorder or a war. In most developed countries, educators modify teaching methods and environments so that the maximum number of students are served in general education environments. Therefore, special education in developed countries is often regarded as a service rather than a place. Integration can reduce social stigmas and improve academic achievement for many students. The opposite of special education is general education. General education is the standard curriculum presented without special teaching methods or supports. Some children are easily identified as candidates for special needs due to their medical history. They may have been diagnosed with a genetic condition that is associated with intellectual disability, may have various forms of brain damage, may have a developmental disorder, may have visual or hearing disabilities, or other disabilities. For students with less obvious disabilities, such as those who have learning difficulties, two primary methods have been used for identifying them: the discrepancy model and the response to intervention model. The discrepancy model depends on the teacher noticing that the students ' achievements are noticeably below what is expected. The response to intervention model advocates earlier intervention. In the discrepancy model, a student receives special education services for a specific learning difficulty (SLD) if the student has at least normal intelligence and the student 's academic achievement is below what is expected of a student with his or her IQ. Although the discrepancy model has dominated the school system for many years, there has been substantial criticism of this approach (e.g., Aaron, 1995, Flanagan and Mascolo, 2005) among researchers. One reason for criticism is that diagnosing SLDs on the basis of the discrepancy between achievement and IQ does not predict the effectiveness of treatment. Low academic achievers who also have low IQ appear to benefit from treatment just as much as low academic achievers who have normal or high intelligence. The alternative approach, response to intervention, identifies children who are having difficulties in school in their first or second year after starting school. They then receive additional assistance such as participating in a reading remediation program. The response of the children to this intervention then determines whether they are designated as having a learning disability. Those few who still have trouble may then receive designation and further assistance. Sternberg (1999) has argued that early remediation can greatly reduce the number of children meeting diagnostic criteria for learning disabilities. He has also suggested that the focus on learning disabilities and the provision of accommodations in school fails to acknowledge that people have a range of strengths and weaknesses and places undue emphasis on academics by insisting that students should be supported in this arena and not in music or sports. A special education program should be customised to address each individual student 's unique needs. Special educators provide a continuum of services, in which students with special needs receives varying degrees of support based on their individual needs. Special education programs need to be individualised so that they address the unique combination of needs in a given student. In the United States, Canada, and the UK, educational professionals use a student 's Individualized Education Program (IEP). "The IEP is meant to address each child 's unique learning issues and include specific educational goals. It is a legally binding document. The school must provide everything it promises in the IEP. '' For children who are not yet 3, an Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP) contains information on the child 's present level of development in all areas; outcomes for the child and family; and services the child and family will receive to help them achieve the outcomes. In the United States, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a federal law that requires that every school system in the nation must provide a free and appropriate public education for every child, ages 3 to 22, regardless of how or how seriously that child may be disabled. To ensure that this federal law is obeyed, the government requires every school system provide this type of education to each student in order to receive federal funding. Students with special needs are assessed to determine their specific strengths and weaknesses. Placement, resources, and goals are determined on the basis of the student 's needs. Accommodations and Modifications to the regular program may include changes in the curriculum, supplementary aides or equipment, and the provision of specialized physical adaptations that allow students to participate in the educational environment as much as possible. Students may need this help to access subject matter, physically gain access to the school, or meet their emotional needs. For example, if the assessment determines that the student can not write by hand because of a physical disability, then the school might provide a computer for typing assignments, or allow the student to answer questions verbally instead. If the school determines that the student is severely distracted by the normal activities in a large, busy classroom, then the student might be placed in a smaller classroom such as a resource room. Parent of students with a learning disability must know what type of disability their child has, so they can get accommodations such as speech therapy, occupational therapy and adaptive physical education. For example, if a student takes an academic test and it indicates that the student struggles with reading comprehension, parents can request speech and language support or classroom accommodations, such as extra time to complete reading and writing tasks. Schools use different approaches to providing special education services to students. These approaches can be broadly grouped into four categories, according to how much contact the student with special needs has with non-disabled students (using North American terminology): A special school is a school catering for students who have special educational needs due to severe learning difficulties, physical disabilities or behavioural problems. Special schools may be specifically designed, staffed and resourced to provide appropriate special education for children with additional needs. Students attending special schools generally do not attend any classes in mainstream schools. Special schools provide individualised education, addressing specific needs. Student to teacher ratios are kept low, often 6: 1 or lower depending upon the needs of the children. Special schools will also have other facilities for children with special needs, such as soft play areas, sensory rooms, or swimming pools, which are necessary for treating students with certain conditions. A Montessori is another type of special school but is a different approach to teaching in the classroom, as compared to a mainstream school. A Montessori approach is to let the child be enticed into educational activities by their own interests and own time. this approach helps children with learning difficulties go at their own pace. this approach has increased in popularity with just over 300 in Australia. In recent times, places available in special schools are declining as more children with special needs are educated in mainstream schools. However, there will always be some children, whose learning needs can not be appropriately met in a regular classroom setting and will require specialised education and resources to provide the level of support they require. An example of a disability that may require a student to attend a special school is intellectual disability. However, this practice is often frowned upon by school districts in the USA in the light of Least Restrictive Environment as mandated in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. An alternative is a special unit or special classroom, also called a self - contained classroom, which is a separate room or rooms dedicated solely to the education of students with special needs within a larger school that also provides general education. These classrooms are typically staffed by specially trained teachers, who provide specific, individualised instruction to individuals and small groups of students with special needs. Self - contained classrooms, because they are located in a general education school, may have students who remain in the self - contained classroom full - time, or students who are included in certain general education classes. In the United States a part - time alternative that is appropriate for some students is sometimes called a resource room. One of the first special schools in the world was the Institut National des Jeunes Aveugles in Paris, which was founded in 1784. It was the first school in the world to teach blind students. The first school in U.K, for the Deaf was established 1760 in Edinburgh by Thomas Braidwood, with education for visually impaired people beginning in the Edinburgh and Bristol in 1765. In the 19th Century, people with disabilities and the inhumane conditions where they were supposedly housed and educated were addressed in the literature of Charles Dickens. Dickens characterized people with severe disabilities as having the same, if not more, compassion and insight in Bleak House and Little Dorrit. Such attention to the downtrodden conditions of people with disabilities brought resulted in reforms in Europe including the re-evaluation of special schools. In the United States reform came more slowly. Throughout the mid half of the 20th century, special schools, termed institutions, were not only accepted, but encouraged. Students with disabilities were housed with people with mental illnesses, and they were not educated much, if at all. Deinstitutionalization proceeded in the US beginning in the 1970s following the exposes of the institutions, and it has taken sometime before the Education for All Handicapped Children 's Act of 1974, to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and then Individuals with Disabilities Educational Improvement Act (IDEIA) have come into fruition. School integration was supported as early as the 1970s, and teacher preparation programs in higher education have carefully taught and instructed graduates on inclusion at the classroom, individual, school, and district levels for decades resulting in dual certification of "regular teachers ''. With the Amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997, school districts in the United States began to slowly integrate students with moderate and severe special needs into regular school systems. This changed the form and function of special education services in many school districts and special schools subsequently saw a steady decrease in enrollment as districts weighed the cost per student. It also posed general funding dilemmas to certain local schools and districts, changed how schools view assessments, and formally introduced the concept of inclusion to many educators, students and parents. The student can be taught in either a classroom or outside environment. Both environments can be interactive for the student to engage better with the subject. Different instructional techniques are used for some students with special educational needs. Instructional strategies are classified as being either accommodations or modifications. An accommodation is a reasonable adjustment to teaching practices so that the student learns the same material, but in a format that is more accessible to the student. Accommodations may be classified by whether they change the presentation, response, setting, or scheduling of lessons. For example, the school may accommodate a student with visual impairments by providing a large - print textbook. This is a presentation accommodation. A modification changes or adapts the material to make it simpler. Modifications may change what is learned, how difficult the material is, what level of mastery the student is expected to achieve, whether or how the student is assessed, or any other aspect of the curriculum. For example, the school may modify a reading assignment for a student with reading difficulties by substituting a shorter, easier book. A student may receive both accommodations and modifications. All developed countries permit or require some degree of accommodation for students with special needs, and special provisions are usually made in examinations which take place at the end of formal schooling. In addition to how the student is taught the academic curriculum, schools may provide non-academic services to the student. These are intended ultimately to increase the student 's personal and academic abilities. Related services include developmental, corrective, and other supportive services as are required to assist a student with special needs and includes speech and language pathology, audiology, psychological services, physical therapy, occupational therapy, counseling services, including rehabilitation counseling, orientation and mobility services, medical services as defined by regulations, parent counseling and training, school health services, school social work, assistive technology services, other appropriate developmental or corrective support services, appropriate access to recreation and other appropriate support services. In some countries, most related services are provided by the schools; in others, they are provided by the normal healthcare and social services systems. As an example, students who have autistic spectrum disorders, poor impulse control, or other behavioral challenges may learn self - management techniques, be kept closely on a comfortingly predictable schedule, or given extra cues to signal activities. A university field, termed severe disabilities, also is taught throughout the US university sector in schools of education. Advanced instruction is based upon community - referenced instruction, and alignment with transition to adulthood and progressive community practices. Rehabilitation counseling personnel are often association with supported employment services, and typically with "transition to adulthood '' in which multi-decade recommendations for better coordination between the school and the community service sectors have been made at the federal and university levels. At - risk students (those with educational needs that are not associated with a disability) are often placed in classes with students who have disabilities. Critics assert that placing at - risk students in the same classes as students with disabilities may impede the educational progress of people with disabilities. Some special education classes have been criticized for a watered - down curriculum. The practice of inclusion (in mainstream classrooms) has been criticized by advocates and some parents of children with special needs because some of these students require instructional methods that differ dramatically from typical classroom methods. Critics assert that it is not possible to deliver effectively two or more very different instructional methods in the same classroom. As a result, the educational progress of students who depend on different instructional methods to learn often fall even further behind their peers. Parents of typically developing children sometimes fear that the special needs of a single "fully included '' student will take critical levels of attention and energy away from the rest of the class and thereby impair the academic achievements of all students. Linked to this, there is debate about the extent to which students with special needs, whether in mainstream or special settings, should have a specific pedagogy, based on the scientific study of particular diagnostic categories, or whether general instructional techniques are relevant to all students including those with special needs. Some parents, advocates, and students have concerns about the eligibility criteria and their application. In some cases, parents and students protest the students ' placement into special education programs. For example, a student may be placed into the special education programs due to a mental health condition such as obsessive compulsive disorder, depression, anxiety, panic attacks or ADHD, while the student and his parents believe that the condition is adequately managed through medication and outside therapy. In other cases, students whose parents believe they require the additional support of special education services are denied participation in the program based on the eligibility criteria. Whether it is useful and appropriate to attempt to educate the most severely disabled children, such as children who are in a persistent vegetative state, is debated. While many severely disabled children can learn simple tasks, such as pushing a buzzer when they want attention, some children may be incapable of learning. Some parents and advocates say that these children would be better served by substituting improved physical care for any academic program. In other cases, they question whether teaching such non-academic subjects, such as pushing a buzzer, is properly the job of the school system, rather than the health care system. Another large issue is the lack of resources enabling individuals with special needs to receive an education in the developing world. As a consequence, 98 percent of children with special needs in developing countries do not have access to education. Another issue would be budget cuts. Cuts can affect special education students who do n't have access to proper equipment or education. The National Coalition for Personal Shortages did a survey and almost 100 % of the teachers said that they are not able to give the proper rights to children with disabilities. Teachers are getting cut off from work due to the budget cuts. There is a financial debate that covers the use and allotment of special education government funding. The three views on this topic are that we spend too much money on it, there there is not enough money put into it or that the money that is given is n't being spent properly. The argument for the first is that the amount of money spent on one special needs child is enough to cover a large group of general education students, and sometimes even causes several students to suffer budget cuts on general programs to support one child. The evidence for special education not having enough money is the lack of teachers, burnt out teachers and a limited variety of teaching tools for each student. The argument to spend the money differently states that there is a lot of money set aside, but that it is being wasted by spending too much time on paperwork, inefficient IEP meetings or spending money on things that do n't actually benefit the child. Children with disabilities are often denied their right to education. However, little is known about their school attendance patterns. The collection of data on children with disabilities is not straightforward, but data are vital to ensure that policies are in place to address the constraints these children face. By one estimate, 93 million children under age 14, or 5.1 % of the world 's children, were living with a ' moderate or severe disability ' in 2004. According to the World Health Survey, in 14 of 15 low and middle income countries, people of working age with disabilities were about one - third less likely to have completed primary school. For example, in Bangladesh, 30 % of people with disabilities had completed primary school, compared with 48 % of those with no disabilities. The corresponding shares were 43 % and 57 % in Zambia; 56 % and 72 % in Paraguay. It has been shown that children with a higher risk of disability are far more likely to be denied a chance to go to school. In Bangladesh, Bhutan and Iraq, children with mental impairments were most likely to be denied this right. In Iraq, for instance, 10 % of 6 - to 9 - year - olds with no risk of disability had never been to school in 2006, but 19 % of those at risk of having a hearing impairment and 51 % of those who were at higher risk of mental disability had never been to school. In Thailand, almost all 6 - to 9 - year - olds who had no disability had been to school in 2005 / 06, and yet 34 % of those with walking or moving impairments had never been to school. White Papers in 1995 and 2001 discuss special education in the country. Local schools are given some independent authority. Both modifications and accommodations are recommended, depending on the student 's individual needs. China holds the largest system of education in the world and features a state run public school system under the order of the Ministry of Education. Japanese students with special needs are placed in one of four different school arrangements: special schools, special classrooms with another school, in resource rooms (which are called tsukyu), or in regular classrooms. Special schools are reserved for students whose severe disabilities can not be accommodated in the local school. They do not use the same grading or marking systems as mainstream schools, but instead assess students according to their individualized plans. Special classes are similar, and may vary the national curriculum as the teachers see fit. Tsukyu are resource rooms that students with milder problems use part - time for specialized instruction individually in small groups. These students spend the rest of the day in the mainstream classroom. Some students with special needs are fully included in the mainstream classroom, with accommodations or modifications as needed. Training of disabled students, particularly at the upper - secondary level, emphasizes vocational education to enable students to be as independent as possible within society. Vocational training varies considerably depending on the student 's disability, but the options are limited for some. It is clear that the government is aware of the necessity of broadening the range of possibilities for these students. Advancement to higher education is also a goal of the government, and it struggles to have institutions of higher learning accept more disabled students. After independence (1947), Pakistan had to face some serious challenges, due to which no proper emphasis was given to special education and even education. Among other reasons, lack of resources, financial as well as human, was the major one in this context. The need and importance of special education was felt in different educational policies of Pakistan in different times. At the first time, in its report, the Commission on National Education (1959) highlighted the importance of special education. After that the Education Policy (1972) and the National Policy and Implementation Programme (1979) gave some importance to this sector. The same was also reflected in different medium - term (five - year) plans. This was felt more seriously when the Directorate General of Special Education, Islamabad formulated a draft National Policy for Special Education in 1986 and revised it in 1988 to bring it in line with the emerging needs of special / disabled population. After that a special education policy was launched in 1999. Recently, Government of Pakistan has launched a new National Policy for Persons with Disabilities 2002, which is dynamically being implemented. Special education is regulated centrally by the Singapore Ministry of Education. Both special schools and integration into mainstream schools are options for students with special educational needs, but most students with disabilities are placed in special schools. Students with special education who wish accommodations on national exams must provide appropriate documentation to prove that they are disabled. Accommodations, but not modifications (e.g., simpler questions) are normally approved if they are similar to the accommodations already being used in everyday schoolwork, with the goal of maintaining the exam 's integrity while not having students unfairly disadvantaged by factors that are unrelated to what is being tested. The accommodations are listed on the Primary School Leaving Exam. Australian Association of Special Education Inc (AASE) 's position is informed by the Disability Standards for Education 2005 which require that students with disabilities are treated on the same basis as other students in regards to enrollment and participation in education. With respect to standardized tests, special consideration procedures are in place in all states for students who are disabled. Students must provide documentation Not all desired forms of accommodations are available. For example, students who can not read, even if the inability to read is due to a disability, can not have the exam read to them, because the exam results should accurately show that the student is unable to read. Reports on matriculation exams do not mention whether the student received any accommodations in taking the test. Each country in Europe has its own special education support structures. 28 European countries are covered by the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education. Schools must take students ' special education needs into account when assessing their achievements. Students with disabilities are normally included in their neighborhood school, although may be placed in special schools. What is important is the cooperation of family, school and Education Counselling Centre. In Denmark, 99 % of students with specific learning difficulties like dyslexia are educated alongside students without any learning challenges. Schools adapt the national guidelines to the needs of individual students. Students with special educational needs are given an individualized plan. They may be exempted from some parts of school examinations, such as students with hearing impairments not taking listening comprehension tests. If the student receives modifications to the school - leaving exams, this is noted on the certificate of achievement. If they are not following the national core curriculum, then they are tested according to the goals of their individual educational program. French students with disabilities are normally included in their neighborhood school, although children may be placed in special schools if their personalized plan calls for it. Each student 's personalized school plan describes teaching methods, psychological, medical and paramedical services that the school will provide to the student. Most students with special needs in Germany attend a special school that serves only children with special needs. These include: One in 21 German students attends a special school. Teachers at those schools are specially trained professionals who have specialized in special needs education while in university. Special schools often have a very favorable student - teacher ratio and facilities other schools do not have. Some special needs children in Germany do not attend a special school, but are educated in a mainstream school such as a Hauptschule or Gesamtschule (comprehensive school). Students with special educational needs may be exempted from standardized tests or given modified tests. Greek students with special needs may attend either mainstream schools or special schools. Students whose disabilities have been certified may be exempted from some standardized tests or given alternative tests. Accommodations are responsive to students ' needs; for example, students with visual impairments may take oral tests, and students with hearing impairments take written tests. Accommodations and modifications are noted on the certificate of achievement. Special education is regulated centrally. According to the 1993 Act on Public Education, students with special educational needs may be exempted from standardized tests or given modified tests. They have a right to extra time, a choice of formats for the tests (e.g., oral rather than written), and any equipment that they normally use during the school day. As of 2006, students with disabilities received a significant bonus (eight points) on the university entrance examination, which has been criticized as unfair. The National Council for Special Education (NCSE) supports students with physical and intellectual disabilities. As a general rule, students with special educational needs are integrated into their regular, mainstream schools with appropriate support, under the "Going to School Together '' policy (Weer Samen Naar School). Four types of disability - specific special schools exist. The national policy is moving towards "suitable education '' (passend onderwijs), based on the individual 's strengths and weaknesses. A strong emphasis is placed on the specific needs and positive capabilities of the individual, rather than on limitations. Disabilities are normally documented by experts. Norway The National Support System for Special Needs Education (Statped) is managed by the Norwegian Directorate for Education and Training. The general objective for Statped is to give guidance and support to those in charge of the education in municipalities and county administrations to ensure that children, young people and adults with major and special educational needs are secured well - advised educational and developmental provisions. The institutions affiliated with Statped offer a broad spectrum of services. Statped consists of 13 resource centres owned by the State, and 4 units for special education, where Statped buys services. These centres offer special educational guidance and support for local authorities and county administrations. Students with disabilities have a "guaranteed right '' to appropriate accommodations on assessments. Schools are generally considered autonomous. On national tests, the National Examination Center normally grants most requests for accommodations that are supported by the local school 's examination committee. Legislation opposes the use of modifications that would be unfair to non-disabled students. Schools are required to provide services and resources to students with special educational needs so that they make progress and participate in school. If the local school is unable to provide appropriately for an individual student, then the student may be transferred to a special school. Spanish non-governmental organizations like ONCE have traditionally provided significant services to students with disabilities. Local schools have significant autonomy, based on national guidelines. Schools are expected to help students meet the goals that are set for them. There are special schools (Swedish: Särskola) for students with low abilities to attend normal education. There has in 2012 - 2013 been media criticism on the fact that students with light problems such as dyslexia have been placed in special schools, seriously hampering their chances on the labour market. Education is controlled by the 26 cantons, and so special education programs vary from place to place. However, integration is typical. Students are assessed according to their individual learning goals. United Kingdom In England and Wales the acronym SEN for Special Educational Needs denotes the condition of having special educational needs, the services which provide the support and the programmes and staff which implement the education. In England SEN PPS refers to the Special Educational Needs Parent Partnership Service. SENAS is the special educational needs assessment service, which is part of the Local Authority. SENCO refers to a special educational needs coordinator, who usually works with schools and the children within schools who have special educational needs. The Special Educational Needs Parent Partnership Services help parents with the planning and delivery of their child 's educational provision. The Department for Education oversees special education in England. Most students have an individual educational plan, but students may have a group plan in addition to, or instead of, an individual plan. Group plans are used when a group of students all have similar goals. In Scotland the Additional Support Needs Act places an obligation on education authorities to meet the needs of all students in consultation with other agencies and parents. In Scotland the term Special Educational Needs (SEN), and its variants are not official terminology although the very recent implementation of the Additional Support for Learning Act means that both SEN and ASN (Additional Support Needs) are used interchangeably in current common practice. At a young age students who have special needs in Turkey are provided special education from The Ministry of Education, who are responsible in giving them the education that they need. In order to get special education you are required certain things: All special - needs students receive an Individualized Education Program (BEP) that outlines how the school will meet the student 's individual needs. The Özel Eğitim Kurumları Yönetmeliği (ÖEKY) requires that students with special needs be provided with a Free Appropriate Public Education in the Least Restrictive Environment that is appropriate to the student 's needs. Government - run schools provide special education in varying degrees from the least restrictive settings, such as full inclusion, to the most restrictive settings, such as segregation in a special school. The education offered by the school must be appropriate to the student 's individual needs. Schools are not required to maximize the student 's potential or to provide the best possible services. Unlike most of the developed world, American schools are also required to provide many medical services, such as speech therapy, if the student needs these services. According to the Department of Education, approximately 10 percent of all school - aged children) currently receive some type of special education services. As with most countries in the world, students who are poor, ethnic minorities, or do not speak the dominant language fluently are disproportionately identified as needing special education services. Poor, refugies are more likely to have limited resources and to employ inexperienced teachers that do not cope well with student behavior problems, "thereby increasing the number of students they referred to special education. '' Teacher efficacy, tolerance, gender, and years of experience and special education referrals. In North America, special education is commonly abbreviated as special ed, SpecEd, SPED, or SpEd in a professional context. Education in Canada is the responsibility of the individual provinces and territories. As such, rules vary somewhat from place to place. However, inclusion is the dominant model. For major exams, Canadian schools commonly use accommodations, such as specially printed examinations for students with visual impairments, when assessing the achievements of students with special needs. In other instances, alternative assessments or modifications that simplify tests are permitted, or students with disabilities may be exempted from the tests entirely. All special - needs students receive an Individualized Education Program (IEP) that outlines how the school will meet the student 's individual needs. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires that students with special needs be provided with a Free Appropriate Public Education in the Least Restrictive Environment that is appropriate to the student 's needs. Government - run schools provide special education in varying degrees from the least restrictive settings, such as full inclusion, to the most restrictive settings, such as segregation in a special school. The education offered by the school must be appropriate to the student 's individual needs. Schools are not required to maximize the student 's potential or to provide the best possible services. Unlike most of the developed world, American schools are also required to provide many medical services, such as speech therapy, if the student needs these services. According to the Department of Education, approximately 6 million children (roughly 10 percent of all school - aged children) currently receive some type of special education services. As with most countries in the world, students who are poor, ethnic minorities, or do not speak the dominant language fluently are disproportionately identified as needing special education services. Poor, black and Latino urban schools are more likely to have limited resources and to employ inexperienced teachers that do not cope well with student behavior problems, "thereby increasing the number of students they referred to special education. '' During the 1960s, in some part due to the civil rights movement, some researchers began to study the disparity of education amongst people with disabilities. The landmark Brown v. Board of Education decision, which declared unconstitutional the "separate but equal '' arrangements in public schools for students of different races, paved the way for PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and Mills vs. Board of Education of District of Columbia, which challenged the segregation of students with special needs. Courts ruled that unnecessary and inappropriate segregation of students with disabilities was unconstitutional. Congress responded to these court rulings with the federal Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975 (since renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)). This law required schools to provide services to students previously denied access to an appropriate education. In US government - run schools, the dominant model is inclusion. In the United States, three out of five students with academic learning challenges spend the overwhelming majority of their time in the regular classroom. Autism, or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), refers to a range of conditions. These conditions involve challenges with social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech and nonverbal communication. They also involve unique strengths and differences. For instance, there are persons with both low - and high - functioning autism (which some claim is identical to Asperger 's syndrome. Autism is known as a disability that impairs the social interactions and communication skills of a person. People who are autistic tend to think and act differently than others. Many children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) find themselves comfortable with a device in their hands. For students with autism, there are apps called "visual scene displays '' that are most helpful for children who are having difficulty with verbal skills, according to Jules Csillag, a speech - language pathologist who focuses on special ed tech. Apps such as SceneSpeak and Speech with Milo help autistic children develop storytelling skills with text - to - speech voice and interactive storybooks. Using apps like these in a classroom can improve autistic student 's verbal skills. There are several controversies surrounding the diagnoses and causes of autism. It 's now believed that there 's no single cause of autism. Research seems to suggest that autism is normally the result of both genetic and environmental influences. If a student has down syndrome, assistive technology can help with their learning experience. Author of Down Syndrome: A Promising Future, Together, Terry Hassold, who got his PhD in human genetics, explains that students with Down syndrome have delays with cognitive ability. Their brains have a late reaction when their neurological system sends a message for any task. Because of this late reaction, they tend to take longer to complete a task than an average students. Assistive technology is crucial in helping Down 's students with their writing ability. Down syndrome children tend to have shorter, stubbier fingers and a lowered thumb making their ability to write more difficult. Also, some of the usual wrist bones are not formed, making it difficult to hold objects. Slanted desks are one type of assisted technology that can aid in the successful ability to write. A three - ring binder can be used to create a slanted desk by turning the binder sideways. Also, students with Down 's often try to hold their pencils by anchoring them against the thumb rather than using the tip of their thumb. Shortened pencils or triangular - shaped pencils encourage students to hold them correctly. Using any of these assistive technologies can help down syndrome students during their educational process. Today many people with disabilities are breaking barriers through the use of technology. For some individuals with disabilities, assistive technology is a necessary tool that enables them to engage in or perform many tasks. Integrating technology will allow students to increase their self - confidence, self - motivation, independence and they will also be able to engage in different activities within the school. This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC - BY - SA IGO 3.0 Licence statement: Rethinking Education: Towards a global common good?, 44, Box 6, UNESCO. UNESCO. To learn how to add open - license text to Wikipedia articles, please see Wikipedia: Adding open license text to Wikipedia. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.

the impact of the cold war on western europe

Effects of the Cold War - wikipedia Part of a series on the History of the Cold War The Cold War had many effects on society, both today and in the past. In Russia, military spending was cut dramatically and quickly. The effects of this were very large, seeing as the military - industrial sector had previously employed one of every five Soviet adults and its dismantling left hundreds of millions throughout the former Soviet Union unemployed. After Russia embarked on capitalist economic reforms in the 1990s, it suffered a financial crisis and a recession more severe than the United States and Germany had experienced during the Great Depression. Russian living standards have worsened overall in the post -- Cold War years, although the economy has resumed growth since 1995. The legacy of the Cold War continues to influence world affairs. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the post -- Cold War world is widely considered as unipolar, with the United States the sole remaining superpower. The Cold War defined the political role of the United States in the post -- World War II world: by 1989 the United States held military alliances with 50 countries, and had 1.5 million troops posted abroad in 117 countries. The Cold War also institutionalized a global commitment to huge, permanent peacetime military - industrial complexes and large - scale military funding of science. Military expenditures by the US during the Cold War years were estimated to have been $8 trillion, while nearly 100,000 Americans lost their lives in the Korean War and Vietnam War. Although the loss of life among Soviet soldiers is difficult to estimate, as a share of their gross national product the financial cost for the Soviet Union was far higher than that of the United States. In addition to the loss of life by uniformed soldiers, millions died in the superpowers ' proxy wars around the globe, most notably in Southeast Asia. Most of the proxy wars and subsidies for local conflicts ended along with the Cold War; the incidence of interstate wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, as well as refugee and displaced persons crises has declined sharply in the post -- Cold War years. The legacy of Cold War conflict, however, is not always easily erased, as many of the economic and social tensions that were exploited to fuel Cold War competition in parts of the Third World remain acute. The breakdown of state control in a number of areas formerly ruled by Communist governments has produced new civil and ethnic conflicts, particularly in the former Yugoslavia. In Eastern Europe, the end of the Cold War has ushered in an era of economic growth and a large increase in the number of liberal democracies, while in other parts of the world, such as Afghanistan, independence was accompanied by state failure. Many nuclear legacies can be identified from the Cold War, such as the availability of new technologies for nuclear power and energy, and the use of radiation for improving medical treatment and health. Environmental remediation, industrial production, research science, and technology development have all benefited from the carefully managed application of radiation and other nuclear processes. On the other hand, despite the end of the Cold War, military development and spending has continued, particularly in the deployment of nuclear - armed ballistic missiles and defensive systems. Because there was no formalized treaty ending the Cold War, the former superpowers have continued to various degrees to maintain and even improve or modify existing nuclear weapons and delivery systems. Moreover, other nations not previously acknowledged as nuclear - weapons states have developed and tested nuclear - explosive devices. The risk of nuclear and radiological terrorism by possible sub-national organizations or individuals is now a concern. The international nonproliferation regime inherited from the Cold War still provides disincentives and safeguards against national or sub-national access to nuclear materials and facilities. Formal and informal measures and processes have effectively slowed national incentives and the tempo of international nuclear - weapons proliferation. Numerous and beneficial uses of nuclear energy have evolved such as the use of nuclear energy to create electricity. Commercial nuclear - reactor operation and construction have persisted, with some notable increase in worldwide energy production. The management of nuclear waste remains somewhat unresolved, depending very much on government policies. However, the quantity of waste produced from nuclear power plants is relatively small, and nuclear waste has been proven to be recyclable. Several countries, including France, Japan, and Finland, currently reprocess nuclear waste. As nuclear weapons are becoming surplus to national military interests, they are slowly being dismantled, and in some cases their fissile material is being recycled to fuel civilian nuclear - reactors. Because of the military and non-military exploitation of nuclear fission, the Cold War brought forth some significant involuntary exposures to high - level radiation. The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki caused large - scale destruction through intense blast and fire, as well as acute and lingering radiation. Moreover, as a result of decades of nuclear - weapons production, experimentation, and testing, exposure to radiation above normal background levels occurred to scientists, technicians, military personnel, civilians, and animals. Several significant radiation - related accidents occurred at military and civilian nuclear reactors and facilities, causing direct fatalities, as well as involuntary occupational and public exposures. Because numerous diagnostic and epidemiological studies have since been conducted, the medical effects of radiation exposure are now better understood than they were during the Cold War. Comparatively large and involuntary doses and effects from radiation, chemical, and biological agents have been documented. Some exposures were from deliberate human medical experiments and some from residues of highly toxic materials at contaminated sites. While the nuclear facilities and residual products of the Cold War are mostly contained within secure boundaries, that is not necessarily the case for nuclear - propelled submarines that have been sunk at sea. Because of potential risk to national and international security, nuclear - weapons states have inherited substantial responsibilities in protecting and stabilizing their nuclear forces. Not only must nuclear weapons and their delivery systems be secured and protected, other nuclear facilities and devices, such as reactors and propulsion systems, must be safeguarded. An appropriate continuing level of security is necessary through all life - cycle phases, from production to decommissioning. In addition, the entire military nuclear infrastructure requires protection, and that requires a commensurate allocation of funding. Having once had widespread overseas nuclear bases and facilities, both the United States and the former Soviet Union have inherited particular responsibilities and costs. Moreover, all nuclear - weapons states had developed not only production and servicing facilities, but also sometimes extensive military staging and storage. Although the Cold War has ended, domestic basing and overseas deployment of nuclear weapons has not ended. Moreover, the nuclear - weapon states remain in various reduced but palpable conditions of defensive alert. Risks of deliberate, accidental, or unauthorized nuclear devastation remain. Moreover, terrorists and hackers continue to interfere with nuclear stability and confidence. World inventories of weapons - grade fissile materials are substantial, much greater than now needed for military purposes. Until these materials can be demilitarized, they need to be security safeguarded. Many production facilities are yet to be shut down. In the meantime, sensitive materials have to be safely and securely stored, pending their conversion to non-military use. In particular, the successor states of the former Soviet Union were generally not in a position to finance and maintain secure safeguards when the Cold War came to such an unprepared and relatively sudden end. National security and defense for nuclear - weapons states must be frequently reevaluated. The international arms - control treaty and verification regime inherited from the Cold War is only slowly being updated to reflect the realities of a broken international security environment. Internal national - security military postures still dominate behavior among sovereign nations. The former superpowers have not formally consummated their stand - down from Cold War military equipoise. Strategic and tactical nuclear and conventional forces remain at levels comparatively high for a peacetime environment. Localized conflicts and tensions have replaced the former bilateral nuclear confrontation. As a lingering result, large inventories of nuclear weapons and facilities remain. Some are being recycled, dismantled, or recovered as valuable substances. As well, some chemical and biological weapons that were developed during the Cold War are still in existence, although many are being demilitarized. Military policies and strategies are slowly being modified to reflect the increasing interval without major confrontation. Because of large extant inventories of weapons, fissile materials, and rapid - response delivery systems, a mutual danger coexists for accidental, misjudged, or miscalculated incidents or warfare. Other Cold War weapons states, are slowly reducing their arsenals. In the meantime, they have not abandoned their dependency on nuclear deterrence, while a few more nations have attempted or succeeded in carrying out nuclear - explosive tests and thus creating their own nuclear deterrence. During the Cold War, an international fabric of arms - control constraint had evolved, much of it carried over as a beneficial heritage with institutional mechanisms for multilateral or international function and verification. Aside from tangible measures of national defense, such as standing military and security forces and hardware, are various institutional structures of government and functionality that have less to do directly with military or security factors, but more to do with underlying public attitudes and risks. These institutional structures and perceptions have had their own challenges and adjustments after the Cold War. Strong impressions were made and continue to affect national psyche as a result of close brushes with all - out nuclear warfare. In some cases this had resulted in aversion to warfare, in other cases to callousness regarding nuclear threats. Peaceful applications of nuclear energy received a stigma still difficult to exorcize. Heightened fear of nuclear risk can result in resistance to military draw down. What at one time was fastidious attention regarding nuclear security, secrecy, and safety could deteriorate to lax attitudes. Public impressions and insecurities gained during the Cold War could carry over to the peacetime environment. Continuing support for the weapons establishment depends on public support despite diminished threats to national security. Agencies and departments created during a time of crisis no longer need to fill the same role. In fact, these same institutional structures can be modified to carry out knowledgeable new missions associated with the cleanup and storage of highly dangerous and toxic materials. Some materials can be converted to non-military uses. Others need to be secured and safely stored almost indefinitely. Also, misunderstandings that were prominent during the Cold War now need clarification so that closure can be reached, especially about the ability to demilitarize and peacefully use nuclear materials. Underhanded practices in the name of national security are no longer countenanced. The existence of many third - world insurgencies and interventions is now being uncovered as the former cloak of secrecy unveils or their perpetrators confess. Among the more specific consequences of the Cold War was a huge fiscal mortgage placed on many domestic economies. Financial obligations included those necessary to avoid further dislocations while the change took place from a wartime footing to a peacetime environment. National military establishments and alliances had to be reconfigured. Highly dependent institutional frameworks were to be restructured, and new obligations were acquired by nations that were once bystanders to the East - West confrontation. In the wake of the Cold War, freed or newly founded nations inherited expenses, commitments, and resources for which they were not prepared. The successor states also found themselves with contemporary national - security burdens and substantial environmental contamination legacies, all to be financed while new or revised civilian economies had to be instituted. Since the superpowers carried much of the confrontational burden, both Russia and the United States ended up with substantial economic liabilities. Alexander DeVolpi (2009): Nuclear Insights: The Cold War Legacy, Volume 2: Nuclear Threats and Prospects (A Knowledgeable Assessment)

who wins the sa re ga ma pa lil champs 2017

Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2017 - wikipedia Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs 2017 (stylised as Saregamapa Li'l Champs) is a singing competition television series, which premiered on February 25, 2017 on Zee TV. The series airs every Saturday and Sunday nights at 9 pm. In a ' Back to School ' format that lends itself to a spirited atmosphere of camaraderie and fun, the L'il Champs will represent their schools. For the first time in L'il Champs, they have incorporated the format created for Sa Re Ga Ma Pa 2016. There is a 30 - member Grand Jury which grades the contestants and the average percentage of their scores is displayed. Himesh Reshammiya, Neha Kakkar & Javed Ali are the mentors in the show, whereas Aditya Narayan is the host. The show went off air on 29 October 2017 following the Great Grand Finale in Jaipur. Children aged 5 - 14 years participate in a singing competition. In the auditions round, they have 100 seconds to impress the three judges and the 30 - members of the grand jury. If two of the three judges say YES and they secure at least 50 per cent of the support of the Grand Jury, then the contestant progresses to the next round. In the Gala round, the judges select the ' Student of the Week ' who is the best performer according to them. The contestant gets to sit on a ' flying sofa ', which indicates that the contestant is safe from next week 's elimination. The audience vote will come in later in the competition. The contestant with the highest votes in the final round will win the competition. The show has a panel of 30 jury members who are experts from the music industry. They closely assess the contestants from the audition stage wherein they help the mentors in the selection process and are present in the show during the studio rounds too. Some of them are:

who was the first latino female fighter pilot

Timeline of American women in War and the U.S. military from 1945 to 1999 - wikipedia For non-U.S. military related information, please see Women in warfare and the military (1945 -- 99)

