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+{"metadata":{"id":"00840be1ecd0f7b8a04f5fd265971dda","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/173917bc-eda0-4e32-a358-6b0fdeed5f15/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Crop season planning tool: Adjusting sowing decisions to reduce the risk of extreme weather events","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"d0b5344e-1881-402c-80f4-83fd65d7f220","abstract":"P961 -Building foresight portfolio for MAIZE AFS, including synthesis, gap analysis and new studies, as input in conducting priority setting for MAIZE AFS Description of the innovation: Highlights • Crop season planning is a new, free online tool for decision-support in agriculture. • Simulates extreme weather event probabilities during crop development. • Helps minimizes the risk of exposing sensitive development stages to extremes. • Has successfully passed a preliminary test with US agricultural practitioners."}

data/part_1/00e0e875b70ff66195ade153358a7941.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00e0e875b70ff66195ade153358a7941","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/22b31f6d-1d92-44a3-87ce-eeb8a5d29375/retrieve"},"pageCount":23,"title":"The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension Competence for Rural Innovation and Transformation","keywords":["Communication media","cassava","extension communication","media effectiveness","good agriculture","Nigeria"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":230,"text":"The challenge of the rapidly expanding global population with projections of about 10 billion people by 2050 (Bene et al. 2015) raises anxiety about guaranteeing food security soon. Concerning feeding the increasing population, Clapp (2015) noted that only a few countries in the world could be considered self-sufficient in food production, with the African continent accounting for most countries where the food self-sufficiency ratio (SSR) is unacceptable. Nigeria will possibly be among the worst hit by the food insecurity challenge in sub-Saharan Africa, given its population growth rate and the projection to quadruple by the end of this century (Jayne and Ameyaw 2016). Achieving food security in Nigeria requires more investment and innovative agriculture actions since most foodinsecure households depend on agriculture for livelihood (Olaniyan and Fadairo 2019). In recognition of cassava's potential as a major food crop in Nigeria and the leading role played by the nation in total global cassava output (Forsythe, Posthumus, and Martin 2016), the crop has been targeted for widespread promotion and dissemination of new varieties by several regional and local development interventions (Ogunyinka et al. 2018;Ohimain 2015). However, despite extensive efforts to improve productivity through the dissemination of improved technologies, adoption rates have been seriously affected mainly by inadequate extension access, insufficient information (Wossen et al. 2017), severe weed competition with plants and poor agriculture practices in cassava farm management (Soares et al. 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"The problem of weed competition with cassava plants in particular (Soares et al. 2016) coupled with low adoption of improved methods has left the current average yield of cassava tubers lagging behind potential yields. Burgos et al. (2021) noted that weed competition within the first three months of planting cassava could lead to up to 90% reductions in cassava root yield. Kintché et al. (2017) found that the frequency of weed controls carried out during a particular growing period and the timing of each consecutive control measure influence the cassava root yield. They further revealed that fields weeded two or three times were more productive (16 t/ha) than fields weeded only once (12 t/ha). Kintché et al. (2017) concluded that regular weed control within a given period of the cassava cycle positively influences the cassava root yield."},{"index":3,"size":188,"text":"Farmers are not oblivious of the negative effects of weeds and majority of smallholder farmers adopt manual method involving hand pulling and hoe weeding (Ekeleme et al. 2019). Unfortunately, when solely used, this method is likely to be unsustainable due to drudgery and severe health challenges associated with its regular use. Ramahi and Fathallah (2006) noted that agricultural workers performing manual weeding are exposed to high risks of musculoskeletal disorders in the lower back. The intensity of labour required to weed cassava farms for optimum production is because an average smallholder farmer in Africa cultivates up to 5 ha of farmland (Samberg et al. 2016) and is required to weed five times to achieve the expected root yield. Besides the excessive burden on farmers, the challenge of hoe weeding has been linked to school dropouts among children in farm families. Ekeleme et al. (2019) noted that due to manual weeding, children's education is undermined as parents pull them out of school to support weeding. Therefore, as much as weeding is desirable for a good yield, innovative weed management practices with reduced health risks and higher efficiency are critical."},{"index":4,"size":295,"text":"To address the burden of managing weeds sustainably, the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) implemented two projects: The Cassava Weed Management Project and the African Cassava Agronomy Initiative (ACAI). These projects aim to narrow the yield gap in cassava using best practices in cassava weed management among smallholder farmers in Nigeria. The projects developed an innovative toolkit known as Six Steps to Cassava Weed Management & Best Planting Practices (CWM&BPPT) to tackle weeds and boost productivity. The toolkit was piloted in Benue and Oyo states in Nigeria. The two states ranked highly among the 16 states that contribute at least 80% of Nigeria's total cassava production (Wossen et al. 2017). To avoid the challenges of effective communication and extension access that have hindered earlier cassava promotion efforts (Wossen et al. 2017), disseminating the toolkit embraced the use of communication media. These include radio, practical demonstration or 'demo' in this paper, video shows or 'video', telephone call-ins, calendars, and pamphlets. Data on the media influence on improved weed control and agronomy are particularly important, given that there is little well-documented, locally specific data on communication media for enhancing technology and innovation adoption in arable crop farming, especially cassava. The empirical data is also vital to identifying choices and designing the best strategies instead of 'one-size-fits-all' interventions in the cassava industry. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to understand communication media's effects on the uptake of Six Steps to Cassava Weed Management and Best Planting Practices toolkit (CWM&BPPT) in Benue and Oyo states, Nigeria. Specifically, the study investigated the influence of selected communication media on farmers' behavioural attributes (knowledge, attitude and use) towards the toolkit, the challenges cassava farmers face in adopting the recommendations, and the factors influencing the effectiveness of the various communication media."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"This paper contributes to the growing body of knowledge about using different communication technologies to uptake agricultural innovations. This is especially important given that this field of research has received insufficient attention, particularly in a world where communication technologies are changing rapidly. Important locality-specific data that could help in defining choices of communication media for promoting relevant agricultural technology among farmers in Nigeria were also generated."}]},{"head":"Literature review","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Cassava production in Africa: issues and situation Cassava, a perennial root plant, serves the dual purpose of a subsistence and cash crop. It contains about 40% more carbohydrates than rice and 25% more than maize, making it the most affordable source of energy food for both animal and human nutrition (Tonukari 2004). It is also a major source of raw material for animal feed, flour, alcohol, starches, textiles, prepared foods, sweeteners, and bio-degradable products. Cassava's hardy characteristics give it an advantage over maize, rice, and other staples, especially in places characterized by diminishing resource-pool, unpredictable climate and poor market structures. Due to its tolerance for drought and poor soil situations, cassava can be cultivated in generally harsh ecologies though it does well on irrigated farms or in higher rainfall regions (Agricultural Research Council 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"Cassava originated from South America and was introduced to Africa in the Democratic Republic of Congo by the Portuguese slave traders to obviate the scourge of famine caused by a prolonged dry spell and locust infestation on farms (Nweke 2005). Today, Africa plays a major role in cassava production, contributing almost half of its global output (Nweke 2005). After maize, cassava is Africa's most important staple food providing the most carbohydrates to people and is a major source of calorie intake for more than five hundred million people (Agricultural Research Council 2014). The Agricultural Research Council (2014) noted that Africa was responsible for nearly 54% of the world cassava harvest during the year 2000, while Asia and the Latin America/Caribbean represented 28% and 19%, respectively. Currently, Nigeria, which produces almost 35% of the total worldwide output and 19% of the total African output, is the leading global producer of cassava, followed by the Republic of Congo and Tanzania (Scott 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":214,"text":"Trends in cassava production show that production has more than tripled between 1980 and 2005 (Nhassico et al. 2008) due to the expansion of land size cultivated, improved processing technology, better market linkage roads, the food crisis of the 1980s and population growth (Nweke 2005). Despite increasing output, Shackelford et al. (2018) noted that global average root yields of cassava of 11.6 t/ha remain much lower than potential yields of more than 60 t/ha. This situation of low cassava yields compared to realizable potential is also an issue in Nigeria despite the country being the world's largest producer. The cassava industry's major challenge in Africa has been its neglect by researchers, policy-makers and donor agencies, causing a paucity of information on the crop. According to Nweke (2005), this neglect was due to the perception of cassava as an inferior food and uncompetitive commodity compared with other food items such as rice. Recently, challenges to cassava production include weed competition with plants and cyanogenic glucosides in its leaves and roots that are dangerous for human consumption (Nhassico et al. 2008). Combating cassava weed problems by promoting the best agronomic practices in cassava farming remains critical, especially for Africa, given the projected population increase to nearly 10 billion people worldwide in 2050 (Searchinger et al. 2019)."}]},{"head":"Conceptual framework","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":167,"text":"A conceptual framework was developed to understand the links between the agricultural innovation (CWM&BPPT) and cassava issues in Nigeria (Figure 1). In Nigeria, as is common in other cassava producing countries in Africa, the major issue confronting the cassava industry is the low root yield obtained in most smallholder farms. The smallholder farmers who account for the bulk of the cassava root production in Nigeria produce below optimum capacity; the average yield is less than the potential yield. The cassava root yield paradox in Nigeria can be explained by several factors such as weed competition with cassava plants, poor agronomic practices of farmers, depleting soil nutrients, and inadequate production technology. Apart from the poor yield of roots, the impact of these limiting factors on the cassava industry is also manifest in the low income realized by smallholder farmers from tuber sales, which is not usually commensurate with the labour required in the production process. The CWM&BPPT evolved to address these challenges. The toolkit comprises two broad components:"},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"It was disseminated to smallholder cassava farmers in two pilot states in Nigeria using different extension communication channels. The overarching goal is to improve cassava farmers' understanding and build their capacity to attain optimum cassava yield. If this is achieved, farmers will make more income. Attainment of this goal, however, hinges on the effectiveness of extension dissemination of the toolkit. The scale-up of the toolkit's extension dissemination in Nigeria needs to be guided by understanding the appropriate communication media mix for engendering effective behavioural change among cassava farmers."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"The study area"},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"The study was conducted in Benue and Oyo states, Nigeria. These states were purposively selected due to their leading roles in cassava production in the northern and southern regions of Nigeria, respectively. The states are described as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"Oyo State: Oyo State is located at Latitude N 8 °7.174' and Longitude E3 °25.1732' in southwestern Nigeria, with its capital in Ibadan. The state, mostly a rainforest region, shares a boundary with Kwara, Osun, and Ogun states in its northern, eastern, and southern parts, respectively. In the west, it is bounded by Ogun State and by the Republic of Benin (Kolawole and Oladele 2013). With a population of about 6,617,70, the state covers about 28,454 km 2 of land and is ranked 14th by size compared with other states in Nigeria (National Population Commission 2007). Oyo State is mainly inhabited by the Yoruba people, primarily farmers. Common food crops grown in the state include cassava, yam, maize, and soybean."},{"index":4,"size":134,"text":"Benue State: Benue State, a woody savanna region, is located in the north-central part of Nigeria at Latitude N 7°19'59.99' and Longitude E 8°45'0.00'. The state population of about 4,253,641 occupies a total land area of 300,955 km 2 (National Population Commission 2007). Its capital is Makurdi and it shares boundaries with Kogi, Nasarawa, and Taraba states to the west, north, and northeast, respectively. It is bounded by Cross River, Ebonyi, and Enugu states to the south (Adaikwu and Ali 2013). The state is home to the famous River Benue, a common border with Cameroon, where the Mokamoun River takes its root. Benue State is inhabited by the Tiv, Igede, and Idoma peoples, known for farming. Commonly grown crops include cotton, cassava, maize, sesame seed, soybean, yam, shea nut, sorghum, millet, peanut, and rice."}]},{"head":"Sampling procedure","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"The study used a causal research design involving project participant and non-participant assessment post-intervention. This provided the basis for assessing how the different media influenced respondents' behaviour towards the CWM&BPPT by comparing the treatment and the control groups. The causal research design has been widely used by researchers attempting to establish a cause-effect relationship between certain variables. In the context of this work, the variables are choice of communication channels and adoption of agricultural innovation. Erickson (2017) rated this research design as unique in that it offers new approaches that can unobtrusively test responses in both the real world (field experiments) and virtual environments (laboratory experiments). Data were collected from 915 smallholder cassava farmers comprising 725 project participants (farmers exposed to the toolkit) and 190 non-participants in the study area. This study did not consider an even split between treatment and control groups in terms of numbers to reach more farmers with the innovation."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"Nonetheless, the treatment-control size used in this study is within what is statistically acceptable in causal research design. White and Mark (2020) noted that a 25-30% range of control size is good enough. The respondents were sampled using a multistage sampling procedure. The first stage involved a purposive sampling of 13 Local Government Areas in Oyo State and nine in Benue State based on the prominence of smallholder cassava farming (Figure 2). Using the same rationale, 59 cassava farming communities were sampled, representing 31 in Oyo State and 28 in Benue State. Out of the sampled cassava farming communities in Oyo State, nine were exposed to the toolkit using video (Figure 3), eight with radio, and six with practical demonstration. The other eight communities had no exposure to serve as the control group. In Benue State, 12 cassava producing communities were exposed to the toolkit using video, five using radio, and seven through practical demonstration, while four communities also served as the control."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"The intervention content was the same for the radio, video, and practical demonstration channels. The message generally included information on the importance of effective weed control in cassava farms and the steps involved starting from land preparation to harvesting. The development and implementation of the video, radio, and demo intervention package were done by the Cassava Weed Management Project, and the African Cassava Agronomy Initiative Project in collaboration with experts from the Agricultural Extension Department at the University of Ibadan and the Agricultural Development Programme officers in Oyo and Benue states. The video on the intervention was shown to target farmers in their groups using the projector and screen."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Copies of the video were also shared with the farmers on their mobile phones to reinforce their knowledge of the message. The radio message was broadcast as an advertisement on popular community radio stations in the target communities. In communities where the demo channel was used, demonstration plots were established near the farms of the target farmers."},{"index":5,"size":194,"text":"The availability of local resources to support the media used and the degree to which each media was accessible to the farmers guide the choice of the communication channel in each community. For instance, communities near a community radio station were preferred for radio intervention. Intervention and follow-up activities on the toolkit were carried out using the various media channels in the identified farming communities for twelve months, after which the respondents were selected for post-intervention assessment. Also, to reduce the effects of possible diffusion of messages from participants to non-participants, which might interfere with the outcomes of this study, communities with considerable distance from each intervention location were preferred as a control. The sampling of respondents post-intervention was guided by Krejcie and Morgan's (1970) table for determining the sample size for a given population. Hence, a representative proportion (30%) of smallholder cassava farmers exposed to the various communication media and from the control communities were sampled using a simple random sampling technique. This gives 303 respondents across the video communities, 196 across radio, 226 across demonstration, and 190 across the control communities in both states. Data were collected between April and July 2020."}]},{"head":"Procedures for data collection and analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":302,"text":"Data were collected using a structured questionnaire using computer-assisted personal interview software [ODK] (Figure 4). The draft questionnaire was subjected to face and content validation procedures by extension communication experts in the IITA and University of Ibadan. A reliability test was also conducted using the split-half method. The reliability coefficient of 0.91 obtained confirmed that the instrument was reliable for the study. Farmers' personal and enterprise characteristics; knowledge, attitude, and practice of the toolkit; and the challenges faced in adopting the toolkit in their cassava enterprises were evaluated. Knowledge of the toolkit was measured by asking respondents 22 knowledge questions derived from the toolkit recommendations. The items were measured using a combination of Yes and No options, and multiplechoice and open-end questions. Correct responses were scored 1 and incorrect 0. Similar procedures were used to gauge the extent of the respondents' use of the toolkit recommendations on a scale of 20 items. Respondents' knowledge scores were classified as either low or high using the mean score. Attitude towards the toolkit was determined by presenting respondents with 18 attitudinal items on a five-point Likert-type scale of strongly agree to strongly disagree. The most positive attitude was scored 5, while the most negative attitude attracted a score of 1. Respondents were classified as having a favourable or unfavourable attitude using the mean attitude scores as a benchmark. Difficulties in adopting the toolkit were identified by asking respondents to identify what they considered challenges and rank them as severe or mild by awarding 2 and 1, respectively. Weighted mean values for each constraint item were used to discuss the findings. Data collected were analyzed and summarized using descriptive statistics such as frequency counts, percentages, and mean. Analysis of variance and multivariate probit regression were used to test the influence and effectiveness of the various media."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"Although the multinomial probit can be used to measure decision choices used by farmers, it is limited in making interpretations for the simultaneous influences of explanatory variables on each dependent variable (the endogeneity problem cannot be addressed using multinomial probit). This is because farmers' decision choices are either substitutive or supplementary to one another (Feleke et al. 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"Following Lin, Jensen, and Yen (2005), the MVP model for this study is characterized by a set of m binary dependent variables Y hj such that:"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"(1)"},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Where j = 1, 2 . ..m denotes the type of communication strategy available; X hj is a vector of explanatory variables, βj denotes the vector of the parameter to be estimated, and u hj are random error terms distributed as a multivariate normal distribution with zero mean and unitary variance. It is assumed that a rational h th farmer has a latent variable, Y hj, which captures the unobserved preferences or demand associated with the jth choice of communication strategy."}]},{"head":"Dependent variables","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The dependent variables included in the analysis are the communication strategies used by farmers in the study: Listening to Radio; Watching Video; On-Farm demonstrations, and Control."}]},{"head":"Independent variables","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The independent variables in the model included socioeconomic variables such as age, gender, education, family size, occupation, farm labour, membership of farmers' organizations, cassava farm size, cassava output and training. These variables were included in the model based on the conceptual framework and previous studies in the area."}]},{"head":"Results","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Socioeconomic characteristics of the farmers","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":340,"text":"Table 1 shows the respondents' distribution by their socioeconomic characteristics. Almost half of the project participants (45.8%) and non-participants (51.1%) were less than 41 years old, while a few were above 60. The farmers' average age was 44 for the CWMP project beneficiaries and 42 for the non-beneficiaries. The age distribution suggests that the cassava farmers in the study area were primarily young adults. The younger generation's involvement in farming confers several advantages, including innovativeness and sustainability of the agriculture systems (North and Smallbone 2006). About 70% of the farmers from both categories were male and had an average family size of nine. Male dominance in primary agricultural production processes is well documented in the literature (De Brauw 2015), while females are usually more involved in processing and marketing activities. The lower involvement of females in primary production is probably due to drudgery associated with land tillage, planting, and weeding operations in producing many crops (Lu 2007). It might also be due to men's frontal roles in the decision-making process, which could have positioned them better than the women to answer questions in this survey (Fadairo and Keita 2021). Regarding education, 65.9% of participants and 70.0% of non-participants had either primary or secondary school education and were full-time farmers (> 70%). Only very few (< 20%) of the farmers from the two groups were not exposed to formal education, suggesting a moderately literate population of farmers in the study locations. This result is consistent with recent findings on the literacy level of farmers in Nigeria (Fadairo, Williams, and Nalwanga 2019), suggesting an increasing awareness of the importance of formal education among the farming population. Education influences the adoption of innovative agricultural practices (Long, Blok, and Coninx 2016). Both family and hired labour was used by most farmers (66.3%) who participated in the toolkit and 43.7% of the non-participants. The use of family labour in farming has been an age-long tradition in smallholder agriculture, caused mainly by poor mechanization. This situation has often underlined the tendency of smallholder farmers to marry "}]},{"head":"Improvement in farmers' behaviour towards the CWM&BPPT","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":251,"text":"Table 2 presents a comparative assessment of the farmers exposed to the CWM&BPPT agricultural innovation (using video, radio, and demo) and the control group in terms of their behavioural attributes towards the toolkit. The table shows that all the toolkit participating farmers were better-off in their knowledge, attitude, practice, and overall behaviour towards the intervention than non-participant farmers. For all the parameters (except for attitude), more than half the project participants performed above average, while the non-participant farmers were mostly at a low ebb for each parameter (except for knowledge). For instance, 56.4% of the farmers exposed to the toolkit adopted and practiced the recommendations, while most non-participant farmers (67.4%) were still involved in the old practices. These results show a clearer improvement in the behaviour of the farmers exposed to the Cassava Weed Management Project intervention towards the project recommendations than those not directly exposed. Hence, suggesting a positive influence of the communication media used in the intervention. The potency of video messages shared by mobile phones for encouraging uptake of innovation was explained by Birukila et al. (2017) where an audio-visual clip about polio vaccine safety was found to enhance the spread and use of behavioural health messages in low-literacy communities in Northern Nigeria. In a similar vein, Sousa, Nicolay, and Home (2019), Saaka et al. (2021) and Hollywood et al. (2018) confirmed the effectiveness of video, radio and demonstration channels, respectively, for delivering behaviour change interventions to various target audiences. Constraints faced by farmers in utilizing the CWM&BPPT"},{"index":2,"size":168,"text":"The results in Table 3 show the various constraints the farmers faced in using the recommended technology. Generally, the constraints are classified into 14 categories. The most-mentioned constraint was non-availability of recommended herbicides, indicated as a severe constraint by about 36% of respondents. This suggests the inability of the herbicide companies to meet up with the expectation of the respondents. It is only recommendations that are available that can be utilized. This result resonates with the submission of Loevinsohn et al. (2013) that farmers' decisions about a new technology adoption are influenced by the dynamics of the technology features and the range of situations and environments. The foregoing justifies the argument of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), which emphasises facilitating conditions as an important construct in determining user intention and behaviour towards any technology or innovation (Venkatesh, Thong, and Xu 2012). Facilitating conditions in this context would be providing support services that could make the recommended herbicides easily accessible to the target farmers."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"The next major constraint is the relatively high cost of the recommendations. This was mentioned as a severe constraint by about a third of the respondents (30%). Economic issues dominate the decision of farmers to either adopt or decline to adopt based on the cost of the technology. The third major constraint category is the low compatibility of the recommendations with local conditions mentioned as severe by about 19% of the respondents. This corroborates that any technology adopted must be understood and compatible with current local practices. The degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, needs and past experiences of potential adopters (compatibility) has been emphasised in the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as a key factor influencing the adoption behaviour of people (Lee, Kozar, and Larsen 2003)."}]},{"head":"Influence of communication channels on farmers' behaviour towards the CWM&BPPT","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":214,"text":"Table 4 reveals the difference in respondents' knowledge, attitude, practice, and behaviour towards the toolkit influenced by the media channels used. It is important to note that the content delivered in each channel was the same. This means that the influence (whether the content was persuasive and/or informative) was dependent on how the content was delivered. There was a statistically significant difference between the channels as determined by the one-way ANOVA for knowledge (F = 53.774; p < 0.001); attitude (F = 14.634; p < 0.001), practice (F = 96.358; p < 0.001), and behaviour (F = 56.763; p < 0.001) towards the toolkit. The results imply that the channels are different in their influence on the farmers. Hence, as confirmed by the Duncan Multiple range test (Table 5), the various communication channels deliver in statistically significantly different ways regarding the respondents' knowledge levels, attitude, practice, and  behaviour. For instance, the influence of demonstration and video on farmers' knowledge of cassava agronomy differs significantly from the radio and control groups. The mean influence of demonstration (17.6) and video (17.5) on the respondents' knowledge was significantly higher than in the radio (17.2) and control (16.7) groups. A similar trend was observed for other parameters such as attitude, practice, and behaviour towards the cassava agronomy initiative."}]},{"head":"Factors influencing media channels effects on farmers' responses towards the CWM&BPPT","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"The regression model (Table 6) is a good fit for the model, as attested to by the log-likelihood and Wald's chi-square, which is statistically significant at the 1.00 percent level."},{"index":2,"size":300,"text":"The correlation coefficients are statistically different from zero in four out of the six combinations of the dependent variables (media methods) included in the model. The Wald's test for the hypothesis that all coefficients in each equation are jointly equal to zero is rejected, suggesting that the variables included in the model explain significant portions of the variations in the dependent variables. The respondents' family size influenced all the media channels; however, the influence is positive for radio and video but inverse for demonstration and control groups. In essence, larger families were likelier to listen to the radio or watch videos. In comparison, smaller families were more likely to be attuned to demonstrations. Also, possession of a larger cassava farm size and higher cassava output increased the likelihood of using radio as a medium. However, the education level of the respondents does not need to be high for radio to be effective as a medium; neither do the respondents need to be a member of a farm organization to use radio. In other words, both the literate and non-literate farmers had the same degree of likelihood to listen to radio and ditto for the farmers who either did or did not belong to an association. This finding is consistent with earlier reports on radio listenership by farmers in Nigeria (Fadairo, Olajide, and Yahaya 2011;Fadairo and Oyelami 2019), which asserted a preference for radio as a communication channel among all categories of farmers. As regards the video, while larger families were more likely to watch videos, participation in training and being a part-time farmer also increased the likelihood of watching videos. However, respondents do not need to be a member of a farmer organization; neither do they need to have a large farm size before using video as an effective medium."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"In terms of demonstration plots, smaller families and female farmers were more likely to use demonstration as a medium for accessing information on innovation. As for the control sites, in addition to smaller family size, other factors that affected the influence of the zero treatment on the respondents' behavioural traits included: the age of the respondents, level of education, occupation, type of farm labour, training in cassava weed management method and cassava farm size. In other words, the respondents' use of family and hired labour, use of other family members, cultivation of bigger cassava farm sizes and participation in training (through the diffusion of lessons) influenced effectiveness in the group."},{"index":4,"size":133,"text":"Table 7 shows the relatedness of the various media used in the model. Only four of these are statistically significant. These are the relationship between video and radio σ 21 which is negative and significant at 5%, thus suggesting that both radio and video media are substitutes that do not flow together as media to be used simultaneously for this process. The use of video and demo (σ 32 ) , control and video (σ 42 ), as well as control and video (σ 43 ), are, however, positive and statistically significant, suggesting that they are all complementary media that can be used together effectively. It is to be noted that the relationship between control and video is statistically significant at 10%, while the other two are highly significant at the 1.00% level."}]},{"head":"Further discussion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":239,"text":"Effectiveness of the CWM&BPPT Improving farmers' behaviour towards innovative agricultural practices is the overall purpose of every extension communication effort (Leeuwis 2013). Hence, extension workers constantly seek to know how to reach clientele with relevant messages effectively and efficiently. Differences in culture, norms, social values, and value systems from one community to another (Olawoye 2019) means that extension interventions should be tailor-made (including innovative technology and its communication methods) for different social systems to achieve effective technology uptake and continued adoption. This is more critical as adoption or non-adoption of agricultural innovation has been partly hinged on information factors (Wossen et al. 2017). In this study, most cassava farmers who were directly exposed to the toolkit fared better in all their behavioural attributes than non-participant farmers (Table 2). The fact that the CWMP participants were significantly better than the non-participants across the parameters of knowledge, attitude, practice, and behaviour towards improved agriculture practices for cassava production (Table 5) further establishes that the improvement witnessed by the project participants was not marginal but clear. Also, given the similarity of the CWMP participant and the non-participant farmers in socioeconomic characteristics (Table 1), the differences in their responses to the IITA CWMP project can be adduced mainly to the effects of the 'treatment' received by the participant farmers. Hence, the various communication media used for disseminating recommendations on improved weed management and good agricultural practices for cassava farming can be adjudged effective."}]},{"head":"Media use for promoting CWM&BPPT: what are the right choices?","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"The media channels used in this study vary in their impact and effectiveness in promoting behavioural change among the cassava farmers (Table 4). Demonstration and video media had the highest degree of impact on the farmers' knowledge and overall behaviour towards the disseminated technology. For promoting attitudinal change and practice of improved weed management and good agricultural recommendations of CWMP, the demo was positively outstanding among other media channels, while video followed. Generally, radio was the least effective among the media channels used in this study (Table 5). This implies that radio might be more relevant for creating awareness about agricultural innovation among farmers than for transferring skills or practical-based agricultural recommendations. This supports Nwagbara and Nwagbara's (2017) assertion on the relevance of radio in agricultural development."},{"index":2,"size":245,"text":"From the preceding, demo was the best medium for disseminating the CWMP recommendations on improved weed management and good agricultural practices in cassava farming to the farmers in the study locations. Video may be the next alternative when demo is unavailable or impossible to use. This result is consistent with Parimi, Kotamraju, and Sudini (2018). In a study in Anantapur (India), they observed that crop farmers responded better to field demonstrations. The demo was most likely effective due to its advantages in terms of direct physical contact with extension workers, better interactivity of the medium, and its convincing potential as farmers could see how outcomes would look in their situation (environment) (Mgbenka, Agwu, and Ajani 2013). However, due to the shortage of extension workers, as evident by the low margin of extension agents and farm family ratio in most parts of Africa, the continued reliance on the demo medium may not be feasible. For example, on average and across Nigeria, the Agricultural Development Programmes's extension agents: farm families ratio ranged from 1:1700-1:2132; 1:3385; 1:2950 and 1: 3011 between 2008 and 2012 (Haruna and Abdullahi 2013). This implies that extension workers must renew emphasis on video as an alternative to one-on-one contact with farmers in agricultural technology dissemination. In addition, following the assertion that combining two or more extension methods enhances the effectiveness of innovation dissemination (Kassem 2014) in extension work, this study shows that Demo and Video are complementary and can be used together effectively."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and recommendations","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":204,"text":"The dissemination of agricultural innovation on the Six Steps to Cassava Weed Management and Best Planting Practices toolkit was effective in the study locations. The communication media used for the innovation dissemination effectively promoted positive behavioural change among the cassava farmers. This is evident from the clear difference between the farmers exposed to the innovation and those that were not, in terms of knowledge, attitude, and use of the improved weed management practices. While the practical demonstration mostly influenced good agricultural practices among the cassava farmers involved in the project, the radio elicited a minor effect. Video messages shared by mobile phones to encourage the uptake of innovation had a moderate effect on the uptake of agricultural innovation among the sources used in the study. Understandably, due to the associated cost of personnel, the practical demonstration is expensive and may be difficult to rely upon for innovation dissemination, especially in communities with a low extension worker-farmer ratio. Therefore, a communication media mix of practical demonstrations and video shows/messages shared via mobile phones would produce optimum effects on farmers' behavioural change towards agricultural innovation. Hence, it is recommended that agricultural extension practitioners prioritize this combination for disseminating good agricultural practices in cassava farming to farmers."}]},{"head":"Ethical considerations","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The researchers obtained permission to conduct the study from the village authorities. Individual verbal consent was also obtained from the study participants before participating in the survey. All information was kept confidential, and the data were analyzed anonymously."}]},{"head":"Disclosure statement","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors)."}]},{"head":"Funding","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"This work was supported by Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation: [Grant Number OPP1130649]. "}]},{"head":"Notes on contributors","index":20,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Farmers watching the Six Steps to Cassava Weed Management & Best Planting Practices video in Tarka community, Benue State, Nigeria. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Conceptual framework. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Map showing the study sites. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Enumerator with a cassava farmer in Atisbo community, Oyo State, during data collection. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents. Variables Participants  Non-participants VariablesParticipantsNon-participants  F % F % F%F% Age (years)     Age (years) ≤ 30 153 21.1 44 23.2 ≤ 3015321.14423.2 31-40 179 24.7 53 27.9 31-4017924.75327.9 41-50 179 24.7 46 24.2 41-5017924.74624.2 51-60 115 15.9 29 15.3 51-6011515.92915.3 > 60 99 13.7 18 9.5 > 609913.7189.5 Mean 44.2 ± 14.4  42.6 ± 13.1  Mean44.2 ± 14.442.6 ± 13.1 Sex     Sex Male 499 68.8 131 68.9 Male49968.813168.9 Female 226 31.2 59 31.1 Female22631.25931.1 Family size (persons)     Family size (persons) ≤ 5 202 27.9 76 40.0 ≤ 520227.97640.0 6-10 397 54.8 80 42.1 6-1039754.88042.1 11-15 88 12.1 27 14.2 11-158812.12714.2 16-20 22 3.0 1 0.5 16-20223.010.5 ≥ 20 16 2.2 6 3.2 ≥ 20162.263.2 Mean 9.0 ± 11.9  8.8 ± 14.7  Mean9.0 ± 11.98.8 ± 14.7 Educational attainment     Educational attainment No formal education 125 17.2 29 15.3 No formal education12517.22915.3 Primary 192 26.5 55 28.9 Primary19226.55528.9 Secondary 286 39.4 78 41.1 Secondary28639.47841.1 Tertiary 109 15.0 26 13.7 Tertiary10915.02613.7 Others 13 1.8 2 1.1 Others131.821.1 Occupation     Occupation Partial farmer 105 14.5 49 25.8 Partial farmer10514.54925.8 Full time farmer 620 85.5 141 74.2 Full time farmer62085.514174.2 Types of farm labour used     Types of farm labour used Family members 91 12.6 67 35.3 Family members9112.66735.3 Hired 153 21.1 40 21.1 Hired15321.14021.1 Both 481 66.3 83 43.7 Both48166.38343.7 Membership in Farmer organization 369 50.9 90 47.4 Membership in Farmer organization36950.99047.4 Intercrop cassava with maize 540 74.5 153 80.5 Intercrop cassava with maize54074.515380.5 Heard or participated in cassava weed training 686 94.6 60 31.6 Heard or participated in cassava weed training68694.66031.6 Average reported farm size (ha) 4.4 ± 5.6  3.8 ± 5.5  Average reported farm size (ha)4.4 ± 5.63.8 ± 5.5  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Farmers knowledge, attitude, and practice of Six Steps to Cassava Weed Management & Best Planting Practices toolkit by media channels used for intervention.   All Participants Non-participants  All ParticipantsNon-participants Attributes Categories (%) (%) Statistic AttributesCategories(%)(%)Statistic   Video+ Radio+ Demo Control  Video+ Radio+ DemoControl Knowledge Low 10.6 42.1 Min = 13, KnowledgeLow10.642.1Min = 13,  High 89.4 57.9 Max = 18, High89.457.9Max = 18,     Mean = 17.3 ± 8.5. Mean = 17.3 ± 8.5. Attitude Unfavourable 52.6 80.0 Min = 21, AttitudeUnfavourable52.680.0Min = 21,  Favourable 47.4 20.0 Max = 90, Favourable47.420.0Max = 90,     Mean = 55.6 ± 6.8. Mean = 55.6 ± 6.8. Practice Low 43.6 67.4 Min = 0, PracticeLow43.667.4Min = 0,  High 56.4 32.6 Max = 20, High56.432.6Max = 20,     Mean = 11 ± 4.7. Mean = 11 ± 4.7. Behaviour Unfavourable 42.3 73.2 Min = 44, BehaviourUnfavourable42.373.2Min = 44,  Favourable 57.7 26.8 Max = 116, Favourable57.726.8Max = 116,     Mean = 84 ± 8.8. Mean = 84 ± 8.8.  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Constraints faced in utilizing the cassava agronomy recommended practices.   Negligible Mild Severe  NegligibleMildSevere S/N Statements (paraphrased) (%) (%) (%) Mean S/NStatements (paraphrased)(%)(%)(%)Mean 1 Recommended herbicides not readily available 42.5 21.5 36.0 0.93 1Recommended herbicides not readily available42.521.536.00.93 2 Venue not conducive for the training 65.2 20.0 14.8 0.50 2Venue not conducive for the training65.220.014.80.50 3 Poor and ineffective delivery by the facilitator 68.4 14.0 17.6 0.49 3Poor and ineffective delivery by the facilitator68.414.017.60.49 4 Training materials not very explicit 59.6 23.1 17.4 0.50 4Training materials not very explicit59.623.117.40.50 5 Tools used not user friendly 57.4 25.4 17.3 0.60 5Tools used not user friendly57.425.417.30.60 6 Poor compatibility of recommendations with local conditions 56.9 23.7 19.3 0.62 6Poor compatibility of recommendations with local conditions56.923.719.30.62 7 Recommendations are expensive to adopt 42.5 27.1 30.4 0.88 7Recommendations are expensive to adopt42.527.130.40.88 8 Timing of the training was not appropriate 65.0 18.8 16.2 0.51 8Timing of the training was not appropriate65.018.816.20.51 9 Process not interactive or participatory 70.4 13.3 16.3 0.46 9Process not interactive or participatory70.413.316.30.46 10 Too much use of unfamiliar/technical terms 70.2 13.7 16.2 0.46 10Too much use of unfamiliar/technical terms70.213.716.20.46 11 messages disseminated not understandable 67.8 15.0 17.3 0.50 11messages disseminated not understandable67.815.017.30.50 12 Inadequate funds 77.9 22.1 0 0.44 12Inadequate funds77.922.100.44 13 Lack/poor access to tractors 97.3 2.7 0 0.05 13Lack/poor access to tractors97.32.700.05 14 Herdsmen attack 98.3 1.7 0 0.03 14Herdsmen attack98.31.700.03  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Difference in respondents' knowledge, attitude, practice, and behaviour towards the Six Steps to Cassava Weed Management & Best Planting Practices toolkit as influenced by channels used.  Groups Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p-value GroupsSum of SquaresdfMean SquareFp-value Knowledge Between groups 99.825 3 33.278 53.774* 0.000 KnowledgeBetween groups99.825333.27853.774*0.000  Within groups 563.723 911 0.619   Within groups563.7239110.619  Total 663.548 914    Total663.548914 Attitude Between groups 1953.717 3 651.239 14.634* 0.000 AttitudeBetween groups1953.7173651.23914.634*0.000  Within groups 40,541.594 911 44.502   Within groups40,541.59491144.502  Total 42,495.311 914    Total42,495.311914 Practice Between groups 4953.487 3 1651.162 96.358* 0.000 PracticeBetween groups4953.48731651.16296.358*0.000  Within groups 15,610.552 911 17.136   Within groups15,610.55291117.136  Total 20,564.039 914    Total20,564.039914 Behaviour Between groups 1196.246 3 3732.082 56.763* 0.000 BehaviourBetween groups1196.24633732.08256.763*0.000  Within groups 59,896.508 911 65.748   Within groups59,896.50891165.748  Total 71,092.754 914    Total71,092.754914 *Significant at 5%. Data generated by the author from a Field Survey    *Significant at 5%. Data generated by the author from a Field Survey  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Duncan's multiple range test showing mean separations for knowledge, attitude, practice, and behaviour towards the Six Steps to Cassava Weed Management & Best Planting Practices toolkit as influenced by channels used. Variable/ Channels N  Subset for alpha = .05 Variable/ ChannelsNSubset for alpha = .05 Knowledge  1 2 3 4 Knowledge1234 Control group 190 16.7000   Control group19016.7000 Radio 196  17.2296  Radio19617.2296 Video show 303   17.5182 Video show30317.5182 Demo 226   17.5664 Demo22617.5664 Sig.  1.000 1.000 0.519 Sig.1.0001.0000.519 Attitude     Attitude Control group 190 54.0211   Control group19054.0211 Radio 196 54.8944 54.8944  Radio19654.894454.8944 Video show 303  55.5752  Video show30355.5752 Demo 226   58.2041 Demo22658.2041 Sig.  0.169 0.284 1.000 Sig.0.1690.2841.000 Practice     Practice Control group 190 8.1632   Control group1908.1632 Radio 196  9.8911  Radio1969.8911 Video show 303   11.9337 Video show30311.9337 Demo 226    14.5796 Demo22614.5796 Sig.  1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 Sig.1.0001.0001.0001.000 Behaviour     Behaviour Control group 190 78.8842   Control group19078.8842 Radio 196  82.3036  Radio19682.3036 Video show 303   87.3673 Video show30387.3673 Demo 226   87.7212 Demo22687.7212 Sig.  1.000 1.000 0.646 Sig.1.0001.0000.646  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Factors influencing the effectiveness of media channels. Variable Radio σ 1 Video σ 2 Demo σ 3 Control σ 4 VariableRadio σ 1Video σ 2Demo σ 3Control σ 4 Age -0.2114 -0.1894 -0.0744 0.5283*** Age-0.2114-0.1894-0.07440.5283*** Gender 0.1781 0.0996 -0.5231*** -0.0266 Gender0.17810.0996-0.5231***-0.0266 Family size 0.3127*** 0.3958*** -0.3014*** -0.3762*** Family size0.3127***0.3958***-0.3014***-0.3762*** Education -0.1094** -0.0517 -0.0995** 0.2084*** Education-0.1094**-0.0517-0.0995**0.2084*** Occupation 0.1526 -0.4056** 0.1056 0.3227*** Occupation0.1526-0.4056**0.10560.3227*** Farm labour -0.1526** -0.0159 0.0329 0.1717** Farm labour-0.1526**-0.01590.03290.1717** Membership of farmers Organization 0.6678*** -0.7782*** 0.2909** 0.0691 Membership of farmers Organization0.6678***-0.7782***0.2909**0.0691 Cassava farm size 0.4062*** -0.1659** 0.1315** 0.3298*** Cassava farm size0.4062***-0.1659**0.1315**0.3298*** Cassava output 0.1602*** -0.0381 -0.0396 -0.1362*** Cassava output0.1602***-0.0381-0.0396-0.1362*** Training 0.1761 2.0971*** 1.4603*** 1.7938*** Training0.17612.0971***1.4603***1.7938*** Constant 0.1180 0.5236 -0.7174 -3.8305*** Constant0.11800.5236-0.7174-3.8305*** Wald chi (36) 343.32    Wald chi (36)343.32 Prob > chi 2 0.0000***    Prob > chi 20.0000*** Log likelihood -1215.2996    Log likelihood-1215.2996 No. observation 562    No. observation562 *, **, *** indicate significance at the 10%, 5%, and 1% alpha levels, respectively.   *, **, *** indicate significance at the 10%, 5%, and 1% alpha levels, respectively.  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Correlation coefficients of the media channels. Parameter Coefficient Standard error ParameterCoefficientStandard error σ 21 -0.2302*** 0.0761 σ 21-0.2302***0.0761 σ 31 0.0495 0.0738 σ 310.04950.0738 σ 41 0.1047 0.0735 σ 410.10470.0735 σ 32 0.2337*** 0.0795 σ 320.2337***0.0795 σ 42 0.1439* 0.0828 σ 420.1439*0.0828 σ 43 0.2873*** 0.0703 σ 430.2873***0.0703 *, **, *** indicate significance at the 10%, 5% and 1% alpha levels, respectively. LRT σ 21 = *, **, *** indicate significance at the 10%, 5% and 1% alpha levels, respectively. LRT σ 21 = σ 31 = σ 41 = σ 32 = σ 42 = σ 43 = 0; Chi2(6) = 32.564; Prob > chi2 = 0.0000  σ 31 = σ 41 = σ 32 = σ 42 = σ 43 = 0; Chi2(6) = 32.564; Prob > chi2 = 0.0000  "},{"text":" Godwin Liambunde Atser is an Agricultural Economist/Extension and Rural Development Expert at IITA. Alfred Dixon is a Director for Development and Delivery at IITA. Friday Ekeleme is a Professor and Weed Scientist at IITA. Stefan Hauser is an Agronomist at IITA. Olushola Fadairo is a Senior Lecturer/Researcher in Agricultural Extension and Rural Development at the University of Ibadan. Adegbenga Adekoya is a Professor and Principal Investigator at the Innovation Lab for Policy Leadership in Agriculture and Food Security, University of Ibadan. Adeolu Babatunde Ayanwale is a Professor of Agricultural Economics at the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.  "}],"sieverID":"946ce114-f3a5-4eaa-9767-755dc035c1dd","abstract":"Purpose: Poor uptake of agricultural innovations on weed management practices is a major factor responsible for low productivity. This paper examines how communication media can help improve farmers' adoption behaviour. Methodology: A sample of 725 Nigerian cassava farmers, exposed to agricultural innovation on weed management practices from varying sources, were asked, through a structured questionnaire, to indicate their knowledge, attitudes, and practices of cassava weed management. The responses were compared with a sample of 190 cassava farmers who were not exposed to the information (control group). The data were analysed using frequency counts, percentages, mean, analysis of variance, and multivariate probit regression. Findings: Farmers exposed to the agricultural innovation in weed management practices indicated more positive behaviour (57.7%) towards improved weed management practices than the control group (26.8%). The mean knowledge, attitude, practice, and behaviour of the farmers exposed to the innovation through demonstration was significantly higher than for other sources. Practical implications: On-farm demonstrations as a means of communication will enhance the uptake and effectiveness of agricultural innovation on weed management practices. Theoretical implications: Findings on the influence of communication media on improved weed control and agronomy are significant, given that there is little well-documented data on how communication media enhances technology and innovation adoption in arable crop farming. Originality/value: This study generates important data that reinforces the imperatives of communication and media choices, and further underpins the debate that technology alone cannot lead to uptake by farmers but needs to be communicated."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0136a986d7725b6011169e9ac86bb3f1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/db43d7a2-c098-42c6-9f86-a5a8997f4ebb/retrieve"},"pageCount":71,"title":"Effects of Soil and Water Conservation Practice on Bio-Physical Attributes, Livestock Feed Resources Availability and People's Livelihood Condition of Debre-Mewi Watershed, North West Ethiopia","keywords":["Biophysical","Livelihood","Livestock feed","Soil and water conservation practice"],"chapters":[{"head":"TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background and Justification","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The population of the world is dependent on land resource for food and other necessities."},{"index":2,"size":246,"text":"More than 97% of the total food for the world's population is derived from land, the remaining being from the aquatic systems (Pimentel, 1993). Hence, land and water resources are the basis for humans to generate income and produce consumable goods and services (Wallace, 2007). Nevertheless, their availability is limited in space and time due to erosion, and this influences livelihoods, especially of the rural poor who directly depend on them (Antoci et al., 2009). Soil erosion is one of the biggest global environmental problems resulting in both on-site and off-site effects. It has been accelerated in most parts of the world, especially in developing countries, due to different socio-economic and demographic factors and limited resources (Eswaran et al., 2001). According to Eswaran et al. (2001) the global annual loss of soil due to natural and anthropogenic factors constitutes 75 billion tons per year. This soil erosion will remain a very important global issue for the 21st century because of its adverse impact on agronomic productivity, the environment, and its effect on food security and the quality of life. Problems associated with the accelerated erosion persisted for more than a million geologic years in almost all parts of the globe (Adediji et al., 2010), however, soil erosion by water is commonly recognized as one of main reasons of land degradation in worldwide has dramatic effect on the world economy especially for developing countries like Ethiopia which their economy is depend on agriculture (Beskow et al., 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"Agriculture is the backbone of Ethiopian economy which is highly dependent on natural resources (Akililu Amsalu and Graaff, 2007). But agricultural production is low due to soil erosion and it results in high level of poverty in the country (Mitiku Haile et.al., 2002). Especially soil erosion by water and its associated effects are recognized to be severe threats to the national economy and mainly occur in the highland areas of the country (Gizachew Ayalew and Yihenew G. Selassie, 2015). According to Mengistu M. (2003) about 371,000 km² of lands of the country is over 2000 m above sea level."},{"index":4,"size":125,"text":"However, highland areas are considered as areas situated 1,500 m above sea level (Mwendera et al., 1997) and considering this, Ethiopian highland region accounts 43% the total land mass of the country or 537,000 square kilometers (Hurni, 1988). This highland region is inhabited by the vast majority of the Ethiopian human and livestock populations (Wagayehu Bekele, 2003) and responsible for 95% of cultivated land and it accounts for 90% of national economy (Hawando, 1997) although it is under continuous threat from soil erosion. According to Wagayehu Bekele (2003) soil erosion is considered to be among the major factors responsible for the recurrent malnutrition and famine problems in the country as it reduces yield and income and poses a threat to household food security (Shively, 1999)."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Soil erosion and nutrient depletion are two particularly common sources of declining agricultural productivity. Empirical studies have linked low and declining crop yield to the existence of soil erosion (Troeh et al., 1991). Crop yield decline partly as essential organic matter and plant nutrients are lost. Eroded soils also suffer from moisture deficiency."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"Subsoil does not contain as much organic matter as topsoil and has smaller particle sizes, and is thus less permeable to water and less capable of storing moisture (Pagiola, 1994)."},{"index":7,"size":67,"text":"Thus, immediate consequence of soil erosion is reduced crop yield followed by economic decline and social stress. The integrated process of soil degradation and increased poverty has been referred to as the \"downhill spiral of un sustainability\" leading to the \"poverty trap\" (Moges Abebe and Holden, 2006), especially in Ethiopian highlands where the livelihoods of the people predominantly based on mixed-crop-livestock farming (Haileslassie A. et al., 2005)."},{"index":8,"size":48,"text":"Livelihood of the vast majority of Ethiopian highland population depends directly or indirectly on mixed-crop-livestock farming. Such dependence obviously leads to increased vulnerability of the economy to problems related to soil erosion (Wegayehu Bekele, 2003). There are several estimates about economic impacts of soil erosion in the country."},{"index":9,"size":152,"text":"For instance Hagmann (2006) indicated that erosion reduces Ethiopian's food production by 1-2 % per annum and it cost on average 2.2% of land productivity annually. These figures imply that the economic impact of erosion is significant in the country. Erosion and the decline in humus content of soils reduce infiltration capacity of soils and soil moisture storage capacity. Consequently, decline in infiltration and moisture storage capacity of soils reduces the capacity of crops to withstand droughts (Louis, 2012). Many studies in Ethiopia attributed the widespread poverty, structural food insecurity and recurring famine partly to the environmental degradation problem in general and soil erosion in particular (Mihrete Getnet, 2014). Hence, Soil and water Conservation is critical to human well-being. Their prudent use and management are more important now than ever before to meet the high demands for food production and satisfy the needs of an increasing world population (Humberto and Rattan, 2008)."},{"index":10,"size":113,"text":"Soil and Water Conservation Practices (SWCP) in highland areas of Ethiopia can foster the production of various kinds of ecosystem services that have both upstream and downstream benefits (Woubet Alemu et.al., 2013). Theoretically, physical soil and water conservation structures have the potential to reduce soil loss by decreasing overland flow of water and increase yield by reducing moisture stress on plant growth through retention of rainwater that would otherwise be lost to runoff (Wagayehu Bekele, 2003). According to Mulugeta Demelash and Karl (2010), appropriate soil and water conservation practice can significantly improve soil chemical and physical properties: soil organic matter, total Nitrogen (N), available phosphorous (P), bulk density, infiltration rate and soil texture."},{"index":11,"size":65,"text":"Therefore, implementing SWC practices that maintain or restore the capacity of soil to retain water along with nutrients and organic matter that can dramatically reduce agricultural water demand, reduce vulnerability to drought and flooding, and also increase soil carbon storage, as well as productivity. In addition, by reducing runoff, it reduces the need for chemical fertilizer inputs and it improves water quality downstream (CSA, 2007)."},{"index":12,"size":30,"text":"The findings of Troeh et al. ( 2004) also indicates that SWCP has significant contributions for the production of livestock feed, crop production improvement and other necessities for livelihood improvement."}]},{"head":"Statement of the Problem","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"By recognizing problem of land degradation, the government of Ethiopia has made several SWCPs. Level soil bunds (LSB), stone bunds (SB), Fanya Juu bund, different kinds of check dams, biological soil and water conservation measures have been widely implemented in many parts of Ethiopia including the study area, Debre-Mewi Watershed (DMW) with governmental and none governmental support from 1983 to 2006. Most of the physical structures strengthened by biological measures and also huge amount of land had been closed from direct interference of human and animals. Due to this, vegetation cover had been improved. There are studies that indicate activities mentioned decreased rate of soil erosion, increased soil fertility and improve crop production and productivity (Teklu Erkossa and Gezahegn Ayele, 2003). But, there are no enough studies that show the effect of SWCP on biophysical attributes of the watershed, livestock feed availability and livelihood improvement. Thus, this research is expected to verify whether SWCP improve biophysical attributes of a watershed, and if it can help to increase livestock feed availability and improve livelihood of the community."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"General objective","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"To assess the effects of soil and water conservation practice (SWCP) on biophysical attributes, livestock feed resource availability and people's livelihood conditions in DMW."}]},{"head":"Specific objectives","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"To assess the effect of SWCP on biophysical attributes of the watershed."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"To assess livestock feed availability as a result of SWCP."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"To analyze the effect of SWCP on the peoples' livelihood condition in the watershed."}]},{"head":"Research Questions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":" What are the effects SWCP on the biophysical attributes of the watershed?  Do SWCP improve livestock feed availability in the study area?"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":" What are the effects of SWCP on livelihood conditions of the people in DMW?"},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":" Is there a difference between DMW (treated) and Sholit watershed (untreated) with respect to biophysical attributes, feed resource availability and livelihood conditions of the people? CHAPTER 2: LITRATURE REVIEW"}]},{"head":"Soil and Water Conservation Practice (SWCP)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"2.1.1. History of SWCP Soil erosion from unsustainable land use practices in Ethiopia is not a new phenomenon. It is as old as the history of agriculture itself (Daba, 2003). High rainfall variability characterized by a quasi-periodic fluctuation, and consequently drought situations, has occurred throughout human history in the country (Haile, 1988). However, it is only very recently, in the past three decades that the Ethiopian government recognized the impact of soil erosion after the devastating famine in 1970s (Shiferaw Bekele and Holden, 1998)."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"Although Ethiopia was one of the food exporter country in the world until late 1950s, cumulative effect of continuous soil erosion, ever-increasing population pressure, and inappropriate development policies change the situation and the country became food aid dependent since the devastating famine in 1970 th (Aredo, 1990). To address this problem, considerable efforts have been made since that time to rehabilitate degraded environments and stop further degradation by the government (Herweg and Ludi, 2003). By this action, huge areas were covered with terraces, and millions of trees were planted with the support of international organizations (Tadesse, 2001)."},{"index":3,"size":204,"text":"The Ethiopian government first recognized the severity of the soil degradation problem following the 1973/74 famines in Wollo. The 1973/74 droughts drew also the attention of external donors to land degradation and soon conservation become a priority (Berhanu Gebremedhin and Swinton, 2003). According to (Berhanu Gebremedhin and Swinton, 2003), after the early 1970s, national efforts to conserve lands become intensified. These interventions largely relied on mobilization of farm households and food for work (FFW) projects to conserve degraded lands through the construction of soil bunds, stone terraces and afforestation with financial aid from World Food Program (WFP) which reached about US$50 million per year in 1987. Aside from the introduced soil and water conservation measures, peasants have been aware of problems related to soil erosion and developed different indigenous soil and water conservation practices that sustained agriculture for centuries. For example different conservation practices in the Northern Highlands (Hoben, 1996); well-developed terracing systems of Konso in southern Ethiopia (FAO, 1990); ditches in Northern Shewa in the Central Highlands and different techniques in the Eastern Highlands (Asrat Kebede et al., 1996). The attention given by Ethiopian government to the expansion of conservation activities since the early 1970s is an indication of increasing awareness about problem."},{"index":4,"size":415,"text":"The Ethiopia government initiated a massive program of SWC and rehabilitation in most degraded highland areas of the country with heavy external financial support and manpower resources under the FFW programme following the 1975 land reform and establishment of the kebele administration, which were instrumental in mobilizing labour and assignment of local responsibilities. This involved over 30 million peasant workdays per year (Hurni et al., 2007). Between 1975 and 1989 terraces were built on 980,000 ha of cropland; 280,000 ha of hillside terraces were built, 310,000 ha of highly denuded land were revalidated (Hans et al., 1996). This was further expanded with the involvement of mainly the World Food Program (WFP) since the early 1980s, which provided incentives for conservation activities. On croplands, structural measures, mainly soil and stone bunds were built uniformly across regions with FFW incentives in food deficit areas of the highlands of Ethiopia. Conservation activities were mainly undertaken in a campaign often without the involvement of the land users. Peasants were not allowed to remove the structures once it built but maintenance was often carried out through FFW incentives (Shiferaw Bekele and Holden, 1998). However, this massive campaign of soil conservation and afforestation, does not seem to have succeeded either in triggering widespread voluntary adoption of the practices by farmers in a sustainable manner or in solving problems related to soil erosion. In the wake of the announcement of an economic policy change in March 1990, and the subsequent change in government in May 1991, farmers removed most of the conservation structures built on their plots and cut down the trees planted under the project (Shiferaw Bekele & Holden, 1998). The soil erosion problem persists and increased mass poverty in rural areas. Although there are localized indigenous conservation practices, they did not match the severity and intensity of the soil erosion problem in the country (Hoben, 1996). According to (Hoben, 1996), the development and widespread use of all sorts of conservation practices have been curtailed due to disincentives created by the political, institutional, and economic environments in the country. By considering this, full participatory SWCP was started. This has occurred through different stages that professionals gathering data, analyzing it, preparing plans and then asking the local community if they agree, before requesting mobilization of local resources (notably labour) to implement these plans (Mitiku Haile et al., 2006). It is possible to say that this way of implementation shows some changes in the country as a whole and specifically in Amhara Region."},{"index":5,"size":106,"text":"(ANRS) has intensively launched the natural resource development work through public mobilization since 2010. This strengthened SWCP in the region and forces political leaders taken it as a priority agenda. As a result SWC campaigns are underway every year throughout the region (ANRS BoA, 2013). Debre-Mewi watershed is one of the site in the region where SWC practices is implemented. The practice was not that much in the large scale before 2010 but since this time expertise put their effort in the area to open the eyes of the community and it shows good progress in rehabilitation of degraded lands by SWC measures (Getachew Engdayehu, 2013)."}]},{"head":"Importance of soil and water conservation","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Researches indicated that large proportion of soil erosion (almost half of soil losses) occurs from the cultivated fields that cover only 13% of the country and on average 42 tons of soil is being washed out from a hectare of cultivated fields (Hurni et al., 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"The same study also indicated that highest average soil loss occurred on lands which was once under cultivation and currently unproductive and with less vegetation cover that estimated that every year in highlands of Ethiopian that loses about 1.9 to 3.5 billion tones of topsoil (EFAP, 1993). This large amount of soil loss made the country to be described as one of the most serious erosion areas in Africa and in the world (Hurni et al., 2007)."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Excessive soil loss with other factors led to reduced average crop yield per unit area."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"Because, erosion removes the most productive portion of the soil, that is, the chemically active part such as organic matter and clay fractions. It also causes a deterioration of soil structure, moisture holding capacity through lowering soil depth, increasing bulk density, soil crusting, and reducing water infiltration (Woubet Alemu et al., 2013). Hence, Soil and water conservation practices (SWCP) especially in upland areas is important as it can foster the production of various kinds of ecosystem services that have both upstream and downstream benefits."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"Physical soil and water conservation structures have great potential to reduce soil loss by decreasing overland flow of water and increase yield by reducing moisture stress on plant growth through retention of rainwater that would otherwise be lost to runoff (Wagayehu Bekele, 2003). By reducing runoff and the need for chemical fertilizer inputs, downstream water quality improves (CSA, 2007). It also helps to restore the capacity of soil to retain water along with nutrients and organic matter; farmers can dramatically reduce agricultural water demand, reduce vulnerability to climate extremes of drought and flooding, and also increase soil carbon storage, as well as productivity (Aylward, 2004)."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"According to (Mulugeta Demelash and Karl, 2010) appropriate SWCP can significantly improve soil chemical and physical properties: soil organic matter, total nitrogen (N), available phosphorous (P), bulk density, infiltration rate and soil texture."}]},{"head":"Types of soil and water conservation practice","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":237,"text":"Soil and Water Conservation Practices (SWCP) are defined by WOCAT as activities at a local level which maintain or enhance the productive capacity of the land in areas affected by, or prone to, degradation (WOCAT, 2007). According to WOCAT, SWCP classified as agronomic, vegetative, structural and /or management measures that prevent and control land degradation and enhance productivity in the field (WOCAT, 2007). Looking at land degradation caused by human activities, the SWC technologies can be found everywhere in the world and can be described as good practices in agriculture. Further WOCAT distinguishes three stages of intervention: prevention, mitigation or rehabilitation. The stage of intervention determines the treatment of the degraded land and also, which technology or conservation measures should be used. Prevention implies a treatment or an application of a technology that maintains natural resources and their environmental and productive function on land that may be prone to degradation (WOCAT, 2007). Mitigation means that the land is already degraded this on-going degradation has to be stopped, because the impacts of this stage are already noticeable in the short term. The last stage of intervention, rehabilitation, is required when the land is already degraded to such an extent that the original use is no longer possible and the land has become practically unproductive. In this case long-term and more costly investments are needed to have any impact\" (WOCAT, 2007). Furthermore, WOCAT defines three conservation measures as follow: "}]},{"head":"Effect of SWCP on Biophysical Attributes","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Reduction in soil erosion and slope gradient","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Land covered by plant biomass, living or dead, are more resistant to wind and water soil erosion and experience relatively little erosion because rain drop and wind energy are dissipated by the biomass layer and the topsoil is held together by the biomass (Pimentel et al., 2005)."}]},{"head":"Work load","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"SWCP reduces runoff water and improves ground water capacity. So, it makes easier access to water and had particularly reduced women's workload and therefore increased \"quality\" of life. More time was used for family care and domestic work by saving time in activities such as fetching water, security and carrying heavy loads (Ismo, 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"According to (Wagayehu Bekele, 2003) economic benefits of SWCP for the household came as water for all year round agricultural production and time used for water related activities, e.g. fetching water and laundry, at homes. Several crops were harvested and more time was left for domestic work due to easier access to water resources."}]},{"head":"Livestock Feed Availability","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Most of the world's livestock, particularly ruminants in pastoral and extensive mixed systems in many developing countries, suffer from permanent or seasonal nutritional stress (Bruinsma, 2003). Poor nutrition is one of the major production constraints in smallholder systems, particularly in Ethiopia. Many researches have been carried out to improve the quality and availability of feed resources, including work on sown forages, forage conservation, the use of multi-purpose trees, fibrous crop residues and strategic supplementation. There are also prospects for using novel feeds from various sources to provide alternative sources of protein and energy, such as plantation crops and various industrial (including ethanol) by-products. The potential of such feeds is largely unknown."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Given the prevalence of mixed crop-livestock systems in many parts of the world, closer integration of crops and livestock in such systems can give rise to increased productivity and increased soil fertility (Mcintire et al., 2005). In such systems, smallholders use crops for multiple purposes (food and feed, for example), and crop breeding programmes are now well established that are targeting required quality as well as grain yield in crops such as maize, sorghum, millet and groundnut."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Rehabilitating degraded land by SWCP can addressing livestock nutritional constraints."},{"index":4,"size":136,"text":"Gully treatment with different rehabilitation measures results generating of different livestock feed specious. Forage plants such as Elephant grass and Sesbania sesban were planted as stabilizers of conservation structures reduced soil losses, improved the availability of organic inputs for soil improvement, and offered animal feed and consequent increase in cash income (Tilahun Amede, 2003). These forage plants are fast growing and the farmers harvested frequently and fed their cattle. The farmers who have these forages at their homestead could not suffer from the shortage of feed as those who had not planted. The plant species also greatly contributed to the stabilization of the soil conservation structure. Sesbania sesban, legume plant species, besides being used as bund stabilizers and feed, it was chopped and incorporated in to the soil for improvement of soil fertility (Tilahun Amede, 2003)."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"SWCP increases crop production by improving soil chemical and physical properties (Mulugeta Demelash and Karl, 2010) and crop residues uses for animal feed, and it helps full filling the nutritional need of livestock as it is the most part to get the economic benefit obtained for the livestock (Dubale, 2001). The nutritional needs of farm animals with respect to energy, protein, minerals and vitamins have long been known, and these have been refined in recent decades (Mcintire et al., 2005)."}]},{"head":"Effects of SWCP on Peoples Livelihood Improvement","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":227,"text":"Soil erosion has decreased in many parts of the developed countries by means of good agricultural practices and SWC methods. As a result, these countries produce more food today than 50 years ago. In fact, many of the world\"s developed counties increased their food per capita in the last fifty years (Roetter and Keullen, 2008). SWC can improve soil organic matter, total N, available phosphorous (P), bulk density, infiltration rate and soil texture cost (Mulugeta Demelash and Karl, 2010), and this is very important to increase land productivity which is one livelihood determining main factor . Straw, from cereal field crops is also used as construction, fuel and fencing materials (Dubale P., 2001). That is why, in many cases crop residues are in high demand in some local market for different uses. Economic impact has been mainly achieved through increased crop production. An increase in crops has two-fold effect. First, it helps to secure food for the household and, secondly, to create a surplus which can be sold (Wagayehu Bekele, 2003). According to Wagayehu Bekele (2003), increased cropping gave food for the families and there was no need to buy food grain from the market. Surplus was sold in the market and income was used for family expenses such as education, clothing, sugar, tea, salt, and improved housing. Later, more organized cash crop production plantations were started.  "}]},{"head":"Climate","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"There is a meteorological station at Adet town, which is the nearest to the study area."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"Based on the 20 years rainfall data analysis of this station, both of the watersheds are characterized by single maximum rainfall pattern with peaks in July and August and receives on average annual precipitation of 1221.3 mm. About 80 -90% of the rainfall falls in the main rainy season (\"Kiremt\"), which starts in June and extends in August/September. In both watersheds, rainfall has a unimodal annual distribution. It is in this season that the major agricultural activities, such as ploughing, sowing and weeding are performed. The dry months are between November and March (known as bega) when less than 6.06 % of the total annual rainfall occurs. In both watersheds the mean annual minimum and maximum temperatures are 16.24 and 20.25 O C respectively. The elevation ranges between 2200 -2366 m.a.s.l. Thus, both of the watersheds are under the category of Moist Woina dega agro ecology zone (BMBO, 2015)."}]},{"head":"Topography","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The slope gradient of DMW ranges from 5 to 45% whereas the slope gradient of Sholit watershed ranges 0 to 30 %. The eastern and north eastern view of the DMW along the main road to its outlet is nearly gentle followed by steep, moderately steep and gently sloping. In the north western side, it is almost the same scene with the earlier (Getachew Engdayeh, 2013)."}]},{"head":"Soil","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"According to Addisalem Assefa (2009), as cited by Getachew Fisseha et al. (2011) laboratory analysis result of soil samples indicated that the soils of the study area are Eutric Vertisols (33.28%; 181.0 ha), Eutric Luvisols (24.83%; 135.0 ha), Pellic Vertisols (19.55%; 106.32 ha), Eutric Cambisols (8.29%; 45.1 ha), Eutric Fluvisols (7.43%; 40.4 ha) and Eutric Aquic Vertisols (6.62%; 36.0 ha). The Vertisols, Luvisols and Fluvisols are found in gently undulating lands, while the other soil types occupy the higher altitudes."}]},{"head":"Farming system","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"In both watersheds, agriculture is rain-fed, with a subsistence farming system. Land and livestock are therefore the most important livelihood assets. Teff (Eragrostis teff), finger millet, maize (Zea mays) and Wheat (Triticum vulgare) are the major crops cultivated in both watersheds."}]},{"head":"Sampling Methods and Data Collection","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Type and sources of data","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"For this study quantitative and qualitative data were collected from primary and secondary sources. Primary data which were collected from sample households include information on: age, sex, family size, educational level and land holding size, types of livestock, livestock number per household, type and area coverage of SWCP, types and livestock feed harvested from different SWCPs and area closure, total household income from farm production (crop income), income from animal product, forage production and other benefits from created assets in the watershed. Secondary data about population, age structure, farming systems, infrastructure situation, crop production trend, annual rainfall and min and max temperature, etc. were collected from different sources."}]},{"head":"Method of data collection","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Data were collected through GIS techniques, transect walk, semi-structured interviews, direct field observation and focus group discussion. A structured questionnaire was used to collect the primary data. Development agents (Das) were recruited and trained on the techniques of data collection, including how they should approach farmers, conduct the interview, and convince the respondent to give relevant information on sensitive economic and social issues. After they were made aware of the objective of the study and content of the questionnaire, pre-test had been conducted under the supervision of the researcher. Some adjustments were made to the questionnaire and the data were collected under continuous supervision of the researcher. The survey was conducted on May 2016."}]},{"head":"Determination of sample size and sampling technique","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The total house hold heads (HHs) residing in DM and Sholit watersheds were 205 male, 38 female and 151 male, 35 female respectively, The formal interview was conducted with 50 HHs from DMW, 38 from Sholit watershed that were selected proportionally. The number of HH heads that were selected for interview was selected by using Yemane formula (Yemane, 1967)."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"Where, no is desired sample size when the population is greater than10,000 n is number of sample size when the population is less than10,000 p is 0.1 (proportion of the population to be included in the sample i.e. 10%) z is 95 % confidence limit i.e. 1.96 q is 1-0.1 (i.e. 0.9) d is margin of error or degree of accuracy desired (0.05) N is total number of population Based on the above sample size determination method, the number of total sample HHs that were selected for interview are 88. The sample households (HHs) were randomly selected from a list of total HHs from each watershed. If the selected household not available after repeated visits, alternative farmer living that village was interviewed."}]},{"head":"Method of Data Analysis","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Both descriptive and econometric analysis was use for this research. The descriptive statistics such as minimum, maximum, mean, percentage, standard deviation. T-test and chi square test were also employed to compare treated (DM) and untreated (Sholit) watersheds with respect to different explanatory variables were used. Econometric analysis, called multiple linear regression model was employed to estimate the SWCP on people's livelihood condition in DMW."}]},{"head":".Variable specification and hypothesis","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Dependent variable","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"In this study peoples' livelihood condition (PLC) which is measured in terms of income has been taken as a continuous dependant variable. To analyse peoples' livelihood condition in terms of income, total income of each sample household from crop production, livestock production, petty trade, weaving, selling of charcoal and fuel wood, food for work, tailoring, labour sale and other income sources were calculated in monetary values."}]},{"head":"Independent variables","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"In addition to SWCP, different variables are expected to affect household livelihood condition in the study area. The major variables affecting farmers' livelihood condition are:"},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"1. Area of soil and water conservation structures (ASWC): This variable is a continuous variable that measures the area of soil and water conservation structures in hectare that a household implemented in his/her land. Large area of SWC structures of farmers are expected to increase productivity of land by reducing soil and water degradation problems. Therefore, it is hypothesized that farmers with large area of SWC structures are more likely to be better in livelihood condition."}]},{"head":"Feed resources harvested from SWC structures (FRH):","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"Livestock feed is one of the major inputs to improve livestock production and productivity. The livestock feed resource that has been collected from different soil and water conservation structures was measured in quintals. Availability of these feeds expected to increase income of the household from sales of livestock and livestock products as well as sales of the feed itself. This implies that better availability of livestock feeds affects the livelihood condition of the household positively. In addition to the above variables the following variables has been identified to have an influence in the income of the household (Gebre Tekie, 2013) 3. Age of household head (AGE): this is a continuous explanatory variable designating age of the house hold head. The livelihood condition of the household expected to be positively related to age. As the age of the household head increases, the person is expected to acquire more experience and endowed with more assets. Thus, it is hypothesized that older age of the household head is positively associated to the livelihood condition of the household."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"4. Sex of the household head (SEX): dummy variable (1 if the household head is male and 0 otherwise). Sex of a household head could have an influence in a household's livelihood condition. As explained in the literatures, female-headed households can be in difficult condition than male headed households to gain access to valuable resource."},{"index":3,"size":134,"text":"Moreover, with regard to farming experience males are better than the female farmers in the study area. Therefore, it is hypothesized that male-headed households are better in livelihood condition than female-headed households 5. Family size (FAS): households with large number of economically dependent family members will be expected to face high dependency burden. The existence of large number of children under age of 15 and old age of 60 and above in the family expected to affect the livelihood condition of the household. That means, the working age population (i.e., 15-60 years) supports not only themselves, but also additional dependent persons in the family. Thus, it is hypothesized that the family with relatively large number of dependent family members (high dependency ratio) negatively affects the livelihood condition of the household in the study area."}]},{"head":"Educational level of the household heads (EDU):","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Educational attainment by the household expected to enhance production by promoting awareness of the possible advantages of modernizing agriculture by means of technological inputs; enable them to read instructions on fertilizer applications and diversification of household incomes which, in turn, expected to have a positive influence on household livelihood condition. Educational level will have binary values as 1, households who can read and write and 0, households who cannot read and/or write."}]},{"head":"Total livestock owned (TLU):","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Livestock are source of income for farming households. Households who have better possession of livestock are expected to be better in livelihood condition. This is so because livestock contribute to the household meat, milk and egg for direct consumption and draft power, manure and income from sales of livestock. Therefore, it is expected that livestock holding have a positive implication on livelihood condition and the total number of livestock holding of the household will be measured in tropical livestock unit which is adopted by Genene Tsegaye (2006)."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"8. Land Holding Size (LHS): refers to the size of the land in hectare (owned, shared and rented) that allocated for annual and perennial crops, vegetable and for homestead farming activities and for grazing purpose. During data collection the actual size of land that the respondent households have recorded in hectares or on the bases of their local land area measurement like 'kada' (1/4 of a hectare). Larger size of land implies more production and availability of food grains. Hence, size of the land has significant impact in determining livelihood condition of the household at the study area. Therefore households with large size of land are expected to be better in livelihood condition."}]},{"head":"Oxen (OX):","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"In most part of Ethiopia rural households use oxen to plough their farm land to produce crops. The number of oxen in the households is very determinant to plough their farm land. Hence larger number of oxen expected to have significant impact in determining livelihood condition of the household at the study area. Therefore households with large number of oxen are expected to be better in livelihood condition."}]},{"head":"Model specification for analysis of livelihood condition","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"Livelihood condition of the household is often determined by SWCP and with other socioeconomic and demographic factors. The effect of such factors was determined using regression analysis to specify and validate empirical data that were collected. It was also used to verify hypothesis regarding the effects of different explanatory variables on livelihood condition of rural household and to draw inferences that could guide research and policy decisions. Thus, to describe the effect of SWCP together with other socioeconomic variables on livelihood condition of the household, multiple regression model was employed for this study. The functional form of the relationship between dependent variable, livelihood condition (on the left side) and explanatory variables (on the right side) was illustrated as follows."}]},{"head":"Livelihood condition (PLC) = fASWC, FRH, AGE, SEX, FAS, EDU, TLU, LHS, OX}","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The following linear multiple regression model was used for this study to estimate the effect of the independent variables on livelihood condition of household. The data were subjected to linear regression model, using the ordinary least squares method (OLS). The hypothesis of no significant difference in the effect of the independent variables on household livelihood condition was tested at five level of significance with (n-k) degree of freedom, (where; n = number of observation (n=88), and K = number of parameters (K =9)."}]},{"head":"PLC","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The null hypothesis has been tested by comparing the coefficients of the explanatory variables with its corresponding standard error. The null-hypothesis was accepted if half of the coefficient of each explanatory variable is greater than its corresponding value of standard error. When the existence of null-hypothesis accepted for an explanatory variable, this was showed that there is no relationship between the explanatory variable and the dependent variable. Otherwise, the alternative hypothesis gets accepted by rejecting the null-hypothesis. In this case there is a relationship between the explanatory and dependent variables or the explanatory variables have significant effect on livelihood of the household."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"Where:"},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"If SE β i > β i /2 accept the null hypothesis, no relationship between the independent variable to that of the dependent variable considered in the model and If SEβ i < β i /2 reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis which means there is relationship between the independent variable to that of the dependent variable considered in the model)."},{"index":4,"size":138,"text":"Application software such as excel spread sheet and SPSS version 20 were employed for this analysis. Along with the regression analysis, in this study, descriptive statistics, such as mean, standard deviation, percentage, t-test and chi-square test were employed to analyze the data. Finally, data were presented in the form of figure and tabulation.  The mean age of the sample household heads was 46.3 years with the standard deviation of 13.167. Accordingly, the mean age of the treated (DMW) was 47.86 years and 44.24 years for untreated watershed (Sholit) with the mean difference of 3.623. The statistical analysis showed that there is no statistically significant difference between treated and untreated watersheds in terms of sample households' age (Table 4.2.). The maximum and minimum age of the total sample households found to be 78 and 24 years respectively (Table 4.3)."}]},{"head":"Family size","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The mean family size of the sample household heads was 5.26 which varied between 2 and 11 persons with standard deviation of 1.657 (Table 4.3). The average family size for both DMW and Sholit watershed sample households found to be the same which is 5.26 persons. The result showed that there is no statistically significant difference between treated and untreated watersheds in terms of family size (Table 4.2.)."}]},{"head":"Land holding size","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"The average landholding of the total sample household heads was 1.67 ha. with standard deviation of 0.86. The mean land holding size for treated watershed and untreated watershed sample households was found to be 1.68 and 1.65 ha. per household with SD of 0.62 and 1.1 ha. respectively with mean difference of 0.04 ha. The difference is found to be statistically significant at the significance level of 5% (Table 4.2.)."}]},{"head":"Livestock holding","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":246,"text":"Livestock as part of mixed farming system is paramount important to a household livelihood. Livestock plays an important role in the farming system of the area. Cattle, sheep and goat, equine and chicken are kept by farmers for income source, draft power and food (milk, meat, egg). The total average livestock holding for sample households was 4.78 TLU with standard deviation of 2.69 (Table 4.3). The average livestock holding for DM and Sholit watersheds sample households in Tropical Livestock Unit was found to be 5.17 and 4.26 with SD of 2.69 and 2.66 respectively and with mean difference of 0.90 TLU. The result showed that there is no statistically significant difference between DMW and Sholit watershed sample households in terms of livestock holding (Table 4.2.). Educational attainment by the household expected to enhance production by promoting awareness of the possible advantages of modernizing agriculture by means of technological inputs; enable them to read instructions on fertilizer applications and diversification of household incomes which, in turn, expected to have a positive influence on household livelihood condition. From the survey made at study area, which is shown in (Table 4.5.), 51 % of the sample household heads were illiterate of which about 60 % was from DMW and 39 % were from Sholit watershed. The educational level of the household head found to be statically significant at 1 percent significance level. Thus there is a significance difference between DMW and Sholit watershed households with regard to education level."}]},{"head":"Effect of SWCP on Biophysical Attributes","index":39,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Soil erosion reduction","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Result from field observation shows that almost all farm lands at DMW are treated with physical as well as biological soil and water conservation structures (Figure 4.1.). Not only this but also all grazing lands are closed from free grazing. In addition all gullies in the watershed are treated with different check dams, biological measures and protected."