who plays sookie's cousin on true blood

Jason Stackhouse - wikipedia Jason Stackhouse is a fictional character from The Southern Vampire Mysteries book series by author Charlaine Harris. Introduced in the first novel, Dead Until Dark, Jason is Sookie Stackhouse 's older brother and road crew supervisor for Bon Temps. Jason is known as a ladies ' man and is associated sexually with many women in Bon Temps and other neighboring communities. He is selfish and often involves Sookie in his troubles. Sookie says, "What they did n't get was that (reckless and wild as my brother was) Jason 's favorite person in the entire universe was Jason Stackhouse. '' In the first book, Jason is suspected of killing a series of girls in Bon Temps. Videotapes of his sexual encounters with each girl were damning evidence against him. Jason is eventually found innocent. In later books he is implicated in other crimes, and despite his innocence these accusations continue to erode his reputation. In Dead to the World, Jason disappears. This occurs shortly after he begins dating Crystal Norris from Hotshot, a community of werepanthers near Bon Temps. Finally, Sookie discovers that he was kidnapped by a jealous rival, who bit him repeatedly to turn him into a werepanther. Jason is shown to greatly enjoy hunting with the panthers; but they do n't fully accept him because he was bitten, not born. In the novels, Crystal gets pregnant with Jason 's baby, but she miscarries. When she gets pregnant again, Jason happily marries her in a wedding in Hotshot. Sookie claims that Jason loves Crystal, but Crystal is n't sure that she loves Jason. The immature twosome quickly encounter marriage troubles, such as Crystal spending the household money on shopping instead of necessities. When Jason discovers that Crystal is having an affair, he tricks Calvin Norris and Sookie into catching her in the act. After that, Crystal moves back to Hotshot and Jason is shown to be dating other women. Jason has been friends with Hoyt Fortenberry since they were children. Since Jason became a werepanther, their relationship has been strained; and it appears to end when Jason marries Crystal. Jason then befriends werepanther Mel Hart, with unfortunate results. Crystal ultimately dies when she is crucified outside of Merlotts, and Jason again becomes a suspect, but eventually his innocence is proven. Like Sookie, Jason has fairy ancestry. Other characters assume it is the source of his sexual attractiveness and conquests. In True Blood, an HBO series based on the books, this character is played by Ryan Kwanten. In the series, Jason is introduced as Sookie 's brother and a well - known ladies man in Bon Temps. Things start turning upside down for him when several women that he has been involved with are murdered, including his loving Grandmother, Adele Hale "Gran '' Stackhouse. The first victim is Maudette Pickens, a local married woman who periodically engages Jason in casual sex. It is discovered during one of these encounters, that Maudette had been paid one thousand dollars for a sexual relationship with a vampire. Maudette is n't ashamed of the fact, but Jason is skeptical about it. She also reveals that she videotaped the encounter. With this as a motive, Jason starts to have rough sex with Maudette with his hands around her neck. He later realizes she becomes unresponsive and assumes that he accidentally killed her. Frightened and scared, Jason packs up his things and runs out of the house. Later Maudette is found dead in her home. The whole town assumes it 's a vampire since it was known that Maudette enjoyed sexual encounters with vampires. However, Jason gets picked up by Detective Andy Bellefleur at his job and is interrogated. There it is discovered that Maudette videotaped her encounter with Jason, but was clearly alive after the sex, calling him an idiot and turning off the video camera. Jason then pleads his innocence, stating that he is n't smart enough to commit a murder. Still suspicious, the detectives let him go. Jason then moves on to his ex-girlfriend Dawn Green (Lynn Collins). It is implied that the relationship ended due to Jason 's philandering behaviour. Wanting to give him another chance Dawn gets involved with Jason once again. During sex, Jason finds vampire bite marks on her chest to which she accounts to hanging around to a period of which she frequented vampire nightclubs and encountered numerous vampires. Jason loses his erection and Dawn ridicules him, yells at him, kicks him out and ultimately fires a number of rounds at him. Dawn 's neighbors overhear the commotion. The next morning, Dawn does not show up for work at Merlotte 's and Sookie goes to her place, only to discover Dawn 's dead body on the bed. Jason later meets and falls in love with Amy (Lizzy Caplan), a psychopathic hippie V - juice addict who also is murdered under suspicious circumstances. Although Jason is a major suspect for all four murders (three of which are women with whom he has had sexual relations with and the other is his grandmother), it is finally revealed during the first - season finale that all four murders are committed by Drew Marshall (also known as Rene Lenier). At this point, Jason 's name is cleared although his reputation has suffered serious damage. At the beginning of the second season, Jason joins the Fellowship of the Sun church, believing that God is guiding him to his destiny. Jason is inducted in the FotS 's leadership program. Being favoured by the reverend Newlin and his wife, Sarah, he eventually moves in with them and starts a romantic relationship with the reverend 's neglected wife, Sarah Newlin. Mistakenly led to believe that Steve, the reverend, has discovered her affair, Sarah attempts to shoot Jason. Jason barely escapes. As an argument between Bill and Sookie gets heated from Bill having to fix a situation with Jessica 's human family that was the cause of Sookie being naïve; Sookie then gets out of the car in the middle of no where and tells Bill she will walk home. Bill has Jessica in the back seat of the car and Jessica is trying to explain to Bill to go after Sookie but he sits in the car thinking that Sookie will come back to the car once she has calmed down. As Sookie is walking down a clear path without the car insight she hears noises and thinks Bill is trying to scare her back to the car. When Sookie turns around she sees a long horned being with a human body and razor sharp claws running after her as Sookie tries to get away the half human with claws jumps on Sookies back and claws her. Bill hears Sookies screams and goes running to see what has happened. He sees when he approaches Sookie that she has been attacked and he tries to feed her his blood to heal her but she has a violent episode after that. As that is happening Jessica appears and sees Sookie and gets upset. Bill tells Jessia to get the car. The next scene is when Jessica is driving up into Fangtasia 's parking lot. Eric then has a doctor come to the aid for Sookie since Bill had no one else that would be able to help. The doctor being a little person was able to tend to Sookie on a lounge sofa and she was able to heal some of the toxins that the claws had left in bedded in Sookies back but Bills blood was needed after that to heal Sookie as she was before her attack. The doctor then talked to Eric about payment and left; Eric told Bill that Sookie was not in any shape to be moved and needed her rest so she was welcome to stay and get her sleep... Bill, of course, insisted on staying and Eric offered Bill a spare casket he had on the property. It was later found out that Maryanne Forster was the half human half beast with claws that terrorized Sookie and had everyone in the town but Sheriff Andy and Sam Merlotte under a spell of deviate sexual behavior and vandalism throughout the town. While all that was happening and the Maryanne plot was thickening in Bon Temps; Even more was happening with Sookie as she had left Bon Temps and was at the Fellowship of the Sun 's Church as a prisoner along with another human that was in a relationship with a vampire but Sookie was released by Godrick (Eric 's maker) and soon after Eric appeared to help Godrick but Godrick sent Eric with Sookie away to get out so she would be free. Jason was held by a guard of Steve Newlin 's and beat up but not before Jason fought back and in the middle of the fight the guard made a comment about Sookie being a vampire slut and Jason told him that no one can say anything about his sister and then he stomped the guard in the middle of his crotch and left him against a tree. When Sookie arrives back in Bon Temps with Jason they are greeted by vandals in the streets that jumped in front of their vehicle and ran off to Maryanne 's place (actually Sookie 's home) then Jason joins up with Andy to help Sam which is why Maryanne came to Bon Temps but as Jason and Andy were trying to help Sam they were also put under the spell the rest of Bon Temps was under. Sam had met Maryanne when he was still a teenager that had broken into her home to steal food or anything he could sell to buy food and clothes as he was young and naïve he did not know that when meeting Maryanne that she was dangerous trouble. Now Maryanne realized that with Sam being a shape shifter he was to be her sacrifice to a god to be given a husband. It was with trickery and team work that Sam and Bill out smarted Maryanne and she was killed by Sam ripping her heart out with his bare hand and they saved the day for the whole town... even though no one in the town remembered why they ended up at Sookie 's to begin with. At the close of the season, Jason shoots a knife - wielding (Eggs Benedict Talley) mistakenly believing that Eggs is threatening Andy. Eggs had been tormented by the terrible deeds the maenad (Maryanne Foster) had forced him to commit under her possession of him and had attempted to surrender himself to Andy by handing over the murder weapon (the knife). In the third season, Jason and Andy work out a plan to pin the murder of Eggs on Andy. However, instead of coming down hard on Andy for murdering Eggs, the town praises Andy 's heroics. This eventually gets to Andy 's head and Jason, tired of letting Andy take all the credit, blackmails Andy into letting him join the police force. Throughout the season, Jason also pursues a mysterious Crystal Norris, who is hesitant on being with Jason due to her loyalty to her abusive father and boyfriend. Crystal later reveals that she and her family are from Hotshot, a town filled with werepanthers. The situation intensifies through the season as Jason tries to convince Crystal to abandon her town and her family for a life with him. In the end, Jason and Crystal tip off the Hotshot residents about a drug raid, but not before Crystal 's half - brother and fiancé Felton Norris, who is a V - addict, kills their father and kidnaps Crystal at gunpoint. Jason, helpless in the situation, promises to abide by Crystal 's final request: he must take care of the other Hotshot residence in her absence. Later, in an act reminiscent of killing Eggs, Jason kills Franklin Mott, a sadistic vampire who had kidnapped and tortured Tara earlier in the season. Broken, Jason finally confesses his crimes, in particular the shooting of Eggs, to Sookie and Tara. In the year since Sookie 's disappearance, Jason has become a police officer partnering up with Andy Bellefleur. He, along with many other friends, had assumed Sookie had died and are shocked when Sookie reappears. Assuming she died, Jason had sold Sookie 's house to an unknown company, later determined to be actually owned by Eric Northman. True to his word, Jason continues to supply the Hotshot residents with food and supplies as he promised Crystal. On one of his visits, a resident traps him in an old freezer. He awakens later tied to a bed and is greeted by Crystal and Felton. They reveal that their intentions are to change him into a werepanther so that they can use him to breed more werepanthers with Crystal as Felton is infertile. After numerous women rape him, Jason, defeated and exhausted, refuses to have sex with a 12 - year - old girl. He convinces her to free him, and Jason quickly escapes on foot. Felton doggedly pursues him as a werepanther, but Jason eventually kills him with a sharpened stick. Crystal is relieved to have Felton off her back, and wishes for Jason to return to Hotshot to resume his role as a "ghost daddy. '' Jason vehemently refuses the offer and runs off, only to collapse later on the roadside. He is then found by Hoyt Fortenberry and Jessica Hamby, who promptly revives him with her blood. As he is nursed back to health, he begins fantasizing about Jessica and, oddly, Hoyt. Thinking he will turn into a werepanther through the upcoming full moon, Jason handcuffs himself to his bedpost to protect others. Sookie finds him and learns about the situation - she assures him that she will make the best of the situation and will not shoot Jason. When night falls, Jason flees into the woods to protect Sookie, who subsequently chases him. Jessica, who is working at Merlotte 's, senses Jason in fear (since she had fed Jason her blood) and quickly finds Jason to protect him. They eventually discover that he does not turn. Jason, relieved, bonds with Jessica. They eventually part ways, though not without some obvious sexual tension between them. Jason is visited by Hoyt, who is clearly distressed by his relationship problems with Jessica. The next day, he looks for Sookie to tell her the good news about his non-turning but she is concerned about Eric, who has been bound by silver chains to prevent him from walking out into the sun (due to a dangerous witch spell by a newly resurrected Antonia). Realizing Jessica is in danger, Jason sprints to the mansion to rescue her. He is stopped temporarily by a guard, who he shoots (presumably non-fatally). He rushes to promptly save Jessica by throwing her back into the mansion. The spell is soon released and Jessica, indebted to Jason for saving her life, kisses him on the lips, which he returns. She apologizes and Jason places her back in bed under chains to rest and prepare for another possible spell. As per Bill 's suggestion, Jason agrees to not report that Jessica killed the guard, a human. In turn, Jason would not be punished for the guard he shot "in the shoulder '' outside. At night, Jessica visits Jason and tells him that she and Hoyt have broken up. Jason is angry that she would hurt his best friend and not only rejects her feelings for him but rescinds her invitation to his house. The next day Jason gets a call from Hoyt - a possessed Lafayette has taken Arlene and Terry 's baby and has threatened Hoyt with a gun. Jason responds to the call with Andy but can not make much headway with Lafayette until Jesus comes and eventually puts the grieving mother spirit at peace. Later, Hoyt asks Jason to give Jessica a box of her belongings. Jason delivers the box - although he at first remains hesitant to get close to Jessica, they eventually make love in Jason 's truck. Afterwards, Jason feels guilty knowing that it will ruin Hoyt if he finds out. He asks Jessica to glamour him to make him forget but she refuses and leaves angrily to feed on someone else. Jason helps Sookie 's cause to rescue Tara and other humans from Moon Goddess Emporium, which Bill plans to destroy in order to end the war with Antonia. He, Sookie, Jesus, and Lafayette approach the Emporium during daylight but Jesus discovers it is protected by a spell. Jesus proves his worth to Antonia by breaking through the barrier, and warns Sookie in his mind that Marnie has now turned sympathetic towards Antonia 's cause. Soon the prisoners are broken free temporarily when the spell is lifted and Tara and Holly run out to the embracing arms of Sookie and Lafayette. Jason lags behind slightly and is caught on the outside of Antonia 's newly cast spell, which causes everyone else to be cast inside the shop. When Pam, Jessica, Eric, and Bill come armed to defeat Marnie, they are unable to make any progress because of the barrier. Marnie asks Eric and Bill to sacrifice themselves for Sookie 's release, and while they both agree, Pam does not and launches a rocket launcher at the barrier, causing a massive explosion and injuring Jason severely. Jessica feeds him her blood again. Eventually, Marnie casts a spell to draw the vampires towards the deadly barrier, but Jason holds them back long enough before the spell is broken (when Jesus draws Antonia out of Marnie). Marnie is then killed by Bill and the prisoners are released. Jason tells Hoyt about his relationship with Jessica, and Hoyt does not take it well as he beats Jason up. Later that night, on Halloween, Jessica visits Jason and he invites her in. They have sex, and Jessica suggest they should just stay friends as she is not ready for a relationship and Jason agrees to be friends. At the beginning of Season 5, Jason is visited at home by Steve Newlin, who reveals he is a recently turned vampire and is a "Proud Gay American Vampire ''. Jason is uninterested in a relationship with Newlin and an angry Newlin attempts to bite Jason. Jessica arrives and threatens Newlin as she is basically the Queen of Louisiana since Bill is gone (unbeknownst to her, he and Eric are arrested by the Vampire Authority twice). Jason takes back his invitation from Newlin, who leaves immediately. Jason then goes to Merlotte 's to see Hoyt, who is with his other ' true friends ', but is coldly turned down. Jason still has feelings for Jessica and thinks the feeling is mutual, but upon going to visit her at Bill 's she denies this, explaining she was just saying that to protect Jason from Newlin. Jessica is throwing a party, and Jason attempts to make a move on her but another guy makes a move before he can. A jealous Jason takes a sorority girl to have sex, but instead he takes her home. Jason is later visited by an old school teacher with which he had sexual relations previously. They have sex but immediately afterwards Jason begins to feel like he is being used for sex and this causes Jason to remember his past with his teacher as it really was (his teacher talked Jason into having sex with her while she was married) and leaves her house in a hurry. Jason realizes now that his sexual desires early on are because of his teacher 's influence; that all he had to offer anyone were sexual encounters that have ruined chances for a real loving relationship with anyone and starts to straighten up his life now that he has faced his past. Later on, Sookie visits Jason and emotionally confesses that she killed Debbie and had Tara turned into a vampire. Jason recommends that she keep things to herself. The next day Andy tells him that Debbie 's parents have left because they found what they were looking for. Jessica then glamours him into forgetting about the case, doing Jason a big favor. That night he, Andy, and Judge Clemens take a trip to a Fairy nightclub and there Jason meets his cousin Hadley, who believes Sookie is dead after disappearing at the end of Season 3. She firmly believes that Sookie needs to be protected from vampires, though Jason believes otherwise. She lets slip that vampires killed Jason 's parents (while he had thought it was a flood) but she runs away before revealing more information. Jason pursues her but things turn violent in the club and he and Andy are thrown out. The next morning Jason has a dream about his parents that turns violent when he visualizes their violent deaths by vampire fangs. He later tells Andy that the nightclub they had visited the previous night was indeed for fairies. Jason visits his parents ' graves and seems to start believing that what Hadley had said is true. He visits Sookie and asks her to accompany him to the fairy club once more. Sookie is told that vampires did in fact kill her parents, and she angrily lashes out but her powers are fading - she eventually finds out since she is half fairy her powers will drain soon. Jason visits Jessica to find comfort about what he has discovered about his parents, and bonds with Sookie. He stops Sookie from draining all her powers and convinces her to use her powers to find out who killed their parents. They return to the fairy nightclub and attempt to connect with the spiritual world to discover their parents ' killer. Sookie sees a vision but can not identify the killer. Jason is disheartened when he finds out that Hoyt wants to forget his time in Bon Temps and particularly wants to forget his first love Jessica, and Jason. Jessica glamours Hoyt, who then leaves town to go to Alaska. Jason stops him in the police cruiser to try and prevent him from leaving Bon Temps, but he knows that Hoyt is happier this way and reluctantly lets him go. Jason and Sookie dig closer to the truth in regards to their parents ' murderer, and they learn that there is a war coming between the vampires and the fairies. Jason meets Jessica, who has been commanded by a psychopathic Bill to turn Jason into a vampire. Jason shoots both guards dead before he is turned, and learns from Jessica that Russel Eddington is on the loose. He then goes to warn Sookie and volunteers to guard the Stackhouse residence. When Russell and Reverend Newlin stop by, Jason is glamoured into giving away the location of the fairy nightclub. When the three of them arrive, Russell and Newlin can not find the entrance - the Fairy Elder appears and stops Steve but falls prey to Russell, who then is able to see the entrance to the nightclub. Although the fairies combine forces to attempt to stop Russell, he can not be stopped. Eric suddenly appears and stakes him. Jason begins having hallucinations of his parents, who begin turning him into an anti-supernatural bigot. When Eric and Nora request his and Sookie 's help to snap Bill out of his trance, Jason agrees to come along if only to kill some vampires, which worries Sookie. When they infiltrate the Authority, Jason kills many vampires and guards the front desk while the others go about their business. Once Jessica and Pam are rescued, they take the elevator out while Sookie and Eric confront Bill. Jessica admits feelings for Jason but he rebuffs them, saying he can not love a vampire. When Season 6 begins, Jason is escaping the Authority with Jessica, Pam, Tara, Nora, Eric, and Sookie in order to evade the new Bill / Lillith entity that was created at the end of Season 5. On the news, the mayor indirectly declares war on vampires, calling for a vampire curfew and numerous other measures. Jason is ecstatic, but others are not as pleased. As the group takes refuge at a beach, Nora believes that Jason knows more about Lillith and Warlow, and glamours him into getting more information. Jason 's growing hatred towards vampires intensifies and threatens to shoot Nora. The others see the conflict and Sookie says that Warlow was the enemy, not the entire vampire race. Jason takes this as Sookie taking the vampires ' side, and he angrily storms off, leaving the party. He gets picked up by a mysterious driver. Jason shoots him when he thinks it is Warlow but it is only a vision and the car crashes. It turns out to be his fairy grandfather Niall, who has been watching over him his whole life. Niall warns of Warlow, who he discovers has escaped, and says his powers are not to be underestimated. When Sookie returns home, Niall introduces himself and later explains over dinner that the Stackhouses are part of a royal bloodline. He trains Sookie to control her powers. Later that night, Warlow attacks and Niall tries to catch him but fails. Jason gets ready for action but inexplicably collapses. The next day, Sookie tends to him as he recovers from his "concussion '', during which Sookie reveals that their parents were not in fact racist against vampires but simply afraid of Sookie 's powers. Later that night, Bill visits and restrains Jason while pleading Sookie for her blood so they can synthesize it. She refuses and their relationship is officially over. Another attack occurs later that night and Niall discovers it is Nora, tracking Warlow as well. Jason convulses again and Ben Flynn, who turns out to be half vampire in addition to being half fae, gives him his blood. He recovers quickly, much to Sookie 's surprise, and Jason, high on V, does a lot of pullups and has sexual fantasies of Ben. Concerned, he sees Niall and they conclude that Jason must 've been fed V to hallucinate like that. They pursue Ben at his hotel room but get caught in his trap. Ben turns out to be Warlow, who glamours Jason into forgetting the whole situation and to not feel guilty about letting his grandfather fairy get captured by Warlow. Warlow eventually casts Niall into the same prison that he himself was trapped in. Back on the job and out of the house (Sookie has plans for Warlow), Jason and Andy go to a gas station to investigate where Andy 's now - teen fairy godchildren have gone, but find that the clerk has been glamoured. When Jason returns home that night, he finds Sarah Newlin waiting for him outside, where she confesses that she has loved him ever since they met at the Fellowship of the Sun. They proceed to have sex. Afterwards, a distraught Jessica arrives and is still in shambles after killing most of Andy 's fairy daughters but gets distracted when Sarah comes out and calls Jessica a dead vampire whore. Sarah is upset that Jason has had sexual relations with Jessica in the past. Jessica and Sarah struggle but Sarah eventually rescinds the invitation to the house, forcing Jessica out and right into the hands of the police that Sarah had called. The next morning, Jason leaves a message for Sookie saying that he messed up with Jessica and has been acting irresponsibly. He promises to make it up to her and everyone else. Jason then enters an army recruiting agency to join the LAVTF in order to rescue Jessica. He later shares stories with other soldiers, where he sees Sarah Newlin and privately tells her not to interfere with his plans. To torment Jason, Sarah takes him to see the fornication room, where Jessica and another vampire named James are supposed to have sex for research. Jessica is reluctant and stalls then James refuses to be a rape Jessica and she is taken away. Jason privately meets with Jessica and wants to take her away but she refuses, accepting her fate. She does ask to meet James, whom she would like to thank for being a gentleman, and Jason arranges this meeting, where James and Jessica make love. Sarah later throws Jason into Gen Pop now that the governor can not protect him, but not before having his arm bled, making him vulnerable to the women vampires. Tara jumps to his protection. Violet claims Jason as her own as they get to know each other, and she successfully seduces him. Violet exclusively feeds on Jason in a special room and hence does not drink the tainted Trublood. When Eric, fueled by Warlow 's blood, raids and kills all the guards in the compound, he finds Jason, drained of blood from Violet. Eric feeds him his blood to revive him and Eric asks Jason when he dreams about him to think nice things about him. Then Jason takes Eric to the "white room '' where they discover that although Sarah has opened the hatch exposing the sun, Bill has entered the room and allowed himself to be fed on by all the vampires to give them immunity to the sun (although Steve Newlin is left to burn by Eric). Jason then realizes that Sarah is still on the loose so he chases her down and almost kills her, but eventually lets her go free because he does n't want more blood on his hands. He and the rest of the vampire revelers celebrate at Bill 's mansion, where he and Violet 's relationship has intensified to the point where Violet does not allow Jason to even look at other women (like Jessica). Bill enlists Jason and Violet to ask for Andy and Adilyn 's help to save Sookie from becoming Warlow 's vampire / fairy wife. The group uses Adilyn 's fae powers to teleport to the fairy realm where Sookie and Warlow are, where Jason shoots the chain binding Sookie and rescues her. Everyone but Bill and Warlow teleport back and they travel to Sookie 's house to let Sookie rest. However, Bill and Warlow take their fight to the house, where Warlow locks Jason, Andy, and Adilyn in the cellar and knocks out Violet. Warlow finds Sookie in the bathroom and is about to take Sookie away when Niall returns from the dark realm and pins Warlow -- Jason, who has escaped thanks to Adilyn, then stakes Warlow. Six months pass, and Hep V has mutated and transformed vampires into zombie - like creatures that run rabid at night. Jason and Violet have had a sexually active life but he has not had sex with her; Violet reminds him that she said she was going to make it hard for him. During a joint church session, newly elected mayor Sam announces that he and Bill have come up with a plan: to have all humans join in a monogamous relationship with a vampire in exchange for protection against Hep V mutated vampires, which is met with mixed reactions. Later, at the newly renamed Bellefleur 's Bar & Grill, there is a party where all of Bon Temps enjoy food and drinks. Unbeknownst to them, a group of Hep V mutants are approaching the party. Season 7 begins with a violent attack at Bellefleur 's. Arlene, Holly, and various other people are taken. Jason himself is almost killed but Violet saves him. In the grisly aftermath, Jason calls Andy to request assistance. Everybody is upset but before things get too hectic, Bill suggests finding the H - Vamps before they get to them, who will most likely be sleeping in windowless rooms. Andy tells Jason to search Old Reeve 's Place. Along the way, Jason asks Violet how many people she 's seen die, and she says she 's lost count. At the house, they find Vince, an anti-vampire politician and vigilante who plans to succeed Sam as mayor, leading a gang of anti-vampire haters. Jason says they are acting irrationally, but Violet escalates things when she threatens to kill them. When the group disbands, Jason is unhappy with the way the situation was handled. Afterwards, Jason lashes out at Violet for what happened. They end up having sex. That night, Jason has a sexual fantasy with Eric but is jolted awake when a congregation outside church is meeting. Sam suggests that people keep busy and be indoors by sundown, only going out at night with a vampire. To find the kidnapped civilians, Sookie suggests searching a dead body she had seen earlier. The girl is from Saint Allis, so she, Jason, Alcide, Sam, and Andy travel to the nearby town only to discover the entire town is abandoned and full of dead bodies. When they find the girl 's house, Jason gathers that it 's been a few days since the attack and that the vampires keep coming back. After discovering no significant leads, they return to Bon Temps. Jason discusses a future with Violet and proposes the idea of children. Violet laughs and says he has softened up, but Jason assures her he 's still a warrior but also a modern man. Andy arrives and tells them about Vince 's posse. Adilyn thinks they might be after Sookie. There is a tense moment between Violet and Jessica before they set out to find Sookie. Jason leaves another message for Sookie on her cell phone, which had been tossed away earlier. The group encounters Vince 's posse. Maxine Fortenberry, who is in the group, wants to deal with Jason and Jessica personally. She shoots Jessica in the shoulder, which leads to Violet ripping her heart out. Jason realizes Jessica is not healing and not even Jessica knows why. The group later ambushes a group of Hep - V vampires attacking Sookie, who was being used as bait, and successfully kills the infected vampires. Alcide is shot and killed in the fight. The next day, Jason must be the bearer of bad news as he calls Hoyt and tells him his mother was killed. He is heartbroken because Hoyt had been glamoured and does not remember their friendship, and refers to Jason simply as officer. He and Sam also visit Rosie and tell her that Sheriff Deputy Kevin Ellis has died. Later, Jason, Sam, and Sookie visit Andy 's house to ask Holly what happened to the rest of the prisoners. Sookie finds out that they are being held in Fangtasia. In a tense scene in the car, Sam wants to ambush Fangtasia head on but Jason threatens him with a gun and orders him to turn around. Sam reluctantly agrees. A crew is assembled to assault Fangtasia, which includes Sookie, Bill, Jason, Eric, Pam, Jessica, Violet, and 2 others. Sookie and Eric create a diversion in the front while the rest of them sneak in, but before much can be done, Vince 's posse attacks with Molotov cocktails. In the chaos, Arlene, who had been violently fed on by the Hep - V vampires at Fangtasia, almost dies but is saved by vampire blood from Keith. The next night, Jason and Violet attend a party at Sookie 's house that Lafayette and Alcide 's father throws in order to cheer Sookie up. At one point in the night, Jessica runs up to Jason and begs her to dis - invite her boyfriend James because he found him cheating on her with Lafayette in their car. Jason immediately rescinds the invitation. He consoles a distraught Jessica and lets her know that her girlfriend Violet is not perfect and is rather off. The two share a kiss and end up having sex, which Violet hears from the hallway. Jason returns to Violet 's home later that night, where Violet has a romantic evening in store for Jason in order to win his affections back. The next morning, after a steamy night, Jason gets a call from Jessica, who asks that he bring Sookie over to the Compton estate because she has news for Sookie that she must tell in person. Jason sneaks out to see Sookie. Violet, who presumably heard Jason 's conversation with Jessica, seethes with anger and plots revenge. At the Stackhouse residence, Jason wakes Sookie up and insists that she go talk to Jessica in person. When they finally meet Jessica at the Compton estate, she breaks the news that Bill is Hep - V positive. Sookie and Jason do n't believe it, but Sookie remembers that she had been exposed to Hep - V blood in the bloody aftermath of the shooting that left Alcide dead. Because she had an open wound from letting Bill feed on her, she thinks she may be infected. She get tested and later finds out that she is indeed positive. Jason tries to comfort her. He later returns to Violet 's but finds that the basement is ransacked. Violet has left a note stating that the relationship is not working. Jason is relieved. As he cleans his house the next morning, he gets a call from Arlene at Bellefleur 's. She says that Hoyt is back in town to visit his dead mother. He goes over to the restaurant and is immediately struck by how beautiful Hoyt 's new girlfriend Bridget is. He tries to stop looking at her, but he ca n't help himself as he is invited to eat breakfast with them. Later, at the police station, Hoyt grieves over his mother 's body and Bridget quietly asks Jason (who somewhat knew his mother) to comfort Hoyt in his time of need. Jason says some kinds words and Hoyt embraces him while Bridget also joins the hug. Jason looks uncomfortable. Later that night, Jason, Hoyt, and Bridget look through Hoyt 's photo album. When Bridget casually brings up kids, Hoyt becomes upset that Bridget would think about children when he is grieving for his mother. Bridget apologizes but is interrupted by Jason, who has received multiple picture messages of Adilyn, Wade, and Jessica from Violet, who has them all tied up and gagged. Jason quickly leaves but not without Bridget, who is growing frustrated at Hoyt for not listening to what she has to suggest. Jason tries to convince her to stay and Hoyt apologizes, but Bridget refuses to not come along. Jason reluctantly takes her to Violet 's house. At the house, he gives a gun to Bridget to protect herself while he goes inside to investigate. Only minutes after he steps inside the house, he is abducted by an angry Violet, who puts him in a room where Wade, Adilyn, and Jessica are being held prisoners. Violet threatens to torture all of them before she breaks down and confesses that she only wanted Jason to love her completely. Before she can finish, she is shot by Hoyt and meets the true death. Hoyt frees everybody and makes up with Bridget, who is following close behind. Jessica is surprised to see Hoyt and they rekindle some of their old romance. Bridget talks to Jason afterwards, who appears quite sad. She asks him if Jessica is his girlfriend, to which he says he does n't really know what to call her. Jason drives Jessica home that night, where Jessica shares that her relationship with Jason has been one of the only things in her life recently that has n't been confusing, and that he has always been there for her. Jason confesses that he loves spending time with Jessica but he feels that they are in a bubble when they are together. He does n't know what to call that. Jessica calls it a beautiful friendship, before giving him a kiss and heading off. The next morning, Jason has breakfast at Bellefleur 's and is joined by Hoyt, who says that while he should have been thinking about his mother or Bridget last night, he ca n't stop thinking about Jessica. Jason and Arlene are both concerned. That night, Jason gets a call from a distressed Bridget, who has just broken up with Hoyt after Jessica comes over and reveals that she and Hoyt used to be lovers. Jason rushes to Hoyt 's house to find Hoyt and Jessica talking. Jason tries to reason with Hoyt about what Jessica might have told him, but Hoyt swiftly knocks Jason out. Jason awakens inside his car, where Bridget is driving to the hospital so Jason can get his head treated after suffering a concussion. He laughs and says he has dealt with worse concussions before. He offers to go back to his place, but warns her that he and Bridget will not have sex tonight. Bridget laughs and says that wo n't happen, especially after she just broke up with Hoyt. Later, Bridget tries to book an airline ticket back to Anchorage for the next day, but is unable to convince the airline attendant at Delta. Jason takes the call and quickly convinces her to book the flight for Bridget, which impresses her. He then bids Bridget good night, and tries not to think about having sex with her. A few hours pass and Bridget can not sleep because her head is spinning and she is hungry. Jason offers beer and he finally reveals the situation between Jessica and Hoyt, confirming that they used to be lovers and Hoyt had been glamoured so he did not remember Jessica but she remembered him. Jason calls himself a bad person for interfering in the relationship but Bridget constantly assures him that he is a sweet and caring person who is more than just a good looking person. She then takes him to bed and teaches him how to not have sex with a person. They simply lie in bed and bond over their personal lives. The next morning, Jason is awaken by Sookie, who tells him that Bill wants Sookie to give him the True Death. Jason confesses that he has little advice to give regarding the situation. Later, he receives a call from Hoyt, who asks him to be his best man (he and Jessica have decided to get married). After getting dressed and picking some flowers, Jason and Sookie head over to Bill 's house for the wedding. Jason and Hoyt bond over their childhood and reconcile their differences. Jason is glad to have Hoyt back in his life. The wedding goes as planned. Afterwards, Jason asks Sookie what is on her mind, and Sookie reveals that she can now read Bill 's mind, which makes no sense to either of them. Sookie also tells him that she approves of Bridget and that he should n't have to worry about having sex with her now that Hoyt is married. Jason insists that he wo n't and sends Bridget to the airport. Almost 4 years later, after Sookie agreed to stake Bill, leaving her heartbroken, New Blood has been released to the market and the Hep - V epidemic is ended. Jason and Bridget are married with many kids. The last scene shows family and friends of Sookie and Jason enjoying dinner at the Stackhouses.