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"During field observation transect walk any sign of rill erosion was not observed. According to results in the group discussion, soil erosion is reducing gradually from year to year related to developed conservation structures. It helps to protect the removal of fertile top soil in the farm land because rain water percolate down rather than run off as a form of flood. This is because conservation structures break water speed and help to have time to percolate rather than run off. As a result soil is protected while water is conserved as a form of ground water. This is important not only for soil and water conservation practices rather it also very important for conflict resolution."},{"index":3,"size":180,"text":"Traditionally the local community used to make drains to discharged excessive water from their farm land. Especially in the sloppy area most of rain water follows down to the slope rather than percolate to the ground. Hence, the water is high in volume and fast moving which can easily remove the top soil that is fertile. Even it removes crops, and cuts a land and form gully. Due to this, no one wants to accept flow of water from his or her neighbour and it causes conflict when the upper one let the water to the down flow. The conflict is very sever even sometimes goes up to human death. However, SWCP helps as a conflict resolution tool in addition to its importance for conserving water and soil. Most of rain water percolates down so that the amount of runoff water critically reduces. Not only this, but also the conservation structures systematically arrange how the excessive water can flow downwards without affecting any one. Due to this, currently there is no conflict in DMW community related to excessive water flow."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"To the contrary at Sholit watershed, rill erosion and huge gullies were frequently observed."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"Grazing lands are highly degraded due to free and over grazing (Figure 4.2.).  In DMW majority of land, which accounts 79.6%, used for cultivated and settlement purposes. Research conducted by Addisalem Assefa (2009) and Getachew Fisseha et al."},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"(2011) also indicated that cultivated land counts 80.7 % in 2009 and 81.51% in 2008 in their studies respectively. This study showed that the coverage of Eucalyptus plantation accounts 6.2% but in studies of Addisalem Assefa (2009) and Getachew Fisseha et al."},{"index":7,"size":74,"text":"(2011), it counts 0.7 and 1.28% in 2009 and 2008 respectively. This implies that currently farmers considered Eucalyptus tree as a cash crop and planted in the cultivated and grazing areas. This result also observed in field observation and mentioned in focused group discussions. As indicated in table 4.6, 7.7% of the watershed area is used as a grazing area. These two land use system are the one which can cause for land degradation."},{"index":8,"size":112,"text":"The result shows 3.3% of the watershed area either treated gully or rehabilitated degraded  ground water in the area could be accessed in about 13 m ground distance but currently it is a must to dig up to 16 m in the same place. Not only this but also this water is not accessible anywhere rather it is in a very specific area which is mostly far apart from villages. This put a burden on women work load.     Farmers were asked to estimate the amount of feed resource harvested per year in quintal This implies that soil and water conservations structures have a significant effect on livestock feed resource availability in DMW."},{"index":9,"size":185,"text":"Results from the group discussion also showed that community in DMW practices modern ways of cattle production. They almost stop free grazing and feed their cattle at home using cut and carry system. Communal and gully areas in the watershed is protected while all conservation structures are strengthened with forage plants. Hence, they could get forage throughout the year (Fig. 4.9.). water management leads to higher yield, integration of forage development with SWC structures would increase the benefit of the community from livestock. SWC also affects people's livelihood condition through conflict resolution, work load reduction especially for woman. An attempt has been made to assess the effect of SWCP on the people's livelihood condition which measured in terms of income by interviewing each and every one of the sample respondents in the two watersheds. Income data for the study watersheds has been collected from farm production (crop income), animal product, forage production and other benefits from created assets in the watershed. A multiple linear regression model was employed to estimate the potential effect of SWCP and other socioeconomic variables on livelihood condition of the household."},{"index":10,"size":105,"text":"Nine variables were hypothesized to have an effect on household's livelihood conditions and all variables were entered to the model. Out of the variables analyzed, the coefficients of four variables, namely area of soil and water conservation structures, feed resource harvested for livestock from SWCP, livestock holding and land holding size of the household found to be variables that have significant effect on livelihood conditions of the households in DMW. The remaining five variables, age, sex, family size, educational level and number of ox per household were found to have correct signs but insignificant effect on livelihood condition of the household in DMW (Table 4.8.)."},{"index":11,"size":14,"text":"The goodness to fit or coefficient of determination or the R-squared which is (0.905)"},{"index":12,"size":31,"text":"shows that, 90.5% of the explanatory variables jointly explain the dependent variable (people's livelihood condition). The remaining 9.5% is not explained by the explanatory variables which are incorporated in the model."}]},{"head":"Area of soil and water conservation structures","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"The area of land covered with different soil and water conservation structures had significant effect on the livelihood condition of the household at 5 % significance level in DMW. It is also positively correlated with livelihood condition of the household. The results of linear multiple regression model parametric estimates of area of soil and water conservation of the household showed that an increase in area of soil and water conservation in one hectare of land for the household increases their income by a factor of 0.23 being other explanatory variables which were included in the model constant. The possible explanation for this result is that households who implement different soil and water conservation structures on their land becomes in a better position in livelihood condition than households who didn't implement soil and water conservation structures on their land. Hence practicing soil and water conservation measures mitigate soil erosion caused by water and this will improve the livelihood status of households in the study area."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"4.5.2. Feed resource harvested for livestock from different SWCP"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"The livestock feed resource collected from different soil and water conservation structures had a significant effect on livelihood condition of the household at 5% significance level."},{"index":4,"size":89,"text":"The result implies that better availability of livestock feeds affects the livelihood condition of the household positively. The parametric estimates of linear multiple regression model showed that an increase livestock feed resource by one quintal increases the households income by a factor of 0.275 being other explanatory variables which were included in the model constant in DMW. The model result confirmed that practicing soil and water conservation measures had significant effect in livelihood condition by increasing livestock feed resource availability and the result is in agreement with prior expectation."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"Hence implementing soil and water conservation measures mitigate soil erosion caused by water and this will increase livestock feed availability and this in turn improves livelihood condition of the household in the study area. So we can conclude that investing SWCP have positive significant effect in terms of mitigating land degradation, increasing livestock feed availably and to improve household's livelihood condition in terms of income."}]},{"head":"Total livestock owned","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Livestock had a significant and positive effect on the household's livelihood condition in the study area. The positive sign of slope coefficient indicates that when livestock owned increase by one TLU, the household livelihood condition improves by a factor of 0.254."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"The possible explanation for this result is that as households have large number of livestock (ox, cow, heifer, calf, donkey, goat, sheep and chicken) they become in better position in livelihood condition than farmers who have few livestock."}]},{"head":"Land holding size","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"The results of the linear multiple regression model show that land holding size of the household head was positively related to the livelihood condition of the household. The coefficient of this variable was statistically significant at less than 1 % probability level implying that as the size of land holding of the household increase by one hectare, the livelihood of that household will improve with a factor of 0.268 being other explanatory variables which were included in the model constant in DMW. Therefore, since land is the most important resource in rural area for crop production and animal rearing, as the size of land holding of the household increases, the livelihood condition of the household could be in a better position than households who have smaller land size."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"load of females' in the watershed. On the other hand, SWCP failed to gain the above benefits in Sholit watershed."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":" Soil and water conservation should be given more attention and the watershed development practice of DMW communities should be scaled up and implemented in to other areas of the region to enhance livestock feed resource availability."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":" Quality improves of livestock and improved forage development should be given attention to increase income from production of livestock."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":" Agricultural intensification should be strongly improved to enhance productivity of household per hectare through new technologies such as use of small scale irrigation to produce more than once a year and other options to improve livelihood condition of the household. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16. What are the major constraints(shocking) of livestock production in your area ?"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figure 3. 1. Location map of the study area .................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 1 Figure 4.1 Treated farm land, protected glazing land and treated gully from tope to down respectively .........................................................................................................................26 Figure 4.2 Unprotected grazing land and untreated gully at Sholit watershed .................. "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4. 3. Land use/Cover map of DMW in 2016......................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4.4. Stream, communal hand dug well and private shallow well from top to down Figure 4.5. Treated farm lands with physical and biological methods .............................. "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4.6. Part of focus group discussion in DMW and Sholite watershed from right to left .................................................................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4.7. Picture in the left, untreated gully at Sholit watershed; picture in the right treated gully at DMW compile ........................................................................................ "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4.8. forage in a gully treated area, forage plants in conservation structure from left to right at DMW and free grazing in the right at Sholit watershed ................................... "},{"text":" Agronomic measure: such as conservation agriculture, manuring/composting, mixed cropping, mulching, etc  Are usually associated with annual crops  Are repeated routinely each season or in a rotational sequence  Are of short duration and not permanent  Are often not zoned  Do not lead to changes in slope profile  Are normally independent of slop Structural measures: such as terraces (Banks, bunds and other structures)  Often lead to a change in slope profile  Are of long duration or permanent  Are carried out primarily to control runoff, wind velocity and erosion  Often require substantial inputs of labor or money when first installed  Can be aligned at a certain gradient Vegetative measure: such as grass strips, hedge barriers, windbreaks, or agro forestry etc. Involved the use of perennial grasses, shrubs, or trees  Are of long duration  Often lead to a change in slope profile  Are often aligned along the contour or against the wind  Are often spaced according to slop "},{"text":" of the Study Area 3.1.1. Location Both DM and Sholit watersheds were situated within Yilmana Densa and Bahirdar Zuria Woredas in West Gojjam Administration zone of Amhara Regional State (Figure 3.1.). DM watershed is geographically located between 11 o 20'10'' to 11 o 21'58'' N and 37 o 24'07'' to 37 o 25'55' E whereas Sholit watershed is located in between 11 o 22'20'' to 11 o 22'28'' N and 37 o 24'15'' to 37 o 24' 16'' E which is located in the East direction of DMW. Both of the watersheds are far from the capital city of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa and the capital city of Amhara Regional State Bahir Dar by about 500 and 30 km respectively. "},{"text":"Figure 3 Figure 3. 1. Location map of the study area (researcher, 2016) "},{"text":" = α + β 1 ASWC + β 2 FRH + β 3 AGE + β 4 SEXβ 5 FAS + β 6 EDU + β 7 TLU + β 8 LHS+ β 9 OX + e i Where, ASWC = Area of Soil and Water conservation structures of the household in hectare, FRH = Feed resources harvested from SWC structures in ton, AGE = Age of the household head, SEX = a dummy variables for gender of the household head (1 if Male and 0 otherwise), FAS = Family size of the household, EDU = Level of education of household head, TLU = Tropical Livestock Unit, LHS = Land holding Size of the household in hectare, OX = Number of oxen the household has e i = Random term /disturbance term which represents all other factors that were have effect on household's livelihood condition. "},{"text":" 1. Sex of household headOut of a total of 88 randomly taken respondents, 86 % were male-headed and 14 % were female-headed households. Male-headed households account 88 % in DMW and 84 % in sholit watershed. Likewise, female-headed household accounts 12 % in DMW and 16 % in Sholit watershed. The Chi-square test indicated that the systematic relationship between watershed type and sex of household head is insignificant (Table4.1.). "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4.1. Treated farm land, protected grazing land and treated gully from tope to down respectively (researcher, 2016) "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4.2. Unprotected grazing land and untreated gully at Sholit watershed (researcher, 2016). "},{"text":" land. In GetachewFisseha et al. (2011)  study's that analyzed land use land cover change of DMW with three periods of interval(1957, 1982 and 2008), rock out crop was detected which accounts 3.3% in 2008 which is not seen 1957 and 1982 but it couldn't observe in this study(Figure 4.3.). This indicates the presence of high erosion in between 1982 and 2008 that degraded the land and could change it to rock out crop. On the other hand the disappearance of this rock out crop in 2016 indicates the effect of SWCP on physical feature of the area. According to GetachewFisseha et al. (2011), Shrub and bush lands accounts 6.1%, 6.0% and 2.4% in the watershed in1957, 1982 and 2008  respectively but in this study (2016) it accounted 3.1 %. This shows shrub and bush covered lands was highly shrank from 1982 to 2008 but it showed improvement in current study and it is the effect of SWCP on biological feature of the area. So, SWCP has highly contributed for improvement of biophysical feature of the area. "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4. 3. Land use/Cover map of DMW in 2016 (researcher, 2016) "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4.4. Stream, communal hand dug well and private shallow well from top to down(researcher, 2016)     "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 5 . Figure 4.5. Fire wood and feeding collection from SWC structures (researcher, 2016) "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 5 . Figure 4.5. Treated farm lands with physical and biological methods (researcher, 2016) "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4.6. Part of focus group discussion in DMW and Sholit watersheds from right to left (researcher, 2016). "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 7 . Figure 4.7. Picture in the left, untreated gully at Sholit watershed; picture in the right treated gully at DMW compile (researcher, 2016) "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure 4.9. Treated DMW (researcher, 2016). "},{"text":" To minimize or avoid lack of awareness of the community and the public at large, government should design awareness creation programs about the problem of land degradation and the importance of soil and water conservation so as to promote SWC activities and in order to meet its intended positive effect on livelihood condition of the household.  The government and concerned bodies should participate the communities starting from watershed planning process in order to have timely, effective and reasonable decision making in the planning and implementation processes of watershed development intervention activities.  There should be commitment on the government to enforce the implementation of watershed by-laws that could better protect soil and water conservation structures and to ensure their sustainability. Part 1. Demographic characteristics 1. Name of interviewed house hold head -----------------------------------Sex-------age-------2. For how long have you lived in this area? Years 3. Marital status: 1) Single 2) Married 3) Divorced 4) Widow 4. Religion … A, orthodox B, Muslim C, protestant D, others 5. Educational status of the household head? A. Cannot read and write B. Can read and write C. Primary (Grade 1-8) D. grade 9 -12 E. diploma and above 6. Family size ( house hold head) ----------------------------------------you have exotic breed of Animal, can you use genetic improvement? 1) Yes 2) No 12. If your Answer in question ''11'' is yes, what type of genetic improvement method you use? 1) Artificial insemination /AI/ 2) Bull selection 3) Both 13. Do you know the advantage of genetic improvement? 1) Yes 2) No 14. Is their Animal health clinic in your area? 1) Yes 2) No 15. Mention the major livestock disease in your area? "},{"text":"Part 4 : SWC and Livestock feed production 17. What are the major types of physical and Biological SWC measures implemented on your "},{"text":"Table 4  .1. Distribution of sample households by sex   .1. Distribution of sample households by sex   Sholit watershed Total sample (N χ2- Sholit watershedTotal sample (Nχ2- Sex DMW (N = 50) (N = 38) = 88) value SexDMW (N = 50)(N = 38)= 88)value  Percent Percent Percent  PercentPercentPercent Female 12 16 14  Female121614 Male 88 84 86 0.608 Male8884860.608 Total 100 100 100  Total100100100 Source: Own computation result, 2016    Source: Own computation result, 2016 4.1.2. Age of the household head    4.1.2. Age of the household head  "},{"text":"Table 4 . 2. Distribution of age, family size, land and livestock holding of sample households Age of the household head, FAS = Family size of the household, LHS = Land holding Size of the household in hectare, TLU = Tropical Livestock Unit and N = number of sample size. Variable       Variable s Total sample     sTotal sample        Mean t - Meant -  (N =  DMW  Sholit  differenc valu (N =DMWSholitdifferencvalu  88)  (N=50)  (N =38)  e e sig 88)(N=50)(N =38)eesig  Mean STD Mean STD Mean STD Mean Mean STDMean STDMean STD Mean  46.30 13.167 47.86 13.608 44.24 12.441 3.623 1.28 .21 46.30 13.167 47.86 13.60844.24 12.4413.623 1.28.21 AGE       3 3 AGE33  5.26 1.657 5.26 1.601 5.26 1.750 -.003 -.009 .73 5.261.6575.261.6015.261.750-.003 -.009 .73 FAS       3 FAS3  1.6719 .86110 1.687 .62589 1.6513 1.1063 .03618 .194 .00 1.6719 .86110 1.687.62589 1.6513 1.1063.03618 .194 .00 LHS   5   2 7 LHS527  4.7759 2.6863 5.166 2.6696 4.2624 2.6557 .90383 1.57 .71 4.7759 2.68635.1662.66964.2624 2.6557.90383 1.57.71 TLU  6 2 7  9 7 4 TLU627974 Where, AGE = Source: Own computation result, 2016   Where, AGE = Source: Own computation result, 2016 Table 4.3. Maximum, minimum and mean of continuous variables Table 4.3. Maximum, minimum and mean of continuous variables        Std. Std.    N Minimum Maximum Mean Deviation NMinimum MaximumMeanDeviation Age of the household head 88 24.00 78.00  46.30 13.17 Age of the household head8824.0078.0046.3013.17 Family size  88 2.00 10.00  5.26 1.66 Family size882.0010.005.261.66 Land holding size of the 88 0.25 5.00  1.67 0.86 Land holding size of the880.255.001.670.86 household       household Number of oxen per  88 0.00 3.00  1.35 0.80 Number of oxen per880.003.001.350.80 household       household Tropical livestock unit  88 0.00 14.91  4.78 2.69 Tropical livestock unit880.0014.914.782.69 Area of soil and water  88 0.00 2.00  0.45 0.50 Area of soil and water880.002.000.450.50 conservation      conservation Feed resource harvested 88 0.00 6.00  0.97 1.17 Feed resource harvested880.006.000.971.17 from ASWC      from ASWC Peoples' livelihood condition 88 2300.00 27000.00 11793.9432 4845.255 Peoples' livelihood condition882300.00 27000.00 11793.94324845.255 Where, N = number of sample size.    Where, N = number of sample size. Source: Own computation result, 2016   Source: Own computation result, 2016  "},{"text":"Table 4 . 6. Land use/cover type and area covered by the respective land use type in the DMW watershed in 2016(researcher, 2016)      2016  2016 Land use and cover type Area (ha) % Land use and cover typeArea (ha)% Natural forest 2.7 0.5 Natural forest2.70.5 Shrub and bush land 16.5 3.1 Shrub and bush land16.53.1 Grazing land 38.8 7.7 Grazing land38.87.7 Cultivated and settlement 425.1 79.6 Cultivated and settlement425.179.6 Eucalyptus plantation 33 6.2 Eucalyptus plantation336.2 Rock out crop 0 0 Rock out crop00 Treated gully and rehabilitated degraded land 18.4 3.3 Treated gully and rehabilitated degraded land18.43.3  "},{"text":" on different SWC structures. As it shown in table 4.7, on average sample households harvested 0.97 quintal of feed resource per year on different soil and water conservation structures with standard deviation of 1.17 quintal in the study area. The average feed resource harvested in DM and Sholit watersheds sample households was found to be 1.55 and 0.21 quintal per year with SD of 1.16 and 0.62 respectively and with mean difference of 1.34 quintal. The statistical analysis revealed that there is a significance difference between the two watersheds in relation to feed resource derived from different SWC structures. The difference is found to be statistically significant at 1% significance level.  "},{"text":" The monetary value has been derived based on the local market prices per unit of the grain equivalent.The survey results show that sample house households in DMW and Sholit watershed had a mean income of 12175.20 ETB and 11292.29 ETB per year per household respectively with mean difference of 882.91 ETB while the mean annual income of the total sampled households was found to be 11793.94 ETB per annum per household. This means that households in DMW are better in terms of livelihood condition(Table 4.7.). The study conducted by YenealemKassa et al. in 2013 on the impact of integrated soil and water conservation program on crop production and income in West Harerghe Zone, Ethiopia using propensity score matching method, found that there is annual income difference between soil conservation participants and non-participants. But in this study, even though there is a mean income difference in the two watersheds the t-test indicates that the difference is not statistically significant(Table 4.7.).According to farmers during focus group discussion, erosion was a critical problem in DMW. It removes the tope soil, which is fertile, and reduces the productivity of land year to year. After SWCP implementation the situation is changed. The conservation structure helps to reduce erosion. As a result most of rain water percolates down rather than runoff and it helps to conserve soil and water in the area. Reduction of soil loss due to SWCP contributes to manage soil fertility. That is why; crop productivity is increasing in time since SWCP was started in DMW. This result was also supported by ShimelesDamene (2013). He conducted a research on effectiveness of soil and water conservation measures for land restoration in Wello area, Ethiopia and he found that physical soil and water conservation structures help to maintain soil fertility and crop yield improvement. SWCP not only increase crop productivity but also helps to increase access of forage and resulting improvement of livestock production. Status of livestock production and crop productivity are key factors which can determine livelihoods of a community. So, SWCP highly contributing for livelihood improvement in DMW. There was a research done byAgREN (Agricultural Research & Extension Network)  in 2000 on the contribution of soil and water conservation to sustainable livelihoods in semi-arid areas of Sub-Saharan Africa and its finding showed that there are important contribution of SWCP on community and its finding showed that there are important contribution of SWCP on community livelihoods.      livelihoods. 4.5. Farmers Livelihood Conditions and Influencing Variables   4.5. Farmers Livelihood Conditions and Influencing Variables Table 4. 8. Output of multiple regression analysis factors affecting people's livelihood Table 4. 8. Output of multiple regression analysis factors affecting people's livelihood condition      condition    Standardize   Standardize  Unstandardized d   Unstandardizedd  Coefficients Coefficients   CoefficientsCoefficients Variables B Std. Error Beta t Sig. VariablesBStd. ErrorBetatSig. 1(Constant) 2812.617 1379.576  2.039 0.048 1(Constant)2812.617 1379.5762.039 0.048 Area of soil and water conservation 2206.645 904.213 0.230 2.440 0.019** Area of soil and water conservation 2206.645904.2130.2302.440 0.019** Feed resource harvested for livestock from SWC structures 1110.261 499.542 0.275 2.223 0.032** Feed resource harvested for livestock from SWC structures1110.261499.5420.2752.223 0.032** Age of the household head -12.873 18.078 -0.037 -0.712 0.481 Age of the household head-12.87318.078-0.037-0.712 0.481 Sex of the house hold head -606.105 778.177 -0.042 -0.779 0.441 Sex of the house hold head-606.105778.177-0.042-0.779 0.441 Family size 73.230 164.052 0.025 0.446 0.658 Family size73.230164.0520.0250.446 0.658 Education level of the house holed 420.876 294.611 0.078 1.429 0.161 Education level of the house holed420.876294.6110.0781.429 0.161 Tropical livestock unit 446.935 149.683 0.254 2.986 0.005** * Tropical livestock unit446.935149.6830.2542.9860.005** * Land holding size of the house hold 2007.940 725.264 0.268 ,00.008** 2.769 * Land holding size of the house hold2007.940725.2640.268,00.008** 2.769 * Number of oxen per house hold 307.914 551.696 0.044 0.558 0.580 Number of oxen per house hold307.914551.6960.0440.558 0.580 Dependent Variable: peoples' livelihood condition    Dependent Variable: peoples' livelihood condition Source: Own computation result, 2016     Source: Own computation result, 2016 In this study livelihood condition of the household was determined by SWCP together In this study livelihood condition of the household was determined by SWCP together  "}],"sieverID":"18d4140d-4732-41ee-ba83-05235477d59a","abstract":"Soil and water conservation practice (SWCP) have been widely implemented in many parts of Ethiopia since 1983. As a number of researchers agree, most of the physical structures are strengthened by biological measures and also huge amount of land had been closed from direct interference of human and animals to treat degraded and gully areas. The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of SWCP on biophysical attributes, livestock feed availability and community livelihood improvement at Debre-Mewi Watershed (DMW) in comparison with the nearby untreated Sholit watershed which are located in West Gojjam Zone, Ethiopia. Semi-structured interview was applied for these two watersheds to collect all required data for the study. To strengthen the data which were collected using questionnaire and to get additional data focus group discussion including watershed committee was conducted in each watershed. Transect walk were also applied in each watershed to observe current biophysical situation of the area. GIS technique was also used to analyze land use type of DMW. The result shows that SWCP has high contribution to improve biophysical feature (forest coverage, bushes and shrubs increased; and rock out crops were totally eliminated) as compared to the previous studies of the area in DMW. Comparison was made between DMW (treated) and Sholit (untreated) watersheds, and in terms of income, households in DMW were found to be better off by 882.91 ETB per annum than Sholit households even though the differences is not statistically significant. The mean feed resource harvested for livestock from SWC structures found to be 1.55 quintal in DMW where as in Sholit watershed it was found to be 0.21 quintal per annum per household. The result also indicated that feed resource harvested from SWCP, tropical livestock unit and land holding size are statistically significant for peoples' livelihood with 3.2, 0.5 and 0.8% significance level respectively."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0153fe6d555dd04ece6ce3a4a9ba2b47","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://data.worldagroforestry.org/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.34725/DVN/CBHCKS/JXIKHR"},"pageCount":33,"title":"UNDERTAKING A BIOPHYSICAL BASELINE SURVEY AND ANNUAL TRACKING OF ECOSYSTEM HEALTH FOR THE KENYA CEREAL ENHANCEMENT PROGRAMME-CLIMATE RESILIENT AGRICULTURAL LIVELIHOODS WINDOW","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background on the Land Degradation Surveillance Framework (LDSF)","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The project will identify and measure key indicators of land and soil health in order to understand drivers of degradation, and monitor changes over time using the Land Degradation Surveillance Framework (LDSF) methodology (http://landscapeportal.org/blog/2015/03/25/the-land-degradation-surveillance-framework-ldsf/). The LDSF provides a field protocol for measuring indicators of the \"health\" of an ecosystem."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"The LDSF was developed by the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) in response to the need for consistent field methods and indicator frameworks to assess land health in landscapes. The framework has been applied in projects across the global tropics, and is currently one of the largest land health databases globally with more than 30,000 observations, shared at http://landscapeportal.org. This project will benefit from existing data in the LDSF database, while at the same time contributing to these critically important global datasets through on-going data collection. Earth Observation (EO) data will be combined with the LDSF framework to develop the outputs for the project, including land degradation and soil health."},{"index":3,"size":196,"text":"Specifically, the LDSF is a field methodology to collect data on key biophysical characteristics across the landscape. This includes quantifying the percent of the landscape that is cultivated, as well as identifying which crops and management practices are being used. The LDSF also assesses land ownership, vegetation structure and dominant land use. Understanding the woody vegetation cover is also an important component of the LDSF. This is done by quantifying the tree and shrub densities and diversity at each plot. Analysis on tree density and diversity within cultivated systems is also conducted and provides insights into the \"climate-smartness\" of the system. A key indicator of land degradation is soil erosion prevalence, therefore, soil erosion is quantified and classified at each subplot (n=4) per plot, as well as the quantification of soil water conservation measures. Finally, infiltration capacity is measured using single ring infiltrometers. Infilitration capacity of the soil has important implications for compaction and water erosion through runoff. All of these data are presented in the report. Still pending are the analyses of the soil properties. This is ongoing as the soil samples collected at each site are currently in the soil analytical laboratory being processed."}]},{"head":"Specific Activities on the ICRAF Component as Stated in the Agreement","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"1. Develop survey methodology detailing study design, methodology, tools, work plan and timelines documented 2. Procure of assorted LDSF Field Survey equipment 3. Conduct five LDSF surveys across the KCEP-CRAL action areas 4. Process, analyse and document the soil samples 5. Conduct Earth Observation-based assessment of biophysical indicators over time 6. Conduct capacity development opportunities with members of the PCU M&E staff and Government counterparts on LDSF field methodology 7. Share outputs and data from the LDSF"}]},{"head":"Timeline of Activities","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"1. The MoU between the Government of Kenya and ICRAF was signed 23 July 2018 2. A partner meeting between the KCEP-CRAL PCU, FAO and ICRAFheld at ICRAF to discuss and share details on the field survey methodology and collaboration. 3. The LDSF methodology was approved by IFAD, KCEP-CRAL and partners in September 2018. 4. LDSF sites were co-located with HH Baseline surveys in Nov 2018. Household survey coordinates were shared with ICRAF and five LDSF field sites were randomized to be co-located with household surveys across the KCEP-CRAL project action sites (see map below). 5. Procurement of equipment from Aug-Dec 2018. 6. LDSF field surveys and trainings commenced in November 2018 with Muminji and finished in June 2019 in Chasimba (see below). In each site, government authorities and KCEP-CRAL representatives were consulted and engaged. These in-the-field trainings contributed to the capacity building aspect of the project. 7. Presentation of LDSF results to KCEP-CRAL project team during IFAD mission in May 2019."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"A special acknowledgement to John Thiongo Maina, the lead technician and Anthony Njuguna, the lead driver and field assisant who conducted the field surveys and led the trainings for the KCEP-CRAL representatives on the LDSF methodology."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"This report highlights the preliminary data analysis of the LDSF field data.  "}]},{"head":"Landscape Characteristics","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Slope was measured in each plot, using a clinometer and measured in degrees. In general, landscapes with slopes less than ~10 degrees are considered gently sloping. Muminji had the highest average slope across the site, with 12 degrees, compared to Thange, which had the lowest slope and and the smallest variation in slope (2.4 degrees) as shown in the below boxplots. "}]},{"head":"Cultivation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Each sampled plot is classified as cultivated or non-cultivated. Seventy-four percent of the sampled plots in Chasimba were classified as cultivated, 42% in Gatunga, 57% in KuboSouth, 47% in Muminji, and 61 % in Thange."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"The main crops in Muminji included maize, beans, cow peas, green grams, and some khat. Most plots were cultivated for more than 25 years, on average. Main crops in Gatunga included green grams, cow pea, and millet. In Thange, main crops included maize, pigeon pea, green gram, and cow peas. In KuboSouth main crops included maize, cow pea, green gramm but also perrenial crops such as cashew, coco, citrus. In Chasimba, main crops included maize, cassava, cow pea, and coco. Most of the non-cultivated plots were used primarily for grazing land for more than 30 or 40 years or were fallow land."}]},{"head":"Land Ownership","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"The land ownership of each plot was classified as either private, communual, or governement. The Land ownership was predominately private across the five LDSF sites (Table 1). "}]},{"head":"Vegetation Structure","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The LDSF uses the FAO Land Cover Classification System (LCCS), which was developed in the context of the FAO-AFRICOVER project. Each sampled plot was classified by the vegetation structure. Figure 3 shows the number of each plots per category. The most common land cover class was cropland, which is the annual cropping system. "}]},{"head":"Dominant Land Use","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The land use of the plots were also classified as either pasture/rangeland, annual cropping system, perennial cropping system, annual crops with trees (annual agroforestry), perennial cropping system with trees (perennial agroforestry), fallow, protected areas, or woodlots."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"In Chasimba, annual crops grown with the incorporation of the trees (annual agroforestry) was the dominant land use, while in Gatunga and Thange, both pasture/rangeland and annual cropping systems were most common. In KuboSouth, annual agroforestry systems were most common. In Muminji, we did not assess the land use categories.  "}]},{"head":"Tree and Shrub Densities","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"In the LDSF, shrubs are classified as woody vegetation between 1.5m and 3.0m tall, and trees are classified as woody vegetation above 3.0m tall."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Averages shrub density was higher in non-cultivated plots in all sites. The table below shows the average tree and shrub densities in plots classifed as cultivated (PlotCultMgd = yes) and non-cultivated (PlotCultMgd = no)."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Chasimba and Muminji had the highest average shrub densities in non-cultivated plots. The Muminji LDSF had an average of 250 shrubs per ha in non-cultivated plots compared to an average of 89 shrubs per ha in cultivated plots. Average shrub density in Chasimba was 270 shrubs per ha in non-cultivated plots compared to 43 shrubs per ha in cultivated plots. Gatunga had the lowest shrub densities in non-cultivated plots, an average of 108 trees per ha in non-cultivated plots compared to 21 shrubs per ha in cultivated plots."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"KuboSouth had the highest shrub density in cultivated plots. Average shrub density in KuboSouth was 163 shrubs per ha in non-cultivated plots compared to 101 shrubs per ha in cultivated plots. Average shrub density in Thange was 150 shrubs per ha in non-cultivated plots compared to 34 shrubs per ha in cultivated plots."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"Muminji and KuboSouth had the highest tree densities in cultivated plots. Average tree density in Muminji was 249 trees per ha in non-cultivated plots compared to 100 trees per ha in cultivated plots. KuboSouth had an average of 177 trees per ha in culitvated plots compared to 243 tree per ha in non-cultivated plots."},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"Average tree density in Gatunga was 146 trees per ha in non-cultivated plots compared to 33 trees per ha in cultivated plots. Average tree density in Thange was 198 trees per ha in non-cultivated plots compared to 33 trees per ha in cultivated plots. Chasimba had the lowest tree densities overall with 76 trees per ha in non-cultivated plots and 62 trees per ha in cultivated plots.  "}]},{"head":"Tree Species Diversity","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Tree species diveristy is an indicator of biodiversity. Higher diversity of tree species is important for a number of different ecosystem services as well as for the overall resilience of the system. This includes natural systems as well as cropping systems. In agroforesty systems, diversity can be harnessed to provide a diverse range of products and services to people and is an indicator the overall health of the land."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Trees were identified in each 100-m2 subplot (n=4 per plot). The below graphics demonstrate the abundance of each tree species per site. In total, 89 unique tree species were identified in the Muminji LDSF site, 47 at the Gatunga site, 59 at the Thange site, 50 at Chasimba, and 126 at the KuboSouth site."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"While it is important to note the number of tree species, it is also critical to acknowledge if the tree species is exotic or indigenous, and also if the species is considered invasive. For example, the most common species at  "}]},{"head":"Tree Species Diversity in Cultivated and Non-cultivated Plots","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Differences were observed in the species composition in cultivated vs non-cultivated plots. For example, in Muminji, there were 47 unique tree species encountered in non-cultivated plots and 38 tree species in cultivated plots. Grevillea robusta and Euphorbia tirucalli were only found in cultivated plots. In contrast, Gymnosporia buxifolia, Faurea saligna, Acacia nilotica, Acacia nubica and Acacia hockii were only found in non-cultivated plots in Muminji. The below graphic illustrates the frequency of species in the cultivated and non-cultivated plots (for all species that had more than three counts)."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"In Gatunga, 36 tree species were observed in non-cultivated plots and 18 tree species in cultivated plots. "}]},{"head":"Erosion Prevalence","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Erosion is the most widespread form of land degradation. Erosion was scored and classified in each subplot (n=4) per plot. Plots that had three or more subplots with erosion were classified as having severe erosion. The below graphics demonstrate the erosion prevalence across the sites. The bar chart shows the number of plots per cluster that had severe erosion. In general, 10 plots per cluster were sampled. Therefore a cluster with 10 plots having severe erosion such as Chasimba cluster four had high erosion prevalence across that cluster (which is 1 km2), compared to KuboSouth cluster one which only had two plots classified as having severe erosion."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"The violin boxplots show the same data at the site level. KuboSouth had the lowest erosion prevalence, only 5% of the sampled plots, followed by Thange (32%). In contrast, Chasimba had 65% of the site with severe erosion. The average erosion across the sites was 41%.  "}]},{"head":"Soil Water Conservation Measures","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Soil water conservation (SWC) measures were classified and counted at each plot. Examples of SWC measures could be stone bunds or zai pits (labeled as structural), contour tree planting (labeled as vegetative), or a combination of both vegetative and structural (labeled as both). The below graphic demonstrates the overall low use of SWC measures across the sites. Thange had the highest number of SWC measures and Chasimba had the lowest. These data have implications for soil erosion and opportunities to employ options to curb erosion prevalence. "}]},{"head":"Infiltration Capacity","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Infiltration capacity was measured at three plots per cluster in each site. These data will be used to model saturated hydraulic conductivity and to understand how land use and land management influence infiltration capacity of water into the soil. The below graphic shows the variation in infiltration rates within and between the sites."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"The infiltration rate is defined as the volume flux of water flowing into the profile per unit of soil surface area. For the special condition in which rainfall rate (or the rate in which water is made available at the soil surface) exceeds the ability of the soil to absorb water, i.e. under ponding, infiltration proceeds at a maximal rate, which is known as soil infiltration capacity or soil infiltrability [@Hillel1971, @Horton1940]."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Therefore, soil infiltrability can be measured using soil controlled infiltration tests such as ring infiltrometers."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"In general, soil infiltrability into dry soils follows a predictable temporal pattern: it is high in the early stages of infiltration and tends to decline gradually with time until it eventually approaches a nearly constant rate known as (quasi-) steady-state infiltrability or final infiltration capacity."},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"Downward infiltration into an initially unsaturated soil is typically driven by two main gradients: the gravitational head and the pressure head -or matric suction head when it is negative, i.e. unsaturated soil-. This is reflected in Darcy's law for 1D downward flow:"},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":"where:"},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"• q is the flux density, in our case the infiltration rate"},{"index":8,"size":171,"text":"is the hydraulic conductivity of the wetted zone for a given pression head h [L t -1 ] • δH δz is the hydraulic head gradient, which in turn consists of: • δz δz or gravitational head gradient [L L -1 ] • δh δz or pressure head gradient [L L -1 ] The decline in infiltrability over time results from the gradual decrese in the pressure head gradient ( δh δz ) and the increase in the depth of the wetting front as infiltration goes on. Eventually, the pressure head gradient becomes negligible and thereafter, the gravitational head ( δz δz ), which equals 1, becomes the main driving force. This explains why the infiltration rate tends to assymptotically approach the hydraulic conductivity as a limiting value. In a uniform profile with prolonged ponding, the water content of the wetted zone should approach saturation. Hence, the infiltration rate in such conditions will tend assymptotically to the saturated hydraulic conductivity (k sat ), which will represent the (quasi-) steady-state infiltrability [@Hillel2004a]:"}]},{"head":"Reynolds & Elrick steady-state single ring model to estimate Kfs","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Reynolds & Elrick [-@Reynolds1990] developed a method to analyse steady (or quasi-steady-state) ponded infiltration from within a single ring and determine the field-saturated hydraulic conductivity (Kfs)."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Quasi-steady infiltration through a single ring can be described using the Reynolds and Elrick relationship [@Reynolds1990] expression written as [@Reynolds2002]:"},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"+ 1 which can also be applied directly for determination of Kfs:"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"where:"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• q s is the quasi-steady infiltration rate"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• H is the steady depth (head) of ponded water in the ring [L]"},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"• d is the depth of ring insertion into the soil [L]"},{"index":8,"size":111,"text":"• C 1 and C 2 are dimensionless quasi-emprirical constants. C 1 = 0.316 π and C 2 = 0.184 π. These constants apply for d>= 3cm and H>= 5cm • α * is the soil macroscopic capillary length, also known as sorptive number of the porous medium [L -1 ] The term quasi-steady state is used here because the approach to \"true\" steady state for ring infiltrometers in some cases can be slow to the point to be near asymptotic. Quasi-steady flow in the near-surface soil under the measuing cylinder is assumed when the discharge becomes effectively constant. This equation identifies three main components of quasi-steady flow from ring infiltrometers:"},{"index":9,"size":80,"text":"• Flow due to hydrostatic pressure of the ponded water in the cylinder (first term of the right side of the equation), this is, the positive pressure of the water column • Flow due to the capillarity (capillary suction) of the unsaturated soil under and adjacent to the cylinder (second term) • Flow due to gravity (third term) Lateral divergence of flow due to hydrostatic pressure and capillarity is accounted for implicitly in the (C 1 d+C 2 a) term."},{"index":10,"size":84,"text":"Darcy's law assumes that Kf s = qs, which is also what is assumed in the traditional constant head ring infiltrometer analysis. But, if we consider hydrostatic and capilarity effects, it is then clear that Kf s < qs [@Reynolds2002]. Thus, q s is often substantially greater than K fs [@Reynolds2002], or in other words, q s overestimates K fs . Such overestimation is larger the smaller the ring diameter, the higher the ponding depth and the lower the capillary length (α * )."},{"index":11,"size":241,"text":"The soil macroscopic capillary length parameter (α * , also known as sorptive number of the porous medium) represents the relative importance of gravity and capillarity forces during ponded infiltration. Large (α * ) indicates a dominance of gravity over capillarity, which occurs primarily in coarse-textured soils an/or highly structured porous media. Small (α * ), on the other hand, indicates dominance of capillarity over gravity, which occurs in fine-textured and/or unstructured porous media. The connection between the magnitude of (α * ) and porous medium texture makes it possible to estimate (α * ) from soil texture and structure categories.   The violin plots demonstrate the median field-saturated hydraulic conductivity (Kfs) for each site. Gatunga had the lowest Kfs and KuboSouth had the highest KfS and high variation across the site. Further analysis will be conducted on these data to assess what is driving the Kfs, for example, is it land use, vegetation structure, land degradation status or soil properities such as sand content or soil organic carbon content. In addition to quantifying the rate of water infiltration into the soil, it is also important to understand how water is flowing through the soil. To do this, Aida Tobella, a postdoctoral fellow at SLU and ICRAF is using the blue dye experiments at the KCEP-CRAL LDSF sites. The below photo demontrates matrix flow, for example at KuboSouth cluster 10 plot 4 compared to perferential flow at KuboSouth cluster 3 plot 2."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Location of the household surveys and LDSF sites. 4 "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Average slope each LDSF site. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Cultivated plots in each LDSF site. "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Vegetation structure of each of the sampled plots. "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Dominant land use of each of the sampled plots. "},{"text":"Figure 6 :Figure 7 : Figure 6: Shrub Densities in Cultivated and Non-cultivated Plots. "},{"text":"Figure 12 : Figure 12: Tree Species Frequency at the Chasimba LDSF Site. "},{"text":"Figure 16 :Figure 17 : Figure 16: Number of plots with severe erosion per cluster per LDSF site. "},{"text":"Figure 18 : Figure 18: Soil Water Conservation Measures Employed at each Site. "},{"text":"Figure 19 : Figure 19: Infiltration Capacity at the Muminji LDSF Site. "},{"text":"Figure 20 : Figure 20: Infiltration Capacity at the Gatunga LDSF site. "},{"text":"Figure 21 : Figure 21: Infiltration Capacity at the Thange LSDF site. "},{"text":"Figure 22 : Figure 22: Average Saturated Conductivity at the each LDSF Site "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Land ownership of each of the sampled plots. Site LandOwnership count SiteLandOwnership count Chasimba communal 3 Chasimbacommunal3 Chasimba private 156 Chasimbaprivate156 Gatunga communal 1 Gatungacommunal1 Gatunga government 6 Gatungagovernment6 Gatunga private 152 Gatungaprivate152 KuboSouth government 1 KuboSouth government1 KuboSouth not_known 3 KuboSouth not_known3 KuboSouth private 150 KuboSouth private150 Muminji communal 2 Muminjicommunal2 Muminji government 1 Muminjigovernment1 Muminji private 155 Muminjiprivate155 Thange communal 3 Thangecommunal3 Thange government 3 Thangegovernment3 Thange private 152 Thangeprivate152  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Average tree and shrub densities in cultivated and non-cultivated plots. Site PlotCultMgd count mean.avtreeden mean.avshrubden SitePlotCultMgd count mean.avtreeden mean.avshrubden Chasimba no 41 76 271 Chasimbano4176271 Chasimba yes 118 62 43 Chasimbayes1186243 Gatunga no 92 146 108 Gatungano92146108 Gatunga yes 67 32 21 Gatungayes673221 KuboSouth no 67 243 163 KuboSouth no67243163 KuboSouth yes 87 177 101 KuboSouth yes87177101 Muminji no 84 249 251 Muminjino84249251 Muminji yes 74 101 90 Muminjiyes7410190 Thange no 61 198 150 Thangeno61198150 Thange yes 97 33 34 Thangeyes973334  "},{"text":" Muminji were: Combretum molle, Lantana spp., and Gymnosporia buxifolia, Faurea saligna and Commiphora spp. The high prevalence of Lantana spp. in Muminji identifies a need for control measures.The most common species at Thange were Combretum fragrans, Combretum spp, Acacia tortillis and Croton dichogamous. The most common species at Gatunga were: Commiphora spp., Acacia senegal, Acacia nilotica, and Mimosa pigra. The most common species in Chasimba were fruit tree species including Cocos nucifera, Magnifera indica, Bracgtystegia spiciformis, Anacardium occidentales, and Azadirachta indica. The most common species in KuboSouth were woodlot and fruit tree species, most notably Casuarina equisetifolia, Annona senegalennisis, Margaritaria discoidea, Psidium guajava, Citrus sinensis and Cocos nucifera.   Tree Species at Gatunga Tree Species at Thange Tree Species at KuboSouth Tree Species at Chasimba Tree Species at Gatunga Tree Species at Thange Tree Species at KuboSouth Tree Species at Chasimba  0.20  0.20 Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.05 0.10 0.1 0.2  Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.05 0.10 0.1 0.2  0.00 0.0  0.00 0.0  0.00 0.00 Tree Species at Muminji Commiphora spp Acacia senegal Acacia nilotica Mimosa pigra Terminalia brownii Acacia brevispica Grewia bicolor Lawsonia inermis Murigicha Dombeya spp Acacia tortilis Muricha Muruti Muriti Acacia mellifera Boscia coriacea Bridelia taitensis Mathigora Combretum fragrans Acacia tortilis Combretum spp Croton dichogamous Commiphora spp Combretum molle Acacia mellifera Acacia nilotica Albizia spp Acacia senegal Senna siamea Melia volkensii Acacia drepanolobium Mimosa pigra Terminalia brownii Acacia hockii Anisotes spp Boscia angustifolia Grewia bicolor Thevetia spp Adansonia digitata Grewia villosa Ekebergia capensis Parinari curatellifolia Steganotaenia araliacea Combretum aculeatum Flueggea virosa Mutungura Grewia spp Flueggea virosa Leucaena spp Sterculia spp Crotalaria agatiflora Adansonia digitata Dichrostachys cinerea Magnifera indica Azadirachta indica Senna abbreviata Balanites glabra Senna spectablis Melia volkensii Annona spp Meyee Bridelia micrantha Mukarakara Dombeya spp Ornocarpus trachycarpum Ochna spp Acacia seyal Parinari curatellifolia Albizia amara Lanea spp Lawsonia inermis Boscia angustifolia Lonchocarpus spp Euphorbia bussei Anisotes ukam Euphorbia tirucalli Azadirachta indica Lonchocarpus eriocalyx Boscia coriacea Muthigiriri Cassia abbreviata Mwambatangao Cordia monoica Rhus vulgaris Euphorbia spp Tamarindus indica Lannea spp Casuarina equisetifolia Margaritaria discoidea Annona senegalensis Psidium guajava Citrus sinensis Anacardium occidentale Cocos nucifera Casuarina angustifolia Lantana camara Antidesma venosum Ozoroa insignis Bridelia micrantha Bixa spp Albizia versicolor Syzygium cordatum Flueggea virosa Keetia venosa Hyphaene compressa Crossopteryx febrifuga Keetia zanzibarica Bauhinia thoningii Suregada zanzibariensis Albizia adianthifolia Erythrophloem suaveolens Grewia plagiophyla Senna spectablis Thevetia thevetioides Blighia unijugata Bridelia carthartica Xylopia parviflora Ficus sur Securidaca longipedunculata Vitex doniana Harungana madagascariensis Stereospermum kunthianum Afzelia quanzensis Apodytes dimidiata Borassus aethiopum Dalbergia melanoxylon Eucalyptus spp Lonchocarpus bussei Mangifera indica Sancepalam brevipes Sorindeia madagascariensia Tectona grandis Tetracera boiviniana Trema orientalis Zanthoxylum chalybeum Deinbollia spp Lannea welwitschii Markhamia zanzibarica Ormocarpum spp Parkia filicoidea Phoenix reclinata Premna chrysoclada Strychnos madascariensis Tabernaemontana elegans Terracera boiviniana Trichilia emetica Cocos nucifera Mangifera indica Brachystegia spiciformis Anacardium occidentale Azadirachta indica Eucalyptus spp Gmelina arborea Citrus sinensis Senna siamea Grewia plagiophylla Annona senegalensis Thevetia peruviana Catunaregam indica Dichostachys cinerea Phyllanthus reticulatus Artocarpus heterophyllus Flueggea virosa Lannea welwitschii Leucaena spp Harrisonia abyssinica Jatropha curcas Manilkara zanzibarica Psidium guajava Apodytes dimidiata Dalbergia vaccinifolia Gyminallia spp Ozoroa insignis Syzygium spp Albizia anthilmetica Bridelia cathartica Cajanua cajan Keetia zanzibarica Senna singuema Ximenia Americana Albizia adiantifolia Bauhinia thoningii Bivinia jalbertii Brackenridgea zanguebarica Citrus tangerina Croton megalocarpus Ehretia spp Hoslundia opposita Mangifera Indica Melia volkensii Milicia excelsa Strychnos madagascariensis Terminalia catappa Wrightia spp Zanthoxylum chalybeum 0.00 0.00Tree Species at Muminji Commiphora spp Acacia senegal Acacia nilotica Mimosa pigra Terminalia brownii Acacia brevispica Grewia bicolor Lawsonia inermis Murigicha Dombeya spp Acacia tortilis Muricha Muruti Muriti Acacia mellifera Boscia coriacea Bridelia taitensis Mathigora Combretum fragrans Acacia tortilis Combretum spp Croton dichogamous Commiphora spp Combretum molle Acacia mellifera Acacia nilotica Albizia spp Acacia senegal Senna siamea Melia volkensii Acacia drepanolobium Mimosa pigra Terminalia brownii Acacia hockii Anisotes spp Boscia angustifolia Grewia bicolor Thevetia spp Adansonia digitata Grewia villosa Ekebergia capensis Parinari curatellifolia Steganotaenia araliacea Combretum aculeatum Flueggea virosa Mutungura Grewia spp Flueggea virosa Leucaena spp Sterculia spp Crotalaria agatiflora Adansonia digitata Dichrostachys cinerea Magnifera indica Azadirachta indica Senna abbreviata Balanites glabra Senna spectablis Melia volkensii Annona spp Meyee Bridelia micrantha Mukarakara Dombeya spp Ornocarpus trachycarpum Ochna spp Acacia seyal Parinari curatellifolia Albizia amara Lanea spp Lawsonia inermis Boscia angustifolia Lonchocarpus spp Euphorbia bussei Anisotes ukam Euphorbia tirucalli Azadirachta indica Lonchocarpus eriocalyx Boscia coriacea Muthigiriri Cassia abbreviata Mwambatangao Cordia monoica Rhus vulgaris Euphorbia spp Tamarindus indica Lannea spp Casuarina equisetifolia Margaritaria discoidea Annona senegalensis Psidium guajava Citrus sinensis Anacardium occidentale Cocos nucifera Casuarina angustifolia Lantana camara Antidesma venosum Ozoroa insignis Bridelia micrantha Bixa spp Albizia versicolor Syzygium cordatum Flueggea virosa Keetia venosa Hyphaene compressa Crossopteryx febrifuga Keetia zanzibarica Bauhinia thoningii Suregada zanzibariensis Albizia adianthifolia Erythrophloem suaveolens Grewia plagiophyla Senna spectablis Thevetia thevetioides Blighia unijugata Bridelia carthartica Xylopia parviflora Ficus sur Securidaca longipedunculata Vitex doniana Harungana madagascariensis Stereospermum kunthianum Afzelia quanzensis Apodytes dimidiata Borassus aethiopum Dalbergia melanoxylon Eucalyptus spp Lonchocarpus bussei Mangifera indica Sancepalam brevipes Sorindeia madagascariensia Tectona grandis Tetracera boiviniana Trema orientalis Zanthoxylum chalybeum Deinbollia spp Lannea welwitschii Markhamia zanzibarica Ormocarpum spp Parkia filicoidea Phoenix reclinata Premna chrysoclada Strychnos madascariensis Tabernaemontana elegans Terracera boiviniana Trichilia emetica Cocos nucifera Mangifera indica Brachystegia spiciformis Anacardium occidentale Azadirachta indica Eucalyptus spp Gmelina arborea Citrus sinensis Senna siamea Grewia plagiophylla Annona senegalensis Thevetia peruviana Catunaregam indica Dichostachys cinerea Phyllanthus reticulatus Artocarpus heterophyllus Flueggea virosa Lannea welwitschii Leucaena spp Harrisonia abyssinica Jatropha curcas Manilkara zanzibarica Psidium guajava Apodytes dimidiata Dalbergia vaccinifolia Gyminallia spp Ozoroa insignis Syzygium spp Albizia anthilmetica Bridelia cathartica Cajanua cajan Keetia zanzibarica Senna singuema Ximenia Americana Albizia adiantifolia Bauhinia thoningii Bivinia jalbertii Brackenridgea zanguebarica Citrus tangerina Croton megalocarpus Ehretia spp Hoslundia opposita Mangifera Indica Melia volkensii Milicia excelsa Strychnos madagascariensis Terminalia catappa Wrightia spp Zanthoxylum chalybeum   Species Name Species Name Species Name Species Name Species Name Species Name Species Name Species Name  0.09  0.09 Frequency 0.03 0.06 Figure 9: Tree Species Frequency at the Gatunga LDSF Site. Figure 10: Tree Species Frequency at the Thange LDSF Site. Figure 11: Tree Species Frequency at the KuboSouth LDSF Site. Frequency0.03 0.06Figure 9: Tree Species Frequency at the Gatunga LDSF Site. Figure 10: Tree Species Frequency at the Thange LDSF Site. Figure 11: Tree Species Frequency at the KuboSouth LDSF Site.  0.00  0.00   Combretum molle Lantana spp. Gymnosporia buxifolia Faurea saligna Commiphora spp. Acacia nilotica Acacia spp. Lannea schweinfurthii Melia volkensii Terminalia brownii Acacia hockii Acacia nubica Combretum zeyheri Combretum collinum Acacia seyal Bridelia spp. Muriti Teclea spp. Tamarindus indica Grevillea spp. Gnidia latifolia Euphorbia tirucalli Muthemeki Vitex keniensis Rhus spp. Acacia mellifera Bauhinia acuminata Zanthoxylum chalybeum Euphorbia kibwezensis Lonchocarpus eriocalyx Meyna tetraphylla Mutavayo Dichrostachys cinerea Ficus spp. Mimosa pigra Polyscias spp. Euphorbia pseudograntii Oncoba spp. treespecies_scientific Croton spp. Polyscias fulva Sterculia spp. Balanites aegyptiaca Kiva Mutororo Parinari curatellifolia Pentanisia ouranogyne Rotheca spp.. Sclerocarya birrea Combretum molle Lantana spp. Gymnosporia buxifolia Faurea saligna Commiphora spp. Acacia nilotica Acacia spp. Lannea schweinfurthii Melia volkensii Terminalia brownii Acacia hockii Acacia nubica Combretum zeyheri Combretum collinum Acacia seyal Bridelia spp. Muriti Teclea spp. Tamarindus indicaGrevillea spp. Gnidia latifolia Euphorbia tirucalli Muthemeki Vitex keniensis Rhus spp. Acacia mellifera Bauhinia acuminata Zanthoxylum chalybeum Euphorbia kibwezensis Lonchocarpus eriocalyx Meyna tetraphylla Mutavayo Dichrostachys cinerea Ficus spp. Mimosa pigra Polyscias spp. Euphorbia pseudograntii Oncoba spp. treespecies_scientific Croton spp. Polyscias fulva Sterculia spp. Balanites aegyptiaca Kiva Mutororo Parinari curatellifolia Pentanisia ouranogyne Rotheca spp.. Sclerocarya birrea   Species Name Species Name   Figure 8: Tree Species Frequency at the Muminji LDSF Site. Figure 8: Tree Species Frequency at the Muminji LDSF Site.  "},{"text":" Acacia brevispica, Murigicha, Dombeya spp, among other species were only found in non-cultivated plots.Combretum aculeatum, Sterculia spp., Azadirachta indica, Melia volkensii and Albizia amara, among others were only found in cultivated plots.There were 47 unique tree species encountered in non-cultivated plots in Thange, and 38 tree species in cultivated plots. Combretum spp, Croton dichogamous, Combretum molle and Acacia drepanolobium, Mimosa pigra, Acacia hokii, Anisotes spp, among others were only found in non-cultivated plots. Ekebergia capensis, Magnifera indica, Senna spectablis, Annona spp, Fluggea virosa, Leucaena spp, among others were only encountered in cultivated plots.There were 97 unique tree species encountered in non-cultivated plots in KuboSouth, and 82 tree species in cultivated plots. Casuarina equisetifolia was the most common in cultivated plots, and only Citrus sinensis, Casuarina angustifolia, Bixa spp, Albizia adianthifolia, and Senna spectablis, among others were found in cultivated plots. Antidesma venosum, Crossopteryx febrifuga, Keetia venosa and zanzibarica and Suregada zanzibariensis, among others were only found in non-cultivated plots.  Muminji Tree Species in Cultivated (yes) and Non−cultivated (no) Thange Tree Species in Cultivated (yes) and Non−cultivated (no) Tree Species at KuboSouth in Cultivated and Non−Cultivated Plots Muminji Tree Species in Cultivated (yes) and Non−cultivated (no) Thange Tree Species in Cultivated (yes) and Non−cultivated (no) Tree Species at KuboSouth in Cultivated and Non−Cultivated Plots                      no no no                   no no no Frequency Frequency Frequency 0.000 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.00 0.05 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25                    yes yes yes                  Frequency Frequency Frequency0.000 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.00 0.05 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25yes yes yes  0.000 0.025 0.00 0.05 Combretum molle Gymnosporia buxifolia Lantana spp Grevillea spp Acacia spp Melia volkensii Commiphora spp Euphorbia tirucalli Faurea saligna Acacia nilotica Lannea schweinfurthii Acacia nubica Acacia hockii Terminalia brownii Combretum collinum Muriti Bridelia spp Teclea spp Acacia seyal Combretum zeyheri Mimosa pigra Oncoba spp Tamarindus indica Gnidia latifolia Muthemeki Vitex keniensis Mukengeta Rhus spp Zanthoxylum chalybeum Bauhinia acuminata Euphorbia kibwezensis Lonchocarpus eriocalyx Acacia mellifera Meyna tetraphylla Dichrostachys cinerea Euphorbia pseudograntii Mutavayo Combretum fragrans Acacia tortilis Combretum spp Croton dichogamous Combretum molle Commiphora spp Acacia mellifera Albizia spp Melia volkensii Senna siamea Acacia nilotica Acacia senegal Ekebergia capensis Magnifera indica Senna spectablis Annona spp Flueggea virosa Leucaena spp Terminalia brownii Acacia drepanolobium Dichrostachys cinerea Mimosa pigra Boscia angustifolia Grewia bicolor Thevetia spp Adansonia digitata Acacia hockii Anisotes spp Casuarina equisetifolia Margaritaria discoidea Annona senegalensis Citrus sinensis Casuarina angustifolia Psidium guajava Anacardium occidentale Cocos nucifera Bixa spp Lantana camara Antidesma venosum Crossopteryx febrifuga Ozoroa insignis Bridelia micrantha Suregada zanzibariensis Syzygium cordatum Albizia versicolor Flueggea virosa Senna spectablis Keetia venosa Hyphaene compressa Grewia plagiophyla Xylopia parviflora Keetia zanzibarica Blighia unijugata Bauhinia thoningii Thevetia thevetioides Albizia adianthifolia Ficus sur Stereospermum kunthianum Erythrophloem suaveolens Borassus aethiopum Mangifera indica Vitex doniana Apodytes dimidiata Harungana madagascariensis Lonchocarpus bussei Securidaca longipedunculata Sorindeia madagascariensia Dalbergia melanoxylon Eucalyptus spp Markhamia zanzibarica Tectona grandis Terracera boiviniana Bridelia carthartica Phoenix reclinata Sancepalam brevipes Strychnos madascariensis Tabernaemontana elegans Tetracera boiviniana Steganotaenia araliacea Croton spp Polyscias fulva Polyscias spp Sterculia spp Terminalia prunioides Balanites aegyptiaca Ficus spp Pavetta lanceolata Pentanisia ouranogyne Rotheca spp Grewia spp Senna abbreviata Ochna spp Crotalaria agatiflora Dombeya spp Lanea spp Lawsonia inermis Acacia stuhlmanii Dalbergia boehmii Jatropa curcas Ormocarpum spp Trichilia emetica Zanthoxylum chalybeum Afzelia quanzensis Barringtonia racemosa Brackenridgea zanguebarica Grewia tristis Heinsia crinita Parkia filicoidea Polysphaeria parvifolia Trema orientalis 0.000 0.025 0.00 0.05Combretum molle Gymnosporia buxifolia Lantana spp Grevillea spp Acacia spp Melia volkensii Commiphora spp Euphorbia tirucalli Faurea saligna Acacia nilotica Lannea schweinfurthii Acacia nubica Acacia hockii Terminalia brownii Combretum collinum Muriti Bridelia spp Teclea spp Acacia seyal Combretum zeyheri Mimosa pigra Oncoba spp Tamarindus indica Gnidia latifolia Muthemeki Vitex keniensis Mukengeta Rhus spp Zanthoxylum chalybeum Bauhinia acuminata Euphorbia kibwezensis Lonchocarpus eriocalyx Acacia mellifera Meyna tetraphylla Dichrostachys cinerea Euphorbia pseudograntii Mutavayo Combretum fragrans Acacia tortilis Combretum spp Croton dichogamous Combretum molle Commiphora spp Acacia mellifera Albizia spp Melia volkensii Senna siamea Acacia nilotica Acacia senegal Ekebergia capensis Magnifera indica Senna spectablis Annona spp Flueggea virosa Leucaena spp Terminalia brownii Acacia drepanolobium Dichrostachys cinerea Mimosa pigra Boscia angustifolia Grewia bicolor Thevetia spp Adansonia digitata Acacia hockii Anisotes spp Casuarina equisetifolia Margaritaria discoidea Annona senegalensis Citrus sinensis Casuarina angustifolia Psidium guajava Anacardium occidentale Cocos nucifera Bixa spp Lantana camara Antidesma venosum Crossopteryx febrifuga Ozoroa insignis Bridelia micrantha Suregada zanzibariensis Syzygium cordatum Albizia versicolor Flueggea virosa Senna spectablis Keetia venosa Hyphaene compressa Grewia plagiophyla Xylopia parviflora Keetia zanzibarica Blighia unijugata Bauhinia thoningii Thevetia thevetioides Albizia adianthifolia Ficus sur Stereospermum kunthianum Erythrophloem suaveolens Borassus aethiopum Mangifera indica Vitex doniana Apodytes dimidiata Harungana madagascariensis Lonchocarpus bussei Securidaca longipedunculata Sorindeia madagascariensia Dalbergia melanoxylon Eucalyptus spp Markhamia zanzibarica Tectona grandis Terracera boiviniana Bridelia carthartica Phoenix reclinata Sancepalam brevipes Strychnos madascariensis Tabernaemontana elegans Tetracera boiviniana Steganotaenia araliacea Croton spp Polyscias fulva Polyscias spp Sterculia spp Terminalia prunioides Balanites aegyptiaca Ficus spp Pavetta lanceolata Pentanisia ouranogyne Rotheca spp Grewia spp Senna abbreviata Ochna spp Crotalaria agatiflora Dombeya spp Lanea spp Lawsonia inermis Acacia stuhlmanii Dalbergia boehmii Jatropa curcas Ormocarpum spp Trichilia emetica Zanthoxylum chalybeum Afzelia quanzensis Barringtonia racemosa Brackenridgea zanguebarica Grewia tristis Heinsia crinita Parkia filicoidea Polysphaeria parvifolia Trema orientalis                   Species Name Species Name Species Name               Species Name Species Name Species Name                      no                   no  0.20     Figure 14: Species Frequency in Cultivated and Non-cultivated Plots Figure 15: Species Frequency in Cultivated and Non-cultivated Plots      0.20Figure 14: Species Frequency in Cultivated and Non-cultivated Plots Figure 15: Species Frequency in Cultivated and Non-cultivated Plots  0.15                                        0.15  0.10                                        0.10  0.05                                        0.05  0.00                                        0.00                      yes                   yes  0.20                                        0.20  0.15                                        0.15  0.10                                        0.10  0.05                                        0.05  0.00                                        0.00   Commiphora spp Terminalia brownii Acacia senegal Acacia nilotica Mimosa pigra Lawsonia inermis Acacia brevispica Combretum aculeatum Murigicha Sterculia spp Grewia bicolor Dombeya spp Muricha Muruti Azadirachta indica Melia volkensii Muriti Boscia coriacea Acacia tortilis Acacia mellifera Albizia amara Mathigora Bridelia taitensis Parinari curatellifolia Grewia villosa Flueggea virosa Mutungura Adansonia digitata Balanites glabra Meyee Mukarakara Ornocarpus trachycarpum Acacia seyal Boscia angustifolia Euphorbia bussei Euphorbia tirucalli Lonchocarpus eriocalyx Muthigiriri Mwambatangao Rhus vulgaris Tamarindus indica Commiphora sppTerminalia browniiAcacia senegalAcacia niloticaMimosa pigraLawsonia inermisAcacia brevispicaCombretum aculeatumMurigichaSterculia sppGrewia bicolorDombeya sppMurichaMurutiAzadirachta indicaMelia volkensiiMuritiBoscia coriaceaAcacia tortilisAcacia melliferaAlbizia amaraMathigoraBridelia taitensisParinari curatellifoliaGrewia villosaFlueggea virosaMutunguraAdansonia digitataBalanites glabraMeyeeMukarakaraOrnocarpus trachycarpumAcacia seyalBoscia angustifoliaEuphorbia busseiEuphorbia tirucalliLonchocarpus eriocalyxMuthigiririMwambatangaoRhus vulgarisTamarindus indica                   Species Name                Species Name  "}],"sieverID":"4bbfe939-a3ce-4cf9-affe-035000343ee7","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01653ebc7f03f8e592373bb717159acb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/121ddd91-15a0-47ae-9fac-a315c52d0f78/retrieve"},"pageCount":36,"title":"Transforming Food Systems Impacts and insights from scaling innovations in Zimbabwe","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"T","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"he Bean flagship project worked with private and public sector partners to create a thriving bean subsector while promoting food and nutrition security, income, health, and women's empowerment."},{"index":2,"size":188,"text":"• A total of 1,500,000 small-scale farmers received improved bean seed and information on farming practices, with women accounting for 50% of the total. • To promote access to crop management practices, eight public and private sector scaling partners engaged in promoting access to crop management practices. • Fourteen seed houses were contracted to multiply and distribute certified seed from eight new bean varieties, resulting in a market increase in seed supply. • Fifteen crop production technologies were promoted to farmers resulting in increased yields and resilience to climate change. • Bean corridors were established to consolidate bean producers and consumers through organized distribution and supply networks • Private lead firms who are buyers, and service providers established and led five business platforms. • Processing industries and medium and small entrepreneurs developed commercial bean based products. • Four nutritious bean-based products were produced by processing industries and entrepreneurs. • Twenty multi-sector scaling partners advocated for the inclusion of High Iron Beans (HBS) in a national food fortification policy. • Men, women, and youth received production, marketing, and entrepreneurship skills, and encouraged to participate in gender inclusive business platforms."}]},{"head":"Awards","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The Crop Breeding Institute's bean program won the 2019 Robert Gabriel Mugabe Award for establishing a transformative bean biofortification research program."}]},{"head":"Our work","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"A vibrant bean sub-sector Bean researchers and the canning industry came together to select varieties suitable for canning. As a result, the canning industry had access to local beans suitable for processing."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Constant iteration among actors in the bean value chain resulted in course correction, innovation, and impact validity. T he flagship project targeted small-scale women, men, and youth farmers, with limited resources and who frequently face climate-related production shocks, food insecurity, and lower incomes. A major concern was ensuring that bean value chain actors, including men, women, and youth, have equitable access to their preferred bean varieties, production and market skills, and profitable bean markets."}]},{"head":"Lack of biofortified navy bean varieties for the canning industry.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The canning industry identified genetic biofortification as a cost-effective and longterm solution to malnutrition in the country. The required navy bean varieties combined high grain yield with good canning quality and micronutrient (Iron and Zinc) density."}]},{"head":"High rates of malnutrition in rural and urban communities","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Farming communities, sold their produce, and were severely food insecure and malnourished. Urban communities with poor dietary habits were obese while others were malnourished. Multisectoral initiatives aimed to provide affected school-aged children, women, youths, and urban residents with nutritious beans, bean based products, and enterprise support skills and enterprise support skills including value addition."}]},{"head":"Fragmented bean markets","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Contract arrangements between seed and grain producers and entrepreneurs were nonexistent. To get bean businesses off the ground, value chain actors relied on stable and secure business consolidation environment, offered by functional business innovation platforms."}]},{"head":"Insufficient and limited access to appropriate quality seed","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Farmers had difficulty obtaining affordable and high-quality appropriate bean seed. To establish a well-organized seed system, private seed houses, community-based seed producers (CBSP), and shuttle seed production reorganized into functional seed production and seed supply networks"}]},{"head":"What was the problem?","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"of canning beans were imported annually. This presented a USD 1.44 m per year opportunity for small scale farmers of farmers in rural communities grew multiple food crops; but 33% of these farmers were food insecure."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"of women of reproductive ages between the ages of 15 and 19 were.at risk of obesity or malnutrition and in need of a variety of healthy foods of households purchased seed, but 42% of it was in lower than desired quantities, expensive, and acquired from bean traders far from farming households "}]},{"head":"Demand led breeding program","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"The emphasis was on setting up efficient germplasm selection and the utilization of genetic diversity through modern breeding techniques. Gender and inclusion considerations enabled value chain actors to choose which beans were produced, traded, and consumed. Grain color and bean size influenced consumer and market preference for grain, and ultimately the final varieties released to farmers and sold in markets."}]},{"head":"Labour saving intiative","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"This initiative assisted male and female small-scale farmers in reducing labor costs and drudgery during key farm operations, such as land preparation, planting, weeding, fertilizer application, harvesting, threshing, grading, bulking, and marketing. Early maturing varieties, beans that did not shatter on-farm upon maturity, and disease resistant varieties enabled small scale farmers, especially women, to escape drudgery and high production expenses. Integrated pest management, soil fertility and water management, and conservation agriculture benefited all farmers"}]},{"head":"Nutrition sensitive agriculture program","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"The flagship project team was aware of the prevalence of malnutrition and childhood stunting in farming communities with high bean production. Driven by a national food biofortification strategy, multisector teams advocated for the production and consumption of HIB beans and bean products among school-aged children, rural and urban communities, and female entrepreneurs."}]},{"head":"Seed production and delivery program","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"In response to the lack of high-quality bean seed experienced by small-scale male, female, and youth farmers as well as seed entrepreneurs, the project implemented shuttle seed production, decentralized early generation seed production, and organized seed supply chains and distribution networks. Smallscale seed businesses were equipped with business acumen. These initiatives substantially increased the number of small-scale seed companies and the availability of high-quality bean seed near communities."}]},{"head":"Bean market corridors","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"Bean corridors were set up as a solution for market concentration. The objective was to resolve unstructured bean trade flows across key market and processing outlets, aggregation hubs, and places with substantial bean production. The corridors were steered by private sector led enterprises (buyers/processors/ exporters) and facilitated via a business platform. B reeding for preferred user traits such as yield, drought tolerance, disease and insect resistance, commercial attributes, nutrition value, and market potential were prioritized. There were three critical areas of importance: i) Inclusivity through participatory variety selection, which ensured that user preferences of men, women, youth, and bean value chain actors were taken into account in variety selection; ii) Application of modern statistical methods in breeding; and iii) Bean market segmentation, which identified a set of traits for bean grain types across production and consumption hubs. The program was made possible with the guidance of gender and demand-led breeding experts."}]},{"head":"Our programmes","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Focus districts","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"• Male and female farmers including youths identified varieties that were adapted to their locations and of preferred traits  Kaseke is a research technician in charge of setting up farmer trials and ensuring both men and women farmers participate equally in participatory variety selection (PVS) at the vegetative and maturity stages."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Men and women's participation gained traction in 2017 when gender responsiveness was incorporated into the practice of participatory variety selection. It requires the participation of men and women, whose views, interests, needs, and priorities differ due to their different roles and responsibilities in farming."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"\"Prior to 2017, I did not include men and women farmers in the selection process, instead relying on data from field trials and conclusions from onsite testing to estimate farmers' interest in a bean variety. As a result, as CBI, we released varieties that were overall good but underperformed on crucial farmer attributes\""},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Kaseke has skills and experience in gender led participatory variety selection having participated in several training sessions."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"\"I list the varieties of beans I like and the reasons why I like them so much. Thereafter i rank my reasons on the basis of importance starting with the best rank first. i look out for four characteristics, high yielding, fast-cooking, earlymaturing and taste\"."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"Susan is a farmer from Guzyanga. She supports the DRSS-endorsed Participatory variety selection technique promoted to men, women, youth, and other value chain stakeholders. Choosing a bean line entail pinning a ribbon on a peg, displaying the bean line with my desired characteristics and the reasons for my selection."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"Individuals or groups of men and women, as well as other actors, play an equal role in the selection process."},{"index":8,"size":67,"text":"\"Watching groups of women and men vote on bean lines based on various criteria is a lot of fun. My vote is valid. My selection symbolizes the preferences of women in Zimbabwe who, like me, prefer a bean with great soup and flavor that cooks faster, giving us more time to do other tasks and more wood to cook other meals. It is significant and incredibly empowering."},{"index":9,"size":26,"text":"The CBI breeding program compiles the features that are most significant to diverse groups, this data is thereafter utilized to influence the final selection of varieties."}]},{"head":"Anthony Kaseke Research Technician Susan Makureya Farmer","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Testimonials \"When customers of canned beans open a can of beans, they anticipate that the bean sauce contains no broken, clumped, or under cooked beans. Consumers of dry bean packets wish forbeans that cook quickly and use less energy. To ensure consumer acceptance, canning processors need beans with uniform grain size, color, and texture throughout processing and age\""},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"In 2015, Patience led the food industry's research and development at CAIRNS. Canned beans were imported from Tanzania, South Africa, and even the United States. CAIRNS teamed up with the CBI breeding team to replace imported beans with locally grown beans suitable for canning and cooked dry packets. Only two bean varieties were good for canning: the red-spotted Gloria bean and the white Navy Michigan bean."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"\"The bean people from CBI and PABRA, as I commonly referred to them, opened up a world of exciting possibilities for my craft; there was a wide variety of beans, of different colors, sizes, and cooking times, locally available in Zimbabwe and throughout the southern Africa region with commercial scalability; and I could access technical expertise with just a phone call.\""},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"As a result of research and industry collaboration, CAIRNS developed two new canning bean products with good canning characteristics, namely NUA 45 and Cherry bean. At the peak of the collaboration, the two products NUA45 and cherry bean constituted 26% of the factory's total cans produced annually. Local producers in Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Zambia supplied 7 % of the previously imported white navy bean. \"Bean salad as a food product had previously seemed like a distant dream, not anymore, the colors and sizes were infinite.\""},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"Rupango is a youth farmer from Manunure who works closely with the CBI research team to oversee experimental plots and one of the seed growers for breeder seed. In the last five years, he has undergone several trainings on hosting field research trials and participatory variety selection."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"He is now a trainer for the CBI research team. He conducts farmer field days to educate farmers on bean farming practices. He also guides men, women and youth farmers to conduct participatory variety selection."},{"index":7,"size":48,"text":"\"Through field days and farm visits, I have trained and mentored over 100 farmers in the last five years.Working with CBI has given me the assurance I need to succeed as a farmer. The farmers and non-profits in my area regularly consult me for advice on agricultural matters\"."},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"Rupango is a representative for men farmers from his region."},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"To better assist farmers with variety selection in the field, he plans to take a course in participatory plant breeding."},{"index":10,"size":19,"text":"\"If it weren't for my association with CBI, I doubt I would be representing men farmers in my district"}]},{"head":"Patience Mukweza","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Food Technologist"}]},{"head":"Darlington Rupango","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Farmer L abor costs and drudgery associated with land preparation, planting, weeding, fertilizer application, harvesting, threshing, grading, bulking, and cooking were reduced. In regions with unpredictable rainfall, the initiative ensured the availability of short-season, early-maturing bean varieties. Farmers tested small land preparation equipment. Technologies for integrated weed and pest management were promoted. Bean varieties with short cooking times and others with pods that did not shatter in the field upon maturity were made available. Nyaundi is a youth farmer from Nyamaropa."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"\"My kids are young and can't help me. I rent a co-op tractor to prepare the soil. I buy improved seed from a reputable source, and receive training on organic and in organic fertilizer application and on pests, and diseases recommendations. The fields look good and production is high. I spend less time in the field with early maturing beans because they mature in 75 days and tolerate common pests and diseases. Some seasons are better for avoiding pests and diseases. A good growing season has few pests and diseases. I'm always ready for them\"."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"NUA 45 costs o.5 usd more than older or newer varieties for a 20kgs bag. \"With NUA 45's proceeds, I bought goats and an oxdrawn plough. I now recommend NUA 45 to other beginning farmers because it can easily yield between 1,200 and 1,400 kgs per hectare when you follow the advisory services provided\"."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Maibvise farms beans under irrigation in Guzyanga. CBI established a weed management advisory package that incorporates farming practices and organic herbicides. Maibvise had always been opposed to herbicides and had rejected them due to their poor branding. He was spending USD 90 both on labor for hand weeding and on pests that came in with the weeds, that is when he decided to try the weed management practices."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"\"I was completely unaware of the preparations and dosage. I had no idea how to interface with other farming systems and ensure long-term use. I am now confident in applying herbicides after learning the skills and following the technical advice.\""},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"When used in conjunction with recommended farming practices, herbicides are more effective than hand weeding, at keeping weeds out of irrigated bean fields."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"\"In one farming season, my yields per hectare averaged 3 tonnes, with a revenue of USD 2,700, compared to 1.1 tonnes and revenue of usd 825 before I adopted these practices.\""},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":"Maibvise is currently consulting with other farmers on the safe implementation of a number of weed management farming practices in Chimanimani."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"He hires rural youth to provide weed management consulting services to other farmers at a small fee."},{"index":10,"size":6,"text":"Victor Nyaundi Farmer Tafadzwa Maibvise Farmer"}]},{"head":"Testimonials","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Nyembesi is a hardworking bean farmer who lives in Bindura district with her grandchildren."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"The family is well-known for their love of bean cultivation. Irrigated bean fields require a lot of work, and her grandchildren despise laboring on the farm with hand hoes."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Farm equipment inspire the youngsters to work on the irrigated bean fields."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"\"Their late uncle purchased the cultivator, but it was not utilized for several years. CBI field technicians gave us instructions on the cultivator and trained us on its use on our irrigation sites\"."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"Nyembesi bean field was 0.2 hectares now with the cultivator, she has expanded to 0.5 hectares She also hires out the cultivator during the weeding season at usd 125 daily rate and the proceeds go to buying groceries and and paying school fees."},{"index":6,"size":46,"text":"Farming with the cultivator results to more yields on farm. Before we started to use the cultivator, our yield was 800kgs per hectare, now in combination with all the other farming practices we deploy on farm, our yields range between 1200 and 1,400 kgs per hectare."},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"Trust resides in Gudyanga. He oversees the Gudyanga irrigation scheme. \"in 2015, we cultivated horticulture crops instead of beans. Unreliable intermediaries were the largest obstacle to bean business contracts, resulting in fragmented bean business arrangements."},{"index":8,"size":40,"text":"We began cultivating Gloria bean seed in 2017. It matures early, in 75 days and is resistant to rust, common bacterial blight, and angular leaf spot. Gloria was in high demand and continues to be highly demanded up to now."},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"\"Since then, we have experienced a rise in business."},{"index":10,"size":26,"text":"Growing high maturing varieties of seed ensures that our seed will be available on the market when seed supplies are limited and bean prices are high."}]},{"head":"Nyembesi Chakona Farmer","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Trust Gunanga Farmer T his program enabled HIBs and bean-based products to be available to rural and urban households, school-aged children, youth, and women. It was a multi-sector and stakeholder initiative stimulated by a national biofortification policy to address low malnutrition levels. HIBs were promoted through community nutrition education, food basket approaches, school feeding programs, kitchen gardens, training in food preparation, value addition and commercial production of bean products."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"• Small-scale farmers obtained HIB seed."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"• Women men and youth gained skills on nutritional value of HIBs, commercial bean based production, and enterprise development • During school feeding programs, schoolchildren ate HIBs."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• Consumers accessed diverse nutritious bean based products."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• Farmer producer organizations had access to a thriving HiB market."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"• Food processing companies accessed a steady supply of HIB for their production pipelines.   \"Farmers learned how to make porridge, bean sauce, cookies, cakes, scones, jambalaya, samp, bean baobab juice, bread, salads, samosa, mahewu, yoghurt, cookies, and more\"."}]},{"head":"Nutrition sensitive agriculture program","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The products were sold in local retail outlets while the dishes were sold in restaurants. Women and young people learned how to be business owners and sold bean products with added value for 50 percent more than the price of grain. "}]},{"head":"Testimonials","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Prior to 2017, parents of Mhakwe Primary School raised money for the school lunch. and development partners visited the school in 2017 and donated 5 kgs of Sweet Violet and NUA45 bean seed."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"\"Parents do not buy school lunches anymore."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Our school farms grow beans for luch. Majority of our students have returned, and their grades have even improved.\""},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"In 2021, CBI and its development partners distributed a 10kg seed pack to each of 40 schools to increase the availability of HIB in school meal programs. Field technicians and community health workers were dispatched to teach students, teachers and people in surrounding neighborhoods better farming practices and food preparation methods."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"CBI and its development partners distributed 10kg seed packs to 40 schools in 2021 to increase HIB in school meal programs. Field technicians and community health workers were dispatched to teach students, teachers, and neighbors better farming and food preparation methods."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"\"The best bean fields were found at our school. Our school's parents took turns caring after the fields\"."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"The feeding program has improved relations between school parents and the school administration. When the doctors came to vaccinate their students, our students were easy to vaccinate. \"Students must be well-fed before injections.\""},{"index":8,"size":50,"text":"The Ministry of Health and Child Care (Mo-HCC) collaborated with CBI to promote the production and utilization of HIB across the country. \" We were particularly keen to tackle the malnutrition levels in areas recording high production of biofortified crops\" Says Nyadzayo a nutrition manager at the ministry of health."},{"index":9,"size":73,"text":"During this phase, six different initiatives to enhance consumption of beans and valueadded products were proposed. Among these were the lobbying for multi-sector policy, the promotion of more varied agricultural and livestock production, the raising of community knowledge on biofortification, school feeding programs, and supplemental feeding to improve the diets of children. In particular, the MoHCC collaborated with DRSS to promote the consumption of biofortified beans across all of the ministry's various initiatives."},{"index":10,"size":52,"text":"In 2018, the MoHCC, DRSS, PABRA, UNICEF and others worked together to conduct a national nutrition survey. The study showed the percentage of households with a diet that was on the borderline rose from 21 percent in the year 2010 to 28 percent in the year 2018. Which is a great signal."},{"index":11,"size":9,"text":"\"Our continuous involvement in HIBs is a valid course.\""},{"index":12,"size":90,"text":"Edwell Shayamano Teacher Tasiana Krispin Nyadzayo Nutrition Manager T his program made available early generation bean seed to private seed companies, community producer organizations, and smallholder male and female farmers. The development of commercial seed distribution networks was a collaborative effort between seed companies, outgrowers, development partners, seed retailers, and seed industry specialists. As a result seed of newly released varieties quickly penetrated the market and communities, in pack sizes affordable to farmers of different categories. Community seed producer groups were strengthened, and nonexclusive contracts for seed multiplication were established."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"• Small-scale farmers had access to preferred seed package sizes."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"• Smallholder male and female farmers acquired expertise in seed production and seed business. • Seed value chain actors, intermediaries, and seed distributors experienced a prosperous seed market. • Private seed companies had direct access to breeder seed and marketing rights. • Nongovernmental organizations working with communities accessed HIB seeds for distribution to communities. • In the subsidy program, government officials had access to seed for distribution to designated districts. Training and promotional materials on seed knowledge distributed."}]},{"head":"Seed production and delivery program","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"A group of 17 women in Chimanimani wanted to produce high iron beans for value addition. The seed, however, would have to be obtained from the far-flung towns of Mutare, Chipinge, and Chimanimani. Angela of the LEAD Trust collaborated with the CBI to provide NUA 45 and Sweet William seed, as well as training in seed production, value addition, and gender."