where is wellington new zealand on the map

Wellington - wikipedia Wellington (/ ˈwɛlɪŋtən /; Māori: Te Whanganui - a-Tara (tɛ ˈfaŋanʉi a taɾa)) is the capital city and second most populous urban area of New Zealand, with 412,500 residents. It is located at the south - western tip of the North Island, between Cook Strait and the Remutaka Range. Wellington is the major population centre of the southern North Island and is the administrative centre of the Wellington Region, which also includes the Kapiti Coast and Wairarapa. It is the world 's southernmost capital of a sovereign state. Wellington features a temperate maritime climate and is the world 's windiest city, with an average wind speed of over 26 km / h (16 mph). The Wellington urban area comprises four local authorities: Wellington City, on the peninsula between Cook Strait and Wellington Harbour, contains the central business district and about half the population; Porirua on Porirua Harbour to the north is notable for its large Māori and Pacific Island communities; Lower Hutt and Upper Hutt are largely suburban areas to the northeast, together known as the Hutt Valley. Situated near the geographic centre of the country, Wellington was well placed for trade. In 1839 it was chosen as the first major planned settlement for British immigrants coming to New Zealand. The settlement was named in honour of Arthur Wellesley, the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo. As the nation 's capital since 1865, the New Zealand Government and Parliament, Supreme Court and most of the civil service are based in the city. Architectural sights include the Government Building -- one of the largest wooden buildings in the world -- as well as the iconic Beehive. Despite being much smaller than Auckland, Wellington is also referred to as New Zealand 's cultural capital. The city is home to the National Archives, the National Library, the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, numerous theatres, and two universities. Wellington plays host to many artistic and cultural organisations, including the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra and Royal New Zealand Ballet. One of the world 's most liveable cities, the 2014 Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranked Wellington 12th in the world. Wellington 's economy is primarily service - based, with an emphasis on finance, business services, and government. It is the centre of New Zealand 's film and special effects industries, and increasingly a hub for information technology and innovation. Wellington is one of New Zealand 's chief seaports and serves both domestic and international shipping. The city is served by Wellington International Airport, the third busiest airport in the country. Wellington 's transport network includes train and bus lines which reach as far as the Kapiti Coast and Wairarapa, and ferries connect the city to the South Island. Wellington takes its name from Arthur Wellesley (1769 -- 1852), the first Duke of Wellington and victor of the Battle of Waterloo (1815): his title comes from the town of Wellington in the English county of Somerset. It was named in November 1840 by the original settlers of the New Zealand Company on the suggestion of the directors of the same, in recognition of the Duke 's strong support for the company 's principles of colonisation and his "strenuous and successful defence against its enemies of the measure for colonising South Australia ''. One of the founders of the settlement, Edward Jerningham Wakefield, reported that the settlers "took up the views of the directors with great cordiality and the new name was at once adopted ''. In the Māori language, Wellington has three names. Te Whanga - nui - a-Tara refers to Wellington Harbour and means "the great harbour of Tara ''; Pōneke is a transliteration of Port Nick, short for Port Nicholson (the city 's central marae, the community supporting it and its kapa haka have the pseudo-tribal name of Ngāti Pōneke); Te Upoko - o - te - Ika - a-Māui, meaning ' The Head of the Fish of Māui ' (often shortened to Te Upoko - o - te - Ika), a traditional name for the southernmost part of the North Island, deriving from the legend of the fishing up of the island by the demi - god Māui. In New Zealand Sign Language, the name is signed by raising the index, middle and ring fingers of one hand, palm forward, to form a "W '', and shaking it slightly from side to side twice. The city 's location close to the mouth of the narrow Cook Strait leads to its vulnerability to strong gales, leading to the city 's nickname of "Windy Wellington ''. Legends recount that Kupe discovered and explored the district in about the 10th century. The earliest date with hard evidence for Maori living in New Zealand is about 1280. European settlement began with the arrival of an advance party of the New Zealand Company on the ship Tory on 20 September 1839, followed by 150 settlers on the Aurora on 22 January 1840. The settlers constructed their first homes at Petone (which they called Britannia for a time) on the flat area at the mouth of the Hutt River. When that proved swampy and flood - prone they transplanted the plans, which had been drawn without regard for the hilly terrain. In 1865, Wellington became the capital city in place of Auckland, which William Hobson had made the capital in 1841. The New Zealand Parliament had first met in Wellington on 7 July 1862, on a temporary basis; in November 1863, the Prime Minister of New Zealand, Alfred Domett, placed a resolution before Parliament in Auckland that "... it has become necessary that the seat of government... should be transferred to some suitable locality in Cook Strait (region). '' Apparently, there had been some concerns that the more populous South Island (where the goldfields were located) would choose to form a separate colony in the British Empire. Several Commissioners invited from Australia, chosen for their neutral status, declared that Wellington was a suitable location because of its central location in New Zealand and good harbour. Parliament officially met in Wellington for the first time on 26 July 1865. At that time, the population of Wellington was just 4,900. Wellington 's status as capital is by constitutional convention rather than statute. Wellington is the location of the highest court, the Supreme Court of New Zealand, and the historic former High Court building has been enlarged and restored for its use. New Zealand 's second - highest court, the Court of Appeal, is also located in Wellington. Government House, the official residence of the Governor - General, is in Newtown, opposite the Basin Reserve. Premier House, the official residence of the Prime Minister, is in Thorndon on Tinakori Road. Wellington is New Zealand 's political centre, housing Parliament, the head offices of all Government Ministries and Departments and the bulk of the foreign diplomatic missions. It is an important centre of the film and theatre industry, and second to Auckland in terms of numbers of screen industry businesses. Te Papa Tongarewa (the Museum of New Zealand), the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra, the Royal New Zealand Ballet, Wellington Museum and the biennial New Zealand International Arts Festival are all sited there. Wellington had the 12th best quality of living in the world in 2014, a ranking up from 13th place in 2012, according to a 2014 study by consulting company Mercer. Of cities in the Asia Pacific region, it ranked third (2014) behind Auckland and Sydney. It became much more affordable in terms of cost of living relative to cities worldwide, with its ranking moving from 93rd (more expensive) to 139th (less expensive) in 2009, probably as a result of currency fluctuations during the global economic downturn from March 2008 to March 2009. "Foreigners get more bang for their buck in Wellington, which is among the cheapest cities in the world to live '', according to a 2009 article, which reported that currency fluctuations make New Zealand cities affordable for multinational firms to do business: "New Zealand cities were now more affordable for expatriates and were competitive places for overseas companies to develop business links and send employees ''. Lonely Planet named Wellington ' the coolest little capital in the world ' in its ' Best in Travel 2011 ' guide book. It is home to Weta Workshop, associated with director Peter Jackson. Wellington is at the south - western tip of the North Island on Cook Strait, separating the North and South Islands. On a clear day the snowcapped Kaikoura Ranges are visible to the south across the strait. To the north stretch the golden beaches of the Kapiti Coast. On the east the Rimutaka Range divides Wellington from the broad plains of the Wairarapa, a wine region of national notability. With a latitude of 41 ° 17 ' South, Wellington is the southernmost capital city in the world. It is also the most remote capital city, the farthest away from any other capital. It is more densely populated than most other cities in New Zealand due to the restricted amount of land that is available between its harbour and the surrounding hills. It has very few open areas in which to expand, and this has brought about the development of the suburban towns. Because of its location in the Roaring Forties and its exposure to the winds blowing through Cook Strait, Wellington is the world 's windiest city, with an average wind speed of 27 km / h (17 mph), and so is known by the nickname "Windy Wellington ''. Wellington 's scenic natural harbour and green hillsides adorned with tiered suburbs of colonial villas are popular with tourists. The CBD is close to Lambton Harbour, an arm of Wellington Harbour, which lies along an active geological fault, clearly evident on its straight western shore. The land to the west of this rises abruptly, meaning that many suburbs sit high above the centre of the city. There is a network of bush walks and reserves maintained by the Wellington City Council and local volunteers. These include Otari - Wilton 's Bush, dedicated to the protection and propagation of native plants. The Wellington region has 500 square kilometres (190 sq mi) of regional parks and forests. In the east is the Miramar Peninsula, connected to the rest of the city by a low - lying isthmus at Rongotai, the site of Wellington International Airport. The narrow entrance to the harbour is to the east of the Miramar Peninsula, and contains the dangerous shallows of Barrett Reef, where many ships have been wrecked (notably the inter-island ferry TEV Wahine in 1968). The harbour has three islands: Matiu / Somes Island, Makaro / Ward Island and Mokopuna Island. Only Matiu / Somes Island is large enough for habitation. It has been used as a quarantine station for people and animals, and was an internment camp during World War I and World War II. It is a conservation island, providing refuge for endangered species, much like Kapiti Island farther up the coast. There is access during daylight hours by the Dominion Post Ferry. Wellington is primarily surrounded by water, but some of the nearby locations are listed below. The urban area stretches across the areas administered by the city councils of Wellington, Lower Hutt, Upper Hutt and Porirua. Steep landforms shape and constrain much of Wellington city. Notable hills in and around Wellington include: Averaging 2,059 hours of sunshine per year, the climate of Wellington is temperate marine, (Köppen: Cfb), generally moderate all year round, and rarely sees temperatures above 25 ° C (77 ° F) or below 4 ° C (39 ° F). The hottest recorded temperature is 31.1 ° C (88 ° F), while − 1.1 ° C (30 ° F) is the coldest. The city is notorious for its southerly blasts in winter, which may make the temperature feel much colder. It is generally very windy all year round with high rainfall; average annual rainfall is 1,244 mm (49 in), June and July being the wettest months. Frosts are quite common in the hill suburbs and the Hutt Valley between May and September. Snow is very rare at low altitudes, although snow fell on the city and many other parts of the Wellington region during separate events in July and August 2011. Wellington suffered serious damage in a series of earthquakes in 1848 and from another earthquake in 1855. The 1855 Wairarapa earthquake occurred on the Wairarapa Fault to the north and east of Wellington. It was probably the most powerful earthquake in recorded New Zealand history, with an estimated magnitude of at least 8.2 on the Moment magnitude scale. It caused vertical movements of two to three metres over a large area, including raising land out of the harbour and turning it into a tidal swamp. Much of this land was subsequently reclaimed and is now part of the central business district. For this reason, the street named Lambton Quay is 100 to 200 metres (325 to 650 ft) from the harbour -- plaques set into the footpath mark the shoreline in 1840, indicating the extent of reclamation. The 1942 Wairarapa earthquakes caused considerable damage in Wellington. The area has high seismic activity even by New Zealand standards, with a major fault, the Wellington Fault running through the centre of the city and several others nearby. Several hundred minor faults lines have been identified within the urban area. Inhabitants, particularly in high - rise buildings, typically notice several earthquakes every year. For many years after the 1855 earthquake, the majority of buildings were made entirely from wood. The 1996 - restored Government Buildings near Parliament is the largest wooden building in the Southern Hemisphere. While masonry and structural steel have subsequently been used in building construction, especially for office buildings, timber framing remains the primary structural component of almost all residential construction. Residents place their confidence in good building regulations, which became more stringent in the 20th century. Since the Canterbury earthquakes of 2010 and 2011, earthquake readiness has become even more of an issue, with buildings declared by Wellington City Council to be earthquake - prone, and the costs of meeting new standards. Every five years a year - long slow quake occurs beneath Wellington, stretching from Kapiti to the Marlborough Sounds. It was first measured in 2003, and reappeared in 2008 and 2013. It releases as much energy as a magnitude 7 quake, but as it happens slowly there is no damage. During July and August 2013 there were many earthquakes, mostly in Cook Strait near Seddon. The sequence started at 5: 09 pm on Sunday 21 July 2013 when the magnitude 6.5 Seddon earthquake hit the city, but no tsunami report was confirmed nor any major damage. At 2: 31 pm on Friday 16 August 2013 the Lake Grassmere earthquake struck, this time magnitude 6.6, but again no major damage occurred, though many buildings were evacuated. On Monday 20 January 2014 at 3: 52 pm a rolling 6.2 magnitude earthquake struck the lower North Island 15 km east of Eketahuna and was felt in Wellington, but little damage was reported initially, except at Wellington Airport where one of the two giant eagle sculptures commemorating The Hobbit became detached from the ceiling. At two minutes after midnight on the morning of Monday 14 November 2016, the 7.8 magnitude Kaikoura earthquake which was centred between Culverden and Kaikoura in the South Island caused most of Wellington CBD, Victoria University of Wellington, and the Wellington suburban rail network to be largely closed for the day to allow inspections. The earthquake caused damage to a considerable number of buildings. Subsequently a number of recent buildings were demolished rather than being rebuilt, often a decision made by the insurer; and 65 % of the damage caused by the earthquake was in Wellington. Two of the buildings demolished were about eleven years old; the seven - storey NZDF headquarters and Statistics House at Centreport on the waterfront. The four cities comprising Wellington have a total population of 416,700 (June 2017), with the urban area containing 99.0 % of that population. The remaining areas are largely mountainous and sparsely farmed or parkland and are outside the urban area boundary. More than most cities, life is dominated by its central business district (CBD). Approximately 62,000 people work in the CBD, only 4,000 fewer than work in Auckland 's CBD, despite that city having four times the population. Counts from the 2013 census gave totals by area, gender, and age. Wellington City had the largest population of the four cities with 190,956 people, followed by Lower Hutt, Porirua and Upper Hutt. Women outnumbered men in all four areas. Source: Statistics New Zealand (2013 Census) An increasing number of Wellingtonians profess no religious belief, with the most recent census in 2013 showing 44 % in that category. The largest religious group was Christians at 39 %. The latter figure represented a significant decline from seven years earlier at the previous census, when over 50 % of the population identified as Christian. At the 2013 Census, just over 27 % of Wellington 's population was born overseas. The most common overseas birthplace is the United Kingdom, place of origin of 7.1 % of the urban area 's population. The next most - common countries of origin were Samoa (2.0 %), India (1.8 %), China (1.7 %), Australia (1.6 %), the Philippines (1.2 %), South Africa (1.1 %), Fiji (1.0 %), the United States (0.8 %) and Malaysia (0.6 %). Age distributions for the four cities are given (see table below). The age structure closely matches the national distribution. The relative lack of older people in Wellington is less marked when Kapiti Coast District is included -- nearly 7 % of Kapiti Coast residents are over 80. Source: Statistics New Zealand (2013 Census) Wellington showcases a variety of architectural styles from the past 150 years -- 19th - century wooden cottages, such as the Italianate Katherine Mansfield Birthplace in Thorndon; streamlined Art Deco structures such as the old Wellington Free Ambulance headquarters, the Central Fire Station, Fountain Court Apartments, the City Gallery, and the former Post and Telegraph Building; and the curves and vibrant colours of post-modern architecture in the CBD. The oldest building is the 1858 Colonial Cottage in Mount Cook. The tallest building is the Majestic Centre on Willis Street at 116 metres high, the second tallest being the structural expressionist State Insurance Building at 103 metres. For a full list see: List of tallest buildings in Wellington. Futuna Chapel in Karori was the first bicultural building in New Zealand, and is considered one of the most significant New Zealand buildings of the 20th century. Old St Paul 's is an example of 19th - century Gothic Revival architecture adapted to colonial conditions and materials, as is St Mary of the Angels. Sacred Heart Cathedral is a Palladian Revival Basilica with the Portico of a Roman or Greek temple. The Museum of Wellington City & Sea in the Bond Store is in the Second French Empire style, and the Wellington Harbour Board Wharf Office Building is in a late English Classical style. There are several restored theatre buildings: the St James Theatre, the Opera House and the Embassy Theatre. Civic Square is surrounded by the Town Hall and council offices, the Michael Fowler Centre, the Wellington Central Library, Capital E (home of the National Theatre for Children), the City - to - Sea Bridge, and the City Gallery. As it is the capital city, there are many notable government buildings. The Executive Wing of New Zealand Parliament Buildings, on the corner of Lambton Quay and Molesworth Street, was constructed between 1969 and 1981 and is commonly referred to as the Beehive. Across the road is the largest wooden building in the Southern Hemisphere, part of the old Government Buildings which now houses part of Victoria University of Wellington 's Law Faculty. A modernist building housing the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa lies on the waterfront, on Cable Street. It is strengthened using base isolation -- essentially seating the entire building on supports made from lead, steel and rubber that slow down the effect of an earthquake. Other notable buildings include Wellington Town Hall, Wellington Railway Station, Dominion Museum (now Massey University), State Insurance Building, Westpac Stadium, and Wellington Airport at Rongotai. Leading architects include Frederick Thatcher, Frederick de Jersey Clere, W. Gray Young, Bill Alington, Ian Athfield, Roger Walker and Pynenburg and Collins. Wellington contains many iconic sculptures and structures, such as the Bucket Fountain in Cuba Street and Invisible City by Anton Parsons on Lambton Quay. Kinetic sculptures have been commissioned, such as the Zephyrometer. This 26 - metre orange spike built for movement by artist Phil Price has been described as "tall, soaring and elegantly simple '', which "reflects the swaying of the yacht masts in the Evans Bay Marina behind it '' and "moves like the needle on the dial of a nautical instrument, measuring the speed of the sea or wind or vessel. '' Wellington experienced a real estate boom in the early 2000s and the effects of the international property bust at the start of 2007. In 2005, the market was described as "robust ''. By 2008, property values had declined by about 9.3 % over a 12 - month period, according to one estimate. More expensive properties declined more steeply, sometimes by as much as 20 %. "From 2004 to early 2007, rental yields were eroded and positive cash flow property investments disappeared as house values climbed faster than rents. Then that trend reversed and yields slowly began improving, '' according to two The New Zealand Herald reporters writing in May 2009. In the middle of 2009 house prices had dropped, interest rates were low, and buy - to - let property investment was again looking attractive, particularly in the Lambton precinct, according to these two reporters. A Wellington City Council survey conducted in March 2009 found the typical central city apartment dweller was a New Zealand native aged 24 to 35 with a professional job in the downtown area, with household income higher than surrounding areas. Three - quarters (73 %) walked to work or university, 13 % travelled by car, 6 % by bus, 2 % bicycled (although 31 % own bicycles), and did not travel very far since 73 % worked or studied in the central city. The large majority (88 %) did not have children in their apartments; 39 % were couples without children; 32 % were single - person households; 15 % were groups of people flatting together. Most (56 %) owned their apartment; 42 % rented (of renters, 16 % paid NZ $ 351 to NZ $450 per week, 13 % paid less and 15 % paid more -- only 3 % paid more than NZ $651 per week). The report continued: "The four most important reasons for living in an apartment were given as lifestyle and city living (23 %), close to work (20 %), close to shops and cafes (11 %) and low maintenance (11 %)... City noise and noise from neighbours were the main turnoffs for apartment dwellers (27 %), followed by a lack of outdoor space (17 %), living close to neighbours (9 %) and apartment size and a lack of storage space (8 %). '' Households are primarily one - family, making up 66.9 % of households, followed by single - person households (24.7 %); there were fewer multiperson households and even fewer households containing two or more families. These counts are from the 2013 census for the Wellington region (which includes the surrounding area in addition to the four cities). In June 2018, Quotable Value reported the average house price for Wellington metro was $639,000, ranging from $492,000 in Upper Hutt to $869,000 in the western suburbs of Wellington City. Wellington Harbour ranks as one of New Zealand 's chief seaports and serves both domestic and international shipping. The port handles approximately 10.5 million tonnes of cargo on an annual basis, importing petroleum products, motor vehicles, minerals and exporting meats, wood products, dairy products, wool, and fruit. Many cruise ships also use the port. The Government sector has long been a mainstay of the economy, which has typically risen and fallen with it. Traditionally, its central location meant it was the location of many head offices of various sectors -- particularly finance, technology and heavy industry -- many of which have since relocated to Auckland following economic deregulation and privatisation. In recent years, tourism, arts and culture, film, and ICT have played a bigger role in the economy. Wellington 's median income is well above the average in New Zealand, and the highest of all New Zealand cities. It has a much higher proportion of people with tertiary qualifications than the national average. Major companies with their headquarters in Wellington include: At the 2013 census, the largest employment industries for Wellington residents were professional, scientific and technical services (25,836 people), public administration and safety (24,336 people), health care and social assistance (17,446 people), education and training (16,550 people) and retail trade (16,203 people). Tourism is a major contributor to the city 's economy, injecting approximately NZ $1.3 billion into the region annually and accounting for 9 % of total FTE employment. The city is consistently named as New Zealanders ' favourite destination in the quarterly FlyBuys Colmar Brunton Mood of the Traveller survey and it was ranked fourth in Lonely Planet Best in Travel 2011 's Top 10 Cities to Visit in 2011. New Zealanders make up the largest visitor market, with 3.6 million visits each year; New Zealand visitors spend on average NZ $2.4 million a day. There are approximately 540,000 international visitors each year, who spend 3.7 million nights and NZ $436 million. The largest international visitor market is Australia, with over 210,000 visitors spending approximately NZ $334 million annually. It has been argued that the construction of the Te Papa museum helped transform Wellington into a tourist destination. Wellington is marketed as the ' coolest little capital in the world ' by Positively Wellington Tourism, an award - winning regional tourism organisation set up as a council controlled organisation by Wellington City Council in 1997. The organisation 's council funding comes through the Downtown Levy commercial rate. In the decade to 2010, the city saw growth of over 60 % in commercial guest nights. It has been promoted through a variety of campaigns and taglines, starting with the iconic Absolutely Positively Wellington advertisements. The long - term domestic marketing strategy was a finalist in the 2011 CAANZ Media Awards. Popular tourist attractions include Wellington Museum, Wellington Zoo, Zealandia and Wellington Cable Car. Cruise tourism is experiencing a major boom in line with nationwide development. The 2010 / 11 season saw 125,000 passengers and crew visit on 60 liners. There were 80 vessels booked for visits in the 2011 / 12 season -- estimated to inject more than NZ $31 million into the economy and representing a 74 % increase in the space of two years. Wellington is a popular conference tourism destination due to its compact nature, cultural attractions, award - winning restaurants and access to government agencies. In the year ending March 2011, there were 6495 conference events involving nearly 800,000 delegate days; this injected approximately NZ $100 million into the economy. Wellington is home to Te Papa (the Museum of New Zealand), The Great War Exhibition, the National Library of New Zealand, Archives New Zealand, Wellington Museum, the Katherine Mansfield Birthplace Museum, Colonial Cottage, the New Zealand Cricket Museum, the Cable Car Museum, the Reserve Bank Museum, Old St Paul 's, and the Wellington City Art Gallery. Wellington is home to many high - profile events and cultural celebrations, including the biennial New Zealand International Arts Festival, biennial Wellington Jazz Festival, biennial Capital E National Arts Festival for Children and major events such as Brancott Estate World of Wearable Art, TEDxWellington, Cuba Street Carnival, Visa Wellington on a Plate, New Zealand Fringe Festival, New Zealand International Comedy Festival (also hosted in Auckland), Summer City, The Wellington Folk Festival (in Wainuiomata), New Zealand Affordable Art Show, the New Zealand Sevens Weekend and Parade, Out In The Square, Vodafone Homegrown, the Couch Soup theatre festival, Camp A Low Hum and numerous film festivals. The annual children 's Artsplash Festival brings together hundreds of students from across the region. The week - long festival includes music and dance performances and the presentation of visual arts. Filmmakers Sir Peter Jackson, Sir Richard Taylor and a growing team of creative professionals have turned the eastern suburb of Miramar into a film - making, post-production and special effects infrastructure centre, giving rise to the moniker ' Wellywood '. Jackson 's companies include Weta Workshop, Weta Digital, Camperdown Studios, post-production house Park Road Post, and Stone Street Studios near Wellington Airport. Recent films shot partly or wholly in Wellington include the Lord of The Rings trilogy, King Kong and Avatar. Jackson described Wellington: "Well, it 's windy. But it 's actually a lovely place, where you 're pretty much surrounded by water and the bay. The city itself is quite small, but the surrounding areas are very reminiscent of the hills up in northern California, like Marin County near San Francisco and the Bay Area climate and some of the architecture. Kind of a cross between that and Hawaii. '' Sometime Wellington directors Jane Campion and Geoff Murphy have reached the world 's screens with their independent spirit. Emerging Kiwi film - makers, like Robert Sarkies, Taika Waititi, Costa Botes and Jennifer Bush - Daumec, are extending the Wellington - based lineage and cinematic scope. There are agencies to assist film - makers with tasks such as securing permits and scouting locations. Wellington has a large number of independent cinemas, including The Embassy, Paramount, Penthouse, the Roxy and Light House, which participate in film festivals throughout the year. Wellington has one of the country 's highest turn - outs for the annual New Zealand International Film Festival. The music scene has produced bands such as The Warratahs, The Mockers, The Phoenix Foundation, Shihad, Beastwars, Fly My Pretties, Rhian Sheehan, Birchville Cat Motel, Black Boned Angel, Fat Freddy 's Drop, The Black Seeds, Fur Patrol, Flight of the Conchords, Connan Mockasin, Rhombus and Module, Weta, Demoniac. The New Zealand School of Music was established in 2005 through a merger of the conservatory and theory programmes at Massey University and Victoria University of Wellington. New Zealand Symphony Orchestra, Nevine String Quartet and Chamber music New Zealand are based in Wellington. The city is also home to the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra, Rodger Fox Big Band and the Internationally renowned men 's A Cappella chorus Vocal FX. Wellington is home to BATS Theatre, Circa Theatre, the National Maori Theatre company Taki Rua, Whitireia Performance Centre, National Dance & Drama School Toi Whakaari and the National Theatre for Children at Capital E in Civic Square. St James ' Theatre on Courtenay Place is a popular venue for artistic performances. Wellington is home to groups that perform Improvised Theatre and Improvisational comedy, including Wellington Improvisation Troupe (WIT) an Improvisors and youth group, Joe Improv. Te Whaea National Dance & Drama Centre, houses New Zealand 's University - level school of Dance and Drama, Toi Whakaari: NZ Drama School & New Zealand School of Dance, and Whitireia Performing Arts Centre. These are separate entities that share the building 's facilities. Wellington is the home for the Royal New Zealand Ballet, the New Zealand School of Dance and contemporary dance company Footnote. Many of New Zealand 's prominent comedians have either come from Wellington or got their start there, such as Ginette McDonald ("Lyn of Tawa ''), Raybon Kan, Dai Henwood, Ben Hurley, Steve Wrigley, Guy Williams, the Flight of the Conchords and the satirist John Clarke ("Fred Dagg ''). The comedy group Breaking the 5th Wall operated out of Wellington and regularly did shows around the city, performing a mix of sketch comedy and semi-improvised theatre. In 2012 the group disbanded when some of its members moved to Australia. Wellington is home to groups that perform improvised theatre and improvisational comedy, including Wellington Improvisation Troupe (WIT), The Improvisors and youth group Joe Improv. Wellington hosts shows in the annual New Zealand International Comedy Festival. The NZ International Comedy Fest 2010 featured over 250 local and international comedy acts and was a first in incorporating an iPhone application for the Festival. From 1936 to 1992 Wellington was home to the National Art Gallery of New Zealand, when it was amalgamated into Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. Wellington is home to the New Zealand Academy of Fine Arts and the Arts Foundation of New Zealand. The city 's arts centre, Toi Pōneke, is a nexus of creative projects, collaborations, and multi-disciplinary production. Arts Programmes and Services Manager Eric Vaughn Holowacz and a small team based in the Abel Smith Street facility have produced ambitious initiatives such as Opening Notes, Drive by Art, and public art projects. The city is home to experimental arts publication White Fungus. The Learning Connexion provides art classes. Other visual art galleries include the City Gallery. Wellington is characterised by small dining establishments and independent coffeehouses, and its café culture is internationally recognised, being known for its large number of coffeehouses. Restaurants offer cuisines including from Europe, Asia and Polynesia; for dishes that have a distinctly New Zealand style, there are lamb, pork and cervena (venison), salmon, crayfish (lobster), Bluff oysters, pāua (abalone), mussels, scallops, pipis and tuatua (both New Zealand shellfish); kumara (sweet potato); kiwifruit and tamarillo; and pavlova, the national dessert. Wellington is the home to: Sporting events include: Wellington offers a variety of college and university programs for tertiary students: Victoria University of Wellington has four campuses and works with a three - trimester system (beginning March, July, and November). It enrolled 21,380 students in 2008; of these, 16,609 were full - time students. Of all students, 56 % were female and 44 % male. While the student body was primarily New Zealanders of European descent, 1,713 were Maori, 1,024 were Pacific students, 2,765 were international students. 5,751 degrees, diplomas and certificates were awarded. The university has 1,930 full - time employees. Massey University has a Wellington campus known as the "creative campus '' and offers courses in communication and business, engineering and technology, health and well - being, and creative arts. Its school of design was established in 1886 and has research centres for studying public health, sleep, Maori health, small & medium enterprises, disasters, and tertiary teaching excellence. It combined with Victoria University to create the New Zealand School of Music. The University of Otago has a Wellington branch with its Wellington School of Medicine and Health. Whitireia New Zealand has large campuses in Porirua, Wellington and Kapiti; the Wellington Institute of Technology and New Zealand 's National Drama school, Toi Whakaari. For further information, see List of universities in New Zealand. The Wellington area has numerous primary and secondary schools. Wellington is served by State Highway 1 in the west and State Highway 2 in the east, meeting at the Ngauranga Interchange north of the city centre, where SH 1 runs through the city to the airport. Road access into the capital is constrained by the mountainous terrain -- between Wellington and the Kapiti Coast, SH 1 travels along the Centennial Highway, a narrow section of road, and between Wellington and Wairarapa SH 2 transverses the Rimutaka Ranges on a similar narrow winding road. Wellington has two motorways, both part of SH 1: the Johnsonville -- Porirua Motorway and the Wellington Urban Motorway, which in combination with a small non-motorway section in the Ngauranga Gorge connect Porirua with Wellington city. Bus transport in Wellington is supplied by several different operators under the banner of Metlink. Buses serve almost every part of Wellington city, with most of them running along the "Golden Mile '' from Wellington Railway Station to Courtenay Place. As of 2017 the buses run on diesel, but nine routes used trolleybuses. The trolleybus network was the last public system of its kind in the southern hemisphere, until it was shut down in October 2017. Wellington lies at the southern end of the North Island Main Trunk railway (NIMT) and the Wairarapa Line, converging on Wellington Railway Station at the northern end of central Wellington. Two long - distance services leave from Wellington: the Capital Connection, for commuters from Palmerston North, and the Northern Explorer to Auckland. Four electrified suburban lines radiate from Wellington Railway Station to the outer suburbs to the north of Wellington -- the Johnsonville Line through the hillside suburbs north of central Wellington; the Kapiti Line along the NIMT to Waikanae on the Kapiti Coast via Porirua and Paraparaumu; the Melling Line to Lower Hutt via Petone; and the Hutt Valley Line along the Wairarapa Line via Waterloo and Taita to Upper Hutt. A diesel - hauled carriage service, the Wairarapa Connection, connects several times daily to Masterton in the Wairarapa via the 8.8 - kilometre - long (5.5 mi) Rimutaka Tunnel. Combined, these five services carry 11.64 million passengers per year. Wellington is the North Island port for Cook Strait ferries to Picton in the South Island, provided by state - owned Interislander and private Bluebridge. Local ferries connect Wellington city centre with Eastbourne, Seatoun and Petone. Wellington International Airport is 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) south - east of the city centre. It is serviced by flights from across New Zealand, Australia, Singapore and Fiji. Flights to other international destinations require a transfer at another airport, as larger aircraft can not use Wellington 's short (2,081 - metre or 6,827 - foot) runway, which has become an issue in recent years in regards to the Wellington region 's economic performance. The maximum electricity demand is forecast to grow on average by 1.4 % annually over the next 15 years, from 756 MW in 2012 to 934 MW by 2027, slightly lower than the national average demand growth of 1.7 % per annum. The largest source of generation in the region is Meridian Energy 's West Wind wind farm, with a maximum output of 143 MW. It is a few kilometres west of Wellington 's central business district, on Quartz Hill and Terawhiti Station. There are some other small generators in the region, but the total peak generation is only 165 MW. Peak demand greatly exceeds local generation, and power supply is highly dependent on the National Grid operated by Transpower. Four 220 kV transmission circuits from Bunnythorpe, near Palmerston North, provide the main connections with the national grid. The region is also supplied by the North Island terminal of the HVDC link at Haywards substation, on State Highway 58 above the Hutt Valley. A major upgrade of the HVDC link commissioned in 2013 increased the capacity of the link from 700 MW to 1,000 MW from 2012, and 1,200 MW from 2014. The local power distribution network is owned and managed by Wellington Electricity. The main power supplies to the central business district come from Transpower grid exit point substations at Central Park and Wilton. The Central Park substation is the largest grid exit point in the region, with a peak demand of over 170 MW (forecast to grow to 200 MW by 2020). There are constraints and limitations with this substation, and alternative investment solutions are being developed to improve security of supply. Strong winds, advantageous for wind farms, have been known to damage power lines. In May 2009, one windstorm left about 2500 residents without power for several hours. Lightning strikes and occasional faults in the electric power system sometimes cause power outages. Wellington and the Hutt Valley were two of the original nine towns and cities in New Zealand to be supplied with natural gas when the Kapuni gas field entered production in 1970, and a 260 - kilometre - long (160 mi) high - pressure pipeline from the field in Taranaki to the city was completed. The high - pressure transmission pipelines supplying Wellington are now owned and operated by First Gas, with Powerco owning and operating the medium - and low - pressure distribution pipelines within the urban area. Wellington 's first piped water supply came from a spring in 1867. Greater Wellington Regional Council now supplies Lower Hutt, Porirua, Upper Hutt and Wellington with up to 220 million litres a day. The water comes from Wainuiomata River (since 1884), Hutt River (1914), Orongorongo River (1926) and the Lower Hutt aquifer. Coordinates: 41 ° 17 ′ 20 '' S 174 ° 46 ′ 38 '' E  /  41.28889 ° S 174.77722 ° E  / - 41.28889; 174.77722

what place is manchester united in the premier league

List of Manchester United F.C. Seasons - wikipedia Manchester United Football Club is an English professional football club based in Old Trafford, Greater Manchester. The club was formed in Newton Heath in 1878 as Newton Heath LYR F.C., and played their first competitive match in October 1886, when they entered the First Round of the 1886 -- 87 FA Cup. The club was renamed Manchester United F.C. in 1902, and moved to Old Trafford in 1910. The club has won a total of 66 major trophies, including the League Championship a record 20 times (a record 13 times in the Premier League era), the FA Cup 12 times, the League Cup five times, the Charity Shield a record 21 times (including four shared titles), the European Cup three times, the UEFA Europa League once, the European Cup Winners Cup once, the European Super Cup once, the FIFA Club World Cup once and the Intercontinental Cup once. Manchester United is the only English club to have been crowned world champions, in 1999 and 2008. The club has also never been out of the top two divisions of English football since entering the Football League. As of the end of the 2016 -- 17 season, they have played a total of 5,557 competitive matches. This list details the club 's achievements in major competitions, and the top scorers for each season. Top scorers in bold were also the top scorers in the English league that season. Records of competitions such as the Lancashire Cup and the Manchester and District Challenge Cup are not included due to them being considered of less importance than the FA Cup and the League Cup. The club formed in 1878 as Newton Heath LYR F.C. At this time organised League football did not exist; "first class matches '' were arranged on a largely ad - hoc basis and supplemented by cup competitions. Official records from these matches are sketchy at best, and are often extrapolated from newspaper reports at the time. In 1886, the club entered the FA Cup for the first time, but were knocked out in the first round. The club entered The Combination in 1888, but the league was wound up before the season could be completed. The club then joined the Football Alliance in 1889, and in 1892 were elected to the newly formed Football League First Division. Upon joining the Football League, the club dropped the "LYR '' from their name, before financial troubles forced the club to restructure in 1902, including a change of name to Manchester United F.C. In 1956 -- 57, Manchester United became the first English club to enter European competition, entering the European Cup, following the Football Association 's refusal to allow Chelsea to enter the previous year. Eleven years later, in 1968, they became the first English club to win the European Cup, and only the second British side after Celtic had won it the year before. Meanwhile, in 1960 -- 61, Manchester United entered the inaugural Football League Cup, only to decline to enter for the next five years. In 1992 -- 93, they became founder members and inaugural champions of the Premier League, and, in 1998 -- 99, they won an unprecedented Treble of Premier League, FA Cup and UEFA Champions League. This was followed by two more Premier League titles in 1999 -- 2000 and 2000 -- 01, making Manchester United only the fourth club to win three consecutive English league titles. The club picked up their 10th Premier League title in the 2007 -- 08 season, and followed it with a third Champions League title 10 days later. The following season, Manchester United became the first English club to win the FIFA Club World Cup, before claiming a third consecutive Premier League title for a second time in 2008 -- 09. In 2010 -- 11, Manchester United won their 19th top division title, passing Liverpool 's previous record of 18, before winning a 20th title in 2012 -- 13. In 2016 -- 17, Manchester United won their first UEFA Europa League trophy, making them only the fifth club to win the three main European club competitions.

when is the familiars book 5 coming out

The familiars (novel) - wikipedia The Familiars is a series of children 's fantasy books written by Adam Jay Epstein and Andrew Jacobson. The Familiars is also the title of the first book in the series, featuring familiars, magical animal companions to a wizard or witch. The series consists of 4 books, published between 2010 and 2013 by HarperCollins. Aldwyn is an ordinary alley cat, who accidentally enters a shop while attempting to escape from a bounty hunter named Grimslade. He discovers that it is a shop full of magical animals, who are all prepared to become a wizard 's familiar - that is to say, a magical animal companion. Just then, a young wizard - in - training, Jack, enters the shop with his mentor, the powerful wizard Kalstaff, to choose a familiar. Aldwyn was chosen, even though he could not be a true familiar as he was not magical (Jack did not know that of course). They travelled back to Stone Runlet, Kalstaff 's dwelling, together, and Aldwyn met the other two wizards - in - training, Dalton and Marianne, as well as their respective familiars, Skylar and Gilbert. Just when Aldwyn had settled down and was finally content, with an omen of three shooting stars, portending that three young wizards from Stone Runlet would save the world, things took a dark turn. That night, Queen Loranella, an old ally of Kalstaff as well as sovereign of the kingdom appeared. She turned on her old friend Kalstaff, killing him, then kidnapped Jack, Marianne and Dalton, leaving the three familiars behind. Aldwyn, Skylar and Gilbert, determined to save their loyals (the human companion of a familiar), go on a quest to free them. They experience many trials on their quest, vanquishes a witch, defeats a mountain troll, pay a visit to Gilbert 's homeland, and encounters the great Mountain Alchemist, who along with Queen Loranella and Kalstaff, were the first ' prophesized three ' 60 years ago. Finally, just before the third sunset when the protection spells around their three loyals fade, which will allow Queen Loranella to finally kill them, the three familiars arrive. Upon arrival, they realize that their real enemy is the Queen Loranella 's familiar, a hare named Paksahara, who had imprisoned the real queen, and shifted into her likeliness. They also become aware that murdering Kalstaff and kidnapping their loyals was also really done by Paksahara under the guise of Queen Loranella. As the three familiars make desperate endeavors to rescue their loyals, Aldwyn discovers that he is in fact magical and possesses the power of telekinesis. With his newfound power, Aldwyn and his fellow familiars defeat Paksahara, who ultimately escapes. Aldwyn, Skylar and Gilbert free their loyals, and discover that the three real wizards that the shooting stars foretold are Aldwyn, Skylar and Gilbert, the three animal wizards. As their old mentor Kalstaff was dead, the three loyals and familiars are completing their studies with Sorceress Edna. All of a sudden, when human magic mysteriously disappears from the land, Queen Loranella is rendered powerless, and is thus unable to stop the impending army of the Dead led by Paksahara which is about to invade the land. Hence, it is once more up to the familiars to save the land. In order to do so, they must find the Shifting Fortress from which Paksahara is casting her magic from. However, the Shifting Fortress never appears in the same place twice, and the only way to access it is to find the Snow Leopard 's Crown. Following the clues hidden in a nursery rhyme, the familiars find their way to the sacred Tree Temple where they discovered that the Spheris, the globe which would lead them towards the Crown, had been taken three years ago by none other than Aldwyn 's father, Baxley. Desiring to find out all they can about Baxley, and bearing the knowledge that the future of the Queendom of Vastia depended on it, the three travel to Maidenmere, Aldwyn 's birthplace. They discover that the pride leader of the Maidenmere Bicoloured Cats, masters of telekinesis, Malvern, is Aldwyn 's own uncle. Malvern introduces Aldwyn to a kind of magic which permits him to see the last footsteps of his father - which would end either when he found his father, or when he arrived at the last place Baxley had been before dying. Guided by the footsteps of his father and the clues, the familiars face many dangers before arriving at their destination - the place where the Snow Leopard 's crown lies. They found out that the crown is really a circle formed by seven ancient stones, each of which speaks the name of an animal upon contact. In order to summon the shifting fortress, the familiars have to bring the seven animals together. Then they find out Malvern is a traitor working for Paksahara. Malvern had drowned Aldwyn 's mother and tricked his father, Baxley, into dying. Malvern was killed by a blast from Paksahara when she tried to shoot Aldwyn but missed instead. The book ends with the familiars, with the hired help of the bounty hunter Grimslade, prepare to seek out the seven animals, as Paksahara 's Dead Army begins their invasion on Vastia. Human magic in Vastia is still gone, and as the familiars begin their journey to find the seven animals needed to summon the Shifting Fortress, an army of the Dead besieges the city of Bridgetower, destroying the first of three glyph stones, the only places where the Shifting Fortress can be called from. They escape, but are forced to leave the bounty hunter, Grimslade, behind. The familiars retain the map he made to find the animals, however, and use it to start their journey, leaving their loyals, Jack, Marianne, and Dalton, in the cellar of Stone Runlet to keep them safe. Traveling to different places, the familiars collect all animals needed to summon the fortress. During this time, two of the three glyph stones fall, Aldwyn learns the current whereabouts of his twin sister, Yeardly, and has another encounter with his traitorous uncle, Malvern, who has been brought back to life due to Paksahara 's summoning of the Dead. Heading to the final glyph stone outside of Bronzhaven, the familiars and the seven animals needed to summon the Shifting Fortress encounter a brutal battle between Paksahara 's zombie forces and Queen Loranella 's troops. They manage to make it to the third glyph stone, and summon the Shifting Fortress. The familiars and a few of their animal friends journey inside to stop Paksahara. After being accosted in the fortress by Dead warriors, the familiars ' friends stay behind to fend them off, leaving Aldwyn, Skylar, and Gilbert to continue on. Once more, Aldwyn encounters his uncle, but puts an end to him this time. They continue to the room where Paksahara waits, resulting in a deadly battle. In the midst, Gilbert attempts to summon fire and successfully completes a spell, showing the improvement of his magic. Paksahara takes advantage of this distraction to disguise herself as Gilbert. Aldwyn discovers he has inherited his mother 's telepathic powers as he and Skylar struggle to find the real Gilbert, and he uses this power to determine which frog is Gilbert, giving Skylar the opportunity to kill Paksahara. The familiars release human magic back into Vastia, which helps turn the tide of the battle raging outside Bronzhaven, resulting in the success of Loranella 's army. However, Paksahara is brought back to life by the spell she used to summon the Dead. The familiars vanquish her once more by throwing her to the vultures that swarm above the battleground, who destroy her carcass. Later on, the familiars are reunited with their loyals. Aldwyn, Skylar, and Gilbert are thanked by the queen and her new council, which now consists of a mixture of humans and animals. They are immortalized in a picture in a stained glass window. As they study it, Gilbert tells Aldwyn about his latest puddle vision: that their adventures are n't over yet. The Three are invited to Queen Loranella 's birthday party, whence they bestow a gift for her. Queen Loranella tried it on, but the necklace cursed her, putting her to sleep in the Wander. The Three are then framed for cursing her. They must find a potion that can bring her back, and they must find it within three days time or else she is gone forever. They go to the Turn to find an answer, and the potion ingredients were said to be found in Kalstaff 's belongings. They turn to Turnbuckle Academy to find the ingredients, but they must go without getting found out by anyone, and more importantly their loyals. They peer into numerous classrooms as they try to find the library. In September 2010, it was revealed that Sony Pictures Animation will adapt The Familiars into a 3D animated feature film, with Doug Sweetland set to direct it. According to the books ' authors, the film was scheduled to be released in 2014. Fergal Reilly joined Sweetland to co-direct the film, but in 2013, he left to co-direct The Angry Birds Movie. In January 2013, when it was announced that Sweetland will direct a 2015 film for Warner Bros., Sony Pictures Animation responded that "The Familiars is cancelled. '' Epstein and Jacobson said in September 2013 in an interview. '' In March 2016, Adam Jay Epstein confirmed that the film will be made at another studio.