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"They began by teaching 12 lead women to produce seed for demonstration to other farmers. Each farmer received 20kgs of seed and harvested on average 250kgs valued at usd 375. The seed was still very scarce and the demand was high. They now have 259 farmers growing the NUA 45 beans. 60% are women and 10% are youth both men and women."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"\"In the 7 year period, our seed business revenue increased from usd 375 in 2017 to usd 34,640 in 2020/21. Majority of the seeds were sold to Harare-based Zadzamatura seed company on contract, and others to local markets, major cities, NGOs, schools and hospitals\" They've continued to cultivate the beans as a group and on their individual plots. They also produce an extra 100kgs that is used to produce grain for processing bean-based porridge, bread, and scones that target nursing mothers, infants, school-aged children, and people recovering from diseases."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"The products were sold in local retail outlets while the dishes were sold in restaurants. Women and young people learned to be business owners and sold bean products with added value for 50 percent more than the price of grain."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Seed companies acquire pure breeder seeds from CBI for production of foundation seed."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"Mangemba runs Sandbrite Seed Company in Harare. Since 2015, they've grown Gloria (a large, seeded sugar bean) and NUA45 (large seeded high iron). These are two bean varieties introduced in 2010, five years before the project began."},{"index":7,"size":54,"text":"\"In 2015, we acquired 0.5 tons of Gloria and NUA 45 breeder seeds from CBI. At 1.8 tons per hactare, we harvested 9 tons of clean seed.\" Good yields were a result of heavy rains but the heavy rains spotted the beans; after filtering for quality, seed volumes declined. The seed price was $2.50/kg."},{"index":8,"size":64,"text":"Sandbrite's farms and contract farmers produce 18 tons annually. At peak, they sold 30 tons in 2018. HIBs were promoted by the Ministry of Health, Ag Extension, Nutrition Council, markets, and NGOs making NUA 45 seeds very popular. Seed companies proliferated. The price of seed rose to USD3 from USD2.50. \"I grow 70-75% NUA 45 seed and 30-25% Sweet William, a large-seed sugar type.\""},{"index":9,"size":45,"text":"Sandbrite's clients are predominantly seed companies. Seeds are packaged in 2kg, 3kg, and 5kg amounts for NGOs to distribute to small-scale farmers. To meet NGO seed demand, Sandbrite buys seed from other seed houses. In a flooded seed market, they offer seed as premium grain."},{"index":10,"size":39,"text":"Every two years, they replenish their breeder seed from CBI. Seed is grown using 100 kg of compound basal per 0.5 hectare and cheaper foliar fertilizers under irrigation. Youth and women provide most of the labor on seed farms."}]},{"head":"Angela Muranganwa","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Field officer David Mangemba Director"}]},{"head":"Testimonials","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"For Ernia, farming had never been a profitable venture until she became a commercial seed producer. In 2016, she spent her time caring for her young family, her crop field, and weeding in other farmers' fields for a day's pay. Her family grew retained seed of mixed varieties on a 0.05ha irrigated bean plot. Their average production was 30 kgs a cropping season. She sold 20 kgs and earned an average of USD 16.50. The family lacked enough food to last them to the next cropping season."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"In 2017, CBI and development partners targeted farmers groups with knowledge and skills on seed production, farming practices, farm inputs, and group organizing skills. She was one of the initial three seed-producing group members identified."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"And for the first time in her life, she was a group secretary. \"I was so delighted and empowered\" Her group had the best bean demonstration fields and was tasked to organize farmers field days. She met with numerous stakeholders and was inspired to commercially produce seed. She also attended seed and food fairs and won awards. \"Now I produce on average 600kgs bean seed on 0.4 ha for seed companies with a revenue of usd 600 in one cropping season and I hire 5 people to help me\" Ernia is also the group chairlady for the village nutrition club responsible for feeding children aged 6 to 23 months with nutrientdense HIBs."},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Pater Chari lives in the Wonde valley of the Mutasa district with his wife and six children. On a 2-hectare farm, he cultivates cereals, legume and seed crops. Beans are planted on 0.2 hectares. His family depends on the farm. His preferred bean varieties are NUA 45 and Sweet William since they mature quickly and are marketable."},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"\"I buy bean seed in various packets of 5kgs, 10kgs or 25kgs each at usd 16, usd30 or usd 50 respectively from Mutasa market\"."},{"index":6,"size":136,"text":"Chari grows beans twice a year, following the winter rains in February and March and under irrigation in July and August. This year, he produced 400 kilograms on 0.2 hectares. Prior to 2016, he cultivated Cherry and Gloria bean varieties on a half-acre plot, yielding roughly half a ton. Currently, his yields range from 2ton and 1 ton per hectares, which is a result of using quality seeds and better farming practices.. His revenue from beans in one cropping season increased from $500 in 2015 to $1,700 in 2020/ 21 . He pays for his children's college education. He has expanded his house from two to seven rooms, with a portion of the funds coming from bean sales. Additionally, he has renovated his house and installed a solar system for lighting and charging his cell phones."}]},{"head":"Ernia Nyereyehama Farmer","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Peter Chari Farmer B usiness platforms were established in each corridor and were made up of representatives of farmers (cooperatives/groups), the buyer lead firms, and service providers supported by policy, extension and research. The private sector (buyers/ processors/exporters) set the business agenda by communicating the volume of seed and grain they required for their businesses. Farmers and aggregators structured their production and supply activities based on the market information received."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• Participants in the bean value chain gained seed and grain trading expertise."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• Investors increased their investments and minimized risks."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Women were empowered to engage in bean markets, and their bean incomes increased."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"• Aggregators recorded increase in volumes aggregated for both grain and seed, • Farmers and bean value chain players' revenues increased as a result of growth in bean businesses  The selling price per kilogram was $1.50, and the total value was $90,000."}]},{"head":"Bean market corridors","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Eliud","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"In 2019, Covid pandemic affected procurement from production sites and distribution to target markets. Bean sales ceased in the first few months of the epidemic."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Currently, Mega market sells 300 tons of beans annually at an average price of $1.20 per kilo. Gloria and Sweet William make up 90% of the traded beans, while NUA45 makes up less than 10%. Beans are sourced from farmers in Mutare, Mutasa, and Nyanga district at an average cost of usd 0.9 cents per kilo."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"\"There are more beans in the market and more farmers growing beans, hence the drop in the buying price from $1.50 five years ago to the current $1.25 a kilo.\""},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Megamarket has expanded its operations from Manicaland to the entire nation and they have established warehouses in production areas. They have increased their customer base, distribution networks, logistic assets, and staff."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"\"As a result of our expansion, we occasionally discount our prices\"."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"Tafadzwa Mhambure Manager T he objective of the project was to increase the use of beans for food security, value added bean products for nutrition, and trade in bean-based processed products while ensuring equity and sustainability. 1,500,000 farmers livelihoods and many more consumers of bean based products and value chain actors were impacted by the project."},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"The initiative transformed into an award-winning project."}]},{"head":"Key Success factors:","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Supporting institutional and individual partners-The bean business innovation platforms were avenues for facilitated public and private partners. The CBI was the convenor, and the agenda was set by the private sector. The goal was to actively respond to value chain actors' seed and grain demand and supply needs, ultimately reshaping the bean trade."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Capacity development-The project's approach to skill and knowledge enhancement was critical to its success. 13,800 people from extension and scaling partners received direct training. End-user capacity building shifted when those who were trained became trainers and trained others in their communities."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Multisector dynamics-The initiative was guided by stakeholders from civil society, banking, ICT, health, education, the environment, and agriculture. They reviewed progress, realigned the course, and innovated to deliver on the results at several annual forums."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"Demand responsive-From the beginning, the food industry, bean value chain actors, and health sector partners expressed a desire for suitable canning beans, a structured bean trade, and bean integration into existing food consumption patterns. Such clear demands kept CBI and scaling partners focused, and they delivered the necessary products and services together."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"Technical support -PABRA provided the necessary technical support; in collaboration with CBI and scaling partners, they developed and adapted technologies, tools, and methods to fit the local context. The flagship project provided the ideal setting for implementing technologies and approaches that had proven successful in other PABRA countries."}]},{"head":"Key Success factors","index":34,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" between processing industries and producer organizations in manunure and Shungudzevhu November 7 tons of breeder seed distributed to 7 companies to support production of foundation seed of 5 in demand cultivars July CBI collaborated with CAIRNS, Healthy Foods and CADS to process, package and market bean-based products December canning quality analysis of new navy bean lines March Final project documentation December Project closure "},{"text":" /www.herald.co.zw/new-bean-variety-could-save-zim-us120k-a-month/ Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee (ZIMVAC. 2015) Katungi E., Mutua M. Mutari B., Makotore W., Kalemera S., Maereka E., Zulu R †, Birachi E., Chirwa R. (2017). Improving bean production and consumption in Zimbabwe baseline report. International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT); Pan-Africa Bean Research Allience (PABRA). 49 p. "},{"text":"Beneficiaries• Women had access to bean varieties with a rapid cooking time. • Due to less splitting prior to and during harvest, farmers employed fewer workers to collect shattered beans from the fields. • Reduced time spent on land preparation and pest and weed control benefited men. • Youth benefited from income acquired from hiring labour to operate small equipment. • Farmers received training on integrated pest, disease and weed management Labour saving Initiative Jonathan Hodzi Bean Agronomist, Agronomy Research Institute.DRSS. Shamurai Muhera, Plant pathologist, Plant Protection Research Institute.DRSS. Boaz Waswa, Soil fertility specialist, The Alliance per year to surplus production for the market Number of youth growing beans using labor saving technologies Participation of women, men and youth in skill training offered jointly by CBI field technicians and scaling partners quick-maturing beans twice a year. Harvest time begins when school begins, and it is also the time to pay school fees from bean sales.\" Nyaundi started bean farming in 2017. DRSS agriculture extension officers introduced him to NUA 45 and educated him on sustainable bean farming practices. He got to know the extension officer who promised to train him. Confidently, he allocated 1 hectare of his land to beans. "},{"text":"Fungai  "},{"text":" CADS and CBI have worked together since the project begun.\"We promoted the developed by CBI. Our task was to teach people about the nutritional value of the varieties and train farmers how to grow and add value to their crops. Thanks to the partnership with CBI to promote the consumption of HIBs, more families acquired beans and bean based products over the course of seven years.\" Says Machivenyika the CEO of CADS.CADS, CBI, and the Ministry of Health and Child Care (MoHCC) worked with community groups and partners from other sectors to implement initatives under the national food fortification policy. "},{"text":" Tsekenedza, Bean breader & Bean program leader. Crop Breeding Institute. DRSS. Jean Claude Rubyogo, Seed systems Specialist, Director PABRA & Global bean program leader, The Alliance Number of households accessing seed of improved bean varieties alongside good agricultural practices. Over 100 scaling partners involved. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"variety selection Demand led breeding program Bruce Mutari, Former Bean Breeder at CBI Nyarai Chisorongwe, Research Officer on Gender. DRSS. Eileen Nchanji, Gender & Social Inclusion Expert. The Alliance & PABRA. The program established a network of sustainable partnerships in bean research for development. As a result, at CBI, we were able to generate transformational impact with modest resources A Gender customer profiling tool was used to identify the market traits at selection stage. This ensured that the ultimate choice of accepted varieties were responsive to user needs Being intentional on gender outcomes ensured that production, marketing and consumption issues for diverse groups along the value chain were addressed Sweet William Early maturing Sugar bean Variety name: Sweet william Potential yield (t/ha) 3.3 Biofortified sugear bean Variety name: NUA674 Potential yield (t/ha) 4 Early maturing large red kidney bean, good canning, Name: Gloxinia Potential yield (t/ha) 3.3 Small white pea canning bean Variety name: Protea Potential yield (t/ha) 4.3 Small white pea canning Variety name: Camellia Potential yield (t/ha) 3.3 Medium seed size Variety name: Jasmine Potential yield (t/ha) 2.8 6 Bean Varieties Released Camellia Gloxinia NUA674 Jasmine Protea In partnership with • The canning industry acquired bean varieties of desired cooking, canning and micronutrient qualities • Research technicians gained skills and knowledge on farmer and other users  "},{"text":"Adoption levels for HIBs 2015 2% 2021 47%  More than 500,000 From Zero in 2015 to More than 500,000From Zero in 2015 to rural farmers accessed Four bean products rural farmers accessedFour bean products HIB seed, through commercialized in 2017, HIB seed, throughcommercialized in 2017, government input subsidy these are canned NUA45, government input subsidythese are canned NUA45, program blended bean-based programblended bean-based  flour, packaged grain and flour, packaged grain and  precooked bean in brine. precooked bean in brine. 85 schools and 17,000  85 schools and 17,000 school going children.  school going children. consumed beans in  consumed beans in school feeding programs  school feeding programs from 1x in a week to 2x  from 1x in a week to 2x in a week  in a week 6 Food industries Number of consumers 6 Food industriesNumber of consumers processed and marketed accessing bean based processed and marketedaccessing bean based bean-based products products commercially bean-based productsproducts commercially in 2021. From only 1 in rose from 15,000 in 2015 in 2021. From only 1 inrose from 15,000 in 2015 2015. to 2,090,500 in 2021. 2015.to 2,090,500 in 2021.  "},{"text":"01 04 03 02 05 Number of innovation platforms established NYANYADZI Year: 2015 Male: 21 Female: 9 Youth: 0 Total: 30 GUDYANGA Year 2015 Male: 15 Female: 15 Youth: 0 Total: 30 NYAMAROPA Year: 2018 Male: 50 Female: 30 Youth: 0 Total: 80 MANUNURE Year: 2017 Male: 137 Female: 119 Youth: 39 Total: 295 SHUNGUDZEVHU Year 2018 Male: 42 Female: 27 Youth: 0 Total: 69 29 (2015) (2016) (2017) (2018) (2019) (2020) (2021) 7,351 7,350 7,418 10,400 15,000 8,300 14,400   1.0     1.0       0. 0.  0.8     0.8       0.6m 0.6m (millions) 0.6   0.5m 0.54m (millions)0.60.5m0.54m  0.4  0.32m   0.40.32m   0.25m    0.25m  0.2     0.2  0m     0m  0     0  5 2015 2016 2017 504 2018 2019 2020 57.1% 2021 5 201520162017504 2018 2019202057.1% 2021  Five bean business  Total number of farmers Women occupied 57.1% Five bean businessTotal number of farmersWomen occupied 57.1%  innovation platforms  participating in Bean of key positions across the innovation platformsparticipating in Beanof key positions across the  established as avenues  business innovation business platforms in 2021 established as avenuesbusiness innovationbusiness platforms in 2021  for linking producers to  platforms. 40% women, from lows of 30% in 2015 for linking producers toplatforms. 40% women,from lows of 30% in 2015  aggregation points and  60% men, 13% youth aggregation points and60% men, 13% youth  ultimately to bean buyers   ultimately to bean buyers  "},{"text":"75m Trends in volumes of Beans Traded Mashonaland West Midlands Matebeleland South Manicaland Midlands Bukawayo Masvingo Mashonaland Central 40 BRANDS OF BEAN PRODUCTS IN THE MARKET BY 115 TRADERS IN 8 PROVINCES Number of households selling beans to profitable markets She connected her home to the national electricity power grid in June of 2020. During the same year, CBI commissioned her to produce breeder seed at a cost of $400. With the additional funds, she bought a deep freezer, and a phone for her farmhand. Regina has paid off her children's school debts and purchased goats, chickens, and cattle. \"I won the jackpot. I made it. It was the result of hard work, dedication, and determination. The project was well-designed, buyers established standards, bean seed and inputs were available on loan, and advisory services were provided; consequently, I worked diligently'. In partnership In partnership with with 3,500 tones USD 10.7m of processed products valued at per year \"Contract farming has been a boon because buyers have paid agreed-upon prices,\" On 0.5 ha, she grows Sweet Violet, NUA45, and Protea beans. Her acreage yields 1.8 tons.\" As one's disposable income rises, so does one's appreciation for the finer things in life. She renovated her home in 2018. In 2019, she built a canopy connecting the main house to her outdoor kitchen and hired a farmhand. Miriam Kuretu Members decided to sell produce collectively and hired Miriam as the market facilitator. She received market training from Zdzamatura. She compares market prices, negotiates purchase contracts and coordinates produce collection and payments. She is also responsible for recruiting participating farmers based on a set criteria including willingness to work in groups, participation in trainings, and commitment to pay back input loans. Market Facilitator Regina Mafemera Farmer 3,500 tones USD 10.7m of processed products valued at per year \"Contract farming has been a boon because buyers have paid agreed-upon prices,\" On 0.5 ha, she grows Sweet Violet, NUA45, and Protea beans. Her acreage yields 1.8 tons.\" As one's disposable income rises, so does one's appreciation for the finer things in life. She renovated her home in 2018. In 2019, she built a canopy connecting the main house to her outdoor kitchen and hired a farmhand. Miriam Kuretu Members decided to sell produce collectively and hired Miriam as the market facilitator. She received market training from Zdzamatura. She compares market prices, negotiates purchase contracts and coordinates produce collection and payments. She is also responsible for recruiting participating farmers based on a set criteria including willingness to work in groups, participation in trainings, and commitment to pay back input loans. Market Facilitator Regina Mafemera Farmer \"I sold $14,000 worth of produce in 2021 and \"I sold $14,000 worth of produce in 2021 and $22,000 in 2022\". As a female market facili- $22,000 in 2022\". As a female market facili- tator, she's a role model to other women in the tator, she's a role model to other women in the community. \"Women feared losing their property community. \"Women feared losing their property if they failed to sell enough produce to pay for if they failed to sell enough produce to pay for input loans. I encouraged them to participate input loans. I encouraged them to participate in production and market training\". Miriam now in production and market training\". Miriam now mentors a 19-year-old woman from a separate mentors a 19-year-old woman from a separate scheme on market facilitation. scheme on market facilitation.  "}],"sieverID":"174d9bdc-9ef7-4b86-9928-9ba5d317d6bd","abstract":"DRSS -Department of Research and Special Services CBSP -Community Based Seed Producers CADS -Cluster Agricultural Development Services MoHCC -Ministry of Health and Child Care UNICEF -United Nations Children's Fund LEAD -Linkages for the Economic Advancement of the Disadvantage The Alliance -Alliance of Bioversity & International Center for Tropical Agriculture Acknowledgement Almost 1.5 million households accessed bean varieties and climate smart farming practices I n 2021, the Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation (SDC) and the Pan-African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) concluded the seventh and final year of the Zimbabwe flagship project.In the past seven years, the bean industry in Zimbabwe has undergone a significant transformation. This document details the food system transformation, processes and outcomes from varying perspectives.Barriers to quality seed, bean production expertise, profitable bean markets, and nutrition caused smallholder bean farmers significant hardship. In response, five flagship initiatives on seed production and distribution, bean markets, demand-led breeding, labor-saving technologies, and nutrition-sensitive agriculture were launched.In 2020-2021, these were negatively impacted by the global pandemic of COVID-19. Farmers' access to inputs and services diminished. Throughout the duration of the pandemic outbreak, the project utilized its skilled local extension officers and local partnerships to maintain operations. Contracts were maintained between seed houses, aggregators, and producers, allowing for the continuation of business arrangements. I acknowledge the SDC and the Pan-African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) for their respective financial and technical support.Acknowledgement also goes to the various divisions of the Zimbabwean Ministry of Lands, Agriculture, Fisheries, Water, and Rural Resettlement for hosting the project."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"017546379a2a9d8c2b5d84dd89fba91a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c874f0e9-fe99-4bc2-8ee4-d790f58e39b1/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"Producción eco-eficiente del arroz en América Latina","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introducción","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"La aplicación de las ciencias relacionadas con el suelo, las plantas y los fenómenos climáticos a la producción de cultivos ha logrado obtener, de manera eficiente, cosechas abundantes y de buena calidad. Se han desarrollado sistemas de producción que regulan el funcionamiento de las diferentes etapas del ciclo de vida de las plantas, bien sea mediante genotipos apropiados o con prácticas agronómicas selectivas; la aplicación de estos sistemas ha obtenido de las plantas respuestas bien definidas de crecimiento y desarrollo."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"En este capítulo se analiza el funcionamiento de la planta de arroz individual y el de una comunidad de plantas (el cultivo), durante las diferentes etapas del crecimiento de la planta, y se relacionan los procesos fisiológicos y de crecimiento con el resultado final: el rendimiento. Se discute la variabilidad genética para señalar los caracteres que pueden modificarse con el fin de obtener, por ejemplo, mayores rendimientos. Se señalan también los efectos del medio ambiente en el funcionamiento de la planta y del cultivo, y se indica el papel que desempeñan las prácticas agronómicas en el ajuste entre la adaptabilidad de las variedades al medio y la oferta ambiental de los sitios de producción."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Se espera que la discusión de estas ideas sea útil cuando se tomen decisiones respecto al manejo apropiado que se dará al cultivo del arroz para optimizar la producción de grano. Serán útiles también estas ideas cuando se seleccionen variedades apropiadas para las condiciones ambientales específicas de cada localidad y de cada época de producción, y cuando se escojan practicas de cultivo que aseguren el uso racional de los recursos del medio y que minimicen las pérdidas de rendimiento y de rentabilidad del cultivo."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"No se trata de aumentar simplemente el rendimiento, sino de aproximarse lo más posible al rendimiento potencial de las variedades, el cual no se expresa en su totalidad porque en cada etapa de su desarrollo sustraen algo de él las condiciones ambientales desfavorables y el manejo inadecuado del cultivo."}]},{"head":"Crecimiento y desarrollo","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"El crecimiento y el desarrollo del arroz se llevan a cabo en tres fases, y cada fase se caracteriza porque tiene funciones definidas respecto al rendimiento de la planta y relaciones específicas con el ambiente. Una variedad que se desarrolla en 120 días gasta alrededor de 60 días entre la emergencia de las plántulas y el comienzo de la panícula, 30 días desde la iniciación de la panícula hasta la floración o antesis, y 30 días entre la panícula emergida y la maduración de los granos."}]},{"head":"Fase vegetativa","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Las plantas de arroz tienen la capacidad de producir un sistema de raíces apto para tomar recursos del suelo y de producir macollas portadoras de panículas. El tallo principal y las macollas emiten hojas a intervalos regulares para formar un manto productivo; este follaje captura la radiación solar para sintetizar los productos necesarios con que se construirá la estructura de la planta, para proveer la energía que requiere su funcionamiento, y para almacenar las reservas alimenticias destinadas a la siguiente generación."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"El tamaño del sistema de raíces y del sistema aéreo de la planta varia de un genotipo a otro, y la expresión de ese tamaño potencial es controlada por el ambiente. Asimismo, de la selección de la variedad y de la aplicación de las prácticas agronómicas adecuadas depende el establecimiento de un sistema de raíces y de un manto foliar apropiados, que puedan utilizar bien los recursos del suelo y de la atmósfera en cada situación particular. De este modo, la planta obtendrá un rendimiento cercano al potencial de su genotipo varietal."}]},{"head":"Desarrollo de las raíces","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"En un suelo suelto y en condiciones de secano, las raíces pueden alcanzar una profundidad superior a 1 m. En los suelos inundados, esa profundidad rara vez supera los 40 cm, porque el suministro de oxígeno a los ápices de las raíces, a través del aerénquima, es limitado (Kondo et al., 2003)."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Estos autores encontraron que las características de las raíces que más varían entre un genotipo y otro son el número de raíces en los nudos y el peso específico de la raíz (en g/cm); por su parte, las más afectadas por el ambiente son la longitud de la raíz por unidad de peso y el peso total de las raíces. Señalan también los autores que, dado un tipo de suelo, el desarrollo apropiado de las raíces en él es fundamental para obtener la máxima expresión del potencial del genotipo."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Cuando el suelo tiene suficiente aireación, los fertilizantes se aplican correctamente y se hace un control efectivo de las malezas, las plantas pueden desarrollar bien su sistema de raíces desde el inicio de su crecimiento. Las raíces así establecidas permiten sostener una demanda elevada de agua de la planta y absorber los elementos nutritivos necesarios para el desarrollo."}]},{"head":"Macollamiento","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"En términos botánicos, las macollas son ramificaciones del tallo que se originan en las yemas localizadas en la base de los entrenudos no alargados, las cuales crecen independientemente del tallo madre porque forman un sistema propio de raíces adventicias. Nemoto et al. (1995) observaron que las macollas se producen siguiendo el desarrollo de las hojas del tallo principal. La primera macolla aparece, generalmente, en la axila de la hoja 2 en el momento en que hay 5 hojas expandidas en el tallo principal; este proceso continúa manteniendo la misma relación temporal."}]},{"head":"Inhibición o suspensión.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Cuando las condiciones ambientales no son favorables para el crecimiento, muchas yemas no se desarrollan después de que se han producido dos primordios foliares (Nemoto et al., 1995). Sasaki et al. (2004) observaron que, en la medida en que aumentaba la densidad de plantas, se hacía más intensa la acción que suprime la emergencia de las macollas. Cuando los nudos inferiores no reciben una radiación solar adecuada, consistente en el balance apropiado de radiación roja lejana (730 nm) y la radiación roja (660 nm), se inhiben las yemas que darían macollas; este mecanismo opera en varias especies vegetales (Ballaré y Casal, 2000;Lafarge y Hammer, 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"La producción y la muerte de las macollas se relaciona, a su vez, con la tasa de crecimiento relativo, en forma tal que si la radiación solar favorece la acumulación rápida de materia seca en el vástago (parte aérea), se desarrolla un número considerable de macollas; en cambio, si esa tasa de acumulación de materia seca es inferior a un valor crítico, empiezan a morir las macollas (Dingkuhn et al., 1991). Asimismo, toda condición que limite la tasa de fotosíntesis (como la radiación solar escasa) limitará también el desarrollo de las macollas."}]},{"head":"Macollas y rendimiento.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Es posible que haya una relación estrecha entre macollamiento y rendimiento cuando se establecen poblaciones poco densas, especialmente si las plantas disponen de radiación solar, de nutrientes y de agua en abundancia y si, además, lo anterior ocurre hacia el final de la fase vegetativa y en la primera mitad de la fase reproductiva (cuando se define el número de panículas). En cambio, si la población de plantas es numerosa, no debe esperarse en ella una relación entre rendimiento y macollamiento, porque la mayoría de las panículas se habrá originado en el tallo principal de las plantas."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"En 1983 se descubrió en Madagascar un sistema de 'intensificación' del cultivo del arroz que se aplica actualmente en varios países asiáticos. Se basa este sistema en el desarrollo de plantas vigorosas mediante prácticas de manejo que reducen la competencia entre las plantas al comienzo del crecimiento. Estas plantas tienen raíces abundantes y profundas, producen de 30 a 100 macollas por planta (muchas de ellas efectivas), y sus panículas desarrollan muchos granos. Hay informes de que este sistema permite obtener rendimientos superiores a 8 t/ha (más que las variedades tradicionales), en suelos pobres y sin aplicar fertilizantes químicos (Stoop et al., 2002)."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Un número bajo de macollas puede tener efectos benéficos como cuando se desarrolla un manto foliar abierto que permite la iluminación de los estratos inferiores del follaje. Evans (1994) sostiene que las macollas estériles representan una economía de asimilados que pueden invertirse en la producción de grano. En todo caso, cierto grado de macollamiento es deseable porque puede ser necesario compensar por pérdidas de población."}]},{"head":"Manto foliar","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"La producción de arroz está íntimamente relacionada con el desarrollo de las hojas, ya que el rendimiento del cultivo depende de la magnitud de la fotosíntesis que se realice en las hojas. La actividad fotosintética del cultivo depende de la cantidad de energía radiante que éste pueda interceptar. La interceptación de esta energía depende de las características de las hojas, como su color, su grosor, su tamaño, el ángulo de inserción de su lámina en el tallo, y su duración. Se han podido aumentar las tasas de fotosíntesis incrementando el área foliar y la duración de las hojas. Es deseable que haya una expansión rápida de las hojas en el estado de plántula por dos razones: hay un cubrimiento rápido del terreno y la planta logra interceptar más pronto la radiación solar."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"Los análisis revelan que, al aumentar el índice de área foliar (IAF), se incrementa la tasa de producción de materia seca hasta llegar a un valor crítico, después del cual un incremento del área foliar no conduce a un nuevo aumento en la producción de materia seca. Si se desea aumentar esa producción aumentando el IAF, es preciso interceptar más radiación solar, y esto se logra incrementando el área iluminada. Ahora bien, las hojas verticales forman mantos de hojas que tienen un valor crítico de área foliar más alto que los mantos conformados por hojas horizontales, porque permiten que la luz penetre hasta los estratos inferiores del manto. Yoshida (1972) informa que hay variedades de arroz con valores de IAF críticos entre 4 y 7, y añade que, en tales cultivos, sólo se mide el área de la lámina para calcular el IAF."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"Las variedades IR de alto rendimiento, liberadas a partir de 1966, tienen láminas foliares que se insertan en el tallo en ángulo agudo y desarrollan, por tanto, mantos foliares que dan un IAF crítico alto. En general, el rendimiento alto de las variedades japonesas y filipinas está asociado con hojas más erectas y con bajos coeficientes de extinción después de la antesis (Saitoh et al., 1990)."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"Las plantas de arroz presentan, al inicio de su fase reproductiva, el mayor número de hojas y, por tanto, el área foliar más extensa y la mayor capacidad de captación de energía radiante. El área foliar disminuye gradualmente a medida que se desarrolla la panícula, porque se desintegran las hojas más viejas y se prolonga el intervalo de emergencia de las más nuevas. Sin embargo, se mantiene un área foliar relativamente alta porque las últimas cinco hojas son más grandes y tienen más duración."},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"El tallo principal presenta, al menos, cinco hojas funcionales desde el momento de la iniciación de la panícula hasta su emergencia. De ellas, las tres superiores proporcionan los carbohidratos con que se llenan los granos; por tanto, cualquier situación o condición que afecte la actividad de estas tres hojas influye en el rendimiento de la planta."}]},{"head":"Fase reproductiva","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"Esta fase comienza cuando la yema terminal del tallo principal y las yemas terminales de las macollas son inducidas a producir un primordio floral. Esa acción reproductiva está asociada con los siguientes cambios morfológicos de la planta: algunas macollas mueren, los tallos se alargan, se observa un 'embuchamiento' en el extremo de los tallos, y ocurre la emergencia de la panícula. En esta fase se define el tamaño de los 'depósitos del rendimiento', es decir, el número potencial de granos, el cual está representado por el número de panículas por unidad de área (del terreno) y por el número de espiguillas por panícula. Asimismo, las macollas que sufran un retardo en la emisión de sus hojas mueren, generalmente, antes de la antesis; este número de macollas muertas aumenta cuando se incrementa la densidad de siembra (Nemoto et al., 1995)."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Las fuentes de fotoasimilados son los tejidos fotosintéticos. De ahí se mueven estos compuestos hacia los vertederos o depósitos, que son los tejidos que los utilizan y los órganos de almacenamiento. Existen relaciones especiales entre las fuentes y los depósitos, que controlan la distribución de los asimilados a diferentes órganos; esas relaciones son reguladas por interacciones entre los genes y el ambiente que todavía no han sido entendidas plenamente. El crecimiento celular activo durante la fase reproductiva favorece el movimiento de fotoasimilados hacia la panícula."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"Por lo general, transcurren 30 días, desde que la panícula se inicia hasta que sobresale de la hoja bandera; durante este período, varias funciones relacionadas con el rendimiento son afectadas por las siguientes condiciones adversas: las deficiencias nutricionales, especialmente la de N; la radiación solar de poca intensidad; la temperatura muy baja o muy alta; y la deficiencia de humedad en el medio. Algunas de estas condiciones se consideran enseguida:"},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"• El número final de espiguillas depende del balance entre sus tasas de iniciación y de degeneración; ahora bien, las tasas de iniciación son altas si las condiciones nutricionales del medio son favorables. Por ejemplo:"},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"-la iniciación de un número alto de espiguillas se estimula si hay N disponible; -no habrá degeneración de los primordios florales si se evitan las deficiencias de elementos nutricionales durante el 'embuchamiento'."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"Se puede impedir, por tanto, que disminuya el rendimiento respecto a su potencial, si se hacen aplicaciones de los elementos deficientes alrededor de 25 días antes de la emergencia de la panícula."},{"index":7,"size":76,"text":"• La producción de polen se reduce y, por ende, el número de espiguillas estériles aumenta si las plantas experimentan temperaturas bajas alrededor de 12 días antes de la emergencia de la panícula; en ese momento ocurre la meiosis en las anteras, y la hoja bandera completa su expansión (Evans, 1994). Asimismo, -la duración de la fase reproductiva se acorta cuando la temperatura es alta; -la formación de espiguillas se prolonga cuando la temperatura es moderada."},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"En la floración, los tallos tienen una porción con entrenudos alargados y otra con entrenudos no alargados. Los entrenudos empiezan a alargarse justo cuando se inicia el desarrollo de la panícula, y el pedúnculo empieza a alargarse durante el período de alargamiento más activo de la panícula."},{"index":9,"size":67,"text":"Se establece, por tanto, una competencia por fotoasimilados entre los tallos y las panículas durante el alargamiento de los entrenudos. Se ha sugerido (Evans, 1994) que la menor inversión de fotoasimilados que hacen las variedades semienanas en el crecimiento de sus tallos estaría asociada con el índice de cosecha más alto y el mayor rendimiento de grano que tienen esas variedades en comparación con las variedades altas."}]},{"head":"Fase de maduración","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Se denomina también 'fase de llenado del grano' porque este proceso es el que la caracteriza. Se extiende desde la antesis hasta la madurez fisiológica de la panícula. La maduración propiamente tal comienza con la fertilización de los óvulos; sigue luego el desarrollo del ovario fecundado que se convierte en grano de arroz (el fruto). Este proceso de maduración, en el que se llenan los 'depósitos del rendimiento', dura alrededor de 30 días en las condiciones ambientales de los trópicos."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Es de esperar que, a mayor duración de la fase de maduración, la producción de materia seca se prolongue y sea mayor el rendimiento de grano. Pues bien, Dingkuhn et al. (1991) estudiaron las relaciones entre la productividad en la etapa de llenado del grano y la duración del cultivo, y encontraron que esta duración afectó la producción de biomasa pero no influyó en el rendimiento agronómico."}]},{"head":"Depósitos","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Se ha considerado que el rendimiento del arroz está conformado por 'depósitos' y productos. Los depósitos son los óvulos de las espiguillas que estén disponibles para ser fecundados. Al llegar la maduración ya está definido el número de depósitos y éstos representan el rendimiento potencial. El tamaño del conjunto de depósitos se define como el número de espiguillas por unidad de área (del terreno), y se calcula multiplicando el número de panículas que haya en la unidad de área, por el número promedio de espiguillas de una panícula. Hay dos enfoques en el manejo del cultivo, según el desarrollo de las plantas:"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"-en las fases vegetativa y reproductiva, ese manejo debe dirigirse a maximizar el número de panículas y de espiguillas; -en la fase de maduración, en cambio, ese manejo debe favorecer al máximo el llenado completo del mayor número posible de espiguillas."}]},{"head":"Productos","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"El rendimiento puede estar limitado por el tamaño de los depósitos o por el de las fuentes, lo que depende de las condiciones de crecimiento de las plantas en las diferentes etapas de desarrollo. Los materiales que llenan los depósitos en la fase de maduración son, de un lado, los productos de la fotosíntesis realizada por las tres hojas superiores y, del otro, las reservas localizadas en los tallos y movilizadas después de la fecundación de los óvulos."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Cuando la producción de carbohidratos durante el llenado del grano es deficiente, el rendimiento será bajo. La radiación solar baja, por ejemplo, afecta mucho el rendimiento cuando ocurre en la segunda parte del período de llenado del grano. En el 2000, algunos investigadores japoneses observaron que una deficiencia de asimilados durante los primeros 10 días de la fase de maduración no afecta el peso final de los granos, si el suministro de asimilados durante el resto de esa fase satisface la necesidad que tenga la planta más tarde de incrementar la materia seca."}]},{"head":"Reservas","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"El aporte de las reservas al llenado de los granos varía según la variedad de arroz y es afectado, además, por las condiciones del ambiente (clima y nutrición). Ambos factores se discuten a continuación:"},{"index":2,"size":183,"text":"• Samonte et al. ( 2001) observaron que, en los genotipos en que el peso del grano es bajo, el aporte de las reservas al llenado de los granos es pequeño. Lubis et al. (2003) encontraron diferencias entre los cultivares de arroz respecto a la cantidad de carbohidratos de reserva que destinan al llenado de los granos, y hallaron que usan las reservas para suplir una baja producción de carbohidratos durante esa función de llenado. Se observó también que, cuando es baja la radiación solar durante el llenado de los granos, la planta necesita utilizar las reservas de carbohidratos para lograr un rendimiento alto (Laza et al., 2003). • En las condiciones de los trópicos, la temperatura favorece la maduración del arroz: en algunos sitios, sin embargo, ésta puede retardarse cuando la temperatura desciende por debajo de 20 °C. Las temperaturas altas durante la maduración (especialmente las nocturnas) hacen disminuir el rendimiento. Peng et al. (2004) evaluaron el impacto del calentamiento global en el rendimiento del arroz utilizando datos de temperatura y de rendimiento registrados entre 1979 y 2003, y observaron dos efectos:"},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"-el rendimiento de grano disminuye en 10% por cada grado de aumento de la temperatura mínima en la época seca; y -el efecto de la temperatura máxima en el rendimiento es insignificante."},{"index":4,"size":153,"text":"En general, el rendimiento del arroz es más alto en las épocas y regiones en que se presentan temperaturas nocturnas bastante más bajas que las diurnas, porque en esas condiciones se reduce el gasto respiratorio de asimilados; este fenómeno fue observado en Japón en 1989. Si el suministro de agua es adecuado, la temperatura y la radiación solar son los factores ambientales que más afectan el rendimiento del arroz (Yoshida, 1977); por ejemplo, la combinación de alta radiación solar y baja temperatura contribuye a que el rendimiento del arroz sea alto. Agrega este autor que el efecto de los factores climáticos (durante la fase reproductiva o en la maduración) en el rendimiento depende de la localidad y de la época de cultivo; recomienda, por tanto, que se estudien tanto el número de espiguillas por metro cuadrado como el porcentaje de granos llenos que produce el cultivo en las condiciones específicas de cada época."},{"index":5,"size":226,"text":"• La escasez de agua durante la maduración afecta el rendimiento del arroz. Por ejemplo, si en un cultivo de arroz con riego se drena el terreno muy pronto, habrá al final una pérdida en el rendimiento. El efecto del estrés de agua de las plantas en el rendimiento es menor durante la maduración que durante el desarrollo de la panícula (Boonjung y Fukai, 1996). Singh e Ingram (2000) sometieron las plantas a estrés de agua desde el embuchamiento hasta la maduración, y comprobaron que el rendimiento se había reducido más que cuando estuvieron sometidas a ese estrés desde el inicio de la panícula hasta su emergencia. Lafitte y Courtois (2002) compararon varios cultivares de arroz respecto a su susceptibilidad a la sequía, y encontraron diferentes respuestas que dependían de que la humedad del ambiente fuera escasa (con estrés en las plantas) o adecuada (por el suministro de agua). Entre las respuestas favorables a la situación de sequía estaban la maduración temprana, el potencial bajo de agua de las raíces, el área foliar baja (menor transpiración) y las raíces profundas (mayor absorción). La sequía moderada durante el llenado de los granos incrementa el rendimiento (Yang et al., 2003) porque apresura la senescencia de toda la planta, y este fenómeno acelera la movilización de sus reservas para poder completar la etapa clave del llenado de los granos."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"• La deficiencia de N en la planta acelera el envejecimiento de las hojas y acorta el período de llenado de los granos; estas hojas se envejecen, entre otras razones, porque el nitrógeno que contienen se moviliza para atender la demanda que hacen los granos de este elemento. Se han hecho dos observaciones respecto a la duración de las hojas:"},{"index":7,"size":89,"text":"-la aplicación de N durante la formación de la panícula contribuye a prolongar la duración del área foliar en la fase de maduración; -cuando ocurre alguna limitación en el desarrollo de las raíces al momento de la emergencia de la panícula, las hojas de esas plantas duran poco tiempo porque los nutrientes absorbidos no son suficientes para satisfacer también la demanda que hacen de ellos las espiguillas y los granos; por esta razón, la fase de maduración de estas plantas es corta y, por ende, su rendimiento es bajo."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"Inversamente, lo que retarde la desaparición de los tejidos verdes de la planta, prolongará la actividad fotosintética e intensificará el proceso de llenado de los granos."}]},{"head":"Volcamiento","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"El volcamiento (o acame) es la inclinación del tallo sobre el terreno hasta doblarse contra su superficie; esta condición se presenta en la fase de maduración cuando aumenta el peso de la panícula al llenarse los granos. Para esta época, el tallo se ha alargado completamente y ha alcanzado su altura máxima. Si se comparan los tallos de plantas volcadas y no volcadas (Hoshikawa, 1989), se observan diferencias entre ambos en la longitud y en el grosor de los entrenudos 4 y 5 (contando de arriba hacia abajo)."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"Es posible que estos entrenudos sean largos y delgados en las plantas volcadas porque reciben una cantidad proporcionalmente alta de radiación solar de 730 nm sobre radiación de 660 nm, lo que hace que se desarrollen de ese modo y sean, por lo tanto, susceptibles de doblarse. Esta condición se presenta en tres situaciones, principalmente: cuando el IAF es muy alto en la época en que los entrenudos se alargan, cuando la densidad de plantas es muy alta, y cuando se hacen aplicaciones excesivas de N. Las variedades semienanas de hojas erectas son menos susceptibles al vuelco que las tradicionales, y esta condición puede asociarse con la facilidad con que penetra la radiación roja de 660 nm, que limita el alargamiento, hasta la base de las plantas."},{"index":3,"size":93,"text":"El acame está relacionado también con el anclaje imperfecto de las plantas por el desarrollo deficiente de las raíces debido a la aireación deficiente del medio durante el establecimiento. Hay, finalmente, una relación entre el volcamiento y el drenaje de los lotes (Terashima et al., 2003); estos autores estudiaron el efecto de la duración y la frecuencia de los períodos de drenaje en el volcamiento de las plantas de arroz, y observaron que éste se reducía (sin que disminuyera el rendimiento) cuando esos períodos eran más prolongados y se hacían con más frecuencia."}]},{"head":"Ajuste del cultivo al ambiente","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Las características del clima y del suelo en que se cultiva el arroz difieren según las localidades y según las épocas del año; por tal razón, hay variaciones en el comportamiento de las plantas que les impiden funcionar adecuadamente y expresar todo su potencial de rendimiento, así el genotipo sea de nivel bajo."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Aunque las condiciones ambientales sean variables, se puede obtener un rendimiento de arroz estable ajustando las estrategias de producción a esas condiciones (clima y suelo) en cada localidad y en cada época de cultivo. Ejemplos de tal ajuste son los siguientes:"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• Emplear genotipos adaptables específicamente al clima y al suelo del sitio de producción. • Modificar el ambiente para adecuarlo a las necesidades del genotipo empleado."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"Ahora bien, si la diferencia entre la demanda de recursos de una variedad y la oferta ambiental del sitio de producción es grande, habrá que hacer más modificaciones al ambiente para obtener un rendimiento alto; la producción de arroz en ese sitio sería, por tanto, poco competitiva y aun insostenible."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"Para evitar ese extremo, el manejo agronómico debe dirigirse principalmente a favorecer la expresión de aquéllos caracteres de los genotipos que los hacen adaptables. Por ejemplo, el manejo que se dé al arroz de secano (no irrigado), aun en suelos pobres, debe incluir una densidad de población baja y una dosis baja de fertilizantes, para estimular el desarrollo de un sistema de raíces profundo y extenso que permita a las plantas adquirir agua y nutrientes en un volumen de suelo relativamente grande. El manejo opuesto (alta densidad y fertilización abundante) limitaría el desarrollo de las raíces."}]},{"head":"A la radiación solar","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Cuando la radiación solar es baja en un sitio o durante una época húmeda, la tasa de acumulación de materia seca se reduce y la productividad desciende. Se vio antes que la radiación solar escasa afecta los componentes del rendimiento en todas las fases de desarrollo de la planta. En la fase reproductiva, por ejemplo, la radiación solar ejerce una gran influencia en el rendimiento; asimismo, cuando es escasa, afecta todas las fases dichas y en ellas a los componentes del rendimiento propios de cada una, causando una reducción del rendimiento final."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Si la luminosidad del sitio es baja, hay que emplear estrategias de manejo que aumenten la eficiencia con que las plantas usan la radiación disponible; así se evita una pérdida drástica de rendimiento cuando se siembra en tales sitios. Las siguientes son estrategias posibles:"},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"• Sembrar genotipos adaptados a condiciones de baja radiación, que pueden mantener altas tasas de fotosíntesis del manto foliar. Por ejemplo, los cultivares con IC alto y con buena capacidad para movilizar reservas tienen una probabilidad mayor de dar un alto rendimiento cuando ocurren descensos de radiación solar durante la etapa de llenado del grano (Laza et al., 2003)."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"• Sembrar genotipos que tengan buena capacidad de recuperación después de un período de baja radiación solar. Por ejemplo, investigadores japoneses (entre otros, Kobata y sus colaboradores), informaron sobre genotipos que pueden recuperarse de una primera mitad de su etapa de llenado en que hubo baja radiación, si en la segunda mitad de esa etapa la radiación fue la adecuada."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"• Aplicar prácticas agronómicas que reduzcan el efecto de la baja luminosidad. Por ejemplo, disminuir la sombra que unas plantas hacen a otras ajustando la densidad de población y haciendo un control efectivo de las malezas."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"• Planificar la siembra, para que las etapas de desarrollo del cultivo que exijan más radiación solar coincidan con los períodos de mayor luminosidad del sitio en que se cultiva; esta práctica conduce siempre a rendimientos altos."},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"En general, la producción agrícola maneja los cultivos de manera que aprovecha, con eficacia y eficiencia, los factores ambientales que no pueden cambiarse fácilmente."}]},{"head":"A la temperatura","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"El rendimiento del arroz tiende a aumentar en sitios del trópico de mayor altitud porque las fases de desarrollo se prolongan en condiciones de temperatura baja. Aumenta también en sitios en que la temperatura nocturna es baja (especialmente durante la fase de maduración), porque el gasto respiratorio de fotoasimilados en la noche (cuando la fotosíntesis está inactiva) es menor, por lo cual hay mayor disponibilidad de asimilados para los granos. No obstante, en tales sitios y en muchas regiones áridas hay descensos de temperatura que afectarán el rendimiento si se presentan durante procesos sensibles de la fase reproductiva de las plantas."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Las siguientes estrategias ayudan a reducir los efectos adversos que causan al arroz las temperaturas bajas:"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• Sembrar genotipos tolerantes de la temperatura baja."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"• Escoger una fecha de siembra apropiada para que las etapas más sensibles del cultivo coincidan con las épocas en que es menor la probabilidad de que ocurran descensos de temperatura."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• Considerar la posibilidad de incorporar genes de una variedad Japónica, que tolera las temperaturas bajas, a una variedad del grupo Índica."},{"index":6,"size":99,"text":"Las temperaturas muy altas también tienen efectos adversos en la producción de arroz. Kobata y Uemuki (2004) señalan que estas temperaturas descompensan la relación entre la tasa de acumulación de asimilados en el grano y la duración del período de llenado, ya que un incremento de la primera no compensa el acortamiento del segundo. Este efecto de las temperaturas altas es más perjudicial si se presenta cuando la radiación solar es baja, porque en esa situación la planta dispone de menos asimilados para llenar los depósitos. La respuesta a la temperatura alta varía según el genotipo de arroz, así:"},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"• En el grupo Índica, las tasas de fotosíntesis a una temperatura alta son más altas que en el grupo Japónica."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"• En el grupo Índica, el macollamiento es menos inhibido por la temperatura alta que en el grupo Japónica."},{"index":9,"size":22,"text":"• La temperatura óptima para el llenado del grano es más alta en los genotipos Índica que en los Japónica (Yoshida, 1981)."}]},{"head":"Al agua disponible","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"El carácter errático de las lluvias hace más frecuentes las deficiencias de agua en los cultivos de secano. Es, por tanto, de mucha importancia en este sistema el uso de variedades que tengan algún mecanismo de adaptación al estrés de agua."}]},{"head":"Deficiencia de agua","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Las plantas tienen dos mecanismos de adaptación a la deficiencia de agua del medio en que se encuentran: uno, llamado escape, consiste en ajustar la duración de su ciclo de vida a la disponibilidad de agua del medio; el otro, llamado 'evitación', le facilita a la planta el uso de una cantidad grande del agua almacenada en el terreno, como ocurriría con el desarrollo de raíces profundos y extensos. Un ejemplo del primer caso: cuando hay sequía, la maduración temprana beneficia las plantas (Lafitte y Courtois, 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"El buen manejo agronómico soluciona también las deficiencias de humedad del medio de varias maneras:"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Empleando variedades de ciclo rápido (desarrollo temprano) en sitios donde el agua disponible dura poco tiempo."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"• Aplicando prácticas como la labranza profunda, la cual propicia el almacenamiento de cantidades considerables de agua en el suelo, y favorece también el desarrollo de un sistema de raíces extenso y profundo, que capta más agua que otro reducido y superficial."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"• Estableciendo poblaciones de plantas debidamente espaciadas."}]},{"head":"Inundación y nivel freático","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"La inundación del suelo y el nivel freático alto no permiten que haya mucho oxígeno disponible en el suelo, lo cual limita el crecimiento de las raíces. Esta deficiencia de oxígeno es subsanada por el arroz mediante el aerénquima, un tejido que transporta oxígeno hacia las raíces; no obstante, el crecimiento de las raíces del arroz en un suelo inundado es, en general, menor que en un suelo aireado."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"Hay variedades de arroz que se adaptan bien a determinada condición de humedad del suelo; otras, en cambio, pueden desarrollar cierta tolerancia de la deficiencia de oxígeno del suelo. Un mecanismo fisiológico asociado con esta tolerancia (Colmer, 2002) es el aumento de la porosidad de los tejidos interiores de la raíz y la formación de una barrera en los exteriores que evita la pérdida radial de oxígeno. La raíz experimenta así cambios plásticos en su estructura que facilitan el movimiento del oxígeno a los puntos de crecimiento, para evitar que se perturbe ese crecimiento en el suelo anegado."}]},{"head":"A las características del suelo","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"El arroz se cultiva en suelos cuyas propiedades químicas y físicas difieren mucho; por consiguiente, tanto las variedades como el manejo de los suelos han debido adaptarse a esas condiciones edáficas. En un suelo poco fértil o de baja disponibilidad de nutrientes, se pueden obtener rendimientos satisfactorios de varias maneras:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"• Aplicando los elementos nutricionales deficientes."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Corrigiendo las condiciones que limitan la disponibilidad de los nutrientes como la acidez."},{"index":4,"size":65,"text":"• Empleando variedades que se adapten a esos suelos. Una de las principales adaptaciones de una variedad de arroz a un suelo pobre es su capacidad de desarrollar un sistema de raíces extenso y profundo, el cual permite a la planta no sólo extraer nutrientes de un volumen amplio de suelo sino también agua, cuando haya una deficiencia hídrica en las capas superiores del suelo."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"Las variedades que tienen una fase vegetativa prolongada pueden almacenar nutrientes suficientes para satisfacer la demanda que de ellos hace la planta en etapas posteriores de su desarrollo. Cuando estas variedades se siembran en suelos poco fértiles, deben manejarse en forma adecuada para que, desarrollando raíces ramificadas y profundas, aprovechen la ventaja que les da su capacidad de acumular nutrientes."}]},{"head":"Fisiología y fitomejoramiento","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"El potencial de rendimiento de las variedades del grupo Índica aumentó en los años 60 porque los fitomejoradores cambiaron el tipo de planta, es decir, seleccionaron caracteres morfológicos asociados con una alta eficiencia en la utilización de los recursos."}]},{"head":"Tipo de planta mejorado","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Los primeros caracteres que modificaron fueron la altura de la planta y la orientación de las hojas. Hubo dos razones para estos cambios:"},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• Disminuir la susceptibilidad al vuelco de las variedades altas, que se agudizaba con la fertilización nitrogenada requerida para aumentar su rendimiento."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"• Mejorar la eficiencia de utilización de la radiación solar que tenían las hojas grandes y horizontales."},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"Se hizo entonces selección por hojas cortas y erectas con el fin de aumentar la penetración de la radiación solar a las capas inferiores de hojas y de iluminar un área foliar más grande. Se acortaron los entrenudos del nuevo tipo de planta y aumentó así su fortaleza, lo que les permitió soportar panículas pesadas con menor riesgo de acame de la planta. Estos cambios mejoraban el rendimiento porque permitían lo siguiente:"},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"• Aumentar las aplicaciones de nitrógeno."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"• Incrementar el área foliar sin causar exceso de sombra entre las hojas."},{"index":7,"size":102,"text":"• Aumentar el peso de las panículas reduciendo el riesgo de volcamiento de la planta. Peng et al. (1999) sostienen que, desde la liberación de la variedad IR 8 en 1966, los fitomejoradores se han esforzado mucho por seleccionar materiales según su rendimiento; no obstante, han tenido poco éxito en mejorar el potencial productivo del arroz en los trópicos, el cual se ha mantenido desde entonces en cerca de 10 t/ha. Para superar este estancamiento, al final de los años 80 los científicos del IRRI se propusieron modificar el tipo de planta de las variedades de alto rendimiento que se cultivan actualmente."},{"index":8,"size":21,"text":"Se han obtenido materiales genéticos con atributos que deberían contribuir a aumentar su productividad. Entre las características mejoradas están las siguientes:"},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"• De 3 a 4 macollas por planta (en siembra directa)."},{"index":10,"size":4,"text":"• Pocas macollas improductivas."},{"index":11,"size":8,"text":"• De 200 a 250 granos por panícula."},{"index":12,"size":11,"text":"• De 90 a 100 cm de altura de la planta."},{"index":13,"size":14,"text":"• Tallos gruesos y fuertes, con hojas gruesas de color verde oscuro y erectas."},{"index":14,"size":6,"text":"• Un sistema de raíces vigoroso."},{"index":15,"size":10,"text":"• Un ciclo de vida de 100 a 130 días."},{"index":16,"size":6,"text":"• Un índice de cosecha alto."},{"index":17,"size":64,"text":"Ahora bien, los materiales obtenidos con tales caracteres presentaron una baja producción de biomasa, un llenado de granos deficiente y, en consecuencia, un rendimiento bajo. Continúa el trabajo de corrección de estas deficiencias empleando nuevas estrategias para seleccionar materiales según el nuevo tipo de planta. De esta labor no hay aún informes sobre avances notables respecto a la mayor expresión del potencial de rendimiento."},{"index":18,"size":131,"text":"De acuerdo con Evans (1993), la principal característica utilizada para aumentar el rendimiento potencial ha sido el incremento del índice de cosecha (IC), que es la cantidad de materia seca que se destina proporcionalmente al grano. El IC del arroz es influenciado por la duración de las etapas de desarrollo de la planta y (así como el rendimiento) por factores del ambiente. Una variedad puede tener la capacidad para destinar una cantidad proporcionalmente grande de los productos de fotosíntesis a la formación de panículas, espiguillas y granos; sin embargo, no podrá lograrlo si no se dan las condiciones de radiación solar, de temperatura, y de disponibilidad de agua y nutrientes apropiadas. Ésta es la razón de que el manejo agronómico de un cultivo sea tan importante para obtener un alto rendimiento."}]},{"head":"Densidad y nutrición mejores","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"El rendimiento de grano depende también de ciertos niveles de competencia entre las plantas. Al elevar la densidad de siembra aumentan dos variables: una, la producción de biomasa hasta cuando se llega a una densidad crítica; otra, la producción de grano, pero hasta una densidad crítica más baja. En cambio, el IC decrece cuando aumenta la densidad de siembra más allá de un nivel crítico. Se podría pensar entonces que, en un ambiente dado, hay una densidad de población óptima que permite obtener un alto rendimiento de grano."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"No sólo la densidad de población alta tiende a favorecer más la producción de biomasa que la producción de grano: hay otros factores, como el N, que hacen el mismo efecto. Por consiguiente, hay que regular el nivel de tales factores para obtener un rendimiento que esté cada vez más cerca del rendimiento potencial de la variedad de que se trate. Hay que emplear, por tanto, el IC como una guía de manejo del cultivo: el IC debe ser alto y debe usarse en conjunto con los componentes del rendimiento para detectar los aciertos y las fallas que inciden en la producción de arroz."}]},{"head":"Rendimiento planificado","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"La producción de arroz se encuentra aún en la etapa de 6 t/ha de rendimiento empleando variedades cuyo rendimiento potencial es de 10 t/ha; es necesario, por tanto, hacer cambios en las prácticas agronómicas para aumentar el rendimiento. Por ejemplo, si la meta es un rendimiento de 7 t/ha, hay que obtener 0.7 kg/m 2 de grano. Estos 700 g se obtienen con el concurso de 366 panículas/m 2 , porque cada una aporta 85 granos y el peso de 1000 granos es de 22.5 g. Suponiendo que no hay macollamiento (que compensaría por las plantas perdidas), las 366 panículas provienen de 366 plantas/m 2 , una densidad que se obtiene con 84 kg/ha de semilla. Si cada planta de la variedad empleada produce una macolla, se necesitarían solamente 42 kg/ha de semilla."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"En la hacienda La María, del municipio de Tuluá, se sembraron 20 ha de arroz en surcos, utilizando 54 kg/ha de semilla y manteniendo el nivel de agua continuamente cerca de la capacidad de campo: se obtuvo así un rendimiento de 7.0 t/ha (E. García, comunicación personal)."}]},{"head":"Caracteres fisiológicos críticos","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"El estudio de la fisiología sigue sirviendo como apoyo del fitomejoramiento de arroz, porque ayuda a identificar caracteres críticos de selección. De ellos, los siguientes están aún en exploración: la posibilidad de mejorar la eficiencia de la fotosíntesis, la disminución del gasto de asimilados en la respiración, el aumento de la fracción de asimilados destinados al rendimiento agronómico, y la mayor eficiencia en el trasporte de asimilados hacia los depósitos que constituyen el rendimiento. "}]},{"head":"Referencias bibliográficas","index":27,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Anten, N.P.R.; Schieving, F.; Medina, E.;Werger, M.J.A.; Schuffelen, P. 1995. Optimal leaf area indices in C3 and Optimal leaf area indices in C3 and C4 mono-and dicotyledonous C4 mono-and dicotyledonous species at low and high nitrogen species at low and high nitrogen availability. Physiologia Plantarum availability. Physiologia Plantarum 95(4):541-550. 95(4):541-550. Ballaré, C.L.; Casal, J.J. 2000. Light Ballaré, C.L.; Casal, J.J. 2000. Light signals perceived by crop and weed signals perceived by crop and weed plants. Field Crops Research plants. Field Crops Research 67(2):149-160. 67(2):149-160. Boonjung, H.; Fukai, S. 1996. Effects of Boonjung, H.; Fukai, S. 1996. Effects of soil water deficit at different growth soil water deficit at different growth stages on rice growth and yield stages on rice growth and yield under upland conditions. Field under upland conditions. Field Crops Research 48(1):47-55. Crops Research 48(1):47-55. Colmer, T. D. 2002. Aerenchyma and an Colmer, T. D. 2002. Aerenchyma and an inducible barrier to radial oxygen inducible barrier to radial oxygen loss facilitate root aeration in loss facilitate root aeration in upland, paddy and deep water rice upland, paddy and deep water rice  "}],"sieverID":"c3c97fc3-8786-4ac9-a096-78b09c25e8f2","abstract":"Introducción Crecimiento y desarrollo Fase vegetativa Fase reproductiva Fase de maduración Ajuste del cultivo al ambiente A la radiación solar A la temperatura Al agua disponible A las características del suelo Fisiología y fitomejoramiento Referencias bibliográficas"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01927cd6e7a617a45e89c75058ebfcfd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e34e0871-660a-4109-98e8-3739cfe6aecb/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Residual β-carotene and Cyanide Levels in Gari Produced from Unfermented Yellow Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) Using Local Processing Method","keywords":["β-carotene","cyanide","unfermented","gari","yellow cassava"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a tropical root crop which is normally propagated by vegetative stem cuttings. It is a major staple food for millions of people in the tropics and subtropical regions [1]. It is well known for its wide adaptability to different environmental conditions due to its ability to grow under conditions considered suboptimal for the majority of other food crops. Because cassava tubers contain very low level of protein (0.7-2%) it has often been regarded as the poorest in nutritional quality of the staple foods in these regions. In addition, it also contains some vitamins (ascorbic acid and carotenoids)."},{"index":2,"size":420,"text":"Most white varieties lack carotenoids but the yellow cassava exists in Brazil and has been found to contain β-carotene (a pro-vitamin A substance) [2]. The carotenoids are a group of over 700 naturally occurring plant pigments. Selecting cassava varieties with high β-carotene content may contribute significantly to solving the problem of vitamin A deficiency in poor countries [3]. It has been evaluated and found that some varieties of cassava rich in βcarotene can sufficiently meet the vitamin A daily requirement in adults [4]. However, one of the major fears regarding the consumption of cassava is the presence of cyanide in the form of cyanogenic glycosides. Two glycosides linamarin and lotaustralin are synthesized and stored inside the cells while the enzyme responsible for the hydrolysis, linamarase is stored in the cell wall. There is no free Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in plant. Only when the plant cells are ruptured does the enzyme come in contact with linamarin. This is then hydrolysed to acetone cyanohydrins which may spontaneously or upon the action of a second enzyme be decomposed into acetone and HCN [5]. Processing of the raw cassava into various edible products reduces the level of cyanide [6,7]. Various varieties are usually differentiated from one another by their morphological characteristics such as colour of stem, petioles, leaves and tubers [8]. The presence of carotenoids and the absence of cyanide are the two major factors when considering the nutritional and safety qualities of processed cassava for human consumption. Luckily, the selection of cassava high in carotenoid resulting in yellow-fleshed cassava has been achieved. Carotenoids from foods often have low bioavailability because of a variety of food matrix effects [9] therefore applying different food-processing techniques such as fermentation will definitely improve the carotenoid bioavailability. Reports exist of the retention of βcarotene after processing, using different processing methods on this improved cassava [10,11]. The aim of the present study is to determine the level of carotenoid present, represented by the level of β-carotene, in processing a variety (IITA TMS01/1371 or UMUCASS 38) of yellow cassava into gari which is a major staple food in Nigeria. The study is also to determine the residual cyanide after processing the fermented and unfermented yellow-fleshed cassava into gari. Finally, this study is to find out the implication of processing yellow cassava into gari without the fermentation process with reference to the residual β-carotene and cyanide as practiced in our local environment. The effect of long term storage of the gari as it affects the β-carotene level will also be determined."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AMD METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Samples","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Freshly harvested samples of yellow cassava variety IITA TMS 01/1371 were obtained from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture Ibadan Nigeria (IITA)."}]},{"head":"Gari Production","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"The local method of gari production was adopted. The cassava samples were washed in distilled water, peeled with a knife and grated in a machine. The grated cassava had a portion removed immediately and processed into gari by roasting over firewood heat to obtain a granulated product, gari. The rest portion was allowed to ferment for about three days in water. Samples were taken after each day and pressed thoroughly to expel water and roasted into gari. These samples were then stored in screened containers to eliminate light for a 5 week period during which analyses were carried out."}]},{"head":"β-carotene Analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The level of retained β-carotene was extracted and determined in gari produced from fermented and unfermented yellow cassava using High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), based on a standard HarvestPlus procedure [12,13]. The level of residual HCN was also determined in the gari so produced using the procedure as described by Rao and Hahn [14]."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Statistics","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Data collected from this study were subjected to analysis of variance using computer SPSS software. The differences between means were separated by Turkey-Kramer multiple comparison test."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Table 1 shows the result of residual β-carotene content of gari in unfermented and fermented gari which were stored over a period of time. The result showed that the unfermented yellow cassava recorded the least level of β-carotene while the sample subjected to 3 days of fermentation recorded the highest amount. As the storage period increased, there was loss of the β-carotene present. Table 2 represents the rate of loss of β-carotene over a 5 week period. The unfermented sample had the least rate of loss of β-carotene and the sample fermented for 2 days recorded the highest rate of loss. Table 3 represents the cyanide content of the gari so produced. The unfermented cassava recorded the highest residual cyanide level and the cassava that was fermented for 3 days recorded the least amount of residual cyanide."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":318,"text":"It was observed that the gari produced from fermented yellow cassava had a relatively higher level of β-carotene (10.600±0.271 -20.610±0.056 µg/g) depending on the number of days of fermentation compared with the gari from unfermented yellow cassava (8.076±0.179 µg/g) and this is also dependent on the period of storage. This result may indicate that β-carotene molecules may be located in cassava cells that may require the process of fermentation to expose. This is in agreement with earlier reports that in higher plants, carotenoids compounds are synthesized and localised in cellular plastids and present as semi-crystalline structures derived from the plastids [15,16]. Cell wall and chromoplast substructure have been identified as the main barrier for the release of β-carotene in carrot during digestion; this may also be true during fermentation [17]. However, there was a reduction in the β-carotene contents in all the groups during the 5-week storage period. The rate of loss of β-carotene over a five week storage period showed that the gari from unfermented cassava had the least rate of loss (0.885 µg/week) compared with the gari from fermented cassava over the same period (0.955-2.440 µg/week). This observation may result from the effect of the cassava microstructure on the release of the β-carotene. It had earlier been reported that food microstructure do affect several nutrients bioavailability [18]. Therefore unfermented cassava may still have its microstructure more intact compared with fermented cassava. So fermentation may have softened the tissue, hence less ability to retain the β-carotene over a long period of time while in storage.  The level of HCN retained was more in the gari from unfermented yellow cassava (3.16±0.006 mg/100 g) compared with the gari from fermented cassava (0.47±0.005-1.42±0.006 mg/100 g). Though this value is well below the lethal dose for a man (30-120 mg) or 0.5-3.5 mg/kg body weight [19,20] it is important to observe that the unfermented gari recorded the highest residual cyanide content."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Based on the results obtained in this study, it is suggested that yellow cassava should be fermented for 3 days for the maximum level of βcarotene to be obtained in the gari, which will in addition, also contain the least amount of residual cyanide before being roasted into gari. Adequate method of storage should also be adopted to reduce loss of the β-carotene while in storage. This may be achieved by storing gari in darkened containers since β-carotene is light sensitive."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 1 . β-carotene content of gari prepared from yellow cassava  Treatment     Storage period TreatmentStorage period  Week 1 (µg/g) Week 3 (µg/g) Week 5 (µg/g) Week 1 (µg/g)Week 3 (µg/g)Week 5 (µg/g) Unfermented 8.076 a ±0.311 5.940 a ±0.062 4.546 a ±0.012 Unfermented8.076 a±0.3115.940 a±0.0624.546 a±0.012 Fermented day 1 10.600 b ±0.470 7.883 b ±0.133 6.906 b ±0.140 Fermented day 110.600b±0.4707.883 b±0.1336.906 b±0.140 Fermented day 2 19.320 c ±0.395 13.257 c ±0.035 9.570 c ±0.035 Fermented day 219.320 c ±0.39513.257 c ±0.0359.570 c ±0.035 Fermented day 3 20.610 d ±0.098 14.510 d ±0.080 11.497 d ±0.132 Fermented day 320.610d±0.09814.510 d±0.08011.497 d±0.132 Results represent mean ± standard deviation (SD) of three replications. Values with same superscript that are in Results represent mean ± standard deviation (SD) of three replications. Values with same superscript that are in  a column are not significantly different (P>0.05) a column are not significantly different (P>0.05)  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Rate of loss of β-carotene per week  Unfermented Fermented (ug/week) UnfermentedFermented (ug/week) (ug/week) Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 (ug/week)Day 1Day 2Day 3 0.885 0.955 2.447 2.290 0.8850.9552.4472.290 Results represent the rate of loss of β-carotene per Results represent the rate of loss of β-carotene per week in the produced gari stored over a 5 week period week in the produced gari stored over a 5 week period  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Cyanide content of gari from yellow cassava  Treatment mg/100 g Treatmentmg/100 g Fermented day 1 1.423 a ±0.006 Fermented day 11.423 a±0.006 Fermented day 2 1.150 b ±0.000 Fermented day 21.150 b ±0.000 Fermented day 3 0.470 c ±0.050 Fermented day 30.470 c ±0.050 Unfermented 3.160 d ±0.006 Unfermented3.160d±0.006 Results represent mean ± standard deviation (SD) of Results represent mean ± standard deviation (SD) of three replications. Values with the same superscript in three replications. Values with the same superscript in a column are not significantly different (P>0.05) a column are not significantly different (P>0.05)  "}],"sieverID":"ceb43fd1-0012-494e-8580-872d0b08a242","abstract":"and wrote up the manuscript and managed the literature searches. Author IAO conceptualized the study and gave the general direction of the study. Author OEA did the practical analyses in his laboratory. All authors read and approved the final manuscript."}

data/part_1/01d1308e3d38c96d33ee2615f255e32c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01d1308e3d38c96d33ee2615f255e32c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ec0158f3-2a4d-47a0-8e6f-ed34a1641199/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Gracias! Thank you! CIAT Cassava Program Post-harvest Quality Lab team Field team","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Step 1 + 2: Consumer preferences and sensory analysis to define acceptability thresholds 2023: Consumer preferences to define acceptability thresholds of cooking quality attributes."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"▪ 320 people tested 8 different genotypes of boiled cassava in 2 days! Combined with sensory QDA and instrumental phenotyping, acceptability thresholds will be integrated in the product profile of boiled cassava (RTBfoods and MIPPI deliverables 2023)."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Step 1 + 2: Consumer preferences and sensory analysis to define acceptability thresholds y = 0.73x + 2.30 R² = 0.80 Step 4: High-throughput phenotyping by hyperspectral imaging (HSI)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" NIRS prediction of cooking quality. Based on cumulated database of 2905 datapoints (water absorption), necessary to increase signal-to-noise ratio. ▪ 4 years data (2019-2022) : 2905 spectra ▪ WP1 trait: cooking time ▪ WP2 interpretation: Water absorption at 30 min of boiling (WA30) gives 2 classes (C1 ≤ 12% and C2 > 12%) ; C2 correspond to short cooking time; good genotypes ▪ WP3 calibration: Local PLS Regression to predict the two classes C1 and C2. Distribution of dry matter in fresh cassava roots by Hyperspectral imaging (HSI). To extend to other quality traits (starch, pectins) "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"e7c01c1b-0db8-4a1d-82cc-f9bfa73d7113","abstract":"▪ Some clones are stable and predictable in cooking time (CT), but others are highly variable. Cooking time of 36 genotypes harvested at 4 different ages (8 to 11 months) ▪ Work at CIAT covers all the steps from consumers preferences to high-throughput phenotyping ▪ Only CIAT and IITA have reached that stage among RTBfoods partners ▪ For boiled cassava and gari, respectively ▪ Consider other product profiles / market segments: Agrosavia (Colombia), Indonesia; fried products, ready-tocook, bread products, etc."}

data/part_1/020b3c6eca8d70db4ea1fc86455d79c0.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"020b3c6eca8d70db4ea1fc86455d79c0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2f0942b1-efef-433c-8e48-d9da531c2203/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Rainwater management for resilient livelihoods in Ethiopia Synthesis of local knowledge on drivers of tree cover change in the Blue Nile basin","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"Ethiopia is entering a period of increasing water scarcity due in part to poor water resource management and environmental degradation caused by deforestation (Tadesse 2009). This research was aimed at understanding farmers' knowledge of both past and present trees and other woody perennials in three micro-catchments of the Blue Nile Basin, in order to identify potential entry points that could be used in initiating community-driven tree conservation/reintroduction into local agro-ecosystems. The aim was to take an initial step towards participatory design of agroforestry-based soil and water conservation strategies in the study areas, as a response to the current widespread context of poverty and environmental degradation (Bayala et al. 2011). In order to do this effectively, we needed to understand what farmers already know and practice on their farms as well as the key drivers of tree cover change in each site."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":252,"text":"This study was conducted using the Agro-ecological Knowledge Toolkit (AKT5) methodology and software. This involves a four-stage process described as 'scoping', 'definition', 'compilation' and 'generalization'. The major focus of knowledge collection comprises an iterative cycle-that is eliciting knowledge from a small purposive sample (Table 1). Open-ended questions were used in semi-structured and depth interviews to gather local knowledge about ecosystem services of trees within farming systems and the wider landscape. Focus group discussions (FGDs) included exercises such as pair-wise ranking of major drivers of land cover change and participatory mapping of historical land cover change. Transect walks were also carried out in selected kebeles to gain a deeper understanding of changes in the landscape that were discussed during FGDs. Participants were selected purposively in order to gain insight into the knowledge held by people of different strata (age, wealth, gender and location in the landscape). Elevation was chosen as the main means of stratifying informants across the research area in order to capture as much agro-ecological knowledge held by communities living under different environmental conditions (e.g. varying types and extent of tree cover and water contexts). Although there was a criteria to guide selection of respondents, attention was always given to ensuring the willingness of interviewees. Interviews were processed and relevant statements entered into knowledge bases and analysed using AKT5 software. Causal diagrams were generated to show relationships between tree cover change and important biogeochemical processes within the landscapes, with a special focus on watershed management services of past and present vegetation. "}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Local knowledge revealed that all three sites suffered from rapid deforestation of native tree cover over the last 40 years. All three systems were recognized by farmers as declining in agricultural productivity. The decline of native forest in Jeldu was found to be more rapid than the other two sites, partially due to market pressures from the capital city. Fogera and Diga were found to have remnant native forest still present, although certain tree species had disappeared completely due to over-exploitation for their products. This was associated with population expansion which had driven land cultivation into more marginal land (such as steeper slopes and marshy lowlands), resulting in land degradation and heightened pressure on common grazing land."}]},{"head":"Tree cover in Jeldu","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"The tree cover in Jeldu had transitioned from native cover (originally Moist Dega vegetation: Hagenia abyssinica, Juniperus procera and Podocarpus falcatus) to sparsely spread native trees across the farming landscape and a rapid expansion of Eucalyptus globulus woodlots. In Jeldu, farmers reported that the loss of native forest cover had led to observable movement of headwaters down the slopes as the springs on the upper slopes gradually dried up."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Water security had also been affected by fluctuations in rainfall patterns. Increased utilization of river and streams for irrigation had led to a decrease in flow out of the catchment. The increase in Eucalyptus globulus had, according to farmers, led to a reduction in base flow of the River Meja. Farmers were found to have less rich agro-ecological knowledge on the services of native trees because of their low frequency but a high awareness of interactions of eucalyptus with crops, soil and water."}]},{"head":"Tree cover in Diga","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Native forest in Diga was originally Wet Weyna Dega vegetation (Acacia, Cordia africana). Remnant forest trees appeared at higher frequency than in Jeldu and retained as riparian cover and coffee shade. There was still a noticeable expansion of Eucalyptus spp. especially in Gudisa which borders the town of Nekemte. Farmers in Arjo in the low altitude range had extensive knowledge linking the loss of forest cover on the higher slopes to a decrease in base flow. They were able to explain mechanisms by which deforestation has led to increased erosion, increased fertility loss, increased soil deposition (which had dried the headwaters of streams), decreased rainfall and decreased water quality (Figure 1)."}]},{"head":"Figure 1. Local knowledge about drivers of tree cover change in Diga lowlands. Nodes represent attributes of objects, processes or actions (boxes with straight edges). Arrows connecting nodes show the direction of causal influence. The first small arrow on a link indicates either an increase (↑) or decrease (↓) in the causal node and the second refers to the effect node. Numbers between small arrows indicate whether the relationship is two-way (2), in which case an increase in A causing a decrease in B also implies that a decrease in A would cause an increase B, or one-way (1)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":", where this reversibility does not apply."}]},{"head":"Tree cover in Fogera","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"In Fogera, the trees naturally regenerating on community grasslands (mainly Acacia spp.) formed most of the remnant native forest species found on farmland. The trees were prone to overgrazing (leading to insufficient tree regeneration) and unsustainable management, mainly attributable to a lack of regulation of this community resource."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Farmers were explicit about the many forest products which had been overharvested in the past (fibre, roots and leaves) for a variety of household needs (timber, tool construction, fuel, medicine and aromatic material) which had resulted in a decline in species diversity."}]},{"head":"Trees for ameliorating environmental degradation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Farmers demonstrated detailed agro-ecological knowledge on how the physical attributes of trees impacted on water and soil resources. Farmers were able to identify tree species which ameliorate the effects of a wide range of environmental degradation issues (Table 2). The tree species known to fulfil these functions were mostly seen at low frequency in the sites, or known to be extinct from the area. Local knowledge on their regulating services, as well as their utilities had been retained; however, there were found to be knowledge gaps on how to increase native tree cover in the cereal and horticultural cropping systems and manage them to reduce competition."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Farmers in the Diga midlands appreciated the fertile and productive soil that resulted from the forest canopy to grow coffee. The coffee plots were usually located next to streams or water bodies, on steep lands without terracing. In the lowlands, coffee was also being grown under Mangifera indica although farmers stated that the productivity was lower than that of coffee produced under traditional shade trees."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"In Diga and Fogera, native tree species of high potential value (Cordia africana, Croton macrostachyus, Acacia spp.) and exotic fruit trees were planted or retained around the settlements and within croplands. The farmers were found to have two main objectives: to provide essential goods (e.g. timber, fencing material, fodder, fruits) and to conserve the soil fertility (mainly through leaf-litter)."},{"index":4,"size":150,"text":"One of the significant findings was the consistency in which farmers linked particular tree species to hydrological processes that influenced their interaction with agricultural crops. Eucalyptus spp. was reported to compete with crops for greenwater and to reduce the flow from adjacent headwaters. Syzygium guineense was associated with a high water-table and ease of accessibility of groundwater. Farmers reported in both Diga and Fogera that they would use Syzygium guineense as an indicator of a high water table when digging a well.  Policy was seen by farmers as a major constraint to integrating native trees on cropland and many of the species had protection under Ethiopian forest policy; this would need to be addressed if farmers are to be encouraged to utilize them as alternative timber and fuel sources to eucalyptus, as well as to retain them on fields and manage them to reduce shade and competition with agricultural crops."}]},{"head":"Conclusions and recommendations","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The results suggest that farmers in all three sites had a significant understanding of interactions between trees, soil and water. Although farmers understood the various functions of trees in watershed management according to on-farm niches and ecosystem service provisioning, there was still a critical gap in understanding the logistics of integrating them at a higher frequency into the current agricultural systems. Such gaps in knowledge should be addressed through technical training and awareness raising activities. In order to fulfil project goals of improving watershed management in the Blue Nile Basin, farmers' knowledge about native trees needs to be taken into account when designing tree interventions and promotion of agroforestry species by local government nurseries."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Site: J = Jeldu, D = Diga, F = Fogera.Most appropriate uses: T = timber, SC = soil conservation, MP = multipurpose, SF = soil fertility, FW = firewood, CC = charcoal, FD = fodder. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . A breakdown of first and second interviews and FGDs conducted in the three study sites Breakdown of interviews Jeldu Diga Fogera Breakdown of interviewsJelduDigaFogera Name of kebeles covered Seriti Dhenku, Chilanko, Kolu Gelan, Shikute and Urga Ereri (5) Arjo and Gudisa (2) Tihua Ena Kokit, Alem Ber Zuria and Dibasifatira (3) Name of kebeles coveredSeriti Dhenku, Chilanko, Kolu Gelan, Shikute and Urga Ereri (5)Arjo and Gudisa (2)Tihua Ena Kokit, Alem Ber Zuria and Dibasifatira (3) Total farmers 30 40 29 Total farmers304029 Total experts 4 4 5 Total experts445 Second interviews 6 8 6 Second interviews686 Focus group discussions 2 2 3 Focus group discussions223  "},{"text":"Table 2 . A sample of native multipurpose trees across study sites, their uses and landscape niches. S/N Site Latin name Most appropriate uses Niches S/NSiteLatin nameMost appropriate usesNiches 1 J Acacia lahai FW, SF, CC Field 1JAcacia lahaiFW, SF, CCField 2 J,D,F Acacia sieberiana FW, SF, CC Field 2J,D,FAcacia sieberianaFW, SF, CCField 3 D Albizi aschimperiana FW, SF, CC Riverbank 3DAlbizi aschimperianaFW, SF, CCRiverbank 4 J Chamaecytisus palmensis FD, SF Live fence 4JChamaecytisus palmensisFD, SFLive fence 5 D,F Combretum spp. T, MP Forest 5D,FCombretum spp.T, MPForest 6 J,D,F Cordia africana T, MP Field 6J,D,FCordia africanaT, MPField 7 J,D,F Croton macrostachyus T, FW Field 7J,D,FCroton macrostachyusT, FWField 8 J Dombeyatorrida, FW, SF Field 8JDombeyatorrida,FW, SFField 9 J,D Ekebergi acapensis T, SC, FW, FD Field boundary 9J,DEkebergi acapensisT, SC, FW, FDField boundary 10 J,D Erythrina abyssinica SC, SF, FW Live fence 10J,DErythrina abyssinicaSC, SF, FWLive fence 11 J,D,F Ficus spp. SC, FW, FD Riverbank 11J,D,FFicus spp.SC, FW, FDRiverbank 12 J, D Hagenia abyssinica T, SC Field 12J, DHagenia abyssinicaT, SCField 13 J,D Myrica salicifolia FW Live fence 13J,DMyrica salicifoliaFWLive fence 14 J Nuxia congesta FW, CC Live fence 14JNuxia congestaFW, CCLive fence 15 J,F Oleaeuropaea ssp. africana T, FW, CC Forest 15J,FOleaeuropaea ssp. africanaT, FW, CCForest 16 J Strychnos spinosa FW, CC, FD Field boundary 16JStrychnos spinosaFW, CC, FDField boundary 17 D,F Syzygium guineense SC, MP Riverbank 17D,FSyzygium guineenseSC, MPRiverbank 18 J,D Vernonia amygdalina FD, MP Live fence 18J,DVernonia amygdalinaFD, MPLive fence  "}],"sieverID":"88a2c786-2a42-4ccb-ac0c-34699dfd5eb9","abstract":"The quantity and position of trees in a landscape can have significant impacts on farm soil and water resources. Here we present a synthesis of local knowledge studies conducted in three micro-catchments of the Blue Nile Basin (Diga, Fogera and Jeldu Woredas) exploring natural and anthropogenic drivers of tree cover change. In total more than 90 purposively selected farmers were interviewed, whilst focus group discussions and feedback sessions were held with larger groups. Local knowledge revealed that all three sites suffered from rapid deforestation of native tree cover over the last 20 years. All three systems were recognized by farmers as declining in agricultural productivity. The decline of native forest in Jeldu was found to be more rapid than the other two sites, partially due to market pressures from the capital city. Fogera and Diga were found to have remnant native forest still present, although certain tree species had disappeared completely due to over-exploitation for their products. This was associated with population expansion which has driven land cultivation into more marginal land (such as steeper slopes and marshy lowlands), resulting in land degradation and heightened pressure on common grazing land. The farmers demonstrated detailed agro-ecological knowledge on how the physical attributes of trees impacted on water and soil resources. Farmers were able to describe the impacts of loss of native tree cover on erosion control, river bank stabilization, protection of headwaters and water quality improvements. There were knowledge gaps on how to integrate native trees into the cereal and horticultural cropping systems. The research findings suggest some potential policy changes and intervention strategies to reach farmers and increase understanding of the functions of trees in watershed management according to on-farm niches and ecosystem service provisioning."}