mary kate and ashley olsen tv shows and movies

Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen - wikipedia Mary - Kate Olsen and Ashley Olsen (born June 13, 1986), also known as the Olsen twins collectively, are American fashion designers and former child actresses. The dizygotic twins made their acting debut as infants playing Michelle Tanner on the television series Full House. At the age of six, Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen began starring together in TV, film, and video projects, which continued to their teenage years. Through their company Dualstar, the Olsens joined the ranks of the wealthiest women in the entertainment industry at a young age. The twins were born in Sherman Oaks, California, to David "Dave '' Olsen (b. 1953) and Jarnette "Jarnie '' (née Jones; b. 1954). They are dizygotic twins. They have an elder brother, Trent, and a younger sister, actress Elizabeth, as well as a half - sister, Courtney Taylor, and a half - brother, Jake. The twins ' parents divorced in 1995; Taylor and Jake are from their father 's second marriage to McKenzie. The Olsen twins have English and Norwegian ancestry. In 1987, at the age of six months, the twins were cast in the role of Michelle Tanner on the ABC sitcom Full House. They began filming at nine months old. In order to comply with child labor laws that set strict limits on how long a child actor may work, the sisters took turns playing the role. The Olsens continued to portray Michelle throughout the show 's run, which concluded in 1995. In 1992, Mary - Kate and Ashley shared the role of Michelle Tanner when they guest - starred on the Full House crossover episode of Hangin ' with Mr. Cooper. While starring on Full House, the Olsens also began appearing (as separate characters) in films for video and television. The first such film, To Grandmother 's House We Go, debuted in 1992 and featured cameos from several other Full House actors. In 1993, the Olsens established the company Dualstar, which would produce the twins ' subsequent films and videos, including 1993 's Double, Double, Toil and Trouble and 1994 's How the West Was Fun. A series of musical mystery videos called The Adventures of Mary - Kate & Ashley premiered in 1994 and continued through 1997. In 1995, following the end of Full House, the Olsens made their feature film debut in It Takes Two, co-starring Steve Guttenberg and Kirstie Alley. In the same year, they introduced a second video series, You 're Invited to Mary - Kate & Ashley 's..., which continued to release new entries until 2000. The following year, the Olsens appeared in an episode of All My Children. In 1997, they appeared once again as guest stars in an episode of Sister Sister. Also, in 1998, the twins returned to series television with another ABC sitcom, Two of a Kind, co-starring Christopher Sieber as their characters ' widowed father. The series lasted only one season but aired in reruns on cable for several years afterward. 1998 also saw the release of Billboard Dad, the first of a new string of direct - to - video films starring the Olsens. The final such film, The Challenge, debuted in 2003. In 2000, the Olsens appeared in an episode of 7th Heaven as bad girls Sue and Carol Murphy. The following year, the sisters starred in two new series: So Little Time, a live - action sitcom on Fox Family (later ABC Family); and Mary - Kate and Ashley in Action!, an animated series airing Saturday mornings on ABC. Both shows were canceled after one season, although Mary - Kate received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination for her performance on So Little Time. In early 2004, Mary - Kate and Ashley had a cameo voice role in an episode of The Simpsons as the readers of Marge 's book - on - tape, The Harpooned Heart. Also in 2004, the twins starred in a second feature film, New York Minute. It would be their last film together, as well as Ashley 's last acting role. Mary - Kate has continued to appear in film and television. Mary - Kate and Ashley had a fan club until 2000, "Mary - Kate & Ashley 's Fun Club '', where fans would pay to receive Mary - Kate and Ashley collectibles and photos. Each subscription included an issue of Our Funzine, Mary - Kate and Ashley 's fan club magazine, exclusively available through the club, and a collectibles catalog, where one could purchase T - shirts, posters, baseball caps, key rings, school folders, postcards, and various other items. Subscribers would also receive "surprise gifts '' (usually key rings, book excerpts, or back issues of the Funzine), lyric sheets to Mary - Kate and Ashley 's songs, a school folder, a membership card, a full - sized poster, two black and white photos (one of each girl), and a color photo with reprint autographs. The club was advertised at the beginning of Mary - Kate and Ashley movies until 1998. Mary - Kate and Ashley were popular figures in the preteen market during the late 1990s and early 2000s. Their names and likenesses extended, not only to movies and videos, but to clothes, shoes, purses, hats, books, CDs and cassette tapes, fragrances and makeup, magazines, video and board games, dolls, posters, calendars, and even telephones and CD players -- with a market share made up mostly of the tween demographic. Mattel produced various sets of Mary - Kate and Ashley fashion dolls from 2000 to 2005, along with separate outfits and accessory packs. The sisters became co-presidents of Dualstar on their 18th birthday in 2004. Upon taking control of the company, Mary - Kate and Ashley made moves to secure the future of the company by releasing products that appealed to the teen market, including home decoration and fragrances. The Dualstar brand has been sold in more than 3,000 stores in the United States and over 5,300 stores worldwide. The Olsens have appeared on the Forbes "Celebrity 100 '' list since 2002; in 2007, Forbes ranked them (collectively) as the eleventh - richest women in entertainment, with an estimated net worth of US $100 million. As the sisters have matured, they expressed greater interest in their fashion choices, with The New York Times declaring Mary - Kate a fashion icon for pioneering her signature (and now popular among celebrities and fans alike) "homeless '' look. The style sometimes referred to by fashion journalists as "ashcan '' or "bohemian - bourgeois '', is similar to the boho - chic style popularized in Britain by Kate Moss and Sienna Miller. The look consists of oversized sunglasses, boots, loose sweaters, and flowing skirts, with an aesthetic of mixing high - end and low - end pieces. The twins were tapped as the faces of upscale fashion line Badgley Mischka in 2006. The Olsens had a clothing line for girls ages 4 -- 14 in Wal - Mart stores across North America, as well as a beauty line called "Mary - Kate and Ashley: Real fashion for real girls ''. In 2004, they made news by signing a pledge to allow full maternity leave to all the workers that sew their line of clothing in Bangladesh. The National Labor Committee, which organized the pledge, praised the twins for their commitment to worker rights. The Olsens have also launched their own couture fashion label, The Row, named after Savile Row in London. In 2007, they launched Elizabeth & James, a contemporary collection inspired by many of their unique vintage finds and pieces in their personal wardrobes. They have also released a women 's clothing line for J.C. Penney, called Olsenboye, and a T - shirt line called "StyleMint ''. In 2008, the sisters published the book Influence, a compilation of interviews with many of the most prominent people in the field of fashion. In August 2013, the twins launched a new fashion line in Oslo, Norway. The Olsens were first named Womenswear Designer of the Year by the Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) for The Row in 2012. They received the award again in 2015. The CFDA also named the Olsens Accessories Designer of the Year in 2014 for their work with The Row.

where was the movie streets of laredo filmed

Streets of Laredo (miniseries) - wikipedia Larry McMurtry 's Streets of Laredo is a 1995 American Western television miniseries directed by Joseph Sargent. It is a three - part adaptation of the 1993 novel of the same name by author Larry McMurtry and is the third installment in the Lonesome Dove series serving as a direct sequel to Lonesome Dove (1989), ignoring the events of Return to Lonesome Dove (1993). The series stars James Garner as former Texas Ranger Captain Woodrow F. Call, now a bounty hunter, hired to track down Joey Garza (Alexis Cruz) who is preying on the railroad. It also features Sissy Spacek, Sam Shepard, Ned Beatty, Randy Quaid, Wes Studi, Charles Martin Smith, and George Carlin. A young psychopathic Mexican bandit named Joey Garza has murdered numerous people, and cost railroad tycoon Colonel Terry significant business and money through his deadly train robberies. Captain Woodrow F. Call is a grizzled veteran of the west, a man in stark contrast to the inexperienced urban Ned Brookshire, who has been sent to Clarendon, Texas, from New York by Terry to contract Call 's services in apprehending the bandit. They form an unlikely pair as they search for Garza, and soon they learn in Laredo, Texas, that he is not the only outlaw preying on the railroad. Pea Eye Parker, formerly of the Hat Creek outfit, now owns a farm in the Texas Panhandle. He is married to Lorena Wood, the former whore and lover of Gus McCrae, and now a school teacher. Pea Eye is devoted to her and their five children, and she has learned to reciprocate and become almost equally as attached to him. He is, however, increasingly pressured by his wife to settle down, so he initially declines to accompany Call and Brookshire in the hunt for Garza. His loyalty and devotion to Call finally prevails, though, and he sets out after Call, where he is soon joined by the celebrated Kickapoo tracker, Famous Shoes. The series also follows the family of 19 - year - old Joey Garza. Joey 's mother, Maria, is the midwife of Ojinaga, a small Mexican village on the Rio Grande. She has had a string of brief, failed marriages and has three children, of which Joey is the oldest. Joey, in possession of a Swiss sniper rifle, learns that Call is after him and having shot a gringo, hides out in Crow Town, an outlaw village deep in the borderland desert. The law arrives, and in her son 's absence, Maria is taken over the river and is brutalized by the deputies there. Lorena, meanwhile, learns that a former flunky of Blue Duck, Mox Mox, is alive. Known for burning his captives alive, he was thought to have been killed years before. The news, brought by Charles Goodnight, is especially traumatic for her, since she had nearly been burnt by him while she was a captive of Blue Duck. Fearing for the lives of her children, she sends them to on the train to Nebraska, to the protection of her friend Clara Allen. Garza continues his killing spree, returning often to his abandoned mine hideout to store his loot. Maria, now rescued from the deputies by Billy Williams, goes to Crow Town to warn her son that Call is getting closer. She still has reason to hate Call, who had her father and brothers hanged for rustling 30 horses. Call, now in Chihuahua City and also accompanied by Laredo Deputy Ted Plunkert, receives news updates by telegram of the ongoing killings and that the other killer is a past nemesis called Mox Mox. Garza, still hiding out west of the Pecos River in Crow Town, soon meets another notorious denizen -- the legendary Texas gunfighter, John Wesley Hardin. After Maria arrives to warn him, she kills the town 's "devil pig '' and later butchers it after Joey disappears and steals her horse. She then sets off back home, but not after inviting the town 's whores to accompany her on the walk back. Mox Mox and his gang soon arrive in Crow Town looking for Garza, seeking him for the payrolls he stole and denied them, and leave after a tense stand - off with Hardin. Meanwhile, Corporal Pea Eye and Famous Shoes, unaware of the threat of Mox Mox, continue south to find Captain Call. They are thrown into the Presidio jail when the sheriff accuses Famous Shoes of being a horse thief and decides to hang him. Captain Call, arriving in Ojinaga, hears of their plight and crosses the river to free them from jail, near - killing the sheriff after he refuses to allow their release on order of the governor. He then continues in pursuit of Mox Mox. He ambushes the gang alone just as they are about to burn Jasper Fant 's children alive, killing all but two - Quick Jimmy, a renegade Cherokee, who escapes unscathed, and Mox Mox himself, who soon dies. Meanwhile, Lorena, in search of Pea Eye, arrives in Laredo, and Garza rides off to Langtry, Texas, where he shoots and hangs Judge Roy Bean. Call accompanies the children back to Fort Stockton, Texas, just as Lorena arrives in town. They then head off together to find the posse, but Garza shoots Call twice after he rides out to check on three nearby horses. Severely wounded, and unable to make it back to town in time, he asks Lorena to amputate his right leg. This done, they finally end up back in Maria 's house in Ojinaga. On the trail, Deputy Plunkert receives news of his wife 's suicide and rides off for Laredo, but is soon killed and stripped by bandits. Call 's remaining posse is then ambushed by Garza, who shoots the horses and steals their provisions. Brookshire, despairing of the situation, decides to face Garza, but is shot dead in cold blood. In the morning, Famous Shoes returns and asks Pea Eye for his boots, since Garza feels he will not be followed without them. Pea Eye, however, has him scout where Brookshire 's shotgun is, and despite being wounded, manages to spray Garza with buckshot. Garza then drags himself back to his native village and attempts to kill his younger siblings. Maria tries to stop him, but he stabs her. The butcher then mortally wounds him. Lorena and Bill return with Pea Eye just as Maria dies from her wounds. At her request, Pea Eye and Lorena adopt Maria 's two surviving children, and return with them to their farm. Call, crippled and no longer able to pursue bandits, goes to live with them, and becomes increasingly attached to Teresa, Maria 's blind daughter, demonstrating for the first time an attachment to anyone besides Gus McCrae. Roy Bean was not shot and hanged on his front porch, but actually died in his sleep, possibly due to alcohol poisoning in 1903, a decade after the events of the series. The depiction of the character holding court in his saloon and being a hanging judge is based on legend. John Wesley Hardin is depicted as an outspoken drunk, always hanging out in the Crow Town bar. In actuality, he was arrested for his crimes in 1877, approximately twenty years before the series ' setting, and served a 27 - year sentence until 1894. After his release, he moved to El Paso, Texas where he was shot and killed the following year by John Selman. It was released in Region 1 on DVD on April 24, 2001.

marines have semper fi what does the navy have

United States Marine Corps - wikipedia U.S. Department of Defense The United States Marine Corps (USMC), also known as the United States Marines, is a branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for conducting amphibious operations with the United States Navy. The U.S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The Marine Corps has been a component of the U.S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces. The USMC operates installations on land and aboard sea - going amphibious warfare ships around the world. Additionally, several of the Marines ' tactical aviation squadrons, primarily Marine Fighter Attack squadrons, are also embedded in Navy carrier air wings and operate from the aircraft carriers. The history of the Marine Corps began when two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting on both at sea and on shore. By the mid-20th century, the U.S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of amphibious warfare, which were utilized in the Pacific theater of World War II. As of 2017, the USMC has around 186,000 active duty members and some 38,500 reserve Marines. It is the smallest U.S. military service within the DoD. As outlined in 10 U.S.C. § 5063 and as originally introduced under the National Security Act of 1947, three primary areas of responsibility for the Marine Corps are: This last clause derives from similar language in the Congressional acts "For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps '' of 1834, and "Establishing and Organizing a Marine Corps '' of 1798. In 1951, the House of Representatives ' Armed Services Committee called the clause "one of the most important statutory -- and traditional -- functions of the Marine Corps. '' It noted that the Corps has more often than not performed actions of a non-naval nature, including its famous actions in Tripoli, the War of 1812, Chapultepec, and numerous counter-insurgency and occupational duties (such as those in Central America), World War I, and the Korean War. While these actions are not accurately described as support of naval campaigns nor as amphibious warfare, their common thread is that they are of an expeditionary nature, using the mobility of the Navy to provide timely intervention in foreign affairs on behalf of American interests. The Marine Band, dubbed the "President 's Own '' by Thomas Jefferson, provides music for state functions at the White House. Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C., guard presidential retreats, including Camp David, and the Marines of the Executive Flight Detachment of HMX - 1 provide helicopter transport to the President and Vice President, with the radio call signs "Marine One '' and "Marine Two '', respectively. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides helicopter transport to Cabinet members and other VIPs. By authority of the 1946 Foreign Service Act, the Marine Security Guards of the Marine Embassy Security Command provide security for American embassies, legations, and consulates at more than 140 posts worldwide. The relationship between the Department of State and the U.S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself. For over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, and legations throughout the world. In 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of Defense furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15, 1948, and 83 Marines were deployed to overseas missions. During the first year of the MSG program, 36 detachments were deployed worldwide. The Marine Corps was founded to serve as an infantry unit aboard naval vessels and was responsible for the security of the ship and its crew by conducting offensive and defensive combat during boarding actions and defending the ship 's officers from mutiny; to the latter end, their quarters on ship were often strategically positioned between the officers ' quarters and the rest of the vessel. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore. America 's first amphibious assault landing occurred early in the Revolutionary War on 3 March 1776 as the Marines gained control of Fort Montague and Fort Nassau, a British ammunition depot and naval port in New Providence, the Bahamas. The role of the Marine Corps has expanded significantly since then; as the importance of its original naval mission declined with changing naval warfare doctrine and the professionalization of the naval service, the Corps adapted by focusing on formerly secondary missions ashore. The Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships and aircraft carriers. Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ship 's landing force, manning the ship 's weapons and providing shipboard security. Marine detachments were augmented by members of the ship 's company for landing parties, such as in the First Sumatran Expedition of 1832, and continuing in the Caribbean and Mexican campaigns of the early 20th centuries. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II. During World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships. They often were assigned to man anti-aircraft batteries. When gun cruisers were retired by the 1960s, the remaining Marine detachments were only seen on battleships and carriers. Its original mission of providing shipboard security finally ended in the 1990s. The Marine Corps fulfills a critical military role as an amphibious warfare force. It is capable of asymmetric warfare with conventional, irregular, and hybrid forces. While the Marine Corps does not employ any unique capabilities, as a force it can rapidly deploy a combined - arms task force to almost anywhere in the world within days. The basic structure for all deployed units is a Marine Air - Ground Task Force (MAGTF) that integrates a ground combat element, an aviation combat element and a logistics combat element under a common command element. While the creation of joint commands under the Goldwater -- Nichols Act has improved inter-service coordination between each branch, the Corps ' ability to permanently maintain integrated multi-element task forces under a single command provides a smoother implementation of combined - arms warfare principles. The close integration of disparate Marine units stems from an organizational culture centered on the infantry. Every other Marine capability exists to support the infantry. Unlike some Western militaries, the Corps remained conservative against theories proclaiming the ability of new weapons to win wars independently. For example, Marine aviation has always been focused on close air support and has remained largely uninfluenced by air power theories proclaiming that strategic bombing can single - handedly win wars. This focus on the infantry is matched with the doctrine of "Every Marine (is) a rifleman '', a focus of Commandant Alfred M. Gray, Jr., emphasizing the infantry combat abilities of every Marine. All Marines, regardless of military specialization, receive training as a rifleman; and all officers receive additional training as infantry platoon commanders. For example, at Wake Island, when all of the Marine aircraft were destroyed, pilots continued the fight as ground officers, leading supply clerks and cooks in a final defensive effort. Flexibility of execution is implemented via an emphasis on "commander 's intent '' as a guiding principle for carrying out orders; specifying the end state but leaving open the method of execution. The amphibious assault techniques developed for World War II evolved, with the addition of air assault and maneuver warfare doctrine, into the current "Operational Maneuver from the Sea '' doctrine of power projection from the seas. The Marines are credited with the development of helicopter insertion doctrine and were the earliest in the American military to widely adopt maneuver - warfare principles, which emphasize low - level initiative and flexible execution. In light of recent warfare that has strayed from the Corps ' traditional missions, it has renewed an emphasis on amphibious capabilities. The Marine Corps relies on the Navy for sealift to provide its rapid deployment capabilities. In addition to basing a third of the Fleet Marine Force in Japan, Marine Expeditionary Units (MEU) are typically stationed at sea so they can function as first responders to international incidents. To aid rapid deployment, the Maritime Pre-Positioning System was developed: fleets of container ships are positioned throughout the world with enough equipment and supplies for a Marine Expeditionary Force to deploy for 30 days. The USMC is planning to reduce its logistical requirements and by 2025 eliminate all liquid fuel use for Marine Expeditionary Forces, except for highly efficient vehicles. Two small manuals published during the 1930s would establish USMC doctrine in two areas. The Small Wars Manual laid the framework for Marine counter-insurgency operations from Vietnam to Iraq and Afghanistan while the Tentative Landing Operations Manual established the doctrine for the amphibious operations of World War II. "Operational Maneuver from the Sea '' is the current doctrine of power projection. The United States Marine Corps traces its roots to the Continental Marines of the American Revolutionary War, formed by Captain Samuel Nicholas by a resolution of the Second Continental Congress on 10 November 1775, to raise two battalions of Marines. That date is regarded and celebrated as the date of the Marine Corps ' birthday. At the end of the American Revolution, both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded in April 1783. The institution itself would not be resurrected until 11 July 1798. At that time, in preparation for the Quasi-War with France, Congress created the United States Marine Corps. Marines had been enlisted by the War Department as early as August 1797 for service in the new - build frigates authorized by the Congressional "Act to provide a Naval Armament '' of 18 March 1794, which specified the numbers of Marines to recruit for each frigate. The Marines ' most famous action of this period occurred during the First Barbary War (1801 -- 1805) against the Barbary pirates, when William Eaton and First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon led eight Marines and 500 mercenaries in an effort to capture Tripoli. Though they only reached Derna, the action at Tripoli has been immortalized in the Marines ' hymn and the Mameluke sword carried by Marine officers. During the War of 1812, Marine detachments on Navy ships took part in some of the great frigate duels that characterized the war, which were the first and last engagements of the conflict. Their most significant contribution, however, was holding the center of General Jackson 's defensive line at the Battle of New Orleans, the final major battle and one of the most one - sided engagements of the war. With widespread news of the battle and the capture of HMS Cyane, HMS Levant and HMS Penguin, the final engagements between British and American forces, the Marines had gained a reputation as expert marksmen, especially in defensive and ship - to - ship actions. After the war, the Marine Corps fell into a malaise that ended with the appointment of Archibald Henderson as its fifth Commandant in 1820. Under his tenure, the Corps took on expeditionary duties in the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, Key West, West Africa, the Falkland Islands, and Sumatra. Commandant Henderson is credited with thwarting President Jackson 's attempts to combine and integrate the Marine Corps with the Army. Instead, Congress passed the Act for the Better Organization of the Marine Corps in 1834, stipulating that the Corps was part of the Department of the Navy as a sister service to the Navy. This would be the first of many times that the independent existence of the Corps was challenged. Commandant Henderson volunteered the Marines for service in the Seminole Wars of 1835, personally leading nearly half of the entire Corps (two battalions) to war. A decade later, in the Mexican -- American War (1846 -- 1848), the Marines made their famed assault on Chapultepec Palace in Mexico City, which would be later celebrated as the "Halls of Montezuma '' in the Marines ' hymn. In the 1850s, the Marines would see further service in Panama and Asia, attached to Matthew Perry 's East India Squadron on its historic trip to the Far East. The Marine Corps played a small role in the Civil War (1861 -- 1865); their most prominent task was blockade duty. As more and more states seceded from the Union, about a third of the Corps ' officers left the United States to join the Confederacy and form the Confederate States Marine Corps, which ultimately played little part in the war. The battalion of recruits formed for the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas) performed poorly, retreating with the rest of the Union forces. Blockade duty included sea - based amphibious operations to secure forward bases. In late November 1861, Marines and sailors landed a reconnaissance in force from the USS Flag at Tybee Island, Georgia, to occupy the Lighthouse and Martello Tower on the northern end of the island. It would later be the Army base for bombardment of Fort Pulaski. The remainder of the 19th century was marked by declining strength and introspection about the mission of the Marine Corps. The Navy 's transition from sail to steam put into question the need for Marines on naval ships. Meanwhile, Marines served as a convenient resource for interventions and landings to protect American interests overseas. The Corps was involved in over 28 separate interventions in the 30 years from the end of the American Civil War to the end of 19th century. They would be called upon to stem political and labor unrest within the United States. Under Commandant Jacob Zeilin 's tenure, Marine customs and traditions took shape: the Corps adopted the Marine Corps emblem on 19 November 1868. It was during this time that "The Marines ' Hymn '' was first heard. Around 1883, the Marines adopted their current motto "Semper Fidelis '' (Always Faithful). John Philip Sousa, the musician and composer, enlisted as a Marine apprentice at the age of 13, serving from 1867 until 1872, and again from 1880 to 1892 as the leader of the Marine Band. During the Spanish -- American War (1898), Marines led American forces ashore in the Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, demonstrating their readiness for deployment. At Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, the Marines seized an advanced naval base that remains in use today. Between 1899 and 1916, the Corps continued its record of participation in foreign expeditions, including the Philippine -- American War, the Boxer Rebellion in China (1899 -- 1901), Panama, the Cuban Pacifications, the Perdicaris Incident in Morocco, Veracruz, Santo Domingo, and the Banana Wars in Haiti and Nicaragua; the experiences gained in counter-insurgency and guerrilla operations during this period were consolidated into the Small Wars Manual. During World War I Marines served as a part of the American Expeditionary Force under General Pershing when America entered into the war on 6 April 1917. The Marine Corps had a deep pool of officers and NCOs with battle experience, and experienced a large expansion. During the war, the Marines, fighting on the Western Front in France, fought at the battle at Belleau Wood in mid-1918. Though the Marines and American media reported that Germans had nicknamed them Teufel Hunden as meaning "Devil Dogs '', for their reputation as shock troops and marksmen at ranges up to 900 meters, there is no evidence of this in German records (as Teufelshunde would be the proper German phrase). Nevertheless, the name stuck. The U.S. Marine Corps entered the war with 511 officers and 13,214 enlisted personnel, and by 11 November 1918 had reached a strength of 2,400 officers and 70,000 enlisted. African - Americans were entirely excluded from the Marine Corps during this conflict. Opha May Johnson was the first woman to enlist in the Marines; she joined the Marine Corps Reserve in 1918 during World War I, officially becoming the first female Marine. From then until the end of World War I, 305 women enlisted in the Corps. Between the World Wars, the Marine Corps was headed by Commandant John A. Lejeune, and under his leadership, the Corps studied and developed amphibious techniques that would be of great use in World War II. Many officers, including Lieutenant Colonel Earl Hancock "Pete '' Ellis, foresaw a war in the Pacific with Japan and undertook preparations for such a conflict. Through 1941, as the prospect of war grew, the Corps pushed urgently for joint amphibious exercises with the Army and acquired amphibious equipment that would prove of great use in the upcoming conflict. In World War II, the Marines played a central role in the Pacific War, along with the U.S. Army. The battles of Guadalcanal, Bougainville, Tarawa, Guam, Tinian, Cape Gloucester, Saipan, Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa saw fierce fighting between Marines and the Imperial Japanese Army. The island of Iwo Jima served as the next area of battle, which began on 19 February 1945. The Japanese had learned from their defeats in the Marianas campaign and prepared many fortified positions on the island including pillboxes and underground tunnels. The Japanese put up fierce resistance, but American forces reached the summit of Mount Suribachi on 23 February. The mission was accomplished at very high losses with 26,000 American casualties and 22,000 Japanese. By the end of the war, the Corps expanded from two brigades to six divisions, five air wings, and supporting troops, totaling about 485,000 Marines. In addition, 20 defense battalions and a parachute battalion were raised. Nearly 87,000 Marines were casualties during World War II (including nearly 20,000 killed), and 82 were awarded the Medal of Honor. In 1942 the Navy Seabees were created with the Marine Corps providing their organization and military training. Many Seabee units were issued the USMC standard issue and were re-designated "Marine ''. Despite the Corps ' giving them their military organization, military training, issuing them uniforms and redesignating their units the Seabees remained Navy. Despite Secretary Forrestal 's prediction, the Corps faced an immediate institutional crisis following the war due to the low budget. Army generals pushing for a strengthened and reorganized defense establishment attempted to fold the Marine mission and assets into the Navy and Army. Drawing on hastily assembled Congressional support, and with the assistance of the so - called "Revolt of the Admirals '', the Marine Corps rebuffed such efforts to dismantle the Corps, resulting in statutory protection of the Marine Corps in the National Security Act of 1947. Shortly afterward, in 1952 the Douglas -- Mansfield Act afforded the Commandant an equal voice with the Joint Chiefs of Staff on matters relating to the Marines and established the structure of three active divisions and air wings that remain today. The Korean War (1950 -- 1953) saw the hastily formed Provisional Marine Brigade holding the defensive line at the Pusan Perimeter. To execute a flanking maneuver, General Douglas MacArthur called on United Nations forces, including U.S. Marines, to make an amphibious landing at Inchon. The successful landing resulted in the collapse of North Korean lines and the pursuit of North Korean forces north near the Yalu River until the entrance of the People 's Republic of China into the war. Chinese troops surrounded, surprised and overwhelmed the overextended and outnumbered American forces. The U.S. Army 's X Corps, which included the 1st Marine Division and the Army 's 7th Infantry Division, regrouped and inflicted heavy casualties during their fighting withdrawal to the coast, now known as the Battle of Chosin Reservoir. The fighting calmed after the Battle of the Chosin Reservoir, but late in March 1953 the relative quiet of the war was broken when the People 's Liberation Army launched a massive offensive on three outposts manned by the 5th Marine Regiment. These outposts were codenamed "Reno '', "Vegas '', and "Carson ''. The campaign was collectively known as the Nevada Cities Campaign. There was brutal fighting on Reno hill, which was eventually captured by the Chinese. Although Reno was lost, the 5th Marines held both Vegas and Carson through the rest of the campaign. In this one campaign, the Marines suffered approximately 1,000 casualties, and may have suffered much more without the U.S. Army 's Task Force Faith. Marines would continue a battle of attrition around the 38th Parallel until the 1953 armistice. The Korean War saw the Corps expand from 75,000 regulars to a force of 261,000 Marines, mostly reservists. 30,544 Marines were killed or wounded during the war and 42 were awarded the Medal of Honor. The Marine Corps served in the Vietnam War taking part in such battles as the Battle of Hue and the Battle of Khe Sanh in 1968. Individuals from the USMC generally operated in the Northern I Corps Regions of South Vietnam. While there, they were constantly engaged in a guerrilla war against the Viet Cong, along with an intermittent conventional war against the North Vietnamese Army (NVA). Portions of the Corps were responsible for the less - known Combined Action Program (CAP) that implemented unconventional techniques for counter-insurgency and worked as military advisers to the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps. Marines were withdrawn in 1971, and returned briefly in 1975 to evacuate Saigon and attempt a rescue of the crew of the Mayagüez. Vietnam was the longest war for Marines; by its end, 13,091 had been killed in action, 51,392 had been wounded, and 57 Medals of Honor had been awarded. Due to policies concerning rotation, more Marines were deployed for service during Vietnam than World War II. While recovering from Vietnam, the Corps hit a detrimental low point in its service history caused by courts - martial and non-judicial punishments related partially to increased unauthorized absences and desertions during the war. Overhauling of the Corps began in the late 1970s, discharging the most delinquent, and once quality of new recruits improved, the Corps focused on reforming the NCO Corps, a vital functioning part of its forces. After the Vietnam War, the U.S. Marines resumed their expeditionary role, participating in the failed 1980 Iran hostage rescue attempt Operation Eagle Claw, the invasion of Grenada (Operation Urgent Fury) and the invasion of Panama (Operation Just Cause). On 23 October 1983, the Marine headquarters building in Beirut, Lebanon, was bombed, causing the highest peacetime losses to the Corps in its history (220 Marines and 21 other service members were killed) and leading to the American withdrawal from the country. The year 1990 saw Marines of the Joint Task Force Sharp Edge save thousands of lives by evacuating British, French and American nationals from the violence of the Liberian Civil War. During the Gulf War (1990 -- 1991), Marine task forces formed for Operation Desert Shield, and later liberated Kuwait, along with Coalition forces, in Operation Desert Storm. Marines participated in combat operations in Somalia (1992 -- 1995) during Operations Restore Hope, Restore Hope II, and United Shield to provide humanitarian relief. In 1997, Marines took part in Operation Silver Wake, the evacuation of American citizens from the US Embassy in Tirana, Albania. Following the attacks on 11 September 2001, President George W. Bush announced the Global War on Terrorism. The stated objective of the Global War on Terror is "the defeat of Al - Qaeda, other terrorist groups and any nation that supports or harbors terrorists. '' Since then, the Marine Corps, alongside the other military services, has engaged in global operations around the world in support of that mission. In spring 2009, President Barack Obama 's goal of reducing spending in the Defense Department was led by Secretary Robert Gates in a series of budget cuts that did not significantly change the Corps ' budget and programs, cutting only the VH - 71 Kestrel and resetting the VXX program. However, the National Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform singled the Corps out for the brunt of a series of recommended cuts in late 2010. In light of budget sequestration in 2013, General Amos set a goal of a force of 174,000 Marines. He testified that this was the minimum number that would allow for an effective response to even a single contingency operation, but it would reduce the peacetime ratio of time at home bases to time deployed down to a historical low level. Marines and other American forces began staging in Pakistan and Uzbekistan on the border of Afghanistan as early as October 2001 in preparation for Operation Enduring Freedom. The 15th and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units were some of the first conventional forces into Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in November 2001. Since then, Marine battalions and squadrons have been rotating through, engaging Taliban and Al - Qaeda forces. Marines of the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit flooded into the Taliban - held town of Garmsir on 29 April 2008, in Helmand Province, in the first major American operation in the region in years. In June 2009, 7,000 Marines with the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade deployed to Afghanistan in an effort to improve security, and began Operation Strike of the Sword the next month. In February 2010, the 2nd Marine Expeditionary Brigade launched the largest offensive of the Afghan Campaign since 2001, the Battle of Marjah, to clear the Taliban from their key stronghold in Helmand Province. After Marjah, Marines progressed north up the Helmand River and cleared the towns of Kajahki and Sangin. Marines remained in Helmand Province until 2014. The U.S. Marines served in the Operation Iraqi Freedom, along with its sister services. The I Marine Expeditionary Force, along with the U.S. Army 's 3rd Infantry Division, spearheaded the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The Marines left Iraq in the summer of 2003, but returned in the beginning of 2004. They were given responsibility for the Al Anbar Province, the large desert region to the west of Baghdad. During this occupation, the Marines lead assaults on the city of Fallujah in April (Operation Vigilant Resolve) and November 2004 (Operation Phantom Fury) and saw intense fighting in such places as Ramadi, Al - Qa'im and Hīt. Their time in Iraq has courted controversy with the Haditha killings and the Hamdania incident. The Anbar Awakening and 2007 surge reduced levels of violence. On 1 March 2009, at Camp Lejeune, President Obama announced an accelerated withdrawal, promising all troops out by August 2010. The Marine Corps officially ended its role in Iraq on 23 January 2010 when they handed over responsibility for Al Anbar Province to the United States Army. US Marines would ultimately return to Iraq in the summer of 2014, in response to growing violence there. Horn of Africa Operations Throughout the Global War on Terrorism, the US Marines have supported operations in Africa to counter Islamic extremism and piracy in the Red Sea. In late 2002, Combined Joint Task Force -- Horn of Africa was stood up at Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti to provide regional security. Despite transferring overall command to the Navy in 2006, the Marines continued to operate in the Horn of Africa into 2007. The Department of the Navy, led by the Secretary of the Navy, is a military department of the cabinet - level U.S. Department of Defense that oversees the Marine Corps and the Navy. The most senior Marine officer is the Commandant, unless a Marine officer is the Chairman or Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, responsible to the Secretary of the Navy for organizing, recruiting, training, and equipping the Marine Corps so that its forces are ready for deployment under the operational command of the Combatant Commanders. The Marine Corps is organized into four principal subdivisions: Headquarters Marine Corps (HQMC), the Operating Forces, the Supporting Establishment, and the Marine Forces Reserve (MARFORRES or USMCR). Headquarters Marine Corps consists of the Commandant of the Marine Corps, the Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps, the Director Marine Corps Staff, the several Deputy Commandants, the Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps, and various special staff officers and Marine Corps agency heads that report directly to either the Commandant or Assistant Commandant. HQMC is supported by the Headquarters and Service Battalion, USMC providing administrative, supply, logistics, training, and services support to the Commandant and his staff. The Operating Forces are divided into three categories: Marine Corps Forces (MARFOR) assigned to unified commands (viz., the Fleet Marine Forces (FMF), Security Forces guarding high - risk naval installations, and Security Guard detachments at American embassies). Under the "Forces for Unified Commands '' memo, in accordance with the Unified Command Plan approved by the President, Marine Corps Forces are assigned to each of the Combatant Commands at the discretion of the Secretary of Defense. Since 1991, the Marine Corps has maintained component headquarters at each of the regional unified combatant commands. Marine Corps Forces are divided into Forces Command (MARFORCOM) and Pacific Command (MARFORPAC), each headed by a Lieutenant General dual - posted as the commanding general of either FMF Atlantic (FMFLANT) or FMF Pacific (FMFPAC), respectively. MARFORCOM / FMFLANT has operational control of the II Marine Expeditionary Force; MARFORPAC / FMFPAC has operational control of the I Marine Expeditionary Force and III Marine Expeditionary Force. The basic framework for deployable Marine units is the Marine Air - Ground Task Force (MAGTF), a flexible structure of varying size. A MAGTF integrates a ground combat element (GCE), an aviation combat element (ACE), and a logistics combat element (LCE) under a common command element (CE), capable of operating independently or as part of a larger coalition. The MAGTF structure reflects a strong preference in the Corps towards self - sufficiency and a commitment to combined arms, both essential assets to an expeditionary force. The Marine Corps has a wariness and distrust of reliance on its sister services, and towards joint operations in general. The Supporting Establishment includes the Combat Development Command, the Logistics Command, the Systems Command, the Recruiting Command, the Installations Command, the Marine Band, and the Marine Drum and Bugle Corps. The Marine Corps operates many major bases, 14 of which host operating forces, several support and training installations, as well as satellite facilities. Marine Corps ' bases are concentrated around the locations of the Marine Expeditionary Forces, though reserve units are scattered throughout the United States. The principal bases are Camp Pendleton on the West Coast, home to I MEF; Camp Lejeune on the East Coast, home to II MEF; and Camp Butler in Okinawa, Japan, home to III MEF. Other important bases include air stations, recruit depots, logistics bases, and training commands. Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms in California is the Marine Corps ' largest base and home to the Corps ' most complex, combined - arms, live - fire training. Marine Corps Base Quantico in Virginia is home to Marine Corps Combat Development Command, and nicknamed the "Crossroads of the Marine Corps ''. The Marine Corps maintains a significant presence in the National Capital Region, with Headquarters Marine Corps scattered amongst the Pentagon, Henderson Hall, Washington Navy Yard, and Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C. Additionally, Marines operate detachments at many installations owned by other branches, to better share resources, such as specialty schools. Marines are also present at, and operate many, forward bases during expeditionary operations. Marine Forces Reserve consists of the Force Headquarters Group, 4th Marine Division, 4th Marine Aircraft Wing, and the 4th Marine Logistics Group. The MARFORRES / USMCR is capable of forming a 4th Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF) or reinforcing / augmenting active - duty forces. Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command (MARSOC) includes: the Marine Raider Regiment, the Marine Raider Support Group, and the Marine Special Operations School. Both the Raider Regiment and the Raider Support Group consist of a headquarters company and three operations battalions. The Special Operations School conducts screening, assessment, selection, training and development functions for MARSOC units. Marine Corps Special Operations Capable forces include: Air Naval Gunfire Liaison Companies, the Chemical Biological Incident Response Force, the Marine Division Reconnaissance Battalions, Force Reconnaissance Companies, Maritime Special Purpose Force, and Special Reaction Teams. Additionally, all deployed Marine Expeditionary Units are certified as "Special Operations Capable '', viz. "MEU (SOC) '', however Special Operations Capable forces are not considered to be special operations forces. Although the notion of a Marine special operations forces contribution to the United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) was considered as early as the founding of USSOCOM in the 1980s, it was resisted by the Marine Corps. Then - Commandant Paul X. Kelley expressed the belief that Marines should only support Marines, and that the Corps should not fund a special operations capability that would not directly support Marine operations. However, much of the resistance from within the Corps dissipated when Marine leaders watched the Corps ' 15th and 26th MEU (SOC) s "sit on the sidelines '' during the very early stages of Operation Enduring Freedom while other special operations units from the Army, Navy, and Air Force actively engaged in operations in Afghanistan. After a three - year development period, the Corps agreed in 2006 to supply a 2,500 - strong unit, Marine Forces Special Operations Command, which would answer directly to USSOCOM. The Commandant of the Marine Corps is the highest - ranking officer of the Marine Corps, unless a Marine is either the Chairman or Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs. The Commandant has the U.S. Code Title 10 responsibility to staff, train, and equip the Marine Corps and has no command authority. The Commandant is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and reports to the Secretary of the Navy. The Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps acts as a deputy to the Commandant. The Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps is the senior enlisted Marine, and acts as an adviser to the Commandant. Headquarters Marine Corps comprises the rest of the Commandant 's counsel and staff, with deputy Commandants that oversee various aspects of the Corps assets and capabilities. The current and 37th Commandant is Robert Neller, who assumed the position on 30 September 2015. The 34th and current Assistant Commandant is Glenn M. Walters., while the 18th and current Sergeant Major is Ronald L. Green. Women have served in the USMC since 1918. In January 2017, three women joined an infantry battalion at Camp Lejune. Women had not served as infantry Marines prior to this. In 2017, the Marines released a recruitment ad that focused on women for the first time. As of 2017 women make up about 7 % of the force. As in the rest of the United States Armed Forces (excluding the Air Force, which does not currently appoint warrant officers), Marine Corps ranks fall into one of three categories: commissioned officer, warrant officer, and enlisted, in decreasing order of authority. To standardize compensation, each rank is assigned a pay grade. Commissioned officers are distinguished from other officers by their commission, which is the formal written authority, issued in the name of the President of the United States, that confers the rank and authority of a Marine officer. Commissioned officers carry the "special trust and confidence '' of the President of the United States. Marine Corps commissioned officers are promoted based on an "up or out '' system in accordance with the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980. Note: Insignia for second and first lieutenant shown above are incorrectly depicted as U.S. Army / U.S. Air Force insignia; the U.S. Naval Services (U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, and U.S. Coast Guard), as well as the U.S. Public Health Service and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, use insignia bars that do not have beveled edges. (See the illustration of the captain 's insignia for comparison and correct depiction of the non-beveled edge bars.) Warrant officers are primarily former enlisted experts in a specific specialized field and provide leadership generally only within that speciality. Enlisted Marines in the pay grades E-1 to E-3 make up the bulk of the Corps ' ranks, usually referred to simply as "Marines ''. Although they do not technically hold leadership ranks, the Corps ' ethos stresses leadership among all Marines, and junior Marines are often assigned responsibility normally reserved for superiors. Those in the pay grades of E-4 and E-5 are non-commissioned officers (NCOs). They primarily supervise junior Marines and act as a vital link with the higher command structure, ensuring that orders are carried out correctly. Marines E-6 and higher are Staff Non-Commissioned Officers (SNCOs), charged with supervising NCOs and acting as enlisted advisers to the command. The E-8 and E-9 levels have two and three ranks per pay grade, respectively, each with different responsibilities. The First Sergeant and Sergeant Major ranks are command - oriented, serving as the senior enlisted Marines in a unit, charged to assist the commanding officer in matters of discipline, administration and the morale and welfare of the unit. Master Sergeants and Master Gunnery Sergeants provide technical leadership as occupational specialists in their specific MOS. The Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps also E-9, is a billet conferred on the senior enlisted Marine of the entire Marine Corps, personally selected by the Commandant. It is possible however for an enlisted Marine to hold a position senior to Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps which was the case from 2011 to 2015 with the appointment of Sergeant Major Bryan B. Battaglia to the billet of Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman, who is the senior enlisted member of the United States military. Different forms of address can be found at United States Marine Corps rank insignia and List of United States Marine Corps acronyms and expressions. The Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) is a system of job classification. Using a four digit code, it designates what field and specific occupation a Marine performs. Segregated between officer and enlisted, the MOS determines the staffing of a unit. Some MOSs change with rank to reflect supervisory positions, others are secondary and represent a temporary assignment outside of a Marine 's normal duties or special skill. Every year, over 2,000 new Marine officers are commissioned, and 38,000 recruits accepted and trained. All new Marines, enlisted or officer, are recruited by the Marine Corps Recruiting Command. Commissioned officers are commissioned mainly through one of three sources: Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps (NROTC), Officer Candidates School (OCS), or the United States Naval Academy (USNA). Following commissioning, all Marine commissioned officers, regardless of accession route or further training requirements, attend The Basic School (TBS) at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia. At TBS, second lieutenants, warrant officers, and selected foreign officers learn the art of infantry and combined arms warfare. Enlisted Marines attend recruit training, known as boot camp, at either Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego or Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island. Historically, the Mississippi River served as a dividing line that delineated who would be trained where, while more recently, a district system has ensured a more even distribution of male recruits between the two MCRD facilities. Females attend only the Parris Island depot as part of the segregated Fourth Recruit Training Battalion. All recruits must pass a fitness test to start training; those who fail receive individualized attention and training until the minimum standards are reached. Marine recruit training is the longest among the American military services; it is 13 weeks long including processing and out - processing. Following recruit training, enlisted Marines then attend The School of Infantry at Camp Geiger or Camp Pendleton. Infantry Marines begin their combat training, which varies in length, immediately with the Infantry Training Battalion (ITB). Marines in all other MOSs other than infantry train for 29 days in Marine Combat Training (MCT), learning common infantry skills, before continuing on to their MOS schools, which vary in length. The Marine Corps has the most stable and most recognizable uniforms in the American military; the Dress Blues dates back to the early 19th century and the service uniform to the early 20th century. Only a handful of skills (parachutist, air crew, explosive ordnance disposal, etc.) warrant distinguishing badges, and rank insignia is not worn on uniform headgear (with the exception of an officer 's garrison service cover). While other servicemembers commonly identify with a sub-group as much as or more than their service (Ranger, submariner, aircrew, etc.), Marine uniforms do not reflect such division. Marines have four main uniforms: Dress, Service, Utility, and Physical Training (PT). These uniforms have a few minor, but very distinct, variations from enlisted personnel to commissioned and non-commissioned officers. The Marine Corps Dress uniform is the most elaborate, worn for formal or ceremonial occasions. There are four different forms of the Dress uniform. The variations of the dress uniforms are known as "Alphas '', "Bravos '', "Charlies '', or "Deltas ''. The most common being the "Blue Dress Alphas or Bravos '', called "Dress Blues '' or simply "Blues ''. It is most often seen in recruiting advertisements and is equivalent to black tie. There is a "Blue - White '' Dress for summer, and Evening Dress for formal (white tie) occasions. Versions with a khaki shirt in lieu of the coat (Blue Dress Charlie / Delta) are worn as a daily working uniform by Marine recruiters and NROTC staff. The Service Uniform was once the prescribed daily work attire in garrison; however, it has been largely superseded in this role by the utility uniform. Consisting of olive green and khaki colors, it is commonly referred to as "Greens ''. It is roughly equivalent in function and composition to a business suit. The Utility Uniform, currently the Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform, is a camouflage uniform intended for wear in the field or for dirty work in garrison, though it has now been standardized for regular duty. It is rendered in MARPAT pixelated camouflage (sometimes referred to as digitals or digies) that breaks up the wearer 's shape. In garrison, the woodland and desert uniforms are worn depending on the Marine 's duty station. Marines consider the utilities a working uniform and do not permit their wear off - base, except in transit to and from their place of duty and in the event of an emergency. As in any military organization, the official and unofficial traditions of the Marine Corps serve to reinforce camaraderie and set the service apart from others. The Corps ' embrace of its rich culture and history is cited as a reason for its high esprit de corps. The Marines ' Hymn dates back to the 19th century and is the oldest official song in the United States armed forces. The Marine motto Semper Fidelis means Always Faithful in Latin, often appearing as Semper Fi; also the name of the official march of the Corps, composed by John Philip Sousa. The mottos "Fortitudine '' (With Fortitude); By Sea and by Land, a translation of the Royal Marines ' Per Mare, Per Terram; and To the Shores of Tripoli were used until 1868. The Marine Corps emblem is the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor, sometimes abbreviated "EGA '', adopted in 1868. The Marine Corps seal includes the emblem, also is found on the flag of the United States Marine Corps, and establishes scarlet and gold as the official colors. Two styles of swords are worn by Marines: the officers ' Mameluke Sword, similar to the Persian shamshir presented to Lt. Presley O'Bannon after the Battle of Derna, and the Marine NCO sword. The Marine Corps Birthday is celebrated every year on 10 November in a cake - cutting ceremony where the first slice of cake is given to the oldest Marine present, who in turn hands it off to the youngest Marine present. The celebration includes a reading of Commandant Lejeune 's Birthday Message. Close Order Drill is heavily emphasized early on in a Marine 's initial training, incorporated into most formal events, and is used to teach discipline by instilling habits of precision and automatic response to orders, increase the confidence of junior officers and noncommissioned officers through the exercise of command and give Marines an opportunity to handle individual weapons. An important part of the Marine Corps culture is the traditional seafaring naval terminology derived from its history with the Navy. Marines are not "soldiers '', or "sailors ''. Marines have several generic nicknames: Some other unofficial traditions include mottos and exclamations: The Corps encourages the idea that "Marine '' is an earned title and most Marine Corps personnel take to heart the phrase "Once a Marine, Always a Marine ''. They reject the term "ex-Marine '' in most circumstances. There are no regulations concerning the address of persons who have left active service, so a number of customary terms have come into common use: In 2001, the Marine Corps initiated an internally designed martial arts program, called Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP). Due to an expectation that urban and police - type peacekeeping missions would become more common in the 21st century, placing Marines in even closer contact with unarmed civilians, MCMAP was implemented to provide Marines with a larger and more versatile set of less - than - lethal options for controlling hostile, but unarmed individuals. It is a stated aim of the program to instill and maintain the "Warrior Ethos '' within Marines. The Marine Corps Martial Arts program is an eclectic mix of different styles of martial arts melded together. MCMAP consists of punches and kicks from Taekwondo and Karate, opponent weight transfer from Jujitsu, ground grappling involving joint locking techniques and chokes from Brazilian jiu - jitsu, and a mix of knife and baton / stick fighting derived from Eskrima, and elbow strikes and kick boxing from Muay Thai. Marines begin MCMAP training in boot camp, where they will earn the first of five available belts. As of 2013, the typical infantry rifleman carries $14,000 worth of gear (excluding night - vision goggles), compared to $2,500 a decade earlier. The number of pieces of equipment (everything from radios to trucks) in a typical infantry battalion has also increased, from 3,400 pieces of gear in 2001 to 8,500 in 2013. The basic infantry weapon of the Marine Corps is the M4 Carbine, with a majority of non-infantry Marines equipped with the M16A4 service rifle. The M4 carbine and Colt 9mm SMG have also been issued. The standard side arm is the M9A1 pistol. The Colt M1911A1 is also being put back into service as the M45A1 Close Quarter Battle Pistol (CQBP) in small numbers. Suppressive fire is provided by the M27 IAR, M249 SAW, and M240 machine guns, at the squad and company levels respectively. In addition, indirect fire is provided by the M203 grenade launcher and the M32 grenade launcher in fireteams, M224 60 mm mortar in companies, and M252 81 mm mortar in battalions. The M2. 50 caliber heavy machine gun and MK19 automatic grenade launcher (40 mm) are available for use by dismounted infantry, though they are more commonly vehicle - mounted. Precision firepower is provided by the M40 series, and the Barrett M107, while designated marksmen use the DMR (being replaced by the M39 EMR), and the SAM - R. The Marine Corps utilizes a variety of direct - fire rockets and missiles to provide infantry with an offensive and defensive anti-armor capability. The SMAW and AT4 are unguided rockets that can destroy armor and fixed defenses (e.g., bunkers) at ranges up to 500 meters. The smaller and lighter M72 LAW can destroy targets at ranges up to 200 meters. The Predator SRAW, FGM - 148 Javelin and BGM - 71 TOW are anti-tank guided missiles. The Javelin can utilize top - attack profiles to avoid heavy frontal armor. The Predator is a short - range fire - and - forget weapon; the Javelin and TOW are heavier missiles effective past 2,000 meters that give infantry an offensive capability against armor. The USMC is currently seeking to purchase commercial off - the - shelf bullet - trap or shoot - through rifle - grenades. These grenades will provide individual Marines additional firepower and will allow indirect fire against targets in defilade, behind walls and buildings or rooftops and elevated positions at ranges between 30 and 150 meters. The Corps operates the same HMMWV and M1A1 Abrams tank as does the Army. However, for its specific needs, the Corps uses a number of unique vehicles. The LAV - 25 is a dedicated wheeled armored personnel carrier, similar to the Army 's Stryker vehicle, used to provide strategic mobility. Amphibious capability is provided by the AAV - 7A1 Assault Amphibious Vehicle, an armored tracked vehicle that doubles as an armored personnel carrier, due to be replaced by the Amphibious Combat Vehicle, a faster vehicle with superior armor and weaponry. The threat of land mines and improvised explosive devices in Iraq and Afghanistan has seen the Corps begin purchasing heavy armored vehicles that can better withstand the effects of these weapons as part of the Mine Resistant Ambush Protected vehicle program. The Marine Corps has ordered 1,960 MRAP vehicles, hoping to use them to replace HMMWVs and some Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacements on patrols in Iraq. The Logistics Vehicle System Replacement began replacing the Logistics Vehicle System in 2009. Prior to 2005, the Marines operated exclusively tube artillery -- the M198 155 mm howitzer, now being replaced by the M777 155 mm howitzer. However, the Corps has expanded its artillery composition to include the High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS), a truck - mounted rocket artillery system. Both are capable of firing guided munitions. The organic aviation capability of the Marine Corps is essential to its amphibious mission. The Corps operates both rotary - wing and fixed - wing aircraft mainly to provide assault support and close air support to its ground forces. However, other aircraft types are also used in a variety of support and special - purpose roles. The light transport and attack capabilities are provided by the Bell UH - 1Y Venom and Bell AH - 1 SuperCobra, which is being replaced by the Bell AH - 1Z Viper. Medium - lift squadrons flying the CH - 46E Sea Knight and CH - 53D Sea Stallion helicopters are converting to the MV - 22 Osprey tiltrotor with superior range and speed. Heavy - lift squadrons are equipped with the CH - 53E Super Stallion helicopter, eventually to be replaced with the upgraded CH - 53K. Marine attack squadrons fly the AV - 8B Harrier II; while the fighter / attack mission is handled by the single - seat and dual - seat versions of the F / A-18 Hornet strike - fighter aircraft. The AV - 8B is a V / STOL aircraft that can operate from amphibious assault ships, land air bases and short, expeditionary airfields, while the F / A-18 can only be flown from land or aircraft carriers. Both are slated to be replaced by 340 of the STOVL B version of the F - 35 Lightning II and 80 of the carrier F - 35C versions for deployment with Navy carrier air wings. In addition, the Corps operates its own organic aerial refueling and electronic warfare (EW) assets in the form of the KC - 130 Hercules and EA - 6B Prowler, respectively, however it also receives a large amount of support from the U.S. Air Force. The Hercules doubles as a ground refueler and tactical - airlift transport aircraft. The Prowler is one of the only two active tactical electronic warfare aircraft left in the United States inventory, and has been labeled a "national asset ''; it is used along with the Navy 's EA - 18G Growlers to assist in any American combat action since the retirement of the Air Force 's tactical EW aircraft. The Marine Corps plans to retire the Prowlers by September 2016 and after that time EW capability will come from Marine Air - Ground Task Force Electronic Warfare, which is a strategy where every platform contributes and functions as a sensor, shooter and sharer. The Marines operate unmanned aerial vehicles: the RQ - 7 Shadow and Scan Eagle for tactical reconnaissance. Marine Fighter Training Squadron 401 (VMFT - 401), operates F - 5E, F - 5F and F - 5N Tiger II aircraft in support of air combat adversary (aggressor) training. Marine Helicopter Squadron One (HMX - 1) operates the VH - 3D Sea King and VH - 60N Whitehawk helicopters in the VIP transport role, most notably Marine One, but are due to be replaced. A single Marine Corps C - 130 Hercules aircraft, "Fat Albert '', is used to support the U.S. Navy 's flight demonstration team, the "Blue Angels ''. In April 2016 it was reported that the vast majority of USMC aircraft were not capable of flight. Official statistics confirm that, of 276 F / A-18 Hornet strike fighters in the Marine Corps inventory, only about 30 % are ready to fly; and only 42 of 147 heavy - lift CH - 53E Super Stallion helicopters are airworthy. Average monthly flight time per pilot has dropped from an average of between 25 and 30 hours in 2006 to just over 4 hours in 2016. In general, the Marine Corps shares many resources with the other branches of the United States Armed Forces. However, the Corps has consistently sought to maintain its own identity with regard to mission, funding, and assets, while utilizing support available from the larger branches. While the Marine Corps has far fewer installations both in the U.S. and worldwide than the other branches, many Army posts, Naval stations, and Air Force bases have a Marine presence. They also cross train with other countries. The Marine Corps ' counterpart under the Department of the Navy is the United States Navy. As a result, the Navy and Marine Corps have a close relationship, more so than with other branches of the military. Whitepapers and promotional literature have commonly used the phrase "Navy - Marine Corps Team '', or refer to "the Naval Service ''. Both the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) and Commandant of the Marine Corps report directly to the Secretary of the Navy. Operationally, the Marine Corps provides the Fleet Marine Forces for service with the Navy 's fleets, including the forward - deployed Marine Expeditionary Units embarked aboard Navy amphibious warships. The Corps also contributes some Marine Aviation fixed - wing fighter / attack assets (aircraft squadrons and related aircraft maintenance augmentation units) as part of the Carrier Air Wings deployed aboard aircraft carriers. The Marine Corps Security Force Regiment provides infantry - based security battalions and Fleet Anti-terrorism Security Team companies to guard and defend high - priority and overseas Navy bases. Security for the Presidential Retreat located aboard the Naval Support Activity Thurmond, viz., Camp David is provided by the Marine infantry battalion stationed as part of the garrison aboard Marine Barracks Washington. Cooperation between the two services includes the training and instruction of some future Marine Corps officers (most are trained and commissioned through Marine Corps OCS), all Marine Corps Naval Aviators (aircraft pilots) and Naval Flight Officers (airborne weapons and sensor system officers), and some Navy and Marine Corps enlisted personnel. The Corps receives a significant portion of its officers from the United States Naval Academy (USNA) and Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps (NROTC). USNA and NROTC staff and faculty includes Marine Corps instructors. Marine Corps aviators and flight officers are trained in the Naval Air Training Command (NATRACOM) and are designated, or winged as Naval Aviators or Naval Flight Officers. The Marine Corps provides flight instructors to the Naval Air Training Command as well as drill instructors to the Navy 's Officer Candidate School. Many enlisted Marines, particularly those in the aviation maintenance specialties, are trained at Navy technical training centers. The Marine Corps also provides ground combat training support to various Navy field medical (Hospital Corpsmen), Naval Construction Force (Seabee), and Navy Expeditionary Warfare personnel, units, and commands. Training alongside each other is viewed as critical, as the Navy provides transport, logistical, and combat support to put Marine units into the fight, such as maritime prepositioning ships and naval gunfire support. Most Marine aviation assets ultimately derive from the Navy, with regard to acquisition, funding, and testing, and Navy aircraft carriers typically deploy with a Marine squadron alongside Navy squadrons. Marines do not recruit or train noncombatants such as chaplains or medical / dental personnel; naval personnel fill these roles. Some of these sailors, particularly Hospital Corpsmen and Religious Programs Specialists, generally wear Marine uniforms emblazoned with Navy insignia. Conversely, the Marine Corps is responsible for conducting land operations to support naval campaigns, including the seizure of naval bases. Both services operate a network security team in conjunction. Marines and sailors share many naval traditions, especially terminology and customs. Marine Corps Medal of Honor recipients wear the Navy variant of this and other awards; and with few exceptions, the awards and badges of the Navy and Marine Corps are identical. Much of testing for new Marine Corps aircraft is done at NAS Patuxent River. The Navy 's Blue Angels flight demonstration team is staffed by both Navy and Marine officers and enlisted men, and includes a Marine C - 130 Hercules aircraft. In 2007, the Marine Corps joined with the Navy and Coast Guard to adopt a new maritime strategy called A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower that raises the notion of prevention of war to the same philosophical level as the conduct of war. This new strategy charts a course for the Navy, Coast Guard and Marine Corps to work collectively with each other and international partners to prevent regional crises, man - made or natural, from occurring or reacting quickly should one occur to avoid negative impacts to the United States. The Marines have reduced the requirement for large amphibious ships from 42 to a bare minimum of 33 ships; the fleet currently stands at 29 ships and is likely to shrink in the future. The Marine Corps combat capabilities overlap with those of the United States Army, the latter having historically viewed the Corps as encroaching on the Army 's capabilities and competing for funding, missions, and renown. The attitude dates back to the founding of the Continental Marines, when General George Washington refused to allow the initial Marine battalions to be drawn from among his Continental Army. Most significantly, in the aftermath of World War II, Army efforts to restructure the American defense establishment included the dissolution of the Corps and the folding of its capabilities into the other services. Leading this movement were such prominent Army officers as General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall. With most of the 2000s spent in operations in Afghanistan and Iraq, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates voiced concerns that the Marines are becoming a "second Army ''. Doctrinally, the Marine Corps ' focus is on being expeditionary and independent, and places emphasis on amphibious mobility and combined arms; these make it a much lighter force than many units of the Army. However, the Army maintains much larger and diverse combat arms (infantry, armor, artillery, special operations), ground transport, and logistics, while the Marines have a more diverse aviation arm (which constitutes a larger percentage of forces), and is usually organic to the MAGTF. Marines operate as expeditionary units and are completely amphibious. The Marine Corps focus is on standardized infantry units with the other arms in support roles, as the "Every Marine a rifleman '' creed shows. This commitment to standardized units can be seen in the short - lived experiment of the Marine Raiders, born in World War II, which was controversial, while the U.S. Army 's 75th Ranger Regiment, also born in World War II, enjoys high prestige to this day. The Army has a longer continuous tradition of special operations forces; the Marines were the last branch to join the Special Operations Command with the establishment of MCSOCOM Detachment One in 2003. The Marines often leverage the Army 's acquisition of ground equipment (as well as benefiting from Army research and development resources), training resources, and other support concepts. The majority of vehicles and weapons are shared with, modified, or inherited from Army programs. Culturally, marines and soldiers share most of the common U.S. military slang and terminology, but the Corps utilizes a large number of naval terms and traditions incompatible with army lifestyle, as well as their own unique vernacular. Many marines regard their culture to have a deep warrior tradition, with the ethos that "Every Marine a rifleman '' and emphasis on cross-training and combat readiness despite actual job, be it infantry or otherwise. One source states marines tend to decentralize and push leadership to lower levels, while fostering initiative to a greater degree. While the some of Marine Corps Aviation assets ultimately derive from the Navy, a large amount support is drawn from the United States Air Force. The Marine Corps makes extensive use of the USAF Air Mobility Command to airlift marines and equipment, along with utilizing close air support from the Air Force. The Air Force may also attach TACP units to conventional marine ground forces to provide coordination for close air support. The Air Force traditionally provides the Joint Force Air Component Commander who controls "sorties for air defense, and long range interdiction and reconnaissance '' while the MAGTF commander retains control of the Marines ' organic aviation assets, however Marine Aviation missions not directly in the support of the MAGTAF will be typically controlled by the JFACC. The Marine Corps shares a sphere of operation with units of the United States Coast Guard, including operation of the Joint Maritime Training Center (JMTC) (previously known as the Special Missions Training Center (SMTC)), a joint Coast Guard, Navy, and Marine Corps training facility located on the Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune in Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. The Marine Corps accounts for around six percent of the military budget of the United States. However given expected defense budget cuts, the Marines are well positioned for "fielding cheap options for an uncertain world. '' In 2013, the USMC became the first American military branch to ever have a fully audited annual budget.

who had access to education in society before the start of the renaissance

History of education - wikipedia The systematic provision of learning techniques to most children, such as literacy, has been a development of the last 150 or 200 years, or even last 50 years in some countries. Schools for the young have historically been supplemented with advanced training for priests, bureaucrats and specialists. Starting in about 3500 B.C., various writing systems developed in ancient civilizations around the world. In Egypt fully developed hieroglyphs were in use at Abydos as early as 3400 B.C. The oldest known alphabet was developed in central Egypt around 2000 B.C. from a hieroglyphic prototype. One hieroglyphic script was used on stone monuments, other cursive scripts were used for writing in ink on papyrus, a flexible, paper - like material, made from the stems of reeds that grow in marshes and beside rivers such as the River Nile. The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the Proto - Canaanite script in around the 11th century BC, which in turn borrowed ideas from Egyptian hieroglyphics. This script was adapted by the Greeks. A variant of the early Greek alphabet gave rise to the Etruscan alphabet, and its own descendants, such as the Latin alphabet. Other descendants from the Greek alphabet include the Cyrillic script, used to write Russian, among others. The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from which the Hebrew script and also that of Arabic are descended. In China, the early oracle bone script has survived on tens of thousands of oracle bones dating from around 1400 - 1200 B.C. in the Shang Dynasty. Out of more than 2500 written characters in use in China in about 1200 BC, as many as 1400 are identifiable as the source of later standard Chinese characters. Of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears to have been best developed, and the one to be deciphered the most, is the Maya script. The earliest inscriptions which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century B.C., and writing was in continuous use until shortly after the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores in the 16th century. In Chinese civilization, in school the children were not allowed to scribble. They were not to write slanted or sloppy charterers. Other surfaces used for early writing include wax - covered writing boards (used, as well as clay tablets, by the Assyrians), sheets or strips of bark from trees (in Indonesia, Tibet and the Americas), the thick palm - like leaves of a particular tree, the leaves then punctured with a hole and stacked together like the pages of a book (these writings in India and South east Asia include Buddhist scriptures and Sanskrit literature), parchment, made of goatskin that had been soaked and scraped to remove hair, which was used from at least the 2nd century B.C., vellum, made from calfskin, and wax tablets which could be wiped clean to provide a fresh surface (in the Roman times). Perhaps the earliest formal school was developed in Egypt 's Middle Kingdom under the direction of Kheti, treasurer to Mentuhotep II (3). In what became Mesopotamia, the early logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus only a limited number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its reading and writing. Only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals such as scribes, physicians, and temple administrators, were schooled. Most boys were taught their father 's trade or were apprenticed to learn a trade. Girls stayed at home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after the younger children. Later, when a syllabic script became more widespread, more of the Mesopotamian population became literate. Later still in Babylonian times there were libraries in most towns and temples; an old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn. '' There arose a whole social class of scribes, mostly employed in agriculture, but some as personal secretaries or lawyers. Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated. The Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem from Ancient Mesopotamia is among the earliest known works of literary fiction. The earliest Sumerian versions of the epic date from as early as the Third Dynasty of Ur (2150 - 2000 BC) (Dalley 1989: 41 - 42). Ashurbanipal (685 -- c. 627 BC), a king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, was proud of his scribal education. His youthful scholarly pursuits included oil divination, mathematics, reading and writing as well as the usual horsemanship, hunting, chariotry, soldierliness, craftsmanship, and royal decorum. During his reign he collected cuneiform texts from all over Mesopotamia, and especially Babylonia, in the library in Nineveh, the first systematically organized library in the ancient Middle East, which survives in part today. In ancient Egypt, literacy was concentrated among an educated elite of scribes. Only people from certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military authorities. The hieroglyph system was always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely made even more so, as this preserved the scribes ' status. The rate of literacy in Pharaonic Egypt during most periods from the third to first millennium BC has been estimated at not more than one percent, or between one half of one percent and one percent. In ancient Israel, the Torah (the fundamental religious text) includes commands to read, learn, teach and write the Torah, thus requiring literacy and study. In 64 AD the high priest caused schools to be opened. Emphasis was placed on developing good memory skills in addition to comprehension oral repetition. For details of the subjects taught, see History of education in ancient Israel and Judah. Although girls were not provided with formal education in the yeshivah, they were required to know a large part of the subject areas to prepare them to maintain the home after marriage, and to educate the children before the age of seven. Despite this schooling system, it would seem that many children did not learn to read and write, because it has been estimated that "at least ninety percent of the Jewish population of Roman Palestine (in the first centuries AD) could merely write their own name or not write and read at all '', or that the literacy rate was about 3 percent. In the Islamic civilization that spread all the way between China and Spain during the time between the 7th and 19th centuries, Muslims started schooling from 622 in Medina, which is now a city in Saudi Arabia, schooling at first was in the mosques (masjid in Arabic) but then schools became separate in schools next to mosques. The first separate school was the Nizamiyah school. It was built in 1066 in Baghdad. children started school from the age of six with free tuition. The teaches of Quran (the holy book of Muslims) claims that Muslims should learn to read, write and explore the universe. Thus, education and schooling sprang up in the ancient Muslim societies. Moreover, Muslims had one of the first universities in history which is Al - Qarawiyin University in Fez, Morocco. It was originally a mosque that was built in 859. In ancient India, during the Vedic period from about 1500 BC to 600 BC, most education was based on the Veda (hymns, formulas, and incantations, recited or chanted by priests of a pre-Hindu tradition) and later Hindu texts and scriptures. Vedic education included: proper pronunciation and recitation of the Veda, the rules of sacrifice, grammar and derivation, composition, versification and meter, understanding of secrets of nature, reasoning including logic, the sciences, and the skills necessary for an occupation. Some medical knowledge existed and was taught. There is mention in the Veda of herbal medicines for various conditions or diseases, including fever, cough, baldness, snake bite and others. Education, at first freely available in Vedic society, became over time more rigid and restricted as the social systems dictated that only those of meritorious lineage be allowed to study the scriptures, originally based on occupation, evolved, with the Brahman (priests) being the most privileged of the castes, followed by Kshatriya who could also wear the sacred thread and gain access to Vedic education. The Brahmans were given priority even over Kshatriya as they would dedicate their whole lives to such studies. The oldest of the Upanishads - another part of Hindu scriptures - date from around 500 BC. These texts encouraged an exploratory learning process where teachers and students were co-travellers in a search for truth. The teaching methods used reasoning and questioning. Nothing was labeled as the final answer. The Gurukul system of education supported traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher 's house or a monastery. Education was free, but students from well - to - do families paid "Gurudakshina, '' a voluntary contribution after the completion of their studies. At the Gurukuls, the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, Philosophy, Literature, Warfare, Statecraft, Medicine, Astrology and History. The corpus of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as technical scientific, philosophical and generally Hindu religious texts, though many central texts of Buddhism and Jainism have also been composed in Sanskrit. Two epic poems formed part of ancient Indian education. The Mahabharata, part of which may date back to the 8th century BC, discusses human goals (purpose, pleasure, duty, and liberation), attempting to explain the relationship of the individual to society and the world (the nature of the ' Self ') and the workings of karma. The other epic poem, Ramayana, is shorter, although it has 24,000 verses. It is thought to have been compiled between about 400 BC and 200 AD. The epic explores themes of human existence and the concept of dharma. An early center of learning in India dating back to the 5th century BC was Taxila (also known as Takshashila), which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen accomplishments. It was an important Vedic / Hindu and Buddhist centre of learning from the 6th century BC to the 5th century AD. ' During the Zhou dynasty (1045 BC to 256 BC), there were five national schools in the capital city, Pi Yong (an imperial school, located in a central location) and four other schools for the aristocrats and nobility, including Shang Xiang. The schools mainly taught the Six Arts: rites, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and mathematics. According to the Book of Rites, at age twelve, boys learned arts related to ritual (i.e. music and dance) and when older, archery and chariot driving. Girls learned ritual, correct deportment, silk production and weaving. It was during the Zhou dynasty that the origins of native Chinese philosophy also developed. Confucius (551 BC -- 479 BC) founder of Confucianism, was a Chinese philosopher who made a great impact on later generations of Chinese, and on the curriculum of the Chinese educational system for much of the following 2000 years. Later, during the Qin dynasty (246 -- 207 BC), a hierarchy of officials was set up to provide central control over the outlying areas of the empire. To enter this hierarchy, both literacy and knowledge of the increasing body of philosophy was required: "... the content of the educational process was designed not to engender functionally specific skills but rather to produce morally enlightened and cultivated generalists ''. During the Han dynasty (206 BC -- 221 AD), boys were thought ready at age seven to start learning basic skills in reading, writing and calculation. In 124 BC, the Emperor Wudi established the Imperial Academy, the curriculum of which was the Five Classics of Confucius. By the end of the Han dynasty (220 AD) the Academy enrolled more than 30,000 students, boys between the ages of fourteen and seventeen years. However education through this period was a luxury. The nine - rank system was a civil service nomination system during the Three Kingdoms (220 -- 280 AD) and the Northern and Southern dynasties (420 -- 589 AD) in China. Theoretically, local government authorities were given the task of selecting talented candidates, then categorizing them into nine grades depending on their abilities. In practice, however, only the rich and powerful would be selected. The Nine Rank System was eventually superseded by the Imperial examination system for the civil service in the Sui dynasty (581 -- 618 AD) In the city - states of ancient Greece, most education was private, except in Sparta. For example, in Athens, during the 5th and 4th century BC, aside from two years military training, the state played little part in schooling. Anyone could open a school and decide the curriculum. Parents could choose a school offering the subjects they wanted their children to learn, at a monthly fee they could afford. Most parents, even the poor, sent their sons to schools for at least a few years, and if they could afford it from around the age of seven until fourteen, learning gymnastics (including athletics, sport and wrestling), music (including poetry, drama and history) and literacy. Girls rarely received formal education. At writing school, the youngest students learned the alphabet by song, then later by copying the shapes of letters with a stylus on a waxed wooden tablet. After some schooling, the sons of poor or middle - class families often learnt a trade by apprenticeship, whether with their father or another tradesman. By around 350 BC, it was common for children at schools in Athens to also study various arts such as drawing, painting, and sculpture. The richest students continued their education by studying with sophists, from whom they could learn subjects such as rhetoric, mathematics, geography, natural history, politics, and logic. Some of Athens ' greatest schools of higher education included the Lyceum (the so - called Peripatetic school founded by Aristotle of Stageira) and the Platonic Academy (founded by Plato of Athens). The education system of the wealthy ancient Greeks is also called Paideia. In the subsequent Roman empire, Greek was the primary language of science. Advanced scientific research and teaching was mainly carried on in the Hellenistic side of the Roman empire, in Greek. The education system in the Greek city - state of Sparta was entirely different, designed to create warriors with complete obedience, courage, and physical perfection. At the age of seven, boys were taken away from their homes to live in school dormitories or military barracks. There they were taught sports, endurance and fighting, and little else, with harsh discipline. Most of the population was illiterate. The first schools in Ancient Rome arose by the middle of the 4th century BC. These schools were concerned with the basic socialization and rudimentary education of young Roman children. The literacy rate in the 3rd century BC has been estimated as around one percent to two percent. There are very few primary sources or accounts of Roman educational process until the 2nd century BC, during which there was a proliferation of private schools in Rome. At the height of the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire, the Roman educational system gradually found its final form. Formal schools were established, which served paying students (very little in the way of free public education as we know it can be found). Normally, both boys and girls were educated, though not necessarily together. In a system much like the one that predominates in the modern world, the Roman education system that developed arranged schools in tiers. The educator Quintilian recognized the importance of starting education as early as possible, noting that "memory... not only exists even in small children, but is specially retentive at that age ''. A Roman student would progress through schools just as a student today might go from elementary school to middle school, then to high school, and finally college. Progression depended more on ability than age with great emphasis being placed upon a student 's ingenium or inborn "gift '' for learning, and a more tacit emphasis on a student 's ability to afford high - level education. Only the Roman elite would expect a complete formal education. A tradesman or farmer would expect to pick up most of his vocational skills on the job. Higher education in Rome was more of a status symbol than a practical concern. Literacy rates in the Greco - Roman world were seldom more than 20 percent; averaging perhaps not much above 10 percent in the Roman empire, though with wide regional variations, probably never rising above 5 percent in the western provinces. The literate in classical Greece did not much exceed 5 percent of the population. During the Early Middle Ages, the monasteries of the Roman Catholic Church were the centers of education and literacy, preserving the Church 's selection from Latin learning and maintaining the art of writing. Prior to their formal establishment, many medieval universities were run for hundreds of years as Christian monastic schools (Scholae monasticae), in which monks taught classes, and later as cathedral schools; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the early 6th century. The first medieval institutions generally considered to be universities were established in Italy, France, and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of arts, law, medicine, and theology. (1) These universities evolved from much older Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools, and it is difficult to define the date on which they became true universities, although the lists of studia generalia for higher education in Europe held by the Vatican are a useful guide. Students in the twelfth - century were very proud of the master whom they studied under. They were not very concerned with telling others the place or region where they received their education. Even now when scholars cite schools with distinctive doctrines, they use group names to describe the school rather than its geographical location. Those who studied under Robert of Melun were called the Meludinenses. These people did not study in Melun, but in Paris, and were given the group name of their master. Citizens in the twelfth - century became very interested in learning the rare and difficult skills masters could provide. Ireland became known as the island of saints and scholars. Monasteries were built all over Ireland and these became centres of great learning (see Celtic Church). Northumbria was famed as a centre of religious learning and arts. Initially the kingdom was evangelized by monks from the Celtic Church, which led to a flowering of monastic life, and Northumbria played an important role in the formation of Insular art, a unique style combining Anglo - Saxon, Celtic, Byzantine and other elements. After the Synod of Whitby in 664 AD, Roman church practices officially replaced the Celtic ones but the influence of the Anglo - Celtic style continued, the most famous examples of this being the Lindisfarne Gospels. The Venerable Bede (673 - 735) wrote his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731) in a Northumbrian monastery, and much of it focuses on the kingdom. During the reign of Charlemagne, King of the Franks from 768 -- 814 AD, whose empire united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Romans, there was a flowering of literature, art, and architecture known as the Carolingian Renaissance. Brought into contact with the culture and learning of other countries through his vast conquests, Charlemagne greatly increased the provision of monastic schools and scriptoria (centres for book - copying) in Francia. Most of the surviving works of classical Latin were copied and preserved by Carolingian scholars. Charlemagne took a serious interest in scholarship, promoting the liberal arts at the court, ordering that his children and grandchildren be well - educated, and even studying himself under the tutelage of Paul the Deacon, from whom he learned grammar, Alcuin, with whom he studied rhetoric, dialect and astronomy (he was particularly interested in the movements of the stars), and Einhard, who assisted him in his studies of arithmetic. The English monk Alcuin was invited to Charlemagne 's court at Aachen, and brought with him the precise classical Latin education that was available in the monasteries of Northumbria. The return of this Latin proficiency to the kingdom of the Franks is regarded as an important step in the development of mediaeval Latin. Charlemagne 's chancery made use of a type of script currently known as Carolingian minuscule, providing a common writing style that allowed for communication across most of Europe. After the decline of the Carolingian dynasty, the rise of the Saxon Dynasty in Germany was accompanied by the Ottonian Renaissance. Cathedral schools and monasteries remained important throughout the Middle Ages; at the Third Lateran Council of 1179 the Church mandated that priests provide the opportunity of a free education to their flocks, and the 12th and 13th century renascence known as the Scholastic Movement was spread through the monasteries. These however ceased to be the sole sources of education in the 11th century when universities, which grew out of the monasticism began to be established in major European cities. Literacy became available to a wider class of people, and there were major advances in art, sculpture, music and architecture. In 1120, Dunfermline Abbey in Scotland by order of Malcolm Canmore and his Queen, Margaret, built and established the first high school in the UK, Dunfermline High School. This highlighted the monastery influence and developments made for education, from the ancient capital of Scotland. Sculpture, paintings and stained glass windows were vital educational media through which Biblical themes and the lives of the saints were taught to illiterate viewers. During the 6th and 7th centuries, the Academy of Gundishapur, originally the intellectual center of the Sassanid empire and subsequently a Muslim centre of learning, offered training in medicine, philosophy, theology and science. The faculty were versed not only in the Zoroastrian and Persian traditions, but in Greek and Indian learning as well. The University of al - Qarawiyyin located in Fes, Morocco is the oldest existing, continually operating and the first degree awarding educational institution in the world according to UNESCO and Guinness World Records and is sometimes referred to as the oldest university. The House of Wisdom in Baghdad was a library, translation and educational centre from the 9th to 13th centuries. Works on astrology, mathematics, agriculture, medicine, and philosophy were translated. Drawing on Persian, Indian and Greek texts -- including those of Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates, Euclid, Plotinus, Galen, Sushruta, Charaka, Aryabhata and Brahmagupta -- the scholars accumulated a great collection of knowledge in the world, and built on it through their own discoveries. The House was an unrivalled centre for the study of humanities and for sciences, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, chemistry, zoology and geography. Baghdad was known as the world 's richest city and centre for intellectual development of the time, and had a population of over a million, the largest in its time. The Islamic mosque school (Madrasah) taught the Quran in Arabic and did not at all resemble the medieval European universities. In the 9th century, Bimaristan medical schools were formed in the medieval Islamic world, where medical diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be a practicing Doctor of Medicine. Al - Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975, was a Jami'ah ("university '' in Arabic) which offered a variety of post-graduate degrees, had a Madrasah and theological seminary, and taught Islamic law, Islamic jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, early Islamic philosophy and logic in Islamic philosophy. Under the Ottoman Empire, the towns of Bursa and Edirne became major centers of learning. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the town of Timbuktu in the West African nation of Mali became an Islamic centre of learning with students coming from as far away as the Middle East. The town was home to the prestigious Sankore University and other madrasas. The primary focus of these schools was the teaching of the Qur'an, although broader instruction in fields such as logic, astronomy, and history also took place. Over time, there was a great accumulation of manuscripts in the area and an estimated 100,000 or more manuscripts, some of them dated from pre-Islamic times and 12th century, are kept by the great families from the town. Their contents are didactic, especially in the subjects of astronomy, music, and botany. More than 18,000 manuscripts have been collected by the Ahmed Baba centre. Although there are more than 40,000 Chinese characters in written Chinese, many are rarely used. Studies have shown that full literacy in the Chinese language requires a knowledge of only between three and four thousand characters. In China, three oral texts were used to teach children by rote memorization the written characters of their language and the basics of Confucian thought. The Thousand Character Classic, a Chinese poem originating in the 6th century, was used for more than a millennium as a primer for teaching Chinese characters to children. The poem is composed of 250 phrases of four characters each, thus containing exactly one thousand unique characters, and was sung in the same way that children learning the Latin alphabet may use the "alphabet song ''. Later, children also learn the Hundred Family Surnames, a rhyming poem in lines of eight characters composed in the early Song dynasty (i.e. in about the 11th century) which actually listed more than four hundred of the common surnames in ancient China. From around the 13th century until the latter part of the 19th century, the Three Character Classic, which is an embodiment of Confucian thought suitable for teaching to young children, served as a child 's first formal education at home. The text is written in triplets of characters for easy memorization. With illiteracy common for most people at the time, the oral tradition of reciting the classic ensured its popularity and survival through the centuries. With the short and simple text arranged in three - character verses, children learned many common characters, grammar structures, elements of Chinese history and the basis of Confucian morality. After learning Chinese characters, students wishing to ascend in the social hierarchy needed to study the Chinese classic texts. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire. In 605 AD, during the Sui dynasty, for the first time, an examination system was explicitly instituted for a category of local talents. The merit - based imperial examination system for evaluating and selecting officials gave rise to schools that taught the Chinese classic texts and continued in use for 1,300 years, until the end the Qing dynasty, being abolished in 1911 in favour of Western education methods. The core of the curriculum for the imperial civil service examinations from the mid-12th century onwards was the Four Books, representing a foundational introduction to Confucianism. Theoretically, any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a high - ranking government official by passing the imperial examination, although under some dynasties members of the merchant class were excluded. In reality, since the process of studying for the examination tended to be time - consuming and costly (if tutors were hired), most of the candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy land - owning gentry. However, there are vast numbers of examples in Chinese history in which individuals moved from a low social status to political prominence through success in imperial examination. Under some dynasties the imperial examinations were abolished and official posts were simply sold, which increased corruption and reduced morale. In the period preceding 1040 -- 1050 AD, prefectural schools had been neglected by the state and left to the devices of wealthy patrons who provided private finances. The chancellor of China at that time, Fan Zhongyan, issued an edict that would have used a combination of government funding and private financing to restore and rebuild all prefectural schools that had fallen into disuse and abandoned. He also attempted to restore all county - level schools in the same manner, but did not designate where funds for the effort would be formally acquired and the decree was not taken seriously until a later period. Fan 's trend of government funding for education set in motion the movement of public schools that eclipsed private academies, which would not be officially reversed until the mid-13th century. The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it saw the flourishing of higher education at Nalanda, Takshashila University, Ujjain, & Vikramshila Universities. Amongst the subjects taught were Art, Architecture, Painting, Logic, mathematics, Grammar, Philosophy, Astronomy, Literature, Buddhism, Hinduism, Arthashastra (Economics & Politics), Law, and Medicine. Each university specialized in a particular field of study. Takshila specialized in the study of medicine, while Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge, and housed up to 10,000 students at its peak. Vikramashila Mahavihara, another important center of Buddhist learning in India, was established by King Dharmapala (783 to 820) in response to a supposed decline in the quality of scholarship at Nālandā. Indigenous education was widespread in India in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The schools were attended by students representative of all classes of society. The history of education in Japan dates back at least to the 6th century, when Chinese learning was introduced at the Yamato court. Foreign civilizations have often provided new ideas for the development of Japan 's own culture. Chinese teachings and ideas flowed into Japan from the sixth to the 9th century. Along with the introduction of Buddhism came the Chinese system of writing and its literary tradition, and Confucianism. By the 9th century, Heian - kyo (today 's Kyoto), the imperial capital, had five institutions of higher learning, and during the remainder of the Heian period, other schools were established by the nobility and the imperial court. During the medieval period (1185 - 1600), Zen Buddhist monasteries were especially important centers of learning, and the Ashikaga School, Ashikaga Gakko, flourished in the 15th century as a center of higher learning. Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political and military dominance over large parts of Mesoamerica in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period referred to as the Late post-Classic period in Mesoamerican chronology. Until the age of fourteen, the education of children was in the hands of their parents, but supervised by the authorities of their calpōlli. Part of this education involved learning a collection of sayings, called huēhuetlàtolli ("sayings of the old ''), that embodied the Aztecs ' ideals. Judged by their language, most of the huēhuetlàtolli seemed to have evolved over several centuries, predating the Aztecs and most likely adopted from other Nahua cultures. At 15, all boys and girls went to school. The Mexica, one of the Aztec groups, were one of the first people in the world to have mandatory education for nearly all children, regardless of gender, rank, or station. There were two types of schools: the telpochcalli, for practical and military studies, and the calmecac, for advanced learning in writing, astronomy, statesmanship, theology, and other areas. The two institutions seem to be common to the Nahua people, leading some experts to suggest that they are older than the Aztec culture. Aztec teachers (tlatimine) propounded a spartan regime of education with the purpose of forming a stoical people. Girls were educated in the crafts of home and child raising. They were not taught to read or write. All women were taught to be involved in religion; there are paintings of women presiding over religious ceremonies, but there are no references to female priests. Inca education during the time of the Inca Empire in the 15th and 16th centuries was divided into two principal spheres: education for the upper classes and education for the general population. The royal classes and a few specially chosen individuals from the provinces of the Empire were formally educated by the Amautas (wise men), while the general population learned knowledge and skills from their immediate forebears. The Amautas constituted a special class of wise men similar to the bards of Great Britain. They included illustrious philosophers, poets, and priests who kept the oral histories of the Incas alive by imparting the knowledge of their culture, history, customs and traditions throughout the kingdom. Considered the most highly educated and respected men in the Empire, the Amautas were largely entrusted with educating those of royal blood, as well as other young members of conquered cultures specially chosen to administer the regions. Thus, education throughout the territories of the Incas was socially discriminatory, most people not receiving the formal education that royalty received. The official language of the empire was Quechua, although dozens if not hundreds of local languages were spoken. The Amautas did ensure that the general population learn Quechua as the language of the Empire, much in the same way the Romans promoted Latin throughout Europe; however, this was done more for political reasons than educational ones. Modern systems of education in Europe derive their origins from the schools of the High Middle Ages. Most schools during this era were founded upon religious principles with the primary purpose of training the clergy. Many of the earliest universities, such as the University of Paris founded in 1160, had a Christian basis. In addition to this, a number of secular universities existed, such as the University of Bologna, founded in 1088. Free education for the poor was officially mandated by the Church in 1179 when it decreed that every cathedral must assign a master to teach boys too poor to pay the regular fee; parishes and monasteries also established free schools teaching at least basic literary skills. With few exceptions, priests and brothers taught locally, and their salaries were frequently subsidized by towns. Private, independent schools reappeared in medieval Europe during this time, but they, too, were religious in nature and mission. The curriculum was usually based around the trivium and to a lesser extent quadrivium (the seven Artes Liberales or Liberal arts) and was conducted in Latin, the lingua franca of educated Western Europe throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance. In northern Europe this clerical education was largely superseded by forms of elementary schooling following the Reformation. In Scotland, for instance, the national Church of Scotland set out a programme for spiritual reform in January 1561 setting the principle of a school teacher for every parish church and free education for the poor. This was provided for by an Act of the Parliament of Scotland, passed in 1633, which introduced a tax to pay for this programme. Although few countries of the period had such extensive systems of education, the period between the 16th and 18th centuries saw education become significantly more widespread. Herbart developed a system of pedagogy widely used in German - speaking areas. Mass compulsory schooling started in Prussia c1800 to "produce more soldiers and more obedient citizens '' In Central Europe, the 17th century scientist and educator John Amos Comenius promulgated a reformed system of universal education that was widely used in Europe. his growth resulted in increased government interest in education. In the 1760s, for instance, Ivan Betskoy was appointed by the Russian Tsarina, Catherine II, as educational advisor. He proposed to educate young Russians of both sexes in state boarding schools, aimed at creating "a new race of men ''. Betskoy set forth a number of arguments for general education of children rather than specialized one: "in regenerating our subjects by an education founded on these principles, we will create... new citizens. '' Some of his ideas were implemented in the Smolny Institute that he established for noble girls in Saint Petersburg. Poland established in 1773 of a Commission of National Education (Polish: Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, Lithuanian: Nacionaline Edukacine Komisija). The commission functioned as the first government Ministry of Education in a European country. By the 18th century, universities published academic journals; by the 19th century, the German and the French university models were established. The French established the Ecole Polytechnique in 1794 by the mathematician Gaspard Monge during the French Revolution, and it became a military academy under Napoleon I in 1804. The German university -- the Humboldtian model -- established by Wilhelm von Humboldt was based upon Friedrich Schleiermacher 's liberal ideas about the importance of seminars, and laboratories. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the universities concentrated upon science, and served an upper class clientele. Science, mathematics, theology, philosophy, and ancient history comprised the typical curriculum. Increasing academic interest in education led to analysis of teaching methods and in the 1770s the establishment of the first chair of pedagogy at the University of Halle in Germany. Contributions to the study of education elsewhere in Europe included the work of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi in Switzerland and Joseph Lancaster in Britain. In 1884, a groundbreaking education conference was held in London at the International Health Exhibition, attracting specialists from all over Europe. In the late 19th century, most of West, Central, and parts of East Europe began to provide elementary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic, partly because politicians believed that education was needed for orderly political behavior. As more people became literate, they realized that most secondary education was only open to those who could afford it. Having created primary education, the major nations had to give further attention to secondary education by the time of World War I. In the 20th century, new directions in education included, in Italy, Maria Montessori 's Montessori schools; and in Germany, Rudolf Steiner 's development of Waldorf education. In the Ancien Régime before 1789, educational facilities and aspirations were becoming increasingly institutionalized primarily in order to supply the church and state with the functionaries to serve as their future administrators. France had many small local schools where working - class children -- both boys and girls -- learned to read, the better to know, love and serve God. The sons and daughters of the noble and bourgeois elites, however, were given quite distinct educations: boys were sent to upper school, perhaps a university, while their sisters perhaps were sent for finishing at a convent. The Enlightenment challenged this old ideal, but no real alternative presented itself for female education. Only through education at home were knowledgeable women formed, usually to the sole end of dazzling their salons. The modern era of French education begins in the 1790s. The Revolution in the 1790s abolished the traditional universities Napoleon sought to replace them with new institutions, the Polytechnique, focused on technology. The elementary schools received little attention until 1830, when France copied the Prussian system. Jules Ferry, an anti-clerical politician holding the office of Minister of Public Instruction in the 1880s, created the modern Republican school (l'école républicaine) by requiring all children under the age of 15 -- boys and girls -- to attend. see Jules Ferry laws Schools were free of charge and secular (laïque). The goal was to break the hold of the Catholic Church and monarchism on young people. Catholic schools were still tolerated but in the early 20th century the religious orders sponsoring them were shut down. In 1818, John Pounds set up a school and began teaching poor children reading, writing, and mathematics without charging fees. In 1820, Samuel Wilderspin opened the first infant school in Spitalfield. In August 1833, Parliament voted to sum money to support poor children 's school fees in England and Wales. In 1837, the Whig former Lord Chancellor Henry Brougham presented a bill for public education. Japan isolated itself from the rest of the world in the year 1600 under the Tokugawa regime (1600 -- 1867). In 1600 very few common people were literate. By the period 's end, learning had become widespread. Tokugawa education left a valuable legacy: an increasingly literate populace, a meritocratic ideology, and an emphasis on discipline and competent performance. Traditional Samurai curricula for elites stressed morality and the martial arts. Confucian classics were memorized, and reading and recitation of them were common methods of study. Arithmetic and calligraphy were also studied. Education of commoners was generally practically oriented, providing basic 3 - Rs, calligraphy and use of the abacus. Much of this education was conducted in so - called temple schools (terakoya), derived from earlier Buddhist schools. These schools were no longer religious institutions, nor were they, by 1867, predominantly located in temples. By the end of the Tokugawa period, there were more than 11,000 such schools, attended by 750,000 students. Teaching techniques included reading from various textbooks, memorizing, abacus, and repeatedly copying Chinese characters and Japanese script. By the 1860s, 40 - 50 % of Japanese boys, and 15 % of the girls, had some schooling outside the home. These rates were comparable to major European nations at the time (apart from Germany, which had compulsory schooling). Under subsequent Meiji leadership, this foundation would facilitate Japan 's rapid transition from feudal society to modern nation which paid very close attention to Western science, technology and educational methods. After 1868 reformers set Japan on a rapid course of modernization, with a public education system like that of Western Europe. Missions like the Iwakura mission were sent abroad to study the education systems of leading Western countries. They returned with the ideas of decentralization, local school boards, and teacher autonomy. Elementary school enrollments climbed from about 40 or 50 percent of the school - age population in the 1870s to more than 90 percent by 1900, despite strong public protest, especially against school fees. A modern concept of childhood emerged in Japan after 1850 as part of its engagement with the West. Meiji era leaders decided the nation - state had the primary role in mobilizing individuals - and children - in service of the state. The Western - style school became the agent to reach that goal. By the 1890s, schools were generating new sensibilities regarding childhood. After 1890 Japan had numerous reformers, child experts, magazine editors, and well - educated mothers who bought into the new sensibility. They taught the upper middle class a model of childhood that included children having their own space where they read children 's books, played with educational toys and, especially, devoted enormous time to school homework. These ideas rapidly disseminated through all social classes After 1870 school textbooks based on Confucianism were replaced by westernized texts. However, by the 1890s, a reaction set in and a more authoritarian approach was imposed. Traditional Confucian and Shinto precepts were again stressed, especially those concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the new state, the pursuit of learning, and morality. These ideals, embodied in the 1890 Imperial Rescript on Education, along with highly centralized government control over education, largely guided Japanese education until 1945, when they were massively repudiated. Education was widespread for elite young men in the 18th century, with schools in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The current system of education, with its western style and content, was introduced and founded by the British during the British Raj, following recommendations by Lord Macaulay, who advocated for the teaching of English in schools and the formation of a class of Anglicized Indian interpreters. Traditional structures were not recognized by the British government and have been on the decline since. Public education expenditures in the late 19th and early 20th centuries varied dramatically across regions with the western and southern provinces spending three to four times as much as the eastern provinces. Much of the inter-regional differential was due to historical differences in land taxes, the major source of revenue. Lord Curzon, the Viceroy 1899 - 1905, made mass education a high priority after finding that no more than 20 % of India 's children attended school. His reforms centered on literacy training and on restructuring of the university systems. They stressed ungraded curricula, modern textbooks, and new examination systems. Curzon 's plans for technical education laid the foundations which were acted upon by later governments. Organized education in Norway dates as far back as medieval times. Shortly after Norway became an archdiocese in 1152, cathedral schools were constructed to educate priests in Trondheim, Oslo, Bergen and Hamar. After the reformation of Norway in 1537, (Norway entered a personal union with Denmark in 1536) the cathedral schools were turned into Latin schools, and it was made mandatory for all market towns to have such a school. In 1736 training in reading was made compulsory for all children, but was not effective until some years later. In 1827, Norway introduced the folkeskole, a primary school which became mandatory for 7 years in 1889 and 9 years in 1969. In the 1970s and 1980s, the folkeskole was abolished, and the grunnskole was introduced. In 1997, Norway established a new curriculum for elementary schools and middle schools. The plan is based on ideological nationalism, child - orientation, and community - orientation along with the effort to publish new ways of teaching. In Canada, education became a contentious issue after Confederation in 1867, especially regarding the status of French schools outside Quebec. Education in New Zealand began with provision made by the provincial government, the missionary Christian churches and private education. The first act of parliament for education was passed in 1877, and sought to establish a standard for primary education. It was compulsory for children to attend school from the age of 6 until the age of 16 years. In Australia, compulsory education was enacted in the 1870s, and it was difficult to enforce. People found it hard to afford for school fees. Moreover, teachers felt that they did not get high salary for what they have done. In Imperial Russia, according to the 1897 census, literate people made up 28 percent of the population. There was a strong network of universities for the upper class, but weaker provisions for everyone else. Vladimir Lenin, in 1919 proclaimed the major aim of the Soviet government was the abolition of illiteracy. A system of universal compulsory education was established. Millions of illiterate adults were enrolled in special literacy schools. Youth groups (Komsomol members and Young Pioneer) were utilized to teach. In 1926, the literacy rate was 56.6 percent of the population. By 1937, according to census data, the literacy rate was 86 % for men and 65 % for women, making a total literacy rate of 75 %. An important aspect of the early campaign for literacy and education was the policy of "indigenization '' (korenizatsiya). This policy, which lasted essentially from the mid-1920s to the late 1930s, promoted the development and use of non-Russian languages in the government, the media, and education. Intended to counter the historical practices of Russification, it had as another practical goal assuring native - language education as the quickest way to increase educational levels of future generations. A huge network of so - called "national schools '' was established by the 1930s, and this network continued to grow in enrollments throughout the Soviet era. Language policy changed over time, perhaps marked first of all in the government 's mandating in 1938 the teaching of Russian as a required subject of study in every non-Russian school, and then especially beginning in the latter 1950s a growing conversion of non-Russian schools to Russian as the main medium of instruction. Education in French controlled West Africa during the late 1800s and early 1900s was different from the nationally uniform compulsory education of France in the 1880s. "Adapted education '' was organized in 1903 and used the French curriculum as a basis, replacing information relevant to France with "comparable information drawn from the African context. '' For example, French lessons of morality were coupled with many references to African history and local folklore. The French language was also taught as an integral part of adapted education. Africa has more than 40 million children. According to UNESCO 's Regional overview on sub-Saharan Africa, in 2000 only 58 % of children were enrolled in primary schools, the lowest enrollment rate of any region. The USAID Center reports as of 2005, forty percent of school - aged children in Africa do not attend primary school. Today, there is some form of compulsory education in most countries. Due to population growth and the proliferation of compulsory education, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far. Illiteracy and the percentage of populations without any schooling have decreased in the past several decades. For example, the percentage of population without any schooling decreased from 36 % in 1960 to 25 % in 2000. Among developing countries, illiteracy and percentages without schooling in 2000 stood at about half the 1970 figures. Among developed countries, figures about illiteracy rates differ widely. Often it is said that they decreased from 6 % to 1 %. Illiteracy rates in less economically developed countries (LEDCs) surpassed those of more economically developed countries (MEDCs) by a factor of 10 in 1970, and by a factor of about 20 in 2000. Illiteracy decreased greatly in LEDCs, and virtually disappeared in MEDCs. Percentages without any schooling showed similar patterns. Percentages of the population with no schooling varied greatly among LEDCs in 2000, from less than 10 % to over 65 %. MEDCs had much less variation, ranging from less than 2 % to 17 %. Since the mid-20th century, societies around the globe have undergone an accelerating pace of change in economy and technology. Its effects on the workplace, and thus on the demands on the educational system preparing students for the workforce, have been significant. Beginning in the 1980s, government, educators, and major employers issued a series of reports identifying key skills and implementation strategies to steer students and workers towards meeting the demands of the changing and increasingly digital workplace and society. 21st century skills are a series of higher - order skills, abilities, and learning dispositions that have been identified as being required for success in 21st century society and workplaces by educators, business leaders, academics, and governmental agencies. Many of these skills are also associated with deeper learning, including analytic reasoning, complex problem solving, and teamwork, compared to traditional knowledge - based academic skills. When the men of Alexander the Great came to Taxila in India in the fourth century BC they found a university there the like of which had not been seen in Greece, a university which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen accomplishments and was still existing when the Chinese pilgrim Fa - Hsien went there about AD 400. James, Samantha. ' how education came about '' (2014) retrieved from http://www.education.com