data/part_1/024816721e3789c275e45c6242f567a7.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"024816721e3789c275e45c6242f567a7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8d1e42e9-4f1d-4ba6-a486-d340de93ec60/retrieve"},"pageCount":23,"title":"AFRICA RISING -Enhancing partnership among Africa RISING, NAFAKA and TUBORESHE CHAKULA Programs for fast tracking delivery and scaling of agricultural technologies in Tanzania","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"EXECUTIVE SUMMARY","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":151,"text":"During the second quarter of year 2, the Africa RISING-NAFAKA-TUBOCHA partnership and scaling project accomplished a variety of activities. The rice team held a stakeholders' planning meeting at the beginning of the quarter which culminated in the finalization of work plans and budgets. Consequently, the team started to implement activities focusing on high yielding varieties (Komboka, TXD), the management of salt-affected soils using improved varieties (SATO 1 and 2), as well as various soil fertility management practices. In terms of project performance against FtF indicators, because of the inability of team members to complete data collection and reporting for output indicators using the adapted data collection forms, no new data different from those of the first quarter have been reported, since an incomplete picture of the project's status would be presented. Data on outcome indicators will be reported after implementation of the outcome survey that will start in the next quarter."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Project description","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Africa RISING partners are involved in identifying and developing best performing interventions for improving agricultural production. These are compiled into information and technology packages to be delivered through a network of NAFAKA and other public and private sector actors, creating an opportunity for mainstreaming into wider rural development programs. Attractive interventions in this project include the introduction of improved crop varieties, dissemination of best-bet crop management packages, rehabilitation and protection of natural resources, and post-harvest management."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"The project focus is on three crop enterprises -maize, rice, and vegetables -with post-harvest handling and nutrition as a cross-cutting theme. The key partners in the project include international agricultural research centers (IITA, CIMMYT, CIAT, ICRAF, the World Vegetable Center -AVRDC),, and one USAID-funded project, NAFAKA. These work in partnership with national institutions (research and universities) as well as local government authorities, the private sector (seed companies, millers, and processors) and NGOs to deliver on the following objectives:"},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"1. Introduce and promote improved and resilient varieties of food crops to farm households in a manner that complements their ongoing farm enterprises, contributes to sustainable agricultural resource management, and offers nutritional advantages and alternative market channels; 2. Disseminate best-bet agronomic management packages around the most promising new crop varieties suited to widely representative agro-ecological zones and market proximity; 3. Protect land and water resources and foster agricultural biodiversity through the introduction of soil and water management practices; 4. Increase food security and improve household nutrition among the most vulnerable households and their members, especially women and children, by introducing locally adapted and nutrient-rich vegetables; 5. Introduce and promote postharvest management technologies for maize, rice, legumes, and selected vegetable crops to reduce losses and bring quality up to market standards; 6. Offer and expand capacity services to members of grassroots farmers' associations, platform partners, and development institutions in the scaling process (capacity building), paying particular attention to the special opportunities available to women farmers as technical and nutritional innovators and resource managers."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"3"}]},{"head":"Geographic Zones of Influence","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"During the 3-year project period, activities are being conducted in the Regions of Manyara, Dodoma, and Morogoro. In year 2, the project was extended to Iringa and Mbeya Regions. All five Regions are in the FtF's ZoI (Fig. 1)."}]},{"head":"Figure 1: Project locations","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"IMPLEMENTATION PROGRESS","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Project Management","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"A rice stakeholders' planning meeting took place on 21 January 2016 in Morogoro. The main purpose was to bring together the team responsible for the implementation of rice activities for the project for awareness creation and planning. The team is led by Agricultural Research Institute, Dakawa. Proceedings of the meeting are available at this link: http://africarising.wikispaces.com/Rice+team+stakeholders%27+planning+meeting%2C+Morogoro+-+Tanzania Plans for conducting the annual outcome survey have been finalized. A consultancy firm, spatialdev (http://www.spatialdev.com/) was engaged to develop an app that would be used to collect the survey data as well as process monitoring data that would be linked to the PMMT database (http://dev.harvestchoice.org/africarisingnafaka/)."}]},{"head":"Training of lead farmers and extension staff","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"In "}]},{"head":"Establishment of demonstration sites for various technologies","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Demonstration sites are a key tool for the project to facilitate learning and the adoption of proven technologies. Three teams (maize, rice, and vegetables) were involved in the establishment of the sites for the various technologies as shown in Table 1. At each of the demonstration sites, the project will engage with farmer learners during the crop growing season through a variety of activities (training, exchange visits) as well as field days in the course of the remaining two quarters. At the end of the planting season, feedback sessions will be held at each site to share yield results from scientists and extensionists and farmers' perspectives on the suitability of the technologies in the communities. This will form a basis for planning for project year 3. "}]},{"head":"Training activities for farmers and processors","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Although most of the current quarter was dominated by the establishment of demonstration sites, some farmer training took place. For the vegetables team, market access training was conducted in Endadosh village, Babati District, as a means of enhancing market access opportunities for farmers. The village was chosen because it is more disadvantaged than other project villages with regard to market access (poor road access) yet farmers are very committed, thus necessitating a way to link them to a reliable market with stable prices."},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"The training focused on group awareness and dynamics (importance of trust among group members, responsibilities of each member and reliability; transport costs and transport options; and importance of production plans and reliable supply). As a part of the training, meetings were held with potential buyers to discuss supply and quality requirements. The farmers' group selected two members (female and male) with whom the project team visited different buyers (hotels and restaurants) and wholesalers. Two restaurants and one hotel were interested in a daily supply of fresh vegetables and would offer a price that is in most cases twice as high as the farm-gate price. A daily supply of vegetables to all three buyers would allow the farmers' group to make a profit of at least TZS 400,000 per week [about US$200] (transport costs are deducted) compared with their current situation. Finally, production plans were developed which formed a basis for the establishment of nurseries and vegetable plots."},{"index":3,"size":251,"text":"For maize, a series of training activities took place at the different sites. In Mbozi District, 184 farmers (79M, 105F) were trained on the management of maize and legume enterprises using fertilizers and good agronomic practices. In Kongwa/Kiteto, 457 were trained (202M, 255F) whereas 1331 were trained in Kilosa and Kilolo (761M, 570F). In Babati District, training sessions take the form of training on crop and soil management as well as getting updates on crop performance after planting and discussing constraints, opportunities, drivers, and emerging insights from ongoing activities. In the current quarter, 111 farmers participated in the training sessions (76M, 35F). In Mvomero District, the rainy season just started recently, and no farmer training has taken place. The rice team also concentrated on the establishment of demonstration plots in the current quarter with training activities planned for the next quarter. For post-harvest activities, 12 maize processors (5F, 7M) from three project Districts (Mvomero, Kongwa, and Kiteto) who had not worked previously with the TUBOCHA project were trained on the fortification of maize flour (addition of iron, zinc, folic acid, and Vit. B12). The training focused on technical, nutritional, and economic aspects (marketing of fortified flour). The technical part covered how millers can follow good manufacturing practices by using locally available resources. On nutrition, the essentials of macro-and micronutrients and their impact on health were covered. The effects of micronutrient deficiency in children under five years of age and pregnant women were discussed, with the explanation that this is 'hidden hunger'."}]},{"head":"ACHIEVEMENTS AND RESULTS","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Maize","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"i. A total of 706 demonstration sites (84 'mother' and 622 'baby') were established in various locations to facilitate learning and adoption of new technologies in maize production. These have so far proved to be good sites for catalyzing learning. ii. Thirty-five (35) extension staff and 226 lead farmers were trained to ably facilitate training and learning by farmers. The training was done in collaboration with NAFAKA. Linkage was strengthened between NAFAKA/AFRICA RISING and Government extension officers and between farmers' groups and extension officers. The linkage is important for the sustainability of the project intervention. iii. 2,083 farmers were trained in agronomic practices (including fertilizer application) related to maize production. Anecdotal evidence (to be supported by success stories later) indicates that farmers are willing to use the new improved maize seeds, recommended fertilizer ratios, as well as other good agronomic practices such as rope planting and timely sowing instead of focusing on varieties alone. Farmers are actively mobilizing others in their community to embrace change."}]},{"head":"Rice i.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"A meeting was successfully held that brought together 27 participants from various public and private institutions in Tanzania. This marked a promising beginning for implementation of ricerelated activities led by a national institution. One key anticipated outcome of this arrangement is capacity building for various actors as a result of collaborative implementation. ii."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"25 demonstration sites were established (four focused on the management of salt-affected soils (SAS) and 21 on crop and fertilizer technologies)."}]},{"head":"Vegetables","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"i. Market access training sessions have been carried out in Endodosh village in the Babati District to link a smallholder farmers' group to regional buyers such as hotels and restaurants. Twentyone farmers were trained and production plans for three marketing groups were developed; 90 m 2 of nursery area were established. ii. The project team established eight new demonstration plots and nurseries in eight of the pilot villages located in Babati, Kiteto and Kongwa Districts. These demonstration plots will be managed by the local village extension officer and the farmers' group under supervision of the project team. Collaborating with the farmers in the demonstration plots aims at refreshing farmers' production skills and multiplying improved AVRDC varieties. iii. Contacts were established to two private sector companies who will support the project team in implementing and scaling out improved varieties (Meru Agro Tech) and small-scale technologies such as a small-scale screen house (A to Z Textile Mills Ltd)."}]},{"head":"Post-harvest","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"i."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Twelve processors were trained in the fortification of maize flour"}]},{"head":"PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"i."},{"index":2,"size":136,"text":"The unpredictable weather conditions have been a challenge for maize. In semiarid (Kongwa/Kiteto) and some humid (Kilosa) locations, maize was hit by the dry weather conditions. It is noteworthy, however, that most of the varieties promoted by the project are drought tolerant compared with local varieties and they survived the dry spell. In other locations (Mvomero), delays in the commencement of rains have affected implementation of activities, and some farmers who were used to the old rain calendar have experienced field crop losses. For rice, many of the areas in Iringa rural District were severely affected by floods rendering them inaccessible and unsuitable for crop production. In other situations, dry spells occurring just after planting in demonstrations that were established in the rain-fed areas have reduced seed germination and seedling emergence in many of the plots."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"ii. Poor seed germination: Due to poor storage and other problems yet to be established, some of the maize seeds did not germinate well and this affected farmers' plans. Teams of scientists were recently deployed to the fields to establish the cause of poor germination of the maize seeds and assure farmers that, in future, better measures would be put in place to proactively address the problem."},{"index":4,"size":126,"text":"iii. For vegetable activities, the demonstration plot in Misufini village in Kilombero District did not perform very well since it was located in the paddy fields and the neighboring farmers were flooding their fields to grow rice. Therefore, in particular, tomato and African eggplant did not perform as expected. The farmers have already selected a new site and asked AVRDC to continue with the training on a new demonstration plot starting from April 2016. Since the three Kilombero pilot villages are not far from the new six pilot villages located in the Iringa Region, the project team decided to continue with the training activities in the three pilot villages in Kilombero. Special focus will be on seed reproduction and tomato, African eggplant, and African nightshade production."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"6 PLANNED ACTIVITIES FOR QR3, Year 2 6.1 General i. Completing collection of monitoring data for all project output indicators from all project sites ii. Collecting outcome indicator data from all project sites iii. Holding a project review meeting iv. Planning for the annual review and planning meeting that will be held during the fourth quarter v. Collecting more data and developing recommendation domains for scaling."},{"index":6,"size":156,"text":"Specific activities for each team include the following: during the production process and first delivery of products to regional buyers iii. Establishing nine small-scale screen houses in nine pilot villages located in Babati, Kiteto, and Kongwa Districts to be tested by farmers to improve productivity 6.5 Post-harvest management and nutrition i. Formulating a scaling strategy for the technologies ii. Finalizing the training manual on maize and legumes for the post-harvest handling of crops iii. Establishing the extent of insecticide residues in marketed and consumed maize in the three Districts of Kilolo, Kilosa, and Mbozi The purpose is to identify locations where insecticides are used for maize storage and target those places for training on the use of hermetic storage technology. iv. Conducting nutritional training in Kilosa, Kiteto, Kilolo, Mvomero, Mbozi, and Kongwa Districts v. Monitoring the farmers who were trained on improved postharvest management using hermetic storage bags (PICS) storage for maize to assess their experiences"}]},{"head":"SPECIAL ISSUES","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Maize project activities in Kongwa District were visited by Mrs Lilian Matinga, the DIstrict Executive Secretary. She liked the drought tolerant maize varieties and use of tied ridges for soil and water management that seemed to make a big difference in terms of crop survival and potential yields."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Photo 5: The Kongwa District Executive Director, Mrs Lilian Matinga visiting the project activities in Sagara A village, Kongwa (Credit: Elirehema Swai/ARI Hombolo)"},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"In addition, as a means of exploring additional opportunities for scaling of promising innovations through private sector partnerships, the vegetables component of the project held meetings with A to Z Textile Mills Ltd, producers of agronets for screen houses. Discussions were held on development of a prototype for a small-scale screen house covering 60 m 2 , which will cost less than USD 200. These screen houses will be tested with our smallholder farmers' groups in nine pilot villages located in Babati, Kiteto, and Kongwa. The small-scale screen houses will be introduced to the villages for seedling production. The agronets will reduce insect infestation and therefore improve the quality of seedlings available for farmers in the pilot villages. A prototype is shown (Fig. 2). "}]},{"head":"CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gender integration","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"The project is working with men, women, and in groups. In some cases, women-only and youth groups are being supported. Participation of all these categories in project activities is encouraging. For vegetable activities, the participation of farmers in market access training in Endadosh indicated that more male farmers participated than female farmers (ratio: male/female 16/5). The reason for this observation lies in the nature of the activity. The main objective of the group activities is vegetable marketing, which is still a domain of men in most of the male-headed households. During meetings with potential buyers in Babati, it was suggested that two representatives, a male and a female, should be selected with additional attempts in subsequent project activities to enhance gender integration."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"For maize activities, in general, there is balanced participation of males and females with variations in locations. For rice activities, very few male and young farmers participated in Mbarali, Iringa rural and Mvomero Districts. One group of young farmers was involved in the implementation of demonstration plots in Kilombero District. Deliberate efforts will be made by project teams to ensure gender integration, focusing not only on participation but on other aspects also."}]},{"head":"Behavioral change communication","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"For maize activities, during meetings with farmers in this quarter, many new farmers have come forth asking to join the farmers' groups to participate in project activities. Similarly, during the field days conducted last year, it was observed that many farmers were ready to start using improved varieties and management practices as a result of the potential benefits expected from adoption. This has been confirmed in Babati. As an example, in Kongwa and Kiteto, more farmers (especially the rich who may not have time to join in smallholder farming groups because of many engagements outside the villages) have contacted the implementing team members asking for the seed varieties promoted by the project. The presence of NAFAKA-supported agro-dealer networks has helped to facilitate access to the seeds. So we are seeing that demos, farmer engagements in meetings and project activities as well as farmer field days are good and effective tools of communication that are delivering messages and creating the interest that leads to change in decision-making leading to behavioral change."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"For vegetable activities, the success stories developed this quarter are examples of the development currently experienced in the first nine pilot villages. Most beneficiaries trained by the project as well as the majority of farmers trained by our trainees are growing the varieties distributed to them only during the rainy season. We noticed that a few farmers have now already realized the positive impact of vegetable production on household livelihoods. Hence, some beneficiaries started to grow particular vegetables such as the tomato, African eggplant, and African nightshade varieties during the dry season and reported improved yields and longer harvest periods due to using the improved varieties from AVRDC promoted by the project. Future training activities in the pilot villages will aim at spreading this message to encourage more farmers to grow vegetables throughout the year."}]},{"head":"Environmental compliance and natural resource management","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"The project is holding consultations whether it is necessary to conduct a Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) since the project is operational in areas where our sister project NAFAKA is implementing activities and they have already processed one successfully. In maize based activities, GAPs are being promoted for the sustainable use of soil and water such as tied ridges in semiarid locations as well as legumes and judicious use of fertilizers. Using high yielding and more resistant crop varieties combined with improved production practices such as appropriate spacing to increase seedling and plant health, organic fertilizers, as well as other IPM practices may reduce the application of pesticides and chemical fertilizer and this would help to reduce environmental pollution."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"The rice component has focused efforts on the management of salt-affected soils as a key strategy for promoting proven innovations that will lead to their successful and sustainable use."}]},{"head":"Monitoring and evaluation","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"During the current quarter, no new data will be reported on both outputs and outcomes. All teams were overwhelmed by the amount of output (monitoring) data they had to collect amidst other timebound planting and training activities, and also the use of the standardized and approved data collection tools adapted from NAFAKA project. The collection of outcome data was also adjusted to the next quarter. It was reported that outcome data collection will start in the current (second) quarter."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Because of the overwhelming nature of the quarter's activities only data on output indicators have been reported. Also, a data collection application was developed for the project which will help in the timely electronic collection and delivery of data to the project database. This will help to avoid the delays and errors associated with use of paper forms for data collection "}]},{"head":"ANNEXES","index":23,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"CONTENTS 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................ 2 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................. 2.1 Project description ....................................................................................................................................... 2.2 Geographic Zones of Influence ................................................................................................................. 3 IMPLEMENTATION PROGRESS ............................................................................................................... 3.1 Project Management .................................................................................................................................... 3.2 Training of lead farmers and extension staff .......................................................................................... 3.3 Establishment of demonstration sites for various technologies ........................................................ 3.4 Training activities for farmers and processors ...................................................................................... 4 ACHIEVEMENTS AND RESULTS............................................................................................................. 5 PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES .............................................................................................................. 6 PLANNED ACTIVITIES FOR QR3, Year 2 ......................................................................................... 6.1 General ......................................................................................................................................................... 6.2 Maize team ................................................................................................................................................... 6.3 Rice team ...................................................................................................................................................... 6.4 Vegetables team .......................................................................................................................................... 6.5 Post-harvest management and nutrition ............................................................................................... 7 SPECIAL ISSUES .............................................................................................................................................. 8 CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES ......................................................................................................................... 8.1 Gender integration ..................................................................................................................................... 8.2 Behavioral change communication ......................................................................................................... 8.3. Environmental compliance and natural resource management ...................................................... 8.4. Monitoring and evaluation ....................................................................................................................... 9 ANNEXES ............................................................................................................................................................ Annex 1: Performance against PMP indicators ........................................................................................... Annex 2: Success stories ................................................................................................................................. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Prototype of screen house developed by 'A to Z Textiles' ............................................... "},{"text":" Photo 1: Lead farmers and extension staff in Mvomero district during one of the training sessions (Credit: Japhet Masigo/NAFAKA) "},{"text":"Photo 2 : Photo 2: Farmers in Idodi village, Iringa rural district, involved in direct seeding of rice (Credit: Charles Chuwa/ARI Chollima-Dakawa) "},{"text":"Photo 3 : Photo 3: Training farmers on application of fertilizers in Ngipa Village, Kiteto District (Credit: Elirehema Swai/ARI Hombolo) "},{"text":"6. 2 Maize team i. Planting the demonstration plots and conducting farmer training for Mvomero DIstrict (Morogoro Region) which experienced delays in rains ii. Conducting field days iii. Harvesting the crops and processing the yield data iv. Finalizing the writing of extension materials v. Monitoring of progress/advisory visits 6.3 Rice team i. Finalizing development of training materials ii. Training lead farmers and local extension staff iii. Training farmers iv. Conducting monitoring/advisory visits 6.4 Vegetables team i. Establishing demonstration sites in Kilolo and Iringa Districts, as well as raising awareness among stakeholders and training farmers ii. Continuing the market access training in Endadosh village (Babati District) and supporting farmers "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Prototype of screen house developed by 'A to Z Textiles' "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Nature of demonstration sites established by the project ......................................................  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Nature of demonstration sites established by the project Enterprise District (sites) Number Number of Crop varieties Other technologies EnterpriseDistrict (sites) NumberNumber ofCrop varietiesOther technologies   of mother baby    of motherbaby   demos demos    demosdemos Maize Babati (6) 9 118 MERU HB 515, (DAP, Urea, YaraMila MaizeBabati (6)9118MERU HB 515,(DAP, Urea, YaraMila     MERUHB 513, MAMS cereal, CAN, Minjingu MERUHB 513, MAMScereal, CAN, Minjingu     H913, AMINATA H 105, AMINATA H104, SeedCo 627 Mazao, Minjingu top dressing); legumes (pigeon peas and beans); and Good H913, AMINATA H 105, AMINATA H104, SeedCo 627Mazao, Minjingu top dressing); legumes (pigeon peas and beans); and Good       Agronomic Practices Agronomic Practices       (GAPs) (GAPs)  Kilolo (5) 14 - H 625, KIMKOKA, Fertilizers (DAP, Kilolo (5)14-H 625, KIMKOKA,Fertilizers(DAP,     H628, H614, PAN Urea, Yara Mila cereal, H628, H614, PANUrea, Yara Mila cereal,     691 and UH6303 CAN, Minjingu Mazao, 691 and UH6303CAN, Minjingu Mazao,       Minjingu top dressing); Minjingu top dressing);       legumes (soybean legumes(soybean       Uyole3) and GAPs Uyole3) and GAPs  Kilosa (5) 6 - NATA 104, NATA Fertilizers: DAP, Urea, Kilosa (5)6-NATA 104, NATAFertilizers: DAP, Urea,     105, NATA K6Q Yara Milla Cereal, 105, NATA K6QYara Milla Cereal,     TAN600, SITUKA Minjingu Mazao; TAN600, SITUKAMinjinguMazao;       legumes (cowpea - legumes (cowpea -       Vuli 2) and GAPs Vuli 2) and GAPs  Kongwa/Kiteto 13 184 NATA K6Q; NATA Fertilizers: NAFAKA Kongwa/Kiteto13184NATA K6Q; NATAFertilizers: NAFAKA  (12)   H1O4; NATA H1O5; Plus, tied ridges, GAPs (12)H1O4; NATA H1O5;Plus, tied ridges, GAPs     MERU 513; MERU  MERU 513; MERU     515 and DK 9089  515 and DK 9089  Mbozi 16 - UH6303, UH615, Fertilizers (DAP, Mbozi16-UH6303,UH615,Fertilizers(DAP,     MERU 513, SC 719, Urea, Yara Mila MERU 513, SC 719,Urea,YaraMila     PAN 691 and H614 Cereal, Amidas, PAN 691 and H614Cereal,Amidas,     D  Sulfan, Gypsum; DSulfan,Gypsum;       Legumes (groundnut - Legumes (groundnut -       Pendo, Nyekundu; Pendo,Nyekundu;       beans -Uyole Njano, beans -Uyole Njano,       Mwaspenjele, Mwaspenjele,       Kablanket; soybean Kablanket; soybean  Mvomero 26 320 DK 8031, SC 513, Fertilizers (DAP, Urea Mvomero26320DK 8031, SC 513,Fertilizers (DAP, Urea     TZH 538 and DH 04 and Yara Mila TZH 538 and DH 04andYaraMila       cereal); legumes cereal);legumes       (beans -Lyamungo (beans -Lyamungo       and Uyole Njano) and and Uyole Njano) and  "},{"text":"Annex 1 : Performance against PMP indicatorsNote: Figures reflect cumulative achievements as at the end of the first quarter. No new data are reported for the current quarter pending finalization of collection and submission of data by the project teams using standardized formats. Indicator   FY FY % FY % % IndicatorFYFY%FY%%    Target Achievement Achievement Female Male TargetAchievementAchievementFemaleMale 1. Number of farmers and others who have 13,120    1. Number of farmers and others who have13,120 applied new technologies or management     applied new technologies or management practices as a result of USG assistance     practices as a result of USG assistance 2. Number of hectares under improved 9,400    2. Number of hectares under improved9,400 technologies or management practices as     technologies or management practices as a result of USG assistance     a result of USG assistance 3. Number of individuals who have received 10,925 1,813 16.6  39.6 60.4 3. Number of individuals who have received10,925 1,81316.639.660.4 USG supported short-term agricultural     USG supported short-term agricultural sector productivity or food security     sector productivity or food security training       training 4. Number of food security private 122 73 59.8  4. Number of food security private1227359.8 enterprises (for profit), producers'     enterprises (for profit), producers' organizations, water users' associations,     organizations, water users' associations, women's groups, trade and business     women's groups, trade and business associations, and community-based     associations,andcommunity-based organizations (CBOs) receiving USG     organizations (CBOs) receiving USG assistance       assistance 5. Number of rural households benefiting 7,200 2,213 30.7  44.9 55.1 5. Number of rural households benefiting7,2002,21330.744.955.1 directly from USG interventions     directly from USG interventions 6. Number of beneficiaries with home 200 1,105 741.6  44.2 55.8 6. Number of beneficiaries with home2001,105741.644.255.8 gardens or alternate crops as a proxy for     gardens or alternate crops as a proxy for access to nutritious foods and income     access to nutritious foods and income  "}],"sieverID":"d17bb4ec-9995-4f61-ae14-8a17ede38cb6","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0258be5630ba55ff8e67a6dd17f2d928","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4e657a28-5d00-4241-82e7-c7ab88a028e2/retrieve"},"pageCount":14,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"List of Acronyms","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"EXECUTIVE SUMMARY","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"During the reporting period, partners participated in the project inception workshop after which they developed activity schedules at the thematic level with identified milestones and budget allocations. Some of the thematic teams developed protocols for implementing the setting up of demonstration plots and their management, selected village and action sites, and initiated planting of the mother demonstration trials. This was after trainings had been conducted for extension partners who would supervise the targeted 25 demonstration sites (households) per District. The process of recruiting a Technology Scaling Specialist was completed; Dr Haroon Sseguya will take up his position on 16 February 2015. The recruitment of a GIS Specialist is in progress. A Communication Specialist has been hired on a consultancy basis for 6 months. Major activities in the second quarter will include continued installation of the mother demonstration trials and trainings tailored to offer knowledge and skills to farmers; this will facilitate the cascade scaling."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Project Description","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Africa RISING partners have been involved in identifying and developing best performing interventions for improving agricultural production. These are being compiled into information and technology packages to be delivered through a network of NAFAKA, TUBOCHA, and other institutional grassroots organizations, creating an opportunity for mainstreaming into wider rural development programs."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Attractive interventions include the introduction of improved crop varieties; dissemination of best-bet crop management packages; rehabilitation and protection of natural resources; and improvements in food and nutrition security. The main project description has been further refined with activity specifications during the thematic work plan developments, briefly described below."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Under the rice production system, the technologies include the introduction of two improved varieties, appropriate small-scale agricultural equipment, good agricultural practices (row planting, land leveling, weeding), extension materials, and decision support tools for farmers."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"The vegetable component is introducing superior varieties of tomato (Solanum lycopersicon, Tengeru 2010), African eggplant (Solanum macrocarpon, Tengeru White) and amaranth (Amaranthus spp., Madiira 1) that have resulted elsewhere in increasing production by 9-40%, and contributed to increasing household consumption to about 200 g/person/day. Empowering smallholder farmers into the vegetable seed system is essential to enhance the availability of these superior varieties to wide communities. Training will be conducted to cover technical/agronomic aspects, as well as sessions on laws, regulations, and procedures for QDS in Tanzania, in collaboration with the Agricultural Seed Agency (ASA) and the Tanzania Official Seed Certification Agency (TOSCA). AVRDC will leverage its extensive network with seed companies in Tanzania to streamline seed and actual vegetable production in the target areas."},{"index":5,"size":120,"text":"Six maize varieties (TAN H600, SAH 636, NATA H105, NATA K6Q, MAMS H913, MERUHB 513), three common bean varieties (Jeska, Uyole Njano, SUA Njano), one soybean variety (Line 8) and two groundnut varieties (Pendo, Mnanje) will be promoted for mono-or intercrop systems. These are tolerant to many environmental stresses such as drought and low soil fertility, as well as many major common foliar plant diseases. Better agronomic practices and integrating in situ water harvesting techniques such as tied-ridges and ripping (where hard pans exist) will have a significant impact on achieving the potential yields of these new crops. Farmer-friendly seed systems will be developed in collaboration with seed companies SUBA AGRO, MAMS AGRICULTURE, AMINATA QUALITY Seeds, TANSEEDS and MERU AGRO."},{"index":6,"size":76,"text":"The postharvest and nutrition component will introduce food fortification in collaboration with TUBOCHA, improved grain storage facilities such as the SGB and PICS bags for hermetic storage to prevent losses from pest attacks, an innovative low-cost drying case to reduce spoilage of produce during storage including infestation with fungi causing mycotoxin, and community maize shellers to reduce drudgery, especially for women. All technology introductions will be complemented by the appropriate training of farmers in their use."},{"index":7,"size":67,"text":"Africa RISING partners will play a leading role in identifying, working with the local research and development institutions and building their capacity for synergies and institution strengthening, and will focus on engaging smallholder farming communities as a means of scaling the technologies. But we shall also engage local committees, District committees, and representatives from local communities to ensure that the project's outcomes and sustainability will be achieved."}]},{"head":"Goals and Objectives","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The objective of the project is to accelerate the process of scaling and delivery of agricultural technologies to improve smallholder maize-and rice-farming systems, household nutrition, and dietary practices in Tanzania's FtF zone of influence as a means of enhancing food, nutritional, and financial security among the least endowed smallholders (http://africarising.wikispaces.com/AR_NAFAKA_TUBOCHA_Project )."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"The goal is to (a) have at least 47,000 households with access to the technologies to diversify and increase their food supply and income sources, and improve the quality of degrading smallholder cropland, (b) expand the area under improved rice production technologies by at least 58,000 ha, and (c) increase yields of both maize and rice by 50% per unit area as a result of these technologies being adopted. These aims will be achieved by the joint implementation of scaling and lesson-learning events for the intensified production of maize, vegetables, and rice using improved varieties, and targeted production and product-loss reducing technologies that are underpinned by scientific evidence. Specific objectives are as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":172,"text":"1. Introduce and promote improved and resilient varieties of food crops to farm households in a manner that complements their on-going farm enterprises, contributes to sustainable agricultural resource management, and offers nutritional advantages and alternative market channels; 2. Disseminate best-bet agronomic management packages around the most promising new crop varieties suited to widely representative agro-ecological zones and market proximity; 3. Protect land and water resources and foster agricultural biodiversity through the introduction of soil and water management practices; 4. Increase food security and improve household nutrition among the most vulnerable households and their members, especially women and children, by introducing locally adapted and nutrientrich vegetables; 5. Introduce and promote postharvest management technologies for maize, rice, legumes, and selected vegetable crops to reduce losses and bring quality up to market standards; 6. Offer and expand capacity services to members of grassroots farmers' associations, platform partners and development institutions in the scaling process (capacity building), paying particular attention to the special opportunities available to women farmers as technical and nutritional innovators and resource managers."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Thematic activities have been formulated and will be implemented to address these objectives."}]},{"head":"Geographic Zones of Influence","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"During the 3-year project period, project activities will be conducted in the primary regions of Manyara, Dodoma, and Morogoro, with extension to Iringa and Mbeya planned in year 2, all in the FtF's ZOI (Fig. 1). "}]},{"head":"IMPLEMENTATION PROGRESS","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Management Team Meeting","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The inaugural meeting of the Project Management Team (PMT) was held on 29 October 2014 in Dar es Salaam. The minutes of the meeting may be accessed at http://africa-rising.wikispaces.com/file/view/AR-NAFAKA-TUBOCHA-InauguralMeetingMinutes.pdf/532810672/AR-NAFAKA-TUBOCHA-Inaugural Meeting Minutes.pdf . The PMT discussed and agreed its ToRs and thereafter deliberated on issues relating to partners' commitment and responsibilities, data management, and communications. The proceedings were reported to the Stakeholders' Meeting."}]},{"head":"Stakeholders Meeting","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"On 30-31 October 2014, an inception workshop was held in Dar-es-Salam, Tanzania, attended by 32 participants (http://africa-rising.wikispaces.com/AR_NAFAKA_TUBOCHA_Project). There were plenary reflections on the project proposal mainly confirming action Districts and targeted technologies, agreeing on institutional approaches for activity implementation, and identification of \"monitoring\" indicators. Thematic team discussions developed activity plans, schedules, and milestones. The minutes will be uploaded on the http://africa-rising.wikispaces.com/AR_NAFAKA_TUBOCHA_Project when ready."}]},{"head":"Site Selection","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"The action Districts agreed during the inception workshop are given in Table 1. The Maize Systems Team has already selected villages; those in which they have initiated activities during QR01 are given in Table 1. The activities of this team are very much more sensitive to the rainfall patterns than those of other teams and quick action was required. Other teams are in the process of identifying action villages, aiming at activity co-location where it is feasible. The process of site selection and demonstration implementation is guided by protocols developed by each team. "}]},{"head":"ACHIEVEMENTS AND RESULTS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"It is too early to provide any meaningful results. However, the following have been achieved:  The Management Team was constituted and its ToRs identified  Integrated Thematic Scaling Teams were identified, each with a lead institution  Thematic work plans (activity schedules) and budgets were completed. These formed the basis for developing contracts with IITA and the disbursement of funds to partners  Development of protocols for setting up technology demonstrations was initiated and is ongoing  NAFAKA agronomists have been trained on the implementation of demonstration trials and the protocols to be used for setting up demonstration plots  Selection of action villages and sites was initiated and is ongoing  Implementation of mother-demonstrations by the Maize Group has been initiated and is in progress in 15 villages, 5 each from Kongwa, Kiteto, and Mvomero  The Vegetable Group has identified three villages in Babati (Endadosh Maweni, Sangara, and Qash) and three in Kiteto (Kaloleni, Kibaya, and Sunya), all with access to irrigation water for off-season vegetable production  The process of recruiting staff to implement the project activities was initiated"}]},{"head":"PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Some problems and challenges were encountered, especially during meetings at District level and site visits."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":" The first quarter was quite time-restrictive in terms of meeting the necessary institutional requirements and logistical preparations for technology delivery with a fast approaching rainy season.  The condition of rural infrastructure, especially roads, is challenging. This hampered the teams' visits to some villages and farm locations, especially because these took place during the rainy season.  Although several farmers' groups were identified, their relatively poor group governance and dependency on donor funds may mount a challenge during the execution of the project.  The slow rate of responses of some partners is a challenge for the effective management of the project."}]},{"head":"PLANNED ACTIVITIES FOR QUARTER 2","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":119,"text":"6.1 Rice Systems Team  Develop a protocol on the development of an electronic decision support tool for weed management in rice and decide how best we can link it to RiceAdvice (an already existing decision support tool on fertilizer management in rice).  Import motorized lowland rice weeders from India and Japan and develop a protocol on the development of a locally fabricated motorized weeder.  Put in place a rice nursery in Kilombero and Dakawa (near Morogoro) to establish a test-field where we will invite farmers to select the best type of weeder and to provide us with feedback.  Establish farmers' groups (10 groups each of 5 farmers), select test-fields. and start rice sowing in Kyela."}]},{"head":"Vegetables Team","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":" Site selection in the Kongwa District will be finalized by 10 January 2015.  A training curriculum, together with a training manual, will be developed.  At each site, awareness on vegetable production, consumption, and marketing will be created."},{"index":2,"size":159,"text":"Both the importance of vegetables for the security of household nutrition as well as vegetable farming as a business for income generation will be stressed.  One modality to create awareness will be through \"rallies\": these are quick \"in-and-out\" promotional events in villages whereby households are provided with concrete information, partly through leaflet distribution. Leaflets will be prepared in local languages that focus on vegetable production and consumption, and postharvest handling.  Training will be initiated on good group governance.  Vegetable seedling nurseries will be established and will go hand-in-hand with training on nursery management.  As one of the major activities, seeds for vegetable seed kits will be bulked at AVRDC, Arusha, Tanzania and a first set of seed kits will be distributed in the target areas.  Distribution of vegetable seed kits will go hand-in-hand with the establishment of demonstration plots which will be managed locally.  A detailed monitoring and evaluation plan will be devised."}]},{"head":"Maize Systems Team","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":" Planting in Kilosa and Mvomero Districts early February  Training of lead farmers scheduled for the last week of January 2015"}]},{"head":"Post harvest and Nutrition Team","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"To develop appropriate strategies to reduce food waste in NAFAKA and TUBOCHA project areas, the project team intends to have planning meetings with these partners to understand their project activities. The team will gather baseline information from the project locations to include crops produced by the farmers, the method of utilization, nutritional status of the vulnerable groups, postharvest management practices, level of crop wastage, status of processing and storage infrastructure, and other indices. In collaboration with TFNC, COUNSENUTH, and other partners, the team will establish pilot operations to introduce and promote improved grain storage techniques, foodto-food fortification and small-scale food drying and grain shelling technologies."}]},{"head":"SPECIAL ISSUES","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"No special arose during the reporting period."}]},{"head":"CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gender Integration","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"In all visited villages, the Vegetables Team observed promising leads to fully empower women in the vegetable value chain. In the Babati and Kiteto Districts, some villages have female vegetable farmers' groups. In the Qash and Kaloleni villages, for example, women vegetable growers' groups have expressed great interest and the team is planning to work with them during the establishment and management of the demonstration plots. In the Kiteto District, over 90% of vegetable growers in the Kaloleni village are women who are highly innovative, and have access to land and water for vegetable production along the river valleys. However, they lack training on GAP and business skills, areas which this project is aiming to address. In other villages, vegetable groups are a mix of both male and female farmers."}]},{"head":"Behavior Change Communication","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The Vegetables Team used direct communication (meetings and farmers' group discussions) during the process of site selection, together with key informants such as DAICOs, the District's SMSs, local extension agents, and leaders of vegetable farming groups. A project brief in Swahili was also provided to all key informants. During the execution of the project, training will be paramount and will use a combination of communication media to change behavior, such as training manuals, fact sheets, audiovisual tools (e.g., to demonstrate pests and diseases, and postharvest handling practices). On-farm practical demonstration plots will also help farmers to change their behavior. In future, all teams will be supported by a Communications Specialist who has been recruited on a short-term basis."}]},{"head":"Environmental Compliance and Natural Resource Management","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"GAP technologies will be promoted to ensure that soil and water are used sustainably (e.g., through the use of farmyard manure, organic mulch, and ridging for soil conservation). Different types of seed beds will be demonstrated according to local factors such as terrain, soil type, irrigation method, and season. In situ water conservation and harvesting will be emphasized, instead of the use of running water that may lead to soil erosion and the loss of nutrients. The problem of the indiscriminate use of chemicals will be approached by introducing IPM practices in addition to the introduction of varieties that are more resistant/tolerant to pests and diseases, thus reducing the need to apply pesticides. For example, the tomato variety Tengeru 2010 that is being introduced is blight resistant, and this reduces the need for frequent use of fungicides and conserves the environment."}]},{"head":"Monitoring and Evaluation","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"A monitoring and evaluation plan is being devised."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" List ...................................................................................................................................................................... ii List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................................................... iii List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................................................... iii 1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................... 2.0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................................... 2.1 Project Description................................................................................................................................................ 2.2 Goals and Objectives............................................................................................................................................. 2.3 Geographic Zones of Influence ........................................................................................................................... 3.0 IMPLEMENTATION PROGRESS ............................................................................................................................ 3.1 Management Team Meeting ................................................................................................................................. 3.2 Stakeholders Meeting ............................................................................................................................................ 3.3 Site Selection ........................................................................................................................................................... 4.0 ACHIEVEMENTS AND RESULTS .......................................................................................................................... 5.0 PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES ........................................................................................................................... 6.0 PLANNED ACTIVITIES FOR QUARTER 2 ......................................................................................................... 6.1 Rice Systems Team ................................................................................................................................................ 6.2 Vegetables Team .................................................................................................................................................... 6.3 Maize Systems Team.............................................................................................................................................. 6.4 Post harvest and Nutrition Team ....................................................................................................................... 7.0 SPECIAL ISSUES .......................................................................................................................................................... 8.0 CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES ....................................................................................................................................... 8.1 Gender Integration ................................................................................................................................................ 8.2 Behavior Change Communication ..................................................................................................................... 8.3 Environmental Compliance and Natural Resource Management ............................................................... 8.4 Monitoring and Evaluation .................................................................................................................................... 9.0 ANNEXES..................................................................................................................................................................... Annex 1: Performance against PMP indicators ...................................................................................................... Annex 2: Success stories submitted to USAID Mission during the quarter ................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Map of the derived agroecological zones of Tanzania showing the location of the project action regions. Source: Project document at: http://africa-rising.wikispaces.com/AR_NAFAKA_TUBOCHA_Project "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Action districts and villages identified by the Maize Systems team and in which implementation of activities was initiated during the first quarter of the project Region Districts Villages RegionDistrictsVillages Manyara Babati  ManyaraBabati  Kiteto Esuguta, Ngipa, Mbigiri, Kaloleni, Kiperesa KitetoEsuguta, Ngipa, Mbigiri, Kaloleni, Kiperesa Dodoma Kongwa Lengaji, Vihingo, Chang'ombe, Nduru-buni, Ndaribo DodomaKongwaLengaji, Vihingo, Chang'ombe, Nduru-buni, Ndaribo Morogoro Mvomero Lukenge, Msufini, Kigugu, Hembeti, Kwadoli MorogoroMvomeroLukenge, Msufini, Kigugu, Hembeti, Kwadoli  Kilosa  Kilosa  "}],"sieverID":"3f991423-a2c2-4b05-8b23-0a31900b4749","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0320a270085c30907830722a8e278e63","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d7442d80-d0c2-4b9d-b20b-4143c3274ce4/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Capacity Development Workshop on","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"LIST OF ACRONYMS","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Sri Lanka's susceptibility to a spectrum of natural hazards, the country faces an increasing risk of both flood and landslide disasters, particularly exacerbated during the monsoon seasons extending from May to September and October to January, depending on the specific regions. In elevating disaster management practices, a compelling imperative emerges to transition from conventional reactive measures to proactive approaches, effectively mitigating and minimizing the impact of natural disasters. This strategic shift is critical, enhancing the nation's resilience and responsiveness to the emerging challenges posed by natural disasters."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Anticipatory Action serves as a proactive approach aimed at mitigating the impact of future disasters or crises before their onset. This approach involves the identification of potential risks, monitoring, early warning, and implementing measures to reduce the vulnerability of communities. The key role of Anticipatory Action is to undertake preventive measures in advance, based on forecasted events or indicators, to reduce the severity of the impact and enhance the overall preparedness process."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"Establishing "}]},{"head":"WORKSHOP OBJECTIVES","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"The main objectives of the training program are to initiate a constructive dialogue on the establishment of the Anticipatory Action framework in Sri Lanka. Additionally, the program undertakes to effectively convey the concept of Anticipatory Action to individuals of stakeholder agencies."}]},{"head":"Specific objectives;","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"• To ensure a comprehensive understanding of the required support from stockholder agencies • To train to develop the Anticipatory Action protocols for relevant Divisional Secretariates Divisions (DSD) or Gramaniladari Divisions (DSD)."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Dates of workshop: 29th -30th November 2023"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Venue of workshop-Pegasus Hotel, Wattala"}]},{"head":"TRAINING PROCESS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"The training program was carefully developed adopting a module-based approach, which encompasses a diverse array of informative methods to ensure a comprehensive and interactive learning experience. This includes engaging presentations designed to convey key concepts, thought-provoking group exercises to facilitate the practical application of theoretical knowledge, dynamic group discussions promoting collaborative learning and idea exchange, and dedicated feedback sessions to provide participants with constructive insights and enhance the overall effectiveness of the training curriculum (Table 1). • Group work using selected thematic areas of the protocol. Participants will be askes to discuss readiness phase activities, prepositioning and early response phase activities • Groups will make a presentation • WVL AA team will provide comments using their project experience MEAL planning"},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"• Objectives of the MEAL plan World Vision Lanka has piloted this anticipatory action project in Sri Lanka during last 15 months targeting 20 estate divisions and landslide and flood hazards. Transformational Development, Advocacy and Humanitarian and Emergency Affairs are the main pillars of world vision. As a humanitarian agency which is worked and working almost all the districts during last 4 decades, believes capacity enhancement of the partners is a key for sustainability. This capacity development programme is structures based on the three building blocks which you will be learning during next sessions. I hope this will be an eye opener to streamline AA in our organizational and country level."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"While welcoming you all to this programme again I also wish to express thanks and gratitude to the Director General of Disaster Management Centre, and other heads of the organizations that you all are representing for allowing you all to attend this all important programme."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Opening Remarks by Dr. Dhanan Senathirajah (National Director, World Vision Lanka)"},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"During the oening remarks by Dr Dhanan Senathirajah highlighter that anticipatory action is a growing area of disaster management that relies on data analysis to predict where crises might strike and act ahead of time. Humanitarian Agencies across the world are playing a vanguard role in bringing this kind of early, protective interventions into the mainstream of humanitarian programming."},{"index":6,"size":191,"text":"I believe that anticipatory action is a kind of protective humanitarian programming that more and more agencies and governments around the world are now using to shield people from climate-and human-induced disasters. And that's with good reason: evidence continually shows that anticipatory action supports vulnerable people at a stage when receiving aid bears the biggest results: before a crisis has taken place. This means humanitarian interventions can become investments in resilience and progress rather than recovery. Therefore, I trust stakeholders who present here too take necessary proactive steps to mainstream anticipatory action into the country's disaster management paradigm, Anticipatory action acknowledges vulnerable people as leaders in development and agents of change in their own lives and communities. And by providing them the right kind of support at the right time. Since acting early to protect is often many times cheaper than responding and rebuilding, anticipatory action is not just the more dignified way of supporting communities, but I believe it's also often the smarter choice financially. And that's not a trivial point at a moment of unprecedented needs across the world, with aid budgets stretched to the extreme to meet them."},{"index":7,"size":71,"text":"Early Warning, Early Action and Early Finance are the pillars of the anticipatory action and I'm sure that training programme will enhance the knowledge to implement successful anticipatory action initiatives at your respective areas. The survey conducted by CERF, reveals that more than 70% of the vulnerable people prefer to get support before any disaster and they believe with those support they can reduce the impacts to their lives and livelihood."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"Opening and Opening Remarks Chathura Liynaarachchige (Director Preparedness, Disaster Management Centre)"},{"index":9,"size":62,"text":"In his opening remarks, Chathura Liynaarachchige, the Director of Preparedness at the Disaster Management Centre, provided valuable insights into Anticipatory Action. He emphasized the significance of Anticipatory Action as a novel approach for the DMC, underscoring its practicality. Additionally, he highlighted the importance of training in this area, recognizing it as a crucial aspect for the effective implementation of Anticipatory Action strategies. "}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION AND WAY FORWARD","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CLOSING REMARKS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"In his closing remarks, Dr. Niranga Alahacoon emphasized the essential role of advancing Anticipatory Action (AA) as a strategic approach to national disaster reduction. Emphasizing the timeliness of AA, he stressed the importance of integrating previous financial approaches and agreements into its framework. Mr. Chathura Liynaarachchige highlighted the necessity of aligning these strategies with the mandates of disaster management institutes during his closing remarks. Furthermore, emphasize the proactive nature of AA and its potential to elevate the overall disaster preparedness and response framework. Additionally, Mr. Chathura Liynaarachchige emphasized the need for more training and implementation approaches in the future to drive the AA initiative forward. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" of the group activity by group mebers "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" To enhance disaster management strategies in Sri Lanka, crucial change from reactive to proactive approach is important. Anticipatory Action, a proactive approach, involves early risk identification, monitoring, and preparedness measures. Establishing an Anticipatory Action framework requires collaboration and awareness among relevant agencies. A comprehensive two-day residence training program, designed by World Vision Lanka (WVL) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), aimed to equip government agencies with skills to develop Anticipatory Action protocols. The program covered key modules, including the concept of Anticipatory Action, components involving knowledge products and tools, distinctions from traditional response mechanisms, viability assessment, early warning practices, and the development of Anticipatory Action protocols and triggers. Special emphasis was placed on financial integration, MEAL planning, simulations, and addressing operational challenges. SUMMARY  SUMMARY AA Anticipatory Action AAAnticipatory Action AWARE Early Warning, Early Action and Early Finance AWAREEarly Warning, Early Action and Early Finance DRM Disaster Risk Management DRMDisaster Risk Management DOM Department of Meteorology DOMDepartment of Meteorology DMC Disaster Management Center DMCDisaster Management Center DRF Disaster Risk Finance DRFDisaster Risk Finance DEM Disaster Emergency Management DEMDisaster Emergency Management EW Early Warning EWEarly Warning ID Irrigation Department IDIrrigation Department NBRO National Building Research Organization NBRONational Building Research Organization NDRSC National Disaster Relief Services Centre NDRSCNational Disaster Relief Services Centre  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Outline of training modules Session outline Session outline  "},{"text":"Building Block 01-Risk information, forecasting and early warning systems    • Elements in Anticipatory Action • DRF instruments include AA and link to AA • Elements in Anticipatory Action • DRF instruments include AA and link to AA   • Risk Assessment and Trigger Mechanism triggers/protocols • Risk Assessment and Trigger Mechanism triggers/protocols Day 4 -  • Early Warning Systems Day 4 -• Early Warning Systems   • Early Action • Early Action   • Community Engagement and Awareness • Community Engagement and Awareness   • Governance and Coordination • Governance and Coordination   • Monitoring and Evaluation • Monitoring and Evaluation   • Financial Mechanism (Early Finance) • Financial Mechanism (Early Finance)   • Benefits of AA • Benefits of AA Feasibility for Anticipatory Action - • Broader criteria that can be used for studying the Feasibility for Anticipatory Action -• Broader criteria that can be used for studying the   feasibility of AA feasibility of AA   • Risk information generation • Risk information generation   • Data collection for vulnerability assessment • Data collection for vulnerability assessment   • Research covering Baseline data on AA parameters • Research covering Baseline data on AA parameters EW practice and impact-based • Current Multi-hazard EW dissemination mechanism in EW practice andimpact-based• Current Multi-hazard EW dissemination mechanism in forecasting for AA  SL forecasting for AASL   • Landslide thresholds established by NBRO • Landslide thresholds established by NBRO   • Analysis of attainment of thresholds in Nuwara Eliya • Analysis of attainment of thresholds in Nuwara Eliya   and Ambagamuwa DSDs. and Ambagamuwa DSDs.   • The concept of Impact based forecast and its • The concept of Impact based forecast and its   appropriateness from the user viewpoint appropriateness from the user viewpoint Day 1 -Building Block 02-Planning, operations and delivery Day 1 -Building Block 02-Planning, operations and delivery Developing Anticipatory Action • Concept of AA protocol Developing Anticipatory Action• Concept of AA protocol Protocol(early action protocol) • Components in AA protocol Protocol(early action protocol)• Components in AA protocol   • Key characteristics of anticipatory actions selected for • Key characteristics of anticipatory actions selected for   AA protocol design AA protocol design   • Various forms of possible pre-agreed actions • Various forms of possible pre-agreed actions   • Preparedness phase, pre-positioning and activation • Preparedness phase, pre-positioning and activation Developing AA trigger  • identifying the forecast-based impacts Developing AA trigger• identifying the forecast-based impacts   • Developing actions to reduce the forecast-based • Developing actions to reduce the forecast-based   impacts impacts   • Developing threshold based early action trigger as a • Developing threshold based early action trigger as a   component of AA protocols component of AA protocols   • trigger statement which provides conditions for • trigger statement which provides conditions for   implementation implementation   • EV dissemination mechanism and reaching out to the • EV dissemination mechanism and reaching out to the   beneficiary communities beneficiary communities Standard Operating Procedures (SoPs) • Concept of Standard operating procedures(SoP) Standard Operating Procedures (SoPs)• Concept of Standard operating procedures(SoP)   • SoP Objectives • SoP Objectives   • How to develop a SoP to suit the community needs • How to develop a SoP to suit the community needs Elements of AA with knowledge products and tools Day 2 -Building Block 03 -Pre arranged finance • Operationalizing SoPs • Natural Hazards in Sri Lanka • Reactive to Pro-Active in DEM Pre-aranged financing for anticipatory • Dedicated AA funds in DRM budgets and • Shift in disaster management strategies • Why anticipatory action atcion contingency plans Elements of AA with knowledge products and tools Day 2 -Building Block 03 -Pre arranged finance • Operationalizing SoPs • Natural Hazards in Sri Lanka • Reactive to Pro-Active in DEM Pre-aranged financing for anticipatory • Dedicated AA funds in DRM budgets and • Shift in disaster management strategies • Why anticipatory action atcion contingency plans  "},{"text":"Building Block 04 -Strategies for effective implementation of AA projects  AWARE Platform • Overview of AWARE Platform AWARE Platform• Overview of AWARE Platform  • Early Warning Capabilities • Early Warning Capabilities  • User Interface and Accessibility • User Interface and Accessibility  • Digitalization of AA protocols • Digitalization of AA protocols Exploring Key Thematic Areas in • Prioritized hazard and its historical impact Exploring Key Thematic Areas in• Prioritized hazard and its historical impact Anticipatory Action Implementation • Prioritized risks to be addressed by the Anticipatory Action Implementation• Prioritized risks to be addressed by the  anticipatory actions and their link to the hazard anticipatory actions and their link to the hazard  • Introduction to thematic areas • Introduction to thematic areas Effective Dissemination of Early • Introduction to Trigger(s) statement Effective Dissemination of Early• Introduction to Trigger(s) statement Warning and Establishment of Local- • local level EW system and dissemination Warning and Establishment of Local-• local level EW system and dissemination level Early Warning Systems mechanism level Early Warning Systemsmechanism Anticipatory Action Interventions across  Anticipatory Action Interventions across Readiness, Prepositioning, and Early  Readiness, Prepositioning, and Early Response Phases  Response Phases  "},{"text":"Welcom remarks by Jude Kuruvitaarachchi, (Manager HEA, World Vision Lanka)  TRAINING PROCEEDINGS  TRAINING PROCEEDINGS  • Strengths & weaknesses • Strengths & weaknesses  • M&E framework • M&E framework  • Indicators • Indicators  • Performance Tracking and reporting • Performance Tracking and reporting  • Data quality assurance mechanisms • Data quality assurance mechanisms  • Opportunities for learning • Opportunities for learning Conducting simulations, training & • Methodology used in conducting field simulations. Conducting simulations, training &• Methodology used in conducting field simulations. awareness creation • Community-level training and awareness creation awareness creation• Community-level training and awareness creation  in AA target communities. in AA target communities. Discussion on operational challenges • Group work on possible contributions during the Discussion on operational challenges• Group work on possible contributions during the and possible solutions preparedness phase and protocol activation and and possible solutionspreparedness phase and protocol activation and  operational challenges operational challenges  • A discussion around • A discussion around  • EW and dissemination • EW and dissemination  • Preparedness for response and pre-positioning of • Preparedness for response and pre-positioning of  material material  • Resource inputs for response, coordination & • Resource inputs for response, coordination &  administration administration  "},{"text":" Upon the conclusion of the training program, a vibrant and constructive discussion expanded, involving all participants. This session was thoroughly designed to capture valuable feedback, touching upon various crucial aspects related to Anticipatory Action as follows: • Usefulness and Applicability of Anticipatory Action •Usefulness and Applicability of Anticipatory Action • Institutional Responsibility for the Implementation of Anticipatory Action Plans •Institutional Responsibility for the Implementation of Anticipatory Action Plans • The Process to Develop the National Framework for Anticipatory Action •The Process to Develop the National Framework for Anticipatory Action • Arrangements with the Government for Early Finance •Arrangements with the Government for Early Finance  "}],"sieverID":"308c6f94-4491-4aeb-ba75-4929703e257d","abstract":"This work was carried out with support from the CGIAR Initiative on Climate Resilience, ClimBeR. We would like to thank all funders who supported this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"034751462c85343228ab637ca051a2cd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/5271/27609418cf0d094482ed5c44672fd1a0.pdf"},"pageCount":8,"title":"Antibiotics usage practices in aquaculture in Bangladesh and their associated factors","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"Aquaculture: the farming of aquatic organisms is growing rapidly worldwide [1,2]. It is one of the fastest-growing food-producing sectors contributing in a significant way to food security by filling the supply and demand gaps for nutritious protein [3][4][5]. With intensification of aquaculture comes a number of issues such as overstocking, physical stress and poor water quality. Freshwater carp, tilapia and shrimp aquaculture are the major contributors to the inland and coastal aquaculture [6]. Cultured fish are constantly exposed to their aquatic environment with microorganisms, some of which can lead to diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites etc. Infectious diseases are considered to be one the leading obstacle causing significant morbidity, mortality, and production losses [7], limiting the growth of the sector. Half of the production losses in aquaculture are attributed to diseases with more pronounced impacts in developing countries [8]. Estimated economic losses due to diseases have been valued over 6 billion US dollars per annum [8]. The economic losses in finfish aquaculture alone is estimated between 1.05 and 9.58 billion US dollars per annum [9]. The most common infectious diseases affecting aquatic animals during aquaculture production generally are caused by bacteria (54.9%), then viruses (22.6%), parasites (19.4%) and fungi (3.1%) [10,11]."},{"index":2,"size":239,"text":"Many antibiotics such as oxytetracycline, amoxycillin, and sulphadiazine-trimethoprim are frequently used in aquaculture to treat or prevent fish diseases [7]. Despite advances in diagnostic methods to identify infectious agents for adequate treatments, a lack of diagnostic capacity, particularly in low-and middle-income countries, hampers small-scale farmers from detecting diseases quickly and correctly, which may lead to antibiotic use or misuse [12]. Irrational and unrestricted use of antibiotics in aquaculture may contribute to antimicrobial resistance (AMR) emergence, which may pose a severe threat to human and animal health worldwide [2,13]. Prophylactic antibiotic use to prevent diseases during aquaculture production is on an increasing trend [2]. Intensive aquaculture, poor farming practice, insufficient hygiene, and a contaminated environment increase the risk of infection in fishes and antibiotic use [2]. Antibiotics are administered to fish either through their food, in baths, or by injections [13,14]. Antibiotics residues accumulate in fishes and their aquatic environments. If farmers after using antibiotics do not observe proper withdrawal periods before harvesting fish destined for sales, there is a risk that antibiotic residues may affect the health of consumers [15,16]. There are evidences that antibiotic resistance bacteria can transmit between the environments of aquatic and terrestrial animals [17,18]. Human, agricultural, and industrial wastewater can cycle back to the aquatic and terrestrial environments in developing countries without adequate sewage treatment plants to remove contaminants and pathogens. This can adversely affect the organisms and the communities that depend on them [2,19,20]."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"Aquaculture is one of the largest agro-based industries in Bangladesh that has expanded significantly over the last decades. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Bangladesh is the 3rd largest inland fish producing country and 5th in all aquaculture production globally [21]. In 2019-20, the total fish production was >4.5 million metric tons [22]. The fishery resources are mainly categorized into two sectors; inland fisheries and marine fisheries [23]. Inland fisheries take place in various types of waterbodies such as pond, ditch, baor, pen/ cage and enclosure cultures (waterbodies surrounded by an embankment or a net structure), beel, river, estuary, lake, floodplain areas, and seasonal cultured waterbodies following different farming systems [16]. The area of inland fisheries in Bangladesh is estimated at around 0.837 million hectares [24]."},{"index":4,"size":73,"text":"It is not uncommon for farmers to use antibiotics during their aquaculture operations [25][26][27][28][29]. By law, the government of Bangladesh has banned antibiotics, growth hormones, and insecticides use in animal and fish feed [30]. There are limited reliable data on antibiotic usage at the national level for inland aquaculture but the Directorate General of Health Services, Bangladesh approved National Action Plan for Antimicrobial Resistance Containment (ARC) to guide national antibiotic stewardship efforts [31]."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"Monitoring of antibiotics use in aquaculture will help to understand the current antibiotic usage practices and its associated factors. This study aims to draw attention to the risks associated with irrational antibiotic use among fish farmers and policymakers. Moreover, it will help aquaculture authorities reduce antibiotic usage through targeted interventions."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study design","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"We conducted a large-scale cross-sectional study to collect antibiotic usage information from selected fish farms in Bangladesh. The study was completed from March to September 2021. Through consultations with fish feed dealers, 14 sub-districts with the highest number of fish farms were chosen (Fig. 1). Those were selected from six districts (Mymensingh, Cumilla, Bagerhat, Jashore, Khulna, and Satkhira). In each of these selected sub-districts, the field team enrolled 48 fish farms. In total 672 fish farmers were interviewed from those 14 sub-districts. Without a reliable initial list of fish farms, we used a snowball sampling approach to identify the targeted number of farms in each sub-district. Prior to the start of the survey, feed dealers operating in the selected sub-districts were asked to provide a list with the addresses of few prominent fish farms. After the first fish farm enrollment, the farmer was asked to share the address of the nearest fish farm, which was then recruited. This farm search procedure was repeated until reaching the targeted sample size. The sample size was calculated assuming an 18% expected prevalence of prophylactic antibiotic usage, with a 95% level of significance and 3% precision [26]. We included both freshwater and brackish water fish farms."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"A total of 14 fish feed dealers were interviewed, one from each of the 14 above-mentioned selected sub-districts. In each sub-district, a large feed dealer was selected purposively who sold a larger amount of fish Fig. 1. Map of the study sites for fish farms sampling. feed and medicine. Every selected feed dealer was visited once, preferably during the busiest hours, as farmers visited their shop. During those visits, enumerators recorded drug dispensing practices by observing interactions with five consecutive fish farmers. A total of 70 interactions with fish farmer clients (five farmers per feed dealer) were observed. Available antibiotic brands kept for sale in each feed dealer shop at the time of the visit were also recorded."}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"A cross-sectional structured questionnaire was used to collect data on fish farm demographics, antibiotic usage in the last 24 h, 72 h, and 14 days preceding the interview, and since the start of the production cycle. We also collected information on the purpose(s) of antibiotic usage, name of antibiotics used, pro-biotic usage, antibiotic prescribing practices by authorized practitioners. Farmers were also asked for any report of fish morbidity and mortality they experienced over the last 14 days, about their education level and duration of their fish farming experience and how familiar they were with the term \"AMR\". The questionnaire for fish feed dealers included antibiotic dispensing practices, name of the antibiotics they kept for sale, antibiotic prescribing practices by authorized practitioners, and their familiarity with the term \"AMR\". The field team obtained written informed consent from all selected fish farmers and animal feed dealers before they participated in the study."}]},{"head":"Statistical analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"We summarized the characteristics of fish farms, including aquaculture farming type, using descriptive analyses. The proportion of farmers using each antibiotic and its 95% confidence interval was estimated separately for 24 h, 72 h, and 14 days. To describe the association between categorical farm management or demographic or geographic variables and the use of antibiotics on fish farms, the odds ratio (OR) was calculated first using bivariable logistic regression analysis. Then, multivariable analyses were performed to estimate the adjusted odds ratio (aOR) using additional explanatory variables. Variables with a p value ≤0.2 at a likelihood ratio test were used to build a multivariable logistic regression model. We used a backward stepwise selection of variables with an inclusion threshold of 0.05. Hosmer-Lemeshow test was used to calculate model χ2 statistic and McFadden's pseudo-R 2 (the coefficient of determination) to explain variance and measure goodnessof-fit for the multivariate regression model. All statistical analyses were performed in Stata 13 software (StataCorp LP, College Station, TX)."}]},{"head":"Ethical approval","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The study protocol was reviewed and approved by icddr,b Research Review Committee, Ethical Review Committee and Animal Experimentation Ethics Committee (PR-20116)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Demographic characteristics of fish farms and farmers","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Among the 672 surveyed fish farms, 74% cultured fish in ponds and 99% of them practiced polyculture farming. The most cultured fish was rohu (96%), followed by catla (91%), grass carp (74%), and mrigal (71%) (Table 1). Rohu (Labeo rohita), catla (Catla catla), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon Idella), mrigal (Cirrhinus cirrhosis), tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and pangas (Pangasius pangasius) were mostly cultured in Mymensingh, Cumilla and Jashore. Most of the prawn and shrimp farms (99%) were located at Bagerhat, Khulna and Sathkhira. The average number of aquaculture units (e.g. pond) per farm was 3 (range: 1-28). The mean surface size of the aquaculture unit was 1.73 acres (range: 0.04-35 acres). Only three fish farms had air pump systems to supply oxygen. The majority of the fish farmers who participated in this study were male (98%, n = 657), and 46% (n = 307) of the farmers had secondary-level education. >60% of the farmers had >10 years of fish farming experience."}]},{"head":"Frequency and characteristics of antibiotic usage","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Out of 672 fish farmers interviewed, 3% (n = 22, 95% CI: 2-5%) reported using antibiotics within the last 24 h preceding our visit. The majority of the farmers (77%) administered antibiotics for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes. Fish farmers used diverse classes of antibiotics, including tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and aminoglycosides. The most commonly reported antibiotics were oxytetracycline, ciprofloxacin, and amoxicillin (Table 2). According to fish farmers' responses, antibiotics were mainly prescribed by feed dealers or drug sellers (54%), followed by local service providers (23%) and by the farmers themselves (23%) (Table 2). In the last 72 h preceding the interview, 36 farmers (5%, 95% CI: 4-7%) reported having used antibiotics. Antifungals (27%) and vitamins (22%) were identified as the most commonly used medicines (Tables 3)."},{"index":2,"size":335,"text":"The antibiotic usage in the last 14 days preceding the interview was 21% (n = 141, 95% CI: 18-24%). Use of antibiotics for prophylactic and therapeutic purposes was reported by 71% of the fish farmers (n = 478, 95% CI: 68-75%). Similarly to antibiotics used in the last 24 h, antibiotics used in the last 14 days were mostly prescribed by feed dealers or drug sellers (51%), followed by farmers themselves (31%) and local service providers (18%) (Table 4). Most of the antibiotic usages were reported in pangas fish farms (43%), followed by shingi (42%), pabda (40%), walking catfish (29%), tilapia (25%), mrigal (25%), grass carp (24%), silver carp (24%), common carp (22%), catla (22%), and rohu (21%) fish farms. 3.3. General practices with regards to antibiotics, disinfectants, medicines and chemicals usage >70% of the farmers reported using antibiotics in their fish production cycle. A few farmers (9%, n = 58) used antibiotics on the first day of the fish production cycle prophylactically. Most farmers (99%, n = 668) said not to use antibiotics on a regular basis, and 69% of them when their fish become sick. One-third (33%) of the farmers knew about the importance of antibiotics withdrawal periods before selling their animals for human consumption. Most farmers (n = 670) do not mix antibiotics in fish feed but administered them to fish through water. According to farmers' estimations, the mean cost of antibiotics per production cycle was USD 43 (standard deviation, SD ± 56) per acre. Most farmers (99%, n = 666) reported using disinfectants on a regular basis to reduce microbial contamination in water. The most commonly used disinfectants were lime, potassium permanganate, and bleaching powder (calcium oxychloride). Other commonly reported chemicals included zeolites, organophosphate insecticide, sodium percarbonate, and salt (sodium chloride). Zeolites are the aluminosilicate members of the family of microporous solids that are widely used in aquaculture to remove ammonia. Sodium percarbonate is used in water to quickly release available oxygen in the water, providing a suitable environment for fish."}]},{"head":"Health status of fish","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"On the day of the fish farm visits, 192 of the farmers (29%) reported having at least one sick and/or dead fish on their fish farm(s). According to the farmers' observations, 10 fish (range: 0-400) were apparently sick on average per farm in the last 14 days, whereas five fish (range: 0-200) were dead during the same period."}]},{"head":"Interaction between fish farmers and feed dealers","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"One-third of farmers (33%, n = 219) had interactions with feed dealers. Fish farmers received support from feed dealers mainly on feed supply (33% of farmers) and medicine supply (28% of farmers). According to farmers' reports, their fish production was less dependent on feed dealers' credits (1% of farmers) and fish seed supply (2% of farmers) (Table 5)."}]},{"head":"Antibiotics, vitamins, probiotics and growth promoters dispensed at feed dealers","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Total 14 feed dealers and 70 farmers who visited feed dealer were    interviewed. During visits to the shops of feed dealers, only vitamins (53%, n = 37) were most commonly dispensed to farmers, followed by antibiotics (14%, n = 10), probiotics (24%, n = 17), and growth promoters (17%, n = 12). Among the farmers purchasing antibiotics (n = 10), most were advised by feed dealers (80%, n = 8) and oxytetracycline was the main antibiotic dispensed (80%, n = 8). The field team recorded three to eight generic classes of antibiotics at feed dealer shops. Oxytetracycline, ciprofloxacin, amoxicillin, and sulfadiazine were the four most commonly found antibiotics. According to the self-reported data, 80% of feed dealers usually suggest 10-60% of farmers to buy antibiotics. Most feed dealers (86%, n = 12) said they knew about AMR."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Of the 70 farmers, 49% farmers (n = 34) knew about AMR and 73% farmers (n = 51) had no knowledge on antibiotic withdrawal periods. Many feed dealers (50%, n = 7) suspected that antibiotics are mixed in commercial fish feed by feed producers despite understanding that antibiotic use in commercial animal feed is banned by the Bangladesh government."}]},{"head":"Factors associated with antibiotic usage in fish farms in the last 14 days preceding the farm visits","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The bivariable regression analysis showed that farms located in Cumilla (OR 25.15, 95% CI: 13.95-45.34) and Mymensingh (OR 17.39, 95% CI: 9.84-30.73) were more likely to use antibiotics than those in Bagerhat (Table 6). Farmers that cultured fish in ponds (OR 20.22, 95% CI:5.68-72.01), had occurrence of illness in their fishes (OR 4.35, 95% CI: 2.19-8.63), with no prior exposure to aquaculture training(s) (OR 6.19, 95% CI: 1.21-31.45), with poor knowledge on antibiotics usage (OR 3.18, 95% CI:1.09-9.23) and shorter farming experiences (OR 2.84, 95% CI:1.25-6.48) were more likely to use antibiotics compared to farmers who had not these characteristics (Table 6)."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"The multivariable regression analysis suggested that farms that had fish experiencing signs of illness (aOR 1.98, 95% CI: 1.21-3.29) in the last 14 days prior of our visits and farms culturing fish in ponds (aOR 9.34, 95% CI: 3.69-23.62) were associated with higher odds of antibiotic usage. The odds were also higher for fish farms located in Cumilla (aOR 20.04, 95% CI: 8.69-46.18), Mymensingh (aOR 12.52, 95% CI: 5.11-30.66), and Jashore (aOR 11.21, 95% CI: 4.88-25.73) compared to farms in Bagerhat district. The final model (χ 2 1.95, p = 0.7447, and R 2 = 0.1083) seemed to fit the data well (Tables 6)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"This study surveyed a large number of inland freshwater and coastal brackish water fish farms from a wide range of geographical locations in Bangladesh. This study showed that antibiotic usage was not uncommon"}]},{"head":"Table 6","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Factors associated with antibiotic use within the 14 days preceding visits to selected fish farms (N = 672), during March to September 2021, Bangladesh."},{"index":2,"size":342,"text":"in inland aquaculture. The data on antibiotic usage data was collected over different timeframes, i.e. 24 h, 72 h, 14 days preceding our farm visits and over the entire production cycle. To the best of our knowledge, no previous published studies have reported antibiotic usage in aquaculture using similar time frames for Bangladesh. This approach was useful for estimating the frequency or prevalence of antibiotic usage at particular points in time during aquaculture production. This study identified 21% of fish farmers using antibiotics in the last 14 days preceding our farm visit, which was similar to another study (12-34%) conducted in 2008 in Bangladesh [32]. According to other study report, antibiotics usage was higher in koi (climbing perch) farm (15%), followed by pangas (12%), prawn (3%), and carp (3%) [25]. Antibiotic use in aquaculture reported by several studies from other countries was also found extensive. A review from Ronald et al. (2019) showed that 11 of the top 15 fish-producing countries used 67 antibiotic compounds, and 73% of them were oxytetracycline, sulphadiazine, and florfenicol. Among the 15 countries, antibiotics were mostly used in Vietnam (39 antibiotics), followed by China (33 antibiotics) and Bangladesh (21 antibiotics). Majority of these countries (73%) reported to use oxytetracycline, sulphadiazine and florfenicol in aquaculture [33]. A survey on antibiotic usage in freshwater aquaculture conducted in Vietnam revealed that 56% of the farmers are using antibiotic(s) at least once during their production cycle [34]. According to the previous studies reports from Bangladesh, shrimp hatcheries used comparatively more antibiotics than other types of fish farms, varying from 8 to 40% [29,35]. A study from Thailand reported that 74% shrimp hatcheries used antibiotics on a daily basis [36]. Data of antibiotic use in Bangladesh aquaculture collected from this work and from other studies in other countries raises some significant concerns that excessive and improper antibiotic use will accelerate the development of antibiotic resistant pathogens in the aquatic environment, farmed aquatic animals and the people that rely on them. This will lead to higher treatment costs, increased mortality, and reduced productivity."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"In the absence of effective regulations, there is a risk for large number of antibiotics including medically important antibiotics becoming available for purchase by fish farmers over the counter without a prescription. Our study identified a diverse class of antibiotics used in aquaculture, including tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and aminoglycosides, which was in accordance with previous reports in Bangladesh [25,27,29,35,37]."},{"index":4,"size":185,"text":"In Bangladesh, a total of 1338 drugs were licensed for veterinary use, out of which 818 (61%) were antimicrobials [37]. The total number of unique generic antimicrobials (antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, etc.) was 73 and 85% of them were antibiotics [37]. The most common antibiotic classes were fluoroquinolone, tetracycline, penicillin and sulfonamide [37]. Oxytetracycline, ciprofloxacin, amoxicillin, metronidazole, gentamycin, ceftriaxone, a combination drug containing sulphamethoxazole and trimethoprim, doxycycline, neomycin, a combination of benzyl penicillin and procaine penicillin were the top licensed antibiotics [37]. Directorate General of Drug Administration of Bangladesh banned colistin, fosfomycin and azithromycin for veterinary use [38]. Oxytetracycline, amoxicillin, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, erythromycin, sulfadiazine, and trimethoprim were the most commonly reported antibiotics in our study. In Thailand, norfloxacin, oxytetracycline, enrofloxacin, and different sulphonamides were commonly used in aquaculture [36]. In the United States of America (USA), only five drugs are legally approved for aquaculture by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Among these five drugs, three are antibiotics (oxytetracycline HCL, sulfamerazine, and one combination of sulfadimethoxine and ormetoprim) [39]. The United Kingdom approved oxytetracycline, oxolinic acid, amoxicillin, sarafloxacin, and cotrimazine (trimethoprim-sulphadiazine) for use in aquaculture [7]."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"Besides antibiotics, a wide range of natural and synthetic products, including lime, salt, potassium permanganate, pesticides, fertilizers, and probiotics are used to treat, prevent diseases and improve water quality [32,[40][41][42][43]. Our study found that lime, potassium permanganate, and bleaching powder (calcium oxychloride) were commonly used by fish farmers."},{"index":6,"size":123,"text":"The occurrence of disease outbreaks on fish farms is common in Bangladesh. In this study, a substantial number of farmers (29%, n = 192) reported having a history of fish morbidity and mortality on their farms. An earlier study from Bangladesh reported higher fish mortality in small farms (8.7%) compared to large farms (5.6%) with diseases mostly occurring during the winter months, as reported earlier [44]. The common diseases and clinical symptoms reported in Bangladesh aquaculture are white spot disease in shrimp caused by White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV), Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome (EUS) in fishes caused by Aphanomyces invadans, red spot disease or rectal/anal protrusion problem, tail and fin rot, Pop-eyes, fungal growth, nutritional diseases, Argulosis, Lernaeasis, saprolegniasis, streptococcosis, and gill rot [27,40,44]."},{"index":7,"size":132,"text":"Prophylactic