where was the titanic heading to before it sank

RMS Titanic - wikipedia RMS Titanic (/ taɪˈtænɪk /) was a British passenger liner that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean in the early morning hours of 15 April 1912, after it collided with an iceberg during its maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City. There were an estimated 2,224 passengers and crew aboard the ship, and more than 1,500 died, making it one of the deadliest commercial peacetime maritime disasters in modern history. The RMS Titanic was the largest ship afloat at the time it entered service and was the second of three Olympic - class ocean liners operated by the White Star Line. The Titanic was built by the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast. Thomas Andrews, her architect, died in the disaster. Titanic was under the command of Edward Smith, who also went down with the ship. The ocean liner carried some of the wealthiest people in the world, as well as hundreds of emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland, Scandinavia and elsewhere throughout Europe who were seeking a new life in the United States. The first - class accommodation was designed to be the pinnacle of comfort and luxury, with an on - board gymnasium, swimming pool, libraries, high - class restaurants and opulent cabins. A high - powered radiotelegraph transmitter was available for sending passenger "marconigrams '' and for the ship 's operational use. Although Titanic had advanced safety features such as watertight compartments and remotely activated watertight doors, there were not enough lifeboats to accommodate all of those aboard, due to outdated maritime safety regulations. Titanic only carried enough lifeboats for 1,178 people -- slightly more than half of the number on board, and one third of her total capacity. After leaving Southampton on 10 April 1912, Titanic called at Cherbourg in France and Queenstown (now Cobh) in Ireland before heading west to New York. On 14 April, four days into the crossing and about 375 miles (600 km) south of Newfoundland, she hit an iceberg at 11: 40 p.m. ship 's time. The collision caused the ship 's hull plates to buckle inwards along her starboard (right) side and opened five of her sixteen watertight compartments to the sea; she could only survive four flooding. Meanwhile, passengers and some crew members were evacuated in lifeboats, many of which were launched only partially loaded. A disproportionate number of men were left aboard because of a "women and children first '' protocol for loading lifeboats. At 2: 20 a.m., she broke apart and foundered -- with well over one thousand people still aboard. Just under two hours after the Titanic sank, the Cunard liner RMS Carpathia arrived at the scene, where she brought aboard an estimated 705 survivors. The disaster was met with worldwide shock and outrage at the huge loss of life and the regulatory and operational failures that had led to it. Public inquiries in Britain and the United States led to major improvements in maritime safety. One of their most important legacies was the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), which still governs maritime safety today. Additionally, several new wireless regulations were passed around the world in an effort to learn from the many missteps in wireless communications -- which could have saved many more passengers. The wreck of Titanic was first discovered in 1985 (more than 70 years after the disaster), and the vessel remains on the seabed. The ship was split in two and is gradually disintegrating at a depth of 12,415 feet (3,784 m). Since her discovery in 1985, thousands of artefacts have been recovered and put on display at museums around the world. Titanic has become one of the most famous ships in history; her memory is kept alive by numerous works of popular culture, including books, folk songs, films, exhibits, and memorials. Titanic is the second largest ocean liner wreck in the world, only beaten by her sister HMHS Britannic, the largest ever sunk. The name Titanic was derived from Greek mythology and meant gigantic. Built in Belfast, Ireland, in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (as it was then known), the RMS Titanic was the second of the three Olympic - class ocean liners -- the first was the RMS Olympic and the third was the HMHS Britannic. They were by far the largest vessels of the British shipping company White Star Line 's fleet, which comprised 29 steamers and tenders in 1912. The three ships had their genesis in a discussion in mid-1907 between the White Star Line 's chairman, J. Bruce Ismay, and the American financier J.P. Morgan, who controlled the White Star Line 's parent corporation, the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM). The White Star Line faced an increasing challenge from its main rivals Cunard, which had recently launched the Lusitania and the Mauretania -- the fastest passenger ships then in service -- and the German lines Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd. Ismay preferred to compete on size rather than speed and proposed to commission a new class of liners that would be larger than anything that had gone before as well as being the last word in comfort and luxury. The company sought an upgrade in their fleet primarily in response to the Cunard giants but also to replace their oldest pair of passenger ships still in service, being the SS Teutonic of 1889 and SS Majestic of 1890. Teutonic was replaced by Olympic while Majestic was replaced by Titanic. Majestic would be brought back into her old spot on White Star 's New York service after Titanic 's loss. The ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff, who had a long - established relationship with the White Star Line dating back to 1867. Harland and Wolff were given a great deal of latitude in designing ships for the White Star Line; the usual approach was for the latter to sketch out a general concept which the former would take away and turn into a ship design. Cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and Harland and Wolff was authorised to spend what it needed on the ships, plus a five percent profit margin. In the case of the Olympic - class ships, a cost of £ 3 million (£ 250 million in 2015 money) for the first two ships was agreed plus "extras to contract '' and the usual five percent fee. Harland and Wolff put their leading designers to work designing the Olympic - class vessels. The design was overseen by Lord Pirrie, a director of both Harland and Wolff and the White Star Line; naval architect Thomas Andrews, the managing director of Harland and Wolff 's design department; Edward Wilding, Andrews ' deputy and responsible for calculating the ship 's design, stability and trim; and Alexander Carlisle, the shipyard 's chief draughtsman and general manager. Carlisle 's responsibilities included the decorations, equipment and all general arrangements, including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat davit design. On 29 July 1908, Harland and Wolff presented the drawings to J. Bruce Ismay and other White Star Line executives. Ismay approved the design and signed three "letters of agreement '' two days later, authorising the start of construction. At this point the first ship -- which was later to become Olympic -- had no name, but was referred to simply as "Number 400 '', as it was Harland and Wolff 's four hundredth hull. Titanic was based on a revised version of the same design and was given the number 401. Titanic was 882 feet 9 inches (269.06 m) long with a maximum breadth of 92 feet 6 inches (28.19 m). Her total height, measured from the base of the keel to the top of the bridge, was 104 feet (32 m). She measured 46,328 gross register tons and with a draught of 34 feet 7 inches (10.54 m), she displaced 52,310 tons. All three of the Olympic - class ships had ten decks (excluding the top of the officers ' quarters), eight of which were for passenger use. From top to bottom, the decks were: Titanic was equipped with three main engines -- two reciprocating four - cylinder, triple - expansion steam engines and one centrally placed low - pressure Parsons turbine -- each driving a propeller. The two reciprocating engines had a combined output of 30,000 hp and a further 16,000 hp was contributed by the turbine. The White Star Line had used the same combination of engines on an earlier liner, the SS Laurentic, where it had been a great success. It provided a good combination of performance and speed; reciprocating engines by themselves were not powerful enough to propel an Olympic - class liner at the desired speeds, while turbines were sufficiently powerful but caused uncomfortable vibrations, a problem that affected the all - turbine Cunard liners Lusitania and Mauretania. By combining reciprocating engines with a turbine, fuel usage could be reduced and motive power increased, while using the same amount of steam. The two reciprocating engines were each 63 feet (19 m) long and weighed 720 tons, with their bedplates contributing a further 195 tons. They were powered by steam produced in 29 boilers, 24 of which were double - ended and five single - ended, which contained a total of 159 furnaces. The boilers were 15 feet 9 inches (4.80 m) in diameter and 20 feet (6.1 m) long, each weighing 91.5 tons and capable of holding 48.5 tons of water. They were heated by burning coal, 6,611 tons of which could be carried in Titanic 's bunkers, with a further 1,092 tons in Hold 3. The furnaces required over 600 tons of coal a day to be shovelled into them by hand, requiring the services of 176 firemen working around the clock. 100 tons of ash a day had to be disposed of by ejecting it into the sea. The work was relentless, dirty and dangerous, and although firemen were paid relatively generously there was a high suicide rate among those who worked in that capacity. Exhaust steam leaving the reciprocating engines was fed into the turbine, which was situated aft. From there it passed into a surface condenser, to increase the efficiency of the turbine and so that the steam could be condensed back into water and reused. The engines were attached directly to long shafts which drove the propellers. There were three, one for each engine; the outer (or wing) propellers were the largest, each carrying three blades of manganese - bronze alloy with a total diameter of 23.5 feet (7.2 m). The middle propeller was slightly smaller at 17 feet (5.2 m) in diameter, and could be stopped but not reversed. Titanic 's electrical plant was capable of producing more power than an average city power station of the time. Immediately aft of the turbine engine were four 400 kW steam - driven electric generators, used to provide electrical power to the ship, plus two 30 kW auxiliary generators for emergency use. Their location in the stern of the ship meant they remained operational until the last few minutes before the ship sank. The interiors of the Olympic - class ships were subdivided into 16 primary compartments divided by 15 bulkheads which extended well above the waterline. Eleven vertically closing watertight doors could seal off the compartments in the event of an emergency. The ship 's exposed decking was made of pine and teak, while interior ceilings were covered in painted granulated cork to combat condensation. Standing above the decks were four funnels, each painted buff with black tops, (though only three were functional -- the last one was a dummy, installed for aesthetic purposes and also for kitchen ventilation) -- and two masts, each 155 feet (47 m) high, which supported derricks for working cargo. Titanic 's rudder was so large -- at 78 feet 8 inches (23.98 m) high and 15 feet 3 inches (4.65 m) long, weighing over 100 tons -- that it required steering engines to move it. Two steam - powered steering engines were installed though only one was used at any one time, with the other one kept in reserve. They were connected to the short tiller through stiff springs, to isolate the steering engines from any shocks in heavy seas or during fast changes of direction. As a last resort, the tiller could be moved by ropes connected to two steam capstans. The capstans were also used to raise and lower the ship 's five anchors (one port, one starboard, one in the centreline and two kedging anchors). The ship was equipped with her own waterworks, capable of heating and pumping water to all parts of the vessel via a complex network of pipes and valves. The main water supply was taken aboard while Titanic was in port, but in an emergency the ship could also distil fresh water from seawater, though this was not a straightforward process as the distillation plant quickly became clogged by salt deposits. A network of insulated ducts conveyed warm air, driven by electric fans, around the ship, and First Class cabins were fitted with additional electric heaters. Titanic 's radiotelegraph equipment (then known as wireless telegraphy) was leased to the White Star Line by the Marconi International Marine Communication Company, which also supplied two of its employees, Jack Phillips and Harold Bride, as operators. The service maintained a 24 - hour schedule, primarily sending and receiving passenger telegrams, but also handling navigation messages including weather reports and ice warnings. The radio room was located on the Boat Deck, in the officers ' quarters. A soundproofed "Silent Room '', next to the operating room, housed loud equipment, including the transmitter and a motor - generator used for producing alternating currents. The operators ' living quarters were adjacent to the working office. The ship was equipped with a ' state of the art ' 5 kilowatt rotary spark - gap transmitter, operating under the radio callsign MGY, and communication was conducted in Morse code. This transmitter was one of the first Marconi installations to use a rotary spark gap, which gave Titanic a distinctive musical tone that could be readily distinguished from other signals. The transmitter was one of the most powerful in the world, and guaranteed to broadcast over a radius of 350 miles (563 km). An elevated T - antenna that spanned the length of the ship was used for transmitting and receiving. The normal operating frequency was 500 kHz (600 m wavelength), however the equipment could also operate on the "short '' wavelength of 1000 kHz (300 m wavelength) that was employed by smaller vessels with shorter antennas. The passenger facilities aboard Titanic aimed to meet the highest standards of luxury. According to Titanic 's general arrangement plans, the ship could accommodate 833 First Class Passengers, 614 in Second Class and 1,006 in Third Class, for a total passenger capacity of 2,453. In addition, her capacity for crew members exceeded 900, as most documents of her original configuration have stated that her full carrying capacity for both passengers and crew was approximately 3,547. Her interior design was a departure from that of other passenger liners, which had typically been decorated in the rather heavy style of a manor house or an English country house. Titanic was laid out in a much lighter style similar to that of contemporary high - class hotels -- the Ritz Hotel was a reference point -- with First Class cabins finished in the Empire style. A variety of other decorative styles, ranging from the Renaissance to Louis XV, were used to decorate cabins and public rooms in First and Second Class areas of the ship. The aim was to convey an impression that the passengers were in a floating hotel rather than a ship; as one passenger recalled, on entering the ship 's interior a passenger would "at once lose the feeling that we are on board ship, and seem instead to be entering the hall of some great house on shore ''. Among the more novel features available to first - class passengers was a 7 ft. deep saltwater swimming pool, a gymnasium, a squash court, and a Turkish bath which comprised electric bath, steam room, cool room, massage room, and hot room. First - class common rooms were impressive in scope and lavishly decorated. They included a Lounge in the style of the Palace of Versailles, an enormous Reception Room, a men 's Smoking Room, and a Reading and Writing Room. There was an À la Carte Restaurant in the style of the Ritz Hotel which was run as a concession by the famous Italian restaurateur Gaspare Gatti. A Café Parisien decorated in the style of a French sidewalk café, complete with ivy covered trellises and wicker furniture, was run as an annex to the restaurant. For an extra cost, first - class passengers could enjoy the finest French haute cuisine in the most luxurious of surroundings. There was also a Verandah Café where tea and light refreshments were served, that offered grand views of the ocean. At 114 ft. long X 92 ft. wide, the Dining Saloon on D - Deck was the largest room afloat and could seat almost 600 passengers at a time. Third Class (commonly referred to as Steerage) accommodations aboard Titanic were not as luxurious as First or Second Class, but even so were better than on many other ships of the time. They reflected the improved standards which the White Star Line had adopted for trans - Atlantic immigrant and lower - class travel. On most other North Atlantic passenger ships at the time, Third Class accommodations consisted of little more than open dormitories in the forward end of the vessels, in which hundreds of people were confined, often without adequate food or toilet facilities. The White Star Line had long since broken that mould. As seen aboard Titanic, all White Star Line passenger ships divided their Third Class accommodations into two sections, always at opposite ends of the vessel from one another. The established arrangement was that single men were quartered in the forward areas, while single women, married couples and families were quartered aft. In addition, while other ships provided only open berth sleeping arrangements, White Star Line vessels provided their Third Class passengers with private, small but comfortable cabins capable of accommodating two, four, six, eight and 10 passengers. Third Class accommodations also included their own dining rooms, as well as public gathering areas including adequate open deck space, which aboard Titanic comprised the Poop Deck at the stern, the forward and aft well decks, and a large open space on D Deck which could be used as a social hall. This was supplemented by the addition of a smoking room for men and a General Room on C Deck which women could use for reading and writing. Although they were not as glamorous in design as spaces seen in upper class accommodations, they were still far above average for the period. Leisure facilities were provided for all three classes to pass the time. As well as making use of the indoor amenities such as the library, smoking rooms, and gymnasium, it was also customary for passengers to socialise on the open deck, promenading or relaxing in hired deck chairs or wooden benches. A passenger list was published before the sailing to inform the public which members of the great and good were on board, and it was not uncommon for ambitious mothers to use the list to identify rich bachelors to whom they could introduce their marriageable daughters during the voyage. One of Titanic 's most distinctive features was her First Class staircase, known as the Grand Staircase or Grand Stairway. Built of solid English oak with a sweeping curve, the staircase descended through seven decks of the ship, between the Boat Deck to E deck, before terminating in a simplified single flight on F Deck. It was capped with a dome of wrought iron and glass that admitted natural light to the stairwell. Each landing off the staircase gave access to ornate entrance halls paneled in the William & Mary style and lit by ormolu and crystal light fixtures. At the uppermost landing was a large carved wooden panel containing a clock, with figures of "Honour and Glory Crowning Time '' flanking the clock face. The Grand Staircase was destroyed during the sinking and is now just a void in the ship which modern explorers have used to access the lower decks. During the filming of James Cameron 's Titanic in 1997, his replica of the Grand Staircase was ripped from its foundations by the force of the inrushing water on the set. It has been suggested that during the real event, the entire Grand Staircase was ejected upwards through the dome. Although Titanic was primarily a passenger liner, she also carried a substantial amount of cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail (and also for the United States Post Office Department). For the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables), 26,800 cubic feet (760 m) of space in her holds was allocated. The Sea Post Office on G Deck was manned by five postal clerks; three Americans and two Britons, who worked 13 hours a day, seven days a week sorting up to 60,000 items daily. The ship 's passengers brought with them a huge amount of baggage; another 19,455 cubic feet (550.9 m) was taken up by first - and second - class baggage. In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs and even motor cars. Despite later myths, the cargo on Titanic 's maiden voyage was fairly mundane; there was no gold, exotic minerals or diamonds, and one of the more famous items lost in the shipwreck, a jewelled copy of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, was valued at only £ 405 (£ 36,200 today). According to the claims for compensation filed with Commissioner Gilchrist, following the conclusion of the Senate Inquiry, the single most highly valued item of luggage or cargo was a large neoclassical oil painting entitled La Circassienne au Bain by French artist Merry - Joseph Blondel. The painting 's owner, first class passenger Mauritz Håkan Björnström - Steffansson, filed a claim for $100,000 ($2.4 million equivalent in 2014) in compensation for the loss of the artwork. Titanic was equipped with eight electric cranes, four electric winches and three steam winches to lift cargo and baggage in and out of the hold. It is estimated that the ship used some 415 tons of coal whilst in Southampton, simply generating steam to operate the cargo winches and provide heat and light. Titanic carried a total of 20 lifeboats: 14 standard wooden Harland and Wolff lifeboats with a capacity of 65 people each and four Englehardt "collapsible '' (wooden bottom, collapsible canvas sides) lifeboats (identified as A to D) with a capacity of 47 people each. In addition, she had two emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each. Olympic herself did not even carry the four collapsibles A -- D during the 1911 -- 12 season. All of the lifeboats were stowed securely on the boat deck and, except for collapsible lifeboats A and B, connected to davits by ropes. Those on the starboard side were odd - numbered 1 -- 15 from bow to stern, while those on the port side were even - numbered 2 -- 16 from bow to stern. Both cutters were kept swung out, hanging from the davits, ready for immediate use, while collapsible lifeboats C and D were stowed on the boat deck (connected to davits) immediately inboard of boats 1 and 2 respectively. A and B were stored on the roof of the officers ' quarters, on either side of number 1 funnel. There were no davits to lower them and their weight would make them difficult to launch by hand. Each boat carried (among other things) food, water, blankets, and a spare life belt. Lifeline ropes on the boats ' sides enabled them to save additional people from the water if necessary. Titanic had 16 sets of davits, each able to handle four lifeboats. This gave Titanic the ability to carry up to 64 wooden lifeboats which would have been enough for 4,000 people -- considerably more than her actual capacity. However, the White Star Line decided that only 16 wooden lifeboats and four collapsibles would be carried, which could accommodate 1,178 people, only one - third of Titanic 's total capacity. At the time, the Board of Trade 's regulations required British vessels over 10,000 tons to only carry 16 lifeboats with a capacity of 990 occupants. Therefore, the White Star Line actually provided more lifeboat accommodation than was legally required. At the time, lifeboats were intended to ferry survivors from a sinking ship to a rescuing ship -- not keep afloat the whole population or power them to shore. Had the SS Californian responded to Titanic 's distress calls, the lifeboats may have been adequate to ferry the passengers to safety as planned. The sheer size of Titanic and her sister ships posed a major engineering challenge for Harland and Wolff; no shipbuilder had ever before attempted to construct vessels this size. The ships were constructed on Queen 's Island, now known as the Titanic Quarter, in Belfast Harbour. Harland and Wolff had to demolish three existing slipways and build two new ones, the largest ever constructed up to that time, to accommodate both ships. Their construction was facilitated by an enormous gantry built by Sir William Arrol & Co., a Scottish firm responsible for the building of the Forth Bridge and London 's Tower Bridge. The Arrol Gantry stood 228 feet (69 m) high, was 270 feet (82 m) wide and 840 feet (260 m) long, and weighed more than 6,000 tons. It accommodated a number of mobile cranes. A separate floating crane, capable of lifting 200 tons, was brought in from Germany. The construction of Olympic and Titanic took place virtually in parallel, with Olympic 's keel laid down first on 16 December 1908 and Titanic 's on 31 March 1909. Both ships took about 26 months to build and followed much the same construction process. They were designed essentially as an enormous floating box girder, with the keel acting as a backbone and the frames of the hull forming the ribs. At the base of the ships, a double bottom 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) deep supported 300 frames, each between 24 inches (61 cm) and 36 inches (91 cm) apart and measuring up to about 66 feet (20 m) long. They terminated at the bridge deck (B Deck) and were covered with steel plates which formed the outer skin of the ships. The 2,000 hull plates were single pieces of rolled steel plate, mostly up to 6 feet (1.8 m) wide and 30 feet (9.1 m) long and weighing between 2.5 and 3 tons. Their thickness varied from 1 inch (2.5 cm) to 1.5 inches (3.8 cm). The plates were laid in a clinkered (overlapping) fashion from the keel to the bilge. Above that point they were laid in the "in and out '' fashion, where strake plating was applied in bands (the "in strakes '') with the gaps covered by the "out strakes '', overlapping on the edges. Commercial oxy - fuel and electric arc welding methods, ubiquitous in fabrication today, were still in their infancy; like most other iron and steel structures of the era, the hull was held together with over three million iron and steel rivets, which by themselves weighed over 1,200 tons. They were fitted using hydraulic machines or were hammered in by hand. In the 1990s some material scientists concluded that the steel plate used for the ship was subject to being especially brittle when cold, and that this brittleness exacerbated the impact damage and hastened the sinking. It is believed that, by the standards of the time, the steel plate 's quality was good, not faulty, but that it was inferior to what would be used for shipbuilding purposes in later decades, owing to advances in the metallurgy of steelmaking. As for the rivets, considerable emphasis has also been placed on their quality and strength. One of the last items to be fitted on Titanic before the ship 's launch was her two side anchors and one centre anchor. The anchors themselves were a challenge to make with the centre anchor being the largest ever forged by hand and weighing nearly 16 tons. Twenty Clydesdale draught horses were needed to haul the centre anchor by wagon from the Noah Hingley & Sons Ltd forge shop in Netherton, near Dudley, United Kingdom to the Dudley railway station two miles away. From there it was shipped by rail to Fleetwood in Lancashire before being loaded aboard a ship and sent to Belfast. The work of constructing the ships was difficult and dangerous. For the 15,000 men who worked at Harland and Wolff at the time, safety precautions were rudimentary at best; a lot of the work was dangerous and was carried out without any safety equipment like hard hats or hand guards on machinery. As a result, deaths and injuries were to be expected. During Titanic 's construction, 246 injuries were recorded, 28 of them "severe '', such as arms severed by machines or legs crushed under falling pieces of steel. Six people died on the ship herself while she was being constructed and fitted out, and another two died in the shipyard workshops and sheds. Just before the launch a worker was killed when a piece of wood fell on him. Titanic was launched at 12: 15 p.m. on 31 May 1911 in the presence of Lord Pirrie, J. Pierpoint Morgan, J. Bruce Ismay and 100,000 onlookers. 22 tons of soap and tallow were spread on the slipway to lubricate the ship 's passage into the River Lagan. In keeping with the White Star Line 's traditional policy, the ship was not formally named or christened with champagne. The ship was towed to a fitting - out berth where, over the course of the next year, her engines, funnels and superstructure were installed and her interior was fitted out. Although Titanic was virtually identical to the class 's lead ship Olympic, a few changes were made to distinguish both ships. The most noticeable of these was that Titanic (and the third vessel in class, Britannic) had a steel screen with sliding windows installed along the forward half of the A Deck promenade. This was installed as a last minute change at the personal request of Bruce Ismay, and was intended to provide additional shelter to first class passengers. These changes made Titanic slightly heavier than her sister, and thus she could claim to be the largest ship afloat. The work took longer than expected due to design changes requested by Ismay and a temporary pause in work occasioned by the need to repair Olympic, which had been in a collision in September 1911. Had Titanic been finished earlier, she might well have missed her collision with an iceberg. Titanic 's sea trials began at 6 a.m. on Tuesday, 2 April 1912, just two days after her fitting out was finished and eight days before she was due to leave Southampton on her maiden voyage. The trials were delayed for a day due to bad weather, but by Monday morning it was clear and fair. Aboard were 78 stokers, greasers and firemen, and 41 members of crew. No domestic staff appear to have been aboard. Representatives of various companies travelled on Titanic 's sea trials, Thomas Andrews and Edward Wilding of Harland and Wolff and Harold A. Sanderson of IMM. Bruce Ismay and Lord Pirrie were too ill to attend. Jack Phillips and Harold Bride served as radio operators, and performed fine - tuning of the Marconi equipment. Francis Carruthers, a surveyor from the Board of Trade, was also present to see that everything worked, and that the ship was fit to carry passengers. The sea trials consisted of a number of tests of her handling characteristics, carried out first in Belfast Lough and then in the open waters of the Irish Sea. Over the course of about 12 hours, Titanic was driven at different speeds, the turning ability was tested and a "crash stop '' was performed in which the engines were reversed full ahead to full astern, bringing her to a stop in 850 yd (777 m) or 3 minutes and 15 seconds. The ship covered a distance of about 80 nautical miles (92 mi; 150 km), averaging 18 knots (21 mph; 33 km / h) and reaching a maximum speed of just under 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h). On returning to Belfast at about 7 p.m., the surveyor signed an "Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew '', valid for 12 months, which declared the ship seaworthy. An hour later, Titanic departed Belfast to head to Southampton, a voyage of about 570 nautical miles (660 mi; 1,060 km). After a journey lasting about 28 hours and arrived about midnight on 4 April and was towed to the port 's Berth 44, ready for the arrival of her passengers and the remainder of her crew. Both Olympic and Titanic registered Liverpool as their home port. The offices of the White Star Line as well as Cunard were in Liverpool, and up until the introduction of the Olympic, most British ocean liners for both Cunard and White Star, such as Lusitania and Mauretania, sailed out of Liverpool followed by a port of call in Queenstown, Ireland. Since the company 's founding in 1871, a vast majority of their operations had taken place out of Liverpool. However, in 1907 White Star established another service out of the port of Southampton on England 's south coast, which became known as White Star 's "Express Service ''. Southampton had many advantages over Liverpool, the first being its proximity to London. In addition, Southampton, being on the south coast, allowed ships to easily cross the English Channel and make a port of call on the northern coast of France, usually at Cherbourg. This allowed British ships to pick up clientele from continental Europe before recrossing the channel and picking up passengers at Queenstown. The Southampton - Cherbourg - New York run would become so popular that most British ocean liners began using the port after World War I. Out of respect for Liverpool, ships continued to be registered there until the early 1960s. Queen Elizabeth 2 was one of the first ships registered in Southampton when introduced into service by Cunard in 1969. Titanic 's maiden voyage was intended to be the first of many trans - Atlantic crossings between Southampton and New York via Cherbourg and Queenstown on westbound runs, returning via Plymouth in England while eastbound. Indeed, her entire schedule of voyages through to December 1912 still exists. When the route was established, four ships were assigned to the service. In addition to Teutonic and Majestic, the RMS Oceanic and the brand new RMS Adriatic sailed the route. When the Olympic entered service in June 1911, she replaced Teutonic, which after completing her last run on the service in late April was transferred to the Dominion Line 's Canadian service. The following August, Adriatic was transferred to White Star 's main Liverpool - New York service, and in November, Majestic was withdrawn from service impending the arrival of Titanic in the coming months, and was mothballed as a reserve ship. White Star 's initial plans for Olympic and Titanic on the Southampton run followed the same routine as their predecessors had done before them. Each would sail once every three weeks from Southampton and New York, usually leaving at noon each Wednesday from Southampton and each Saturday from New York, thus enabling the White Star Line to offer weekly sailings in each direction. Special trains were scheduled from London and Paris to convey passengers to Southampton and Cherbourg respectively. The deep - water dock at Southampton, then known as the "White Star Dock '', had been specially constructed to accommodate the new Olympic - class liners, and had opened in 1911. Titanic had around 885 crew members on board for her maiden voyage. Like other vessels of her time, she did not have a permanent crew, and the vast majority of crew members were casual workers who only came aboard the ship a few hours before she sailed from Southampton. The process of signing up recruits had begun on 23 March and some had been sent to Belfast, where they served as a skeleton crew during Titanic 's sea trials and passage to England at the start of April. Captain Edward John Smith, the most senior of the White Star Line 's captains, was transferred from Olympic to take command of Titanic. Henry Tingle Wilde also came across from Olympic to take the post of Chief Mate. Titanic 's previously designated Chief Mate and First Officer, William McMaster Murdoch and Charles Lightoller, were bumped down to the ranks of First and Second Officer respectively. The original Second Officer, David Blair, was dropped altogether. The Third Officer was Herbert Pitman MBE, the only deck officer who was not a member of the Royal Naval Reserve. Pitman was the second to last surviving officer. Titanic 's crew were divided into three principal departments: Deck, with 66 crew; Engine, with 325; and Victualling (pronounced vi - tal - ling), with 494. The vast majority of the crew were thus not seamen, but were either engineers, firemen, or stokers, responsible for looking after the engines, or stewards and galley staff, responsible for the passengers. Of these, over 97 % were male; just 23 of the crew were female, mainly stewardesses. The rest represented a great variety of professions -- bakers, chefs, butchers, fishmongers, dishwashers, stewards, gymnasium instructors, laundrymen, waiters, bed - makers, cleaners, and even a printer, who produced a daily newspaper for passengers called the Atlantic Daily Bulletin with the latest news received by the ship 's wireless operators. Most of the crew signed on in Southampton on 6 April; in all, 699 of the crew came from there, and 40 % were natives of the town. A few specialist staff were self - employed or were subcontractors. These included the five postal clerks, who worked for the Royal Mail and the United States Post Office Department, the staff of the First Class A La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien, the radio operators (who were employed by Marconi) and the eight musicians, who were employed by an agency and travelled as second - class passengers. Crew pay varied greatly, from Captain Smith 's £ 105 a month (equivalent to £ 9,400 today) to the £ 3 10 s (£ 310 today) that stewardesses earned. The lower - paid victualling staff could, however, supplement their wages substantially through tips from passengers. Titanic 's passengers numbered approximately 1,317 people: 324 in First Class, 284 in Second Class, and 709 in Third Class. Of these, 869 (66 %) were male and 447 (34 %) female. There were 107 children aboard, the largest number of which were in Third Class. The ship was considerably under capacity on her maiden voyage, as she could accommodate 2,453 passengers -- 833 First Class, 614 Second Class, and 1,006 Third Class. Usually, a high prestige vessel like Titanic could expect to be fully booked on its maiden voyage. However, a national coal strike in the UK had caused considerable disruption to shipping schedules in the spring of 1912, causing many crossings to be cancelled. Many would - be passengers chose to postpone their travel plans until the strike was over. The strike had finished a few days before Titanic sailed; however, that was too late to have much of an effect. Titanic was able to sail on the scheduled date only because coal was transferred from other vessels which were tied up at Southampton, such as SS City of New York and RMS Oceanic, as well as coal Olympic had brought back from a previous voyage to New York, which had been stored at the White Star Dock. Some of the most prominent people of the day booked a passage aboard Titanic, travelling in First Class. Among them were the American millionaire John Jacob Astor IV and his wife Madeleine Force Astor, industrialist Benjamin Guggenheim, painter and sculptor Francis Davis Millet, Macy 's owner Isidor Straus and his wife Ida, Denver millionairess Margaret "Molly '' Brown, Sir Cosmo Duff Gordon and his wife, couturière Lucy (Lady Duff - Gordon), Lieut. Col. Arthur Peuchen, writer and historian Archibald Gracie, cricketer and businessman John B. Thayer with his wife Marian and son Jack, George Dunton Widener with his wife Eleanor and son Harry, Noël Leslie, Countess of Rothes, Mr. and Mrs. Charles M. Hays, Mr. and Mrs. Henry S. Harper, Mr. and Mrs. Walter D. Douglas, Mr. and Mrs. George D. Wick, Mr. and Mrs. Henry B. Harris, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur L. Ryerson, Mr. and Mrs. Hudson J.C. Allison, Mr. and Mrs. Dickinson Bishop, noted architect Edward Austin Kent, brewery heir Harry Molson, tennis players Karl Behr and Dick Williams, author and socialite Helen Churchill Candee, future lawyer and suffragette Elsie Bowerman and her mother Edith, journalist and social reformer William Thomas Stead, journalist and fashion buyer Edith Rosenbaum, Philadelphia and New York socialtie Edith Corse Evans, wealthy divorcée Charlotte Drake Cardeza, French sculptor Paul Chevré, author Jacques Futrelle with his wife May, silent film actress Dorothy Gibson with her mother Pauline, Alfons Simonius - Blumer, Swiss Army Colonel and Banker, President of the Swiss Bankverein, James A. Hughes 's daughter Eloise, banker Robert Williams Daniel, the chairman of the Holland America Line, Johan Reuchlin, Arthur Wellington Ross 's son John H. Ross, Washington Roebling 's nephew Washington A. Roebling II, Andrew Saks 's daughter Leila Saks Meyer with her husband, senator William A. Clark 's nephew Walter M. Clark with his wife Virginia, great - great - grandson of soap manufacturer Andrew Pears, Thomas C. Pears, with wife, John S. Pillsbury 's honeymooning grandson John P. Snyder and wife, Nelle, Dorothy Parker 's New York manufacturer uncle Martin Rothschild with his wife, Elizabeth, among others. Titanic 's owner J.P. Morgan was scheduled to travel on the maiden voyage but cancelled at the last minute. Also aboard the ship were the White Star Line 's managing director J. Bruce Ismay and Titanic 's designer Thomas Andrews, who was on board to observe any problems and assess the general performance of the new ship. The exact number of people aboard is not known, as not all of those who had booked tickets made it to the ship; about 50 people cancelled for various reasons, and not all of those who boarded stayed aboard for the entire journey. Fares varied depending on class and season. Third Class fares from London, Southampton, or Queenstown cost £ 7 5s (equivalent to £ 600 today) while the cheapest First Class fares cost £ 23 (£ 2,100 today). The most expensive First Class suites were to have cost up to £ 870 in high season (£ 78,000 today). On Wednesday 10 April 1912 Titanic 's maiden voyage began. Following the embarkation of the crew the passengers began arriving from 9: 30 a.m., when the London and South Western Railway 's boat train from London Waterloo station reached Southampton Terminus railway station on the quayside, alongside Titanic 's berth. In all, 923 passengers boarded Titanic at Southampton, 179 First Class, 247 Second Class and 494 Third Class. The large number of Third Class passengers meant they were the first to board, with First and Second Class passengers following up to an hour before departure. Stewards showed them to their cabins, and First Class passengers were personally greeted by Captain Smith on boarding. Third Class passengers were inspected for ailments and physical impairments that might lead to their being refused entry to the United States -- a prospect the White Star Line wished to avoid, as it would have to carry anyone who failed the examination back across the Atlantic. 922 passengers were recorded as having embarked Titanic at Southampton. Additional passengers were to be picked up at Cherbourg and Queenstown. The maiden voyage began on time, at noon. An accident was narrowly averted only a few minutes later as Titanic passed the moored liners SS City of New York of the American Line and what would have been her running mate on the service from Southampton, White Star 's Oceanic. Her huge displacement caused both of the smaller ships to be lifted by a bulge of water and then drop into a trough. New York 's mooring cables could not take the sudden strain and snapped, swinging her around stern - first towards Titanic. A nearby tugboat, Vulcan, came to the rescue by taking New York under tow, and Captain Smith ordered Titanic 's engines to be put "full astern ''. The two ships avoided a collision by a matter of about 4 feet (1.2 m). The incident delayed Titanic 's departure for about an hour, while the drifting New York was brought under control. After making it safely through the complex tides and channels of Southampton Water and the Solent, Titanic headed out into the English Channel. She headed for the French port of Cherbourg, a journey of 77 nautical miles (89 mi; 143 km). The weather was windy, very fine but cold and overcast. Because Cherbourg lacked docking facilities for a ship the size of Titanic, tenders had to be used to transfer passengers from shore to ship. The White Star Line operated two at Cherbourg, the SS Traffic and the SS Nomadic. Both had been designed specifically as tenders for the Olympic - class liners and were launched shortly after Titanic. (Nomadic is today the only White Star Line ship still afloat.) Four hours after Titanic left Southampton, she arrived at Cherbourg and was met by the tenders. 274 additional passengers were taken aboard, 142 First Class, 30 Second Class, and 102 Third Class. Twenty - four passengers who had booked passage only cross-channel from Southampton left aboard the tenders to be conveyed to shore. The process was completed within only 90 minutes and at 8 p.m. Titanic weighed anchor and left for Queenstown with the weather continuing cold and windy. At 11: 30 a.m. on Thursday 11 April, Titanic arrived at Cork Harbour on the south coast of Ireland. It was a partly cloudy but relatively warm day, with a brisk wind. Again, the dock facilities were not suitable for a ship of Titanic 's size, and tenders were used to bring passengers aboard. In all, 123 passengers boarded Titanic at Queenstown, 3 First Class, 7 Second Class and 113 Third Class. In addition to the 24 cross-channel passengers who had disembarked at Cherbourg, another seven passengers had booked an overnight passage from Southampton to Queenstown. Among the seven was Father Francis Browne, a Jesuit trainee, who was a keen photographer and took many photographs aboard Titanic, including the last - ever known photograph of the ship. A decidedly unofficial departure was that of a crew member, stoker John Coffey, a Queenstown native who sneaked off the ship by hiding under mail bags being transported to shore. Titanic weighed anchor for the last time at 1: 30 p.m. and departed on her westward journey across the Atlantic. Titanic was planned to arrive at New York Pier 54 on the morning of 17 April. After leaving Queenstown Titanic followed the Irish coast as far as Fastnet Rock, a distance of some 55 nautical miles (63 mi; 102 km). From there she travelled 1,620 nautical miles (1,860 mi; 3,000 km) along a Great Circle route across the North Atlantic to reach a spot in the ocean known as "the corner '' south - east of Newfoundland, where westbound steamers carried out a change of course. Titanic sailed only a few hours past the corner on a rhumb line leg of 1,023 nautical miles (1,177 mi; 1,895 km) to Nantucket Shoals Light when she made her fatal contact with an iceberg. The final leg of the journey would have been 193 nautical miles (222 mi; 357 km) to Ambrose Light and finally to New York Harbor. From 11 April to local apparent noon the next day, Titanic covered 484 nautical miles (557 mi; 896 km); the following day, 519 nautical miles (597 mi; 961 km); and by noon on the final day of her voyage, 546 nautical miles (628 mi; 1,011 km). From then until the time of her sinking she travelled another 258 nautical miles (297 mi; 478 km), averaging about 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h). The weather cleared as she left Ireland under cloudy skies with a headwind. Temperatures remained fairly mild on Saturday 13 April, but the following day Titanic crossed a cold weather front with strong winds and waves of up to 8 feet (2.4 m). These died down as the day progressed until, by the evening of Sunday 14 April, it became clear, calm and very cold. The first three days of the voyage from Queenstown had passed without apparent incident. A fire had begun in one of Titanic 's coal bunkers approximately 10 days prior to the ship 's departure, and continued to burn for several days into its voyage, but passengers were unaware of this situation. Fires occurred frequently on board steamships of that day due to spontaneous combustion of the coal. The fires had to be extinguished with fire hoses, by moving the coal on top to another bunker and by removing the burning coal and feeding it into the furnace. Fortunately, the fire was over on 14 April. Titanic received a series of warnings from other ships of drifting ice in the area of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. One of the ships to warn Titanic was the Atlantic Line 's Mesaba. Nevertheless, the ship continued to steam at full speed, which was standard practice at the time. Although the ship was not trying to set a speed record, timekeeping was a priority, and under prevailing maritime practices, ships were often operated at close to full speed, with ice warnings seen as advisories and reliance placed upon lookouts and the watch on the bridge. It was generally believed that ice posed little danger to large vessels. Close calls with ice were not uncommon, and even head - on collisions had not been disastrous. In 1907 SS Kronprinz Wilhelm, a German liner, had rammed an iceberg but still had been able to complete her voyage, and Captain Smith himself had declared in 1907 that he "could not imagine any condition which would cause a ship to founder. Modern shipbuilding has gone beyond that. '' At 11: 40 p.m. (ship 's time) on 14 April, lookout Frederick Fleet spotted an iceberg immediately ahead of Titanic and alerted the bridge. First Officer William Murdoch ordered the ship to be steered around the obstacle and the engines to be stopped, but it was too late; the starboard side of Titanic struck the iceberg, creating a series of holes below the waterline. The hull was not punctured by the iceberg, but rather dented such that the hull 's seams buckled and separated, allowing water to seep in. Five of the ship 's watertight compartments were breached. It soon became clear that the ship was doomed, as she could not survive more than four compartments being flooded. Titanic began sinking bow - first, with water spilling from compartment to compartment as her angle in the water became steeper. Those aboard Titanic were ill - prepared for such an emergency. In accordance with accepted practices of the time, where ships were seen as largely unsinkable and lifeboats were intended to transfer passengers to nearby rescue vessels, Titanic only had enough lifeboats to carry about half of those on board; if the ship had carried her full complement of about 3,339 passengers and crew, only about a third could have been accommodated in the lifeboats. The crew had not been trained adequately in carrying out an evacuation. The officers did not know how many they could safely put aboard the lifeboats and launched many of them barely half - full. Third - class passengers were largely left to fend for themselves, causing many of them to become trapped below decks as the ship filled with water. The "women and children first '' protocol was generally followed when loading the lifeboats, and most of the male passengers and crew were left aboard. At 2: 20 a.m., two hours and 40 minutes after Titanic struck the iceberg, her rate of sinking suddenly increased as her forward deck dipped underwater, and the sea poured in through open hatches and grates. As her unsupported stern rose out of the water, exposing the propellers, the ship began to break in two between the third and fourth funnels, due to the immense forces on the keel. With the bow underwater, and air trapped in the stern, the stern remained afloat and buoyant for a few minutes longer, rising to a nearly vertical angle with hundreds of people still clinging to it, before sinking. For many years it was generally believed the ship sank in one piece; however, when the wreck was located many years later, it was discovered that the ship had fully broken in two. All remaining passengers and crew were immersed into lethally cold water with a temperature of 28 ° F (− 2 ° C). Almost all of those in the water died of cardiac arrest or other bodily reactions to freezing water, within 15 -- 30 minutes. Only 13 of them were helped into the lifeboats, though these had room for almost 500 more people. Distress signals were sent by wireless, rockets, and lamp, but none of the ships that responded was near enough to reach Titanic before she sank. A radio operator on board the Birma, for instance, estimated that it would be 6 a.m. before the liner could arrive at the scene. Meanwhile, the SS Californian, which was the last to have been in contact before the collision, saw Titanic 's flares but failed to assist. Around 4 a.m., RMS Carpathia arrived on the scene in response to Titanic 's earlier distress calls. About 710 people survived the disaster and were conveyed by Carpathia to New York, Titanic 's original destination, while at least 1,500 people lost their lives. Carpathia 's captain described the place as an ice field that had included 20 large bergs measuring up to 200 feet (61 m) high and numerous smaller bergs, as well as ice floes and debris from Titanic; passengers described being in the middle of a vast white plain of ice, studded with icebergs. This area is now known as Iceberg Alley. RMS Carpathia took three days to reach New York after leaving the scene of the disaster. Her journey was slowed by pack ice, fog, thunderstorms and rough seas. She was, however, able to pass news to the outside world by wireless about what had happened. The initial reports were confused, leading the American press to report erroneously on 15 April that Titanic was being towed to port by the SS Virginian. Later that day, confirmation came through that Titanic had been lost and that most of her passengers and crew had died. The news attracted crowds of people to the White Star Line 's offices in London, New York, Montreal, Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast. It hit hardest in Southampton, whose people suffered the greatest losses from the sinking. Four out of every five crew members came from this town. Carpathia docked at 9: 30 p.m. on 18 April at New York 's Pier 54 and was greeted by some 40,000 people waiting at the quayside in heavy rain. Immediate relief in the form of clothing and transportation to shelters was provided by the Women 's Relief Committee, the Travelers Aid Society of New York, and the Council of Jewish Women, among other organisations. Many of Titanic 's surviving passengers did not linger in New York but headed onwards immediately to relatives ' homes. Some of the wealthier survivors chartered private trains to take them home, and the Pennsylvania Railroad laid on a special train free of charge to take survivors to Philadelphia. Titanic 's 214 surviving crew members were taken to the Red Star Line 's steamer SS Lapland, where they were accommodated in passenger cabins. Carpathia was hurriedly restocked with food and provisions before resuming her journey to Fiume, Austria - Hungary. Her crew were given a bonus of a month 's wages by Cunard as a reward for their actions, and some of Titanic 's passengers joined together to give them an additional bonus of nearly £ 900 (£ 80,000 today), divided among the crew members. The ship 's arrival in New York led to a frenzy of press interest, with newspapers competing to be the first to report the survivors ' stories. Some reporters bribed their way aboard the pilot boat New York, which guided Carpathia into harbour, and one even managed to get onto Carpathia before she docked. Crowds gathered outside newspaper offices to see the latest reports being posted in the windows or on billboards. It took another four days for a complete list of casualties to be compiled and released, adding to the agony of relatives waiting for news of those who had been aboard Titanic. In January 1912, the hulls and equipment of Titanic and Olympic had been insured through Lloyd 's of London. The total coverage was £ 1,000,000 (£ 89,000,000 today) per ship. The policy was to be "free from all average '' under £ 150,000, meaning that the insurers would only pay for damage in excess of that sum. The premium, negotiated by brokers Willis Faber & Company (now Willis Group), was 15 s (75 p) per £ 100, or £ 7,500 (£ 670,000 today) for the term of one year. Lloyd 's paid the White Star Line the full sum owed to them within 30 days. Many charities were set up to help the victims and their families, many of whom lost their sole breadwinner, or, in the case of many Third Class survivors, everything they owned. On 29 April opera stars Enrico Caruso and Mary Garden and members of the Metropolitan Opera raised $12,000 ($300,000 in 2014) in benefits for victims of the disaster by giving special concerts in which versions of "Autumn '' and "Nearer My God To Thee '' were part of the programme. In Britain, relief funds were organised for the families of Titanic 's lost crew members, raising nearly £ 450,000 (£ 40,000,000 today). One such fund was still in operation as late as the 1960s. Even before the survivors arrived in New York, investigations were being planned to discover what had happened, and what could be done to prevent a recurrence. Inquiries were held in both the United States and United Kingdom, the former more robustly critical of traditions and practices, and scathing of the failures involved, and the latter broadly more technical and expert - oriented. The U.S. Senate 's inquiry into the disaster was initiated on 19 April, a day after Carpathia arrived in New York. The chairman, Senator William Alden Smith, wanted to gather accounts from passengers and crew while the events were still fresh in their minds. Smith also needed to subpoena all surviving British passengers and crew while they were still on American soil, which prevented them from returning to the UK before the American inquiry was completed on 25 May. The British press condemned Smith as an opportunist, insensitively forcing an inquiry as a means of gaining political prestige and seizing "his moment to stand on the world stage ''. Smith, however, already had a reputation as a campaigner for safety on U.S. railroads, and wanted to investigate any possible malpractices by railroad tycoon J.P. Morgan, Titanic 's ultimate owner. The British Board of Trade 's inquiry into the disaster was headed by Lord Mersey, and took place between 2 May and 3 July. Being run by the Board of Trade, who had previously approved the ship, it was seen by some as having little interest in its own or White Star 's conduct being found negligent. Each inquiry took testimony from both passengers and crew of Titanic, crew members of Leyland Line 's Californian, Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia and other experts. The British inquiry also took far greater expert testimony, making it the longest and most detailed court of inquiry in British history up to that time. The two inquiries reached broadly similar conclusions: the regulations on the number of lifeboats that ships had to carry were out of date and inadequate, Captain Smith had failed to take proper heed of ice warnings, the lifeboats had not been properly filled or crewed, and the collision was the direct result of steaming into a dangerous area at too high a speed. Neither inquiry 's findings listed negligence by IMM or the White Star Line as a factor. The American inquiry concluded that since those involved had followed standard practice the disaster was an act of God. The British inquiry concluded that Smith had followed long - standing practice that had not previously been shown to be unsafe, noting that British ships alone had carried 3.5 million passengers over the previous decade with the loss of just 10 lives, and concluded that Smith had done "only that which other skilled men would have done in the same position ''. Lord Mersey did however find fault with the "extremely high speed (twenty - two knots) which was maintained '' following numerous ice warnings, noting that without hindsight, "what was a mistake in the case of the Titanic would without doubt be negligence in any similar case in the future ''. The recommendations included strong suggestions for major changes in maritime regulations to implement new safety measures, such as ensuring that more lifeboats were provided, that lifeboat drills were properly carried out and that wireless equipment on passenger ships was manned around the clock. An International Ice Patrol was set up to monitor the presence of icebergs in the North Atlantic, and maritime safety regulations were harmonised internationally through the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea; both measures are still in force today. On 18 June 1912, Guglielmo Marconi gave evidence to the Court of Inquiry regarding the telegraphy. Its final report recommended that all liners carry the system and that sufficient operators maintain a constant service. One of the most controversial issues examined by the inquiries was the role played by SS Californian, which had been only a few miles from Titanic but had not picked up her distress calls or responded to her signal rockets. Californian had warned Titanic by radio of the pack ice that was the reason Californian had stopped for the night, but was rebuked by Titanic 's senior wireless operator, Jack Phillips. Testimony before the British inquiry revealed that at 10: 10 p.m., Californian observed the lights of a ship to the south; it was later agreed between Captain Stanley Lord and Third Officer C.V. Groves (who had relieved Lord of duty at 11: 10 p.m.) that this was a passenger liner. At 11: 50 p.m., the officer had watched that ship 's lights flash out, as if she had shut down or turned sharply, and that the port light was now visible. Morse light signals to the ship, upon Lord 's order, were made between 11: 30 p.m. and 1: 00 a.m., but were not acknowledged. If Titanic were as far from the Californian as Lord claimed, then he knew, or should have known, that Morse signals would not be visible. A reasonable and prudent course of action would have been to awaken the wireless operator and to instruct him to attempt to contact Titanic by that method. Had Lord done so, it is possible he could have reached Titanic in time to save additional lives. Captain Lord had gone to the chartroom at 11: 00 p.m. to spend the night; however, Second Officer Herbert Stone, now on duty, notified Lord at 1: 10 a.m. that the ship had fired five rockets. Lord wanted to know if they were company signals, that is, coloured flares used for identification. Stone said that he did not know and that the rockets were all white. Captain Lord instructed the crew to continue to signal the other vessel with the Morse lamp, and went back to sleep. Three more rockets were observed at 1: 50 a.m. and Stone noted that the ship looked strange in the water, as if she were listing. At 2: 15 a.m., Lord was notified that the ship could no longer be seen. Lord asked again if the lights had had any colours in them, and he was informed that they were all white. Californian eventually responded. At around 5: 30 a.m., Chief Officer George Stewart awakened wireless operator Cyril Furmstone Evans, informed him that rockets had been seen during the night, and asked that he try to communicate with any ship. He got news of Titanic 's loss, Captain Lord was notified, and the ship set out to render assistance. She arrived well after Carpathia had already picked up all the survivors. The inquiries found that the ship seen by Californian was in fact Titanic and that it would have been possible for Californian to come to her rescue; therefore, Captain Lord had acted improperly in failing to do so. The number of casualties of the sinking is unclear, due to a number of factors. These include confusion over the passenger list, which included some names of people who cancelled their trip at the last minute, and the fact that several passengers travelled under aliases for various reasons and were therefore double - counted on the casualty lists. The death toll has been put at between 1,490 and 1,635 people. The tables below use figures from the British Board of Trade report on the disaster. Fewer than a third of those aboard Titanic survived the disaster. Some survivors died shortly afterwards; injuries and the effects of exposure caused the deaths of several of those brought aboard Carpathia. The figures show stark differences in the survival rates of the different classes aboard Titanic. Although only 3 % of first - class women were lost, 54 % of those in third class died. Similarly, five of six first - class and all second - class children survived, but 52 of the 79 in third class perished. The differences by gender were even bigger: nearly all female crew members, first and second class passengers were saved. Men from the First Class died at a higher rate than women from the Third Class. In total, 50 % of the children survived, 20 % of the men and 75 % of the women. The last living survivor, Millvina Dean from England, who at only nine weeks old was the youngest passenger on board, died aged 97 on 31 May 2009. A special survivor was crew member Violet Jessop who survived the sinkings of both Titanic and Britannic and was aboard Olympic when she was rammed in 1911. Once the massive loss of life became known, White Star Line chartered the cable ship CS Mackay - Bennett from Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, to retrieve bodies. Three other Canadian ships followed in the search: the cable ship Minia, lighthouse supply ship Montmagny and sealing vessel Algerine. Each ship left with embalming supplies, undertakers, and clergy. Of the 333 victims that were eventually recovered, 328 were retrieved by the Canadian ships and five more by passing North Atlantic steamships. The first ship to reach the site of the sinking, the CS Mackay - Bennett, found so many bodies that the embalming supplies aboard were quickly exhausted. Health regulations required that only embalmed bodies could be returned to port. Captain Larnder of the Mackay - Bennett and undertakers aboard decided to preserve only the bodies of first class passengers, justifying their decision by the need to visually identify wealthy men to resolve any disputes over large estates. As a result, many third class passengers and crew were buried at sea. Larnder identified many of those buried at sea as crew members by their clothing, and stated that as a mariner, he himself would be contented to be buried at sea. Bodies recovered were preserved for transport to Halifax, the closest city to the sinking with direct rail and steamship connections. The Halifax coroner, John Henry Barnstead, developed a detailed system to identify bodies and safeguard personal possessions. Relatives from across North America came to identify and claim bodies. A large temporary morgue was set up in the curling rink of the Mayflower Curling Club and undertakers were called in from all across eastern Canada to assist. Some bodies were shipped to be buried in their home towns across North America and Europe. About two - thirds of the bodies were identified. Unidentified victims were buried with simple numbers based on the order in which their bodies were discovered. The majority of recovered victims, 150 bodies, were buried in three Halifax cemeteries, the largest being Fairview Lawn Cemetery followed by the nearby Mount Olivet and Baron de Hirsch cemeteries. In mid-May 1912, RMS Oceanic recovered three bodies over 200 miles (320 km) from the site of the sinking who were among the original occupants of Collapsible A. When Fifth Officer Harold Lowe and six crewmen returned to the wreck site sometime after the sinking in a lifeboat to pick up survivors, they rescued a dozen males and one female from Collapsible A, but left the dead bodies of three of its occupants. After their retrieval from Collapsible A by Oceanic, the bodies were buried at sea. The last Titanic body recovered was steward James McGrady, Body No. 330, found by the chartered Newfoundland sealing vessel Algerine on 22 May and buried at Fairview Lawn Cemetery in Halifax on 12 June. Only 333 bodies of Titanic victims were recovered, one in five of the over 1500 victims. Some bodies sank with the ship while currents quickly dispersed bodies and wreckage across hundreds of miles making them difficult to recover. By June one of the last search ships reported that life jackets supporting bodies were coming apart and releasing bodies to sink. Titanic was long thought to have sunk in one piece and, over the years, many schemes were put forward for raising the wreck. None came to fruition. The fundamental problem was the sheer difficulty of finding and reaching a wreck that lies over 12,000 feet (3,700 m) below the surface, in a location where the water pressure is over 6,500 pounds per square inch (450 bar). A number of expeditions were mounted to find Titanic but it was not until 1 September 1985 that a Franco - American expedition led by Robert Ballard succeeded. The team discovered that Titanic had in fact split apart, probably near or at the surface, before sinking to the seabed. The separated bow and stern sections lie about a third of a mile (0.6 km) apart in Titanic Canyon off the coast of Newfoundland. They are located 13.2 miles (21.2 km) from the inaccurate coordinates given by Titanic 's radio operators on the night of her sinking, and approximately 715 miles (1,151 km) from Halifax and 1,250 miles (2,012 km) from New York. Both sections struck the sea bed at considerable speed, causing the bow to crumple and the stern to collapse entirely. The bow is by far the more intact section and still contains some surprisingly intact interiors. In contrast, the stern is completely wrecked; its decks have pancaked down on top of each other and much of the hull plating was torn off and lies scattered across the sea floor. The much greater level of damage to the stern is probably due to structural damage incurred during the sinking. Thus weakened, the remainder of the stern was flattened by the impact with the sea bed. The two sections are surrounded by a debris field measuring approximately 5 by 3 miles (8.0 km × 4.8 km). It contains hundreds of thousands of items, such as pieces of the ship, furniture, dinnerware and personal items, which fell from the ship as she sank or were ejected when the bow and stern impacted on the sea floor. The debris field was also the last resting place of a number of Titanic 's victims. Most of the bodies and clothes were consumed by sea creatures and bacteria, leaving pairs of shoes and boots -- which have proved to be inedible -- as the only sign that bodies once lay there. Since its initial discovery, the wreck of Titanic has been revisited on numerous occasions by explorers, scientists, filmmakers, tourists and salvagers, who have recovered thousands of items from the debris field for conservation and public display. The ship 's condition has deteriorated significantly over the years, particularly from accidental damage by submersibles but mostly because of an accelerating rate of growth of iron - eating bacteria on the hull. It has been estimated that within the next 50 years the hull and structure of Titanic will eventually collapse entirely, leaving only the more durable interior fittings of the ship intermingled with a pile of rust on the sea floor. Many artefacts from Titanic have been recovered from the sea bed by RMS Titanic Inc., which exhibits them in touring exhibitions around the world and in a permanent exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. A number of other museums exhibit artefacts either donated by survivors or retrieved from the floating bodies of victims of the disaster. On 16 April 2012, the day after the 100th anniversary of the sinking, photos were released showing possible human remains resting on the ocean floor. The photos, taken by Robert Ballard during an expedition led by NOAA in 2004, show a boot and a coat close to Titanic 's stern which experts called "compelling evidence '' that it is the spot where somebody came to rest, and that human remains could be buried in the sediment beneath them. The wreck of the Titanic falls under the scope of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This means that all states party to the convention will prohibit the pillaging, commercial exploitation, sale and dispersion of the wreck and its artefacts. Because of the location of the wreck in international waters and the lack of any exclusive jurisdiction over the wreckage area, the convention provides a state co-operation system, by which states inform each other of any potential activity concerning ancient shipwreck sites, like the Titanic, and co-operate to prevent unscientific or unethical interventions. After the disaster, recommendations were made by both the British and American Boards of Inquiry stating that ships should carry enough lifeboats for all aboard, mandated lifeboat drills would be implemented, lifeboat inspections would be conducted, etc. Many of these recommendations were incorporated into the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea passed in 1914. The convention has been updated by periodic amendments, with a completely new version adopted in 1974. Signatories to the convention followed up with national legislation to implement the new standards. For example in Britain, new "Rules for Life Saving Appliances '' were passed by the Board of Trade on 8 May 1914 and then applied at a meeting of British steamship companies in Liverpool in June 1914. Further, the United States government passed the Radio Act of 1912. This act, along with the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, stated that radio communications on passenger ships would be operated 24 hours a day, along with a secondary power supply, so as not to miss distress calls. Also, the Radio Act of 1912 required ships to maintain contact with vessels in their vicinity as well as coastal onshore radio stations. In addition, it was agreed in the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea that the firing of red rockets from a ship must be interpreted as a sign of need for help. Once the Radio Act of 1912 was passed it was agreed that rockets at sea would be interpreted as distress signals only, thus removing any possible misinterpretation from other ships. Finally, the disaster led to the formation and international funding of the International Ice Patrol, an agency of the United States Coast Guard that to the present day monitors and reports on the location of North Atlantic Ocean icebergs that could pose a threat to transatlantic sea traffic. Coast Guard aircraft conduct the primary reconnaissance. In addition, information is collected from ships operating in or passing through the ice area. Except for the years of the two World Wars, the International Ice Patrol has worked each season since 1913. During the period there has not been a single reported loss of life or property due to collision with an iceberg in the patrol area. In 1912, the Board of Trade chartered the barque Scotia to act as a weather ship in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, keeping a look - out for icebergs. A Marconi wireless was installed to enable her to communicate with stations on the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland. Titanic has gone down in history as the ship that was called unsinkable. For more than 100 years, she has been the inspiration of fiction and non-fiction. She is commemorated by monuments for the dead and by museums exhibiting artefacts from the wreck. Just after the sinking memorial postcards sold in huge numbers together with memorabilia ranging from tin candy boxes to plates, whiskey jiggers, and even black mourning teddy bears. Several survivors wrote books about their experiences but it was not until 1955 the first historically accurate book A Night to Remember was published. The first film about the disaster, Saved from the Titanic, was released only 29 days after the ship sank and had an actual survivor as its star -- the silent film actress Dorothy Gibson. The British film A Night to Remember (1958) is still widely regarded as the most historically accurate movie portrayal of the sinking. The most financially successful by far has been James Cameron 's Titanic (1997), which became the highest - grossing film in history up to that time, as well as the winner of 11 Oscars at the 70th Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director for Cameron. The Titanic disaster was commemorated through a variety of memorials and monuments to the victims, erected in several English - speaking countries and in particular in cities that had suffered notable losses. These included Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast in the United Kingdom; New York and Washington, D.C. in the United States; and Cobh (formerly Queenstown) in Ireland. A number of museums around the world have displays on Titanic. In Northern Ireland, the ship is commemorated by the Titanic Belfast visitor attraction, opened on 31 March 2012, that stands on the site of the shipyard where Titanic was built. RMS Titanic Inc., which is authorised to salvage the wreck site, has a permanent Titanic exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Nevada which features a 22 - ton slab of the ship 's hull. It also runs an exhibition which travels around the world. In Nova Scotia, Halifax 's Maritime Museum of the Atlantic displays items that were recovered from the sea a few days after the disaster. They include pieces of woodwork such as panelling from the ship 's First Class Lounge and an original deckchair, as well as objects removed from the victims. In 2012 the centenary was marked by plays, radio programmes, parades, exhibitions and special trips to the site of the sinking together with commemorative stamps and coins. In a frequently commented - on literary coincidence, Morgan Robertson authored a novel called Futility in 1898 about a fictional British passenger liner with the plot bearing a number of similarities to the Titanic disaster. In the novel the ship is the SS Titan, a four - stacked liner, the largest in the world and considered unsinkable. But like the Titanic, she sinks after hitting an iceberg and does not have enough lifeboats. There have been several proposals and studies for a project to build a replica ship based on the Titanic. A project by South African businessman Sarel Gaus was abandoned in 2006, and a project by Australian businessman Clive Palmer was announced in 2012, known as the Titanic II. A Chinese shipbuilding company known as Wuchang Shipbuilding Industry Group Co., Ltd commenced construction in January 2014 to build a replica ship of the Titanic for use in a resort. The vessel will house many features of the original, such as a ballroom, dining hall, theatre, first - class cabins, economy cabins and swimming pool. Tourists will be able to reside inside the Titanic during their time at the resort. It will be permanently docked at the resort and feature an audiovisual simulation of the sinking, which has caused some criticism. The RMS Olympic was the sister ship of the Titanic. The interior decoration of the dining salon and the grand staircase were in identical style and created by the same craftsmen. Large parts of the interior of the Olympic were later sold and are now in the White Swan Hotel, Alnwick, which gives an impression of how the interior of the Titanic looked. Books: Journals and news articles: Investigations: Coordinates: 41 ° 43 ′ 57 '' N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 '' W  /  41.73250 ° N 49.94694 ° W  / 41.73250; - 49.94694

who commissioned the last supper fresco by leonardo da vinci

The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci) - wikipedia The Last Supper (Italian: Il Cenacolo (il tʃeˈnaːkolo) or L'Ultima Cena (ˈlultima ˈtʃeːna)) is a late 15th - century mural painting by Leonardo da Vinci housed by the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan. It is one of the world 's most recognizable paintings. The work is presumed to have been started around 1495 -- 96 and was commissioned as part of a plan of renovations to the church and its convent buildings by Leonardo 's patron Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. The painting represents the scene of the Last Supper of Jesus with his apostles, as it is told in the Gospel of John, 13: 21. Leonardo has depicted the consternation that occurred among the Twelve Disciples when Jesus announced that one of them would betray him. Due to the methods used, a variety of environmental factors, and intentional damage, very little of the original painting remains today despite numerous restoration attempts, the last being completed in 1999. The Last Supper measures 460 cm × 880 cm (180 in × 350 in) and covers an end wall of the dining hall at the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. The theme was a traditional one for refectories, although the room was not a refectory at the time that Leonardo painted it. The main church building had only recently been completed (in 1498), but was remodeled by Bramante, hired by Ludovico Sforza to build a Sforza family mausoleum. The painting was commissioned by Sforza to be the centerpiece of the mausoleum. The lunettes above the main painting, formed by the triple arched ceiling of the refectory, are painted with Sforza coats - of - arms. The opposite wall of the refectory is covered by the Crucifixion fresco by Giovanni Donato da Montorfano, to which Leonardo added figures of the Sforza family in tempera. (These figures have deteriorated in much the same way as has The Last Supper.) Leonardo began work on The Last Supper in 1495 and completed it in 1498 -- he did not work on the painting continuously. The beginning date is not certain, as the archives of the convent for the period have been destroyed, and a document dated 1497 indicates that the painting was nearly completed at that date. One story goes that a prior from the monastery complained to Leonardo about the delay, enraging him. He wrote to the head of the monastery, explaining he had been struggling to find the perfect villainous face for Judas, and that if he could not find a face corresponding with what he had in mind, he would use the features of the prior who complained. The Last Supper specifically portrays the reaction given by each apostle when Jesus said one of them would betray him. All twelve apostles have different reactions to the news, with various degrees of anger and shock. The apostles are identified from a manuscript (The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci p. 232) with their names found in the 19th century. (Before this, only Judas, Peter, John and Jesus were positively identified.) From left to right, according to the apostles ' heads: Judas is wearing green and blue and is in shadow, looking rather withdrawn and taken aback by the sudden revelation of his plan. He is clutching a small bag, perhaps signifying the silver given to him as payment to betray Jesus, or perhaps a reference to his role within the 12 disciples as treasurer. He is also tipping over the salt cellar. This may be related to the near - Eastern expression to "betray the salt '' meaning to betray one 's Master. He is the only person to have his elbow on the table and his head is also horizontally the lowest of anyone in the painting. Peter looks angry and is holding a knife pointed away from Christ, perhaps foreshadowing his violent reaction in Gethsemane during Jesus ' arrest. The youngest apostle, John, appears to swoon. Thomas is clearly upset; the raised index finger foreshadows his incredulity of the Resurrection. James the Greater looks stunned, with his arms in the air. Meanwhile, Philip appears to be requesting some explanation. Both Jude Thaddeus and Matthew are turned toward Simon, perhaps to find out if he has any answer to their initial questions. In common with other depictions of the Last Supper from this period, Leonardo seats the diners on one side of the table, so that none of them has his back to the viewer. Most previous depictions excluded Judas by placing him alone on the opposite side of the table from the other eleven disciples and Jesus, or placing halos around all the disciples except Judas. Leonardo instead has Judas lean back into shadow. Jesus is predicting that his betrayer will take the bread at the same time he does to Saints Thomas and James to his left, who react in horror as Jesus points with his left hand to a piece of bread before them. Distracted by the conversation between John and Peter, Judas reaches for a different piece of bread not noticing Jesus too stretching out with his right hand towards it (Matthew 26: 23). The angles and lighting draw attention to Jesus, whose turned right cheek is located at the vanishing point for all perspective lines; his hands are located at the golden ratio of half the height of the composition. The painting contains several references to the number 3, which represents the Christian belief in the Holy Trinity. The Apostles are seated in groupings of three; there are three windows behind Jesus; and the shape of Jesus ' figure resembles a triangle. The painting can also be interpreted using the Fibonacci series: 1 table, 1 central figure, 2 side walls, 3 windows and figures grouped in threes, 5 groups of figures, 8 panels on the walls and 8 table legs, and 13 individual figures. There may have been other references that have since been lost as the painting deteriorated. Two early copies of The Last Supper are known to exist, presumed to be work by Leonardo 's assistants. The copies are almost the size of the original, and have survived with a wealth of original detail still intact. One copy, by Giampietrino, is in the collection of the Royal Academy of Arts, London, and the other, by Cesare da Sesto, is installed at the Church of St. Ambrogio in Ponte Capriasca, Switzerland. A third copy (oil on canvas) is painted by Andrea Solari (ca. 1520) and is on display in the Leonardo da Vinci Museum of the Tongerlo Abbey, Belgium. For this work, Leonardo sought a greater detail and luminosity than could be achieved with traditional fresco. He painted The Last Supper on a dry wall rather than on wet plaster, so it is not a true fresco. Because a fresco can not be modified as the artist works, Leonardo instead chose to seal the stone wall with a double layer of dried plaster. Then, borrowing from panel painting, he added an undercoat of white lead to enhance the brightness of the oil and tempera that was applied on top. This was a method that had been described previously, by Cennino Cennini in the 14th century. However, Cennini had recommended the use of secco for the final touches alone. These techniques were important for Leonardo 's desire to work slowly on the painting, giving him sufficient time to develop the gradual shading or chiaroscuro that was essential in his style. Because the painting was on a thin exterior wall, the effects of humidity were felt more keenly, and the paint failed to properly adhere to the wall. Because of the method used, soon after the painting was completed on February 9, 1498 it began to deteriorate. As early as 1517, the painting was starting to flake, and in 1532 Gerolamo Cardano described it as "blurred and colorless compared with what I remember of it when I saw it as a boy ''. By 1556 -- fewer than sixty years after it was finished -- Leonardo 's biographer Giorgio Vasari described the painting as already "ruined '' and so deteriorated that the figures were unrecognizable. By the second half of the sixteenth century Gian Paolo Lomazzo stated that "the painting is all ruined ''. In 1652, a doorway was cut through the (then unrecognisable) painting, and later bricked up; this can still be seen as the irregular arch shaped structure near the center base of the painting. It is believed, through early copies, that Jesus ' feet were in a position symbolizing the forthcoming crucifixion. In 1768, a curtain was hung over the painting for the purpose of protection; it instead trapped moisture on the surface, and whenever the curtain was pulled back, it scratched the flaking paint. A first restoration was attempted in 1726 by Michelangelo Bellotti, who filled in missing sections with oil paint then varnished the whole mural. This repair did not last well and another restoration was attempted in 1770 by an otherwise unknown artist named Giuseppe Mazza. Mazza stripped off Bellotti 's work then largely repainted the painting; he had redone all but three faces when he was halted due to public outrage. In 1796, French revolutionary anti-clerical troops used the refectory as an armory; they threw stones at the painting and climbed ladders to scratch out the Apostles ' eyes. The refectory was then later used as a prison; it is not known if any of the prisoners may have damaged the painting. In 1821, Stefano Barezzi, an expert in removing whole frescoes from their walls intact, was called in to remove the painting to a safer location; he badly damaged the center section before realizing that Leonardo 's work was not a fresco. Barezzi then attempted to reattach damaged sections with glue. From 1901 to 1908, Luigi Cavenaghi first completed a careful study of the structure of the painting, then began cleaning it. In 1924, Oreste Silvestri did further cleaning, and stabilised some parts with stucco. During World War II, on August 15, 1943, the refectory was struck by Allied bombing; protective sandbagging prevented the painting from being struck by bomb splinters, but it may have been damaged further by the vibration. From 1951 to 1954, another clean - and - stabilise restoration was undertaken by Mauro Pelliccioli. The painting 's appearance by the late 1970s had become badly deteriorated. From 1978 to 1999, Pinin Brambilla Barcilon guided a major restoration project which undertook to stabilize the painting, and reverse the damage caused by dirt and pollution. The 18th - and 19th - century restoration attempts were also reverted. Since it had proved impractical to move the painting to a more controlled environment, the refectory was instead converted to a sealed, climate - controlled environment, which meant bricking up the windows. Then, detailed study was undertaken to determine the painting 's original form, using scientific tests (especially infrared reflectoscopy and microscopic core - samples), and original cartoons preserved in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle. Some areas were deemed unrestorable. These were re-painted using watercolor in subdued colors intended to indicate they were not original work, while not being too distracting. This restoration took 21 years and, on 28 May 1999, the painting was returned to display. Intending visitors were required to book ahead and could only stay for 15 minutes. When it was unveiled, considerable controversy was aroused by the dramatic changes in colors, tones, and even some facial shapes. James Beck, professor of art history at Columbia University and founder of ArtWatch International, had been a particularly strong critic. Michael Daley, director of ArtWatch UK, has also complained about the restored version of the painting. He has been critical of Christ 's right arm in the image which has been altered from a draped sleeve to what Daley calls "muff - like drapery ''. The Last Supper has frequently been referenced, reproduced, or parodied in Western culture. Some of the more notable examples are: A 16th - century oil on canvas copy is conserved in the abbey of Tongerlo, Antwerp, Belgium. It reveals many details that are no longer visible on the original. The Roman mosaic artist Giacomo Raffaelli made another life - sized copy (1809 -- 1814) in the Viennese Minoritenkirche. In 1955, Salvador Dalí painted The Sacrament of the Last Supper, with Jesus portrayed as blond and clean shaven, pointing upward to a spectral torso while the apostles are gathered around the table heads bowed so that none may be identified. It is reputed to be one of the most popular paintings in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. In 1986, Andy Warhol was commissioned to produce a series of paintings based on The Last Supper that were exhibited initially in Milan. This was his last series of paintings before his death. Sculptor Marisol Escobar rendered The Last Supper as a life - sized, three - dimensional, sculptural assemblage using painted and drawn wood, plywood, brownstone, plaster, and aluminum. This work, Self - Portrait Looking at The Last Supper, (1982 -- 84) is in New York 's Metropolitan Museum of Art. In 1988, Susan Dorothea White painted The First Supper showing 13 women from all regions of the world, with the woman in the position of Leonardo 's Christ figure being an Australian aboriginal. In 2001, Chinese artist Zeng Fanzhi painted Last Supper, showing 13 mask - wearing people seated at a table strewn with watermelon fragments. The oil painting was sold for $23.3 million at Sotheby 's auction on October 7, 2013, setting a new record for contemporary Asian artwork. In 1998, modern artist Vik Muniz displayed a recreation of The Last Supper, made entirely out of Bosco Chocolate Syrup. Author Mary Shelley describes her impression of the painting in her travel narrative, Rambles in Germany and Italy published in 1844: First we visited the fading inimitable fresco of Leonardo da Vinci. How vain are copies! not in one, nor in any print, did i ever see the slightest approach to the expression in our Savior 's face, such as it is in the original. Majesty and love -- these are the words that would describe it -- joined to an absence of all guile that expresses the divine nature more visibly than I ever saw it in any other picture. In Luis Buñuel 's Spanish film Viridiana, a tableau vivant of Leonardo 's painting is staged with beggars. Another beggar ' photographs ' the scene by flashing them. This scene contributed to its refusal by the Vatican who called it "blasphemous. '' In Norman Jewison 's 1973 film version of "Jesus Christ Superstar '', in the Last Supper sequence, Jesus and the 12 apostles briefly mimic the posture of each character in Da Vinci 's painting The painting is parodied in Mel Brooks 's movie History of the World, Part I, making Leonardo a contemporary of Jesus. It is also parodied in the original movie MASH, in the scene where Hawkeye Pierce stages a "last supper '' for Walt (Painless) Waldowski before his planned suicide. The various doctors, all in surgical scrubs, pose in imitation of the painting. Many parodies of the painting appear on the small screen, including The Simpsons ' Season 16 episode "Thank God, It 's Doomsday, '' with Homer as Jesus and Moe and his other patrons as the disciples; That ' 70s Show 's first - season episode "Streaking, '' with Eric flanked by his friends (and Jackie wondering why everyone is sitting on the same side of the table); and South Park 's Season 13 episode "Margaritaville, '' with Kyle and his friends eating at a pizza parlor. In one episode of the CBC drama Murdoch Mysteries called Barenaked Ladies, the suspects recreate the poses of Peter, Judas and Thomas in their victims. The Last Supper has been the target of much speculation by writers and historical revisionists alike, usually centered on purported hidden messages or hints found within the painting, especially since the publication of the novel The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown in 2003. Dan Brown proposed that the person to Jesus ' right (left of Jesus from the viewer 's perspective) is actually Mary Magdalene disguised as one of the male disciples. This speculation originated in earlier books The Templar Revelation (1997) by Lynn Picknett and The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail by Michael Baigent, Henry Lincoln and Richard Leigh (1982). Art historians hold that the figure is the apostle John, who only appears feminine due to Leonardo 's characteristic fascination with blurring the lines between the sexes, a quality which is found in his other paintings, such as St. John the Baptist (painted c. 1513 -- 1516). Christopher Hodapp and Alice Von Kannon comment "If he (John) looks effeminate and needs a haircut, so does James, the second figure on the left, the one with the sort of Bette Midler look about him ''. Furthermore, according to Ross King, an expert on Italian art, Mary Magdalene 's appearance at the last supper would not have been controversial and Leonardo would have had no motive to disguise her as one of the other disciples, since she was widely venerated in her role as the "apostle to the apostles '' and was the patron of the Dominican Order, for whom The Last Supper was painted. There would have even been precedent for it, since the earlier Italian Renaissance painter Fra Angelico had included her in his painting of the Last Supper. Giovanni Maria Pala, an Italian musician, has indicated that the positions of hands and loaves of bread can be interpreted as notes on a musical staff and, if read from right to left, as was characteristic of Leonardo 's writing, form a musical composition.

what is the relationship between enzymes substrates and active sites

Active site - wikipedia In biology, the active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction. The active site consists of residues that form temporary bonds with the substrate (binding site) and residues that catalyse a reaction of that substrate (catalytic site). Although the active site is small relative to the whole volume of the enzyme (it only occupies 10 ~ 20 % of the total volume), it is the most important part of the enzyme as it directly catalyzes the chemical reaction. It usually consists of three to four amino acids, while other amino acids within the protein are required to maintain the protein tertiary structure of the enzyme. Each active site is specially designed in response to their substrates, as a result, most enzymes have specificity and can only react with particular substrates. This specificity is determined by the arrangement of amino acids within the active site and the structure of the substrates. Sometimes enzymes also need to bind with some cofactors to fulfil their function. The active site is usually a groove or pocket of the enzyme which can be located in a deep tunnel within the enzyme, or between the interfaces of multimeric enzymes. An active site can catalyse a reaction repeatedly as residues are not altered at the end of the reaction (they may change during the reaction, but are regenerated by the end). This process is achieved by lowering the activation energy of the reaction, so more substrates have enough energy to undergo reaction. Usually, an enzyme molecule has only two active sites, and the active sites fit with one specific type of substrate. An active site contains a binding site that binds the substrate and orients it for catalysis. The orientation of the substrate and the close proximity between it and the active site is so important that in some cases the enzyme can still function properly even though all other parts are mutated and lose function. Initially, the reaction between the active site and the substrate is non-covalent and temporal. There are four important kinds of interaction that hold the substrate in a right orientation and form an enzyme - substrate complex (ES complex): hydrogen bond, Van der Waals force, hydrophobic interaction and electrostatic force. The charges distribution on the substrate and active site must be complementary, which means all positive and negative charges must be cancelled out. Otherwise, there will be a repulsive force to push them apart. The active site usually contains non-polar amino acids, although sometimes polar amino acids may also occur. The binding of substrate to the binding site requires at least three contact points. For example, when alcohol dehydrogenase catalyses the transfer of H group from alcohol to NADH there are interactions through methyl group, hydroxyl group and pro-R hydrogen group. In order to function, the proper protein folding and maintaining of the enzyme 's tertiary structure rely on various chemical bonds between its amino acids. And external changes can break them down and cause the enzyme to misfold and lose function. For example, denaturation of the protein by high temperatures or extreme pH values will destroy its catalytic activity. This is because Hydrogen bond, which plays an important role in protein folding, is relatively weak and easily affected by external factors. A tighter fit between an active site and the substrate molecule is believed to increase the efficiency of a reaction. If the tightness between the active site of DNA polymerase and its substrate was increased, the fidelity, which means the correct rate of DNA replication is also increased. Most enzymes have deeply buried active sites, which can be accessed by a substrate via access channels. There are two proposed models of how enzymes fit their specific substrate: the lock and key model and the induced fit model. This concept was suggested by the 19th - century chemist Emil Fischer. He proposed that the active site and substrate are two stable structures that fit perfectly without any further modification. This is just like a key fits into a lock. If one substrate perfectly binds to its active site, the bonds formed between them will be strongest with highest catalytic efficiency. As time goes by its limitation started to appear. For example, an enzyme inhibitor, methylglucoside, can bind tightly to the active site and perfectly fits into it. However, there is no reaction between them and Lock and Key hypothesis can not explain this. In addition, this theory can not explain the mechanism of non-competitive inhibitors as they do not bind to the active site. Daniel Koshland 's theory of enzyme - substrate binding is that the active site and the binding portion of the substrate are not exactly complementary. The induced fit model is a development of the lock - and - key model and assumes that an active site is flexible and changes shape until the substrate is completely bound. This model is similar to a person wearing a glove: it changes shape to fit the hand. The enzyme initially has a configuration that attracts its substrate. Enzyme surface is flexible and only the correct catalyst can induce interaction leading to catalysis. Conformational changes may then occur as the substrate is bound. After the reaction products will move away from the enzyme and the active site returns to its initial shape. This hypothesis is supported by the observation that the entire protein domain could move several nanometers during catalysis. This movement of protein surface can create microenvironments that favour the catalysis. Electrostatic interaction: In an aqueous environment, the oppositely charged groups in amino acid side chains within the active site and substrates attract each other, which is termed electrostatic interaction. For example, when a carboxylic acid (R - COOH) dissociates into RCOO and H ions, COO will attract positively charged groups such as protonated guanidine side chain of arginine. Hydrogen bond: A hydrogen bond is a specific type of dipole - dipole interaction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative electron donor that contain a pair of electrons such as oxygen, sulfur and nitrogen. The strength of hydrogen bond depends on the chemical nature and geometric arrangement of each group. Van der Waals force: Van der Waals force is formed between oppositely charged groups due to transient uneven electron distribution in each group. If all electrons all concentrated at one pole of the group this end will be negative, while the other end will be positive. Although the individual force is weak, as the total number of interactions between the active site and substrate is massive the sum of them will be significant. Hydrophobic interaction: Non-polar hydrophobic groups tend to aggregate together in the aqueous environment and try to leave from polar solvent. These hydrophobic groups usually have long carbon chain and do not react with water molecules. When dissolving in water a protein molecule will curl up into a ball - like shape, leaving hydrophilic groups in outside while hydrophobic groups are deeply buried within the centre. Once the substrate is bound and oriented to the active site, catalysis can begin. The residues of the catalytic site are typically very close to the binding site, and some residues can have dual - roles in both binding and catalysis. Catalytic residues of the site interact with the substrate to lower the activation energy of a reaction and so make it proceed faster. They do this by a number of different mechanisms including the approximation of the reactants, nucleophilic / electrophilic catalysis and acid / base catalysis. These mechanisms will be explained below. During enzyme catalytic reaction, the substrate and active site are brought together in a close proximity. This approach has various purposes. Firstly, when substrates bind within the active site the effective concentration of it significantly increases than in solution. This means the number of substrate molecules involved in the reaction is also increased. This process also reduces the desolvation energy required for the reaction to occur. In solution substrate molecules are surrounded by solvent molecules and energy is required for enzyme molecules to replace them and contact with the substrate. Since bulk molecules can be excluded from the active site this energy output can be minimised. Next, the active site is designed to reorient the substrate to reduce the activation energy for the reaction to occur. The alignment of the substrate, after binding, is locked in a high energy state and can proceed to the next step. In addition, this binding is favoured by entropy as the energy cost associated with solution reaction is largely eliminated since solvent can not enter active site. In the end, the active site may manipulate the Molecular orbital of the substrate into a suitable orientation to reduce activation energy. The electrostatic states of substrate and active site must be complementary to each other. A polarized negatively charged amino acid side chain will repel uncharged substrate. But if the transition state involves the formation of a ion centre then the side chain will now produce a favourable interaction. Many enzymes including serine protease, cysteine protease, protein kinase and phosphatase evolved to form transient covalent bonds between them and their substrates to lower the activation energy and allow the reaction to occur. This process can be divided into 2 steps: formation and breakdown. The former step is rate - limit step while the later step is needed to regenerate intact enzyme. Nucleophilic catalysis: This process involves the donation of electrons from the enzyme 's nucleophile to a substrate to form a covalent bond between them during the transition state. The strength of this interaction depends on two aspects.: the ability of the nucleophilic group to donate electrons and the electrophile to accept them. The former one is mainly affected by the basicity (the ability to donate electron pairs) of the species while the later one is in regard to its pK. Both groups are also affected by their chemical properties such as polarizability, electronegativity and ionization potential. Amino acids that can form nucleophile including serine, cysteine, aspartate and glutamine. Electrophilic catalysis: The mechanism behind this process is exactly same as nucleophilic catalysis except that now amino acids in active site act as electrophile while substrates are nucleophiles. This reaction usually requires cofactors as the amino acid side chains are not strong enough in attracting electrons. Metal ions have multiple roles during the reaction. Firstly it can bind to negatively charged substrate groups so they will not repel electron pairs from active site 's nucleophilic groups. It can attract negatively charged electrons to increase electrophilicity.It can also bridge between active site and substrate. At last, they may change the conformational structure of the substrate to favour reaction. In some reactions, protons and hydroxide may directly act as acid and base in term of specific acid and specific base catalysis. But more often groups in substrate and active site act as Brønsted -- Lowry acid and base. This is called general acid and general base theory. The easiest way to distinguish between them is to check whether the reaction rate is determined by the concentrations of the general acid and base. If the answer is yes then the reaction is the general type. Since most enzymes have an optimum pH of 6 to 7, the amino acids in the side chain usually have a pK of 4 ~ 10. Candidate of them including aspartate, glutamate, histidine, cysteine... These acid / base can stabilise the nucleophile / electrophile formed during the catalysis by providing positive and negative charges. Quantitative studies of enzymatic reactions often found that the acceleration of chemical reaction speed can not be fully explained by existing theories like the approximation, acid / base catalysis and electrophile / nucleophile catalysis. And there is an obvious paradox: in reversible enzymatic reaction if the active site perfectly fits the substrates then the backward reaction will be slowed down since products can not fit perfectly into the active site. So conformational distortion was introduced and argues that both active site and substrate can undergo conformational changes to fit with each other all the time. This theory is a little similar to the Lock and Key Theory, but at this time the active site is preprogrammed to bind perfectly to substrate in transition state rather than in ground state. The formation of transition state within the solution requires a large amount of energy to relocate solvent molecules and the reaction speed is slowed down. So the active site can substitute solvent molecules and surround the substrates to minimize the counterproductive effect imposed by the solution. The presence of charged groups with the active site will attract substrates and ensure electrostatic complementarity In reality, most enzyme mechanisms involve a combination of several different types of catalysis. The role of glutathione (GSH) is to remove accumulated reactive oxygen species which may damage cells. During this process, its thiol side chain is oxidised and two glutathione molecules are connected by a disulphide bond to form a dimer (GSSG). In order to regenerate glutathione the disulphide bond has to be broken, In human cells, this is done by glutathione reductase (GR). Glutathione reductase is a dimer that contains two identical subunits. It requires one NADP and one FAD as the cofactors. The active site is located in the linkage between two subunits. The NADPH is involved in the generation of FADH -. In the active site, there are two cysteine residues besides the FAD cofactor and are used to break the disulphide bond during the catalytic reaction. NADPH is bound by three positively charged residues: Arg - 218, His - 219 and Arg - 224. The catalytic process starts when the FAD is reduced by NADPH to accept one electron and from FADH.It then attacks the disulphide bond formed between 2 cysteine residues, forming one SH bond and a single S group. This S group will act as a nucleophile to attack the disulphide bond in the oxidised glutathione (GSSG), breaking it and forming a cysteine - SG complex. The first SG anion is released and then receives one proton from adjacent SH group and from the first glutathione monomer. Next the adjacent S group attack disulphide bond in cysteine - SG complex and release the second SG anion. It receives one proton in solution and forms the second glutathione monomer. Chymotrypsin is a serine endopeptidase that always presents in pancreatic juice and helps the hydrolysis of proteins and peptide. It catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds in L - isomers of tyrosine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan.In the active site of this enzyme three amino acid residues work together to form a catalytic triad which forms the catalytic site.In chymotrypsin, these enzymes are ser - 195, His - 157 and Asp - 102. The mechanism of chymotrypsin can be divided into two phases. Firstly Serine - 195 nucleophilically attacks the carbon in peptide bond to form a tetrahedral intermediate. His - 157 accepts one proton from Ser - 195 and generate a cation. This is stabilised by the negatively charged carboxylate group (RCOO) in the Asp - 102. And the oxyanion in the intermediate is stabilised by hydrogen bonds from Ser - 195 and Gly - 193. In the second stage, the R'NH group leaves the intermediate and is protonated by His - 157 to form R'NH. Now, serine - 195 is in the acyl form. His - 157 then acts as a base again to receive one proton from a water molecule. The hydroxide anion generated nucleophilically attacks acyl - enzyme to form a second tetrahedral intermediate. The oxyanion is stabilised by H bonds. In the end, the CO bond that connects serine and the carbon is broken down and H is transferred through His - 157. All three amino acid residues are regenerated. Enzymes can use cofactors as ' helper molecules '. Coenzymes are referred to those non-protein molecules that bind with enzymes to help them fulfil their jobs. Mostly they are connected to the active site by non-covalent bonds such as hydrogen bond or hydrophobic interaction. But sometimes a covalent bond can also form between them. For example, the heme in cytochrome C is bound to the protein through thioester bond. In some occasions, coenzymes can leave enzymes after the reaction is finished. Otherwise, they permanently bind to the enzyme. Coenzyme is a board concept which includes metal ions, various vitamins and ATP. If an enzyme needs coenzyme to work itself is termed as apoenzyme. In fact, it alone can not catalyses reaction properly. Only when its cofactor comes in and binds to the active site to form holoenzyme it can work properly. One example of the cofactor is Flavin. It contains a distinct conjugated isoalloxazine ring system. Flavin has multiple redox states and can be used in processes that involve the transfer of one or two electrons.It can act as an electron acceptor in reaction, like the oxidation of NAD to NADH, to accept two electrons and form 1, 5 - dihydroflavin. On the other hand, it can form semiquinone (free radical) by accepting one electron, and then converts to fully reduced form by the addition of an extra electron. This property allows it to be used in one electron oxidation process. Inhibitors disrupt the interaction between enzyme and substrate, slowing down the rate of a reaction. There are different types of inhibitor, including both reversible and irreversible forms. Competitive inhibitors are inhibitors that only target free enzyme molecules. They compete with substrates for free enzyme acceptor and can be overcome by increasing the substrate concentration. They have two mechanisms. Competitive inhibitors usually have structural similarities to the substrates and or ES complex. As a result, they can fit into the active site and trigger favourable interactions to fill in the space and block substrates from entry. They can also induce transient conformational changes in the active site so substrates can not fit perfectly with it. After a short period of time, competitive inhibitors will drop off and leave the enzyme intact. Inhibitors are classified as non-competitive inhibitors when they bind both free enzyme and ES complex. Since they do not compete with substrates for the active site, they can not be overcome by simply increasing the substrate concentration. They usually bind to a different site on the enzyme and alter the 3 - dimensional structure of the active site to block substrates from entry or leaving the enzyme. Irreversible inhibitors are similar to competitive inhibitors as they both bind to the active site. However, the former one then forms irreversible covalent bonds with the amino acid residues in the active site and never leave. Therefore the active site is occupied and the substrate can not enter. Occasionally the inhibitor will leave but the catalytic site is permanently altered in shape. These inhibitors usually contain electrophilic groups like halogen substitutes and epoxides. As time goes by more and more enzymes are bound by irreversible inhibitors and can not function anymore. HIV protease inhibitors are used to treat patients having AIDS virus by preventing its DNA replication. HIV protease is used by the virus to cleave Gag - Pol polyprotein into 3 smaller proteins that are responsible for virion assembly, package and maturation. This enzyme targets the specific phenylalanine - proline cleave site within the target protein. If HIV protease is switched off the virion particle will lose function and can not infect patients. Since it is essential in viral replication and is absent in healthy human, it is an ideal target for drug development. HIV protease belongs to aspartic protease family and has a similar mechanism. Firstly the aspartate residue activates a water molecule and turns it into a nucleophile. Then it attacks the carbonyl group within the peptide bond (NH - CO) to form a tetrahedral intermediate. The nitrogen atom within the intermediate receives a proton, forming an amide group and subsequent rearrangement leads to the break down of the bond between it and the intermediate and forms two products. So inhibitors usually contain a nonhydrolyzable hydroxyethylene or hydroxyethylamine groups that mimic the tetrahedral intermediate. Since they share a similar structure and electrostatic arrangement to the transition state of substrates they can still fit into the active site but can not be broken down. So hydrolysis can not occur. Strychnine is a neurotoxin that causes death by affecting nerves that control muscular contraction and cause respirational difficulty. The impulse is transmitted between the synapse through a neurotransmitter called acetylcholinesterase. it is released into the synapse between nerve cells and bind to receptors in the postsynaptic cell. Then an action potential is generated and transmitted through the postsynaptic cell to start a new cycle. Glycine can inhibit the activity of neurotransmitter receptor, thus a larger amount of acetylcholinesterase is required to trigger an action potential. This makes sure that the generation of nervous impulse is under tight control. However, this control is broken down when strychnine is added. It inhibits glycine receptors (a chloride channel) and a much lower level of neurotransmitter concentration can trigger an action potential. Nerves now constantly transmit signals and cause excessive muscular contraction, leading to asphyxiation and death. Diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DIFP) is an irreversible inhibitor that blocks the action of serine protease. When it binds to the enzyme a nucleophilic substitution reaction occurs and releases one hydrogen fluoride molecule. The OH group in active site acts as a nucleophile to attack the phosphorus in DIFP and form a tetrahedral intermediate and release a proton. Then the P-F bond is broken, one electron is transferred to the F atom and it leaves the intermediate as F anion. It combines with a proton in solution to form one HF molecule. Now there is a covalent bond formed between the active site and DIFP, so the serine side chain is no longer available to the substrate. Identification of active sites is crucial in the process of drug discovery. The 3 - D structure of the enzyme is analysed to identify active sites and design drugs which can fit into them. Proteolytic enzymes are targets for some drugs, such as protease inhibitors, which include drugs against AIDS and hypertension. These protease inhibitors bind to an enzyme 's active site and block interaction with natural substrates. An important factor in drug design is the strength of binding between the active site and an enzyme inhibitor. If the enzyme found in bacteria is significantly different from the human enzyme then an inhibitor can be designed against that particular bacterium without harming the human enzyme. If one kind of enzyme is only present in one kind of organism, its inhibitor can be used to specifically wipe them out. Active sites can be mapped to aid the design of new drugs such as enzyme inhibitors. This involves the description of the size of an active site and the number and properties of sub-sites, such as details of the binding interaction. Modern database technology called CPASS (Comparison of Protein Active Site Structures) however allows the comparison of active sites in more detail and the finding of structural similarity using software. An allosteric site is a site on an enzyme, unrelated to its active site, which can bind an effector molecule. This interaction is another mechanism of enzyme regulation. Allosteric modification usually happens in proteins with more than one subunit. Allosteric interactions are often present in metabolic pathways and are beneficial in that they allow one step of a reaction to regulate another step. They allow an enzyme to have a range of molecular interactions, other than the highly specific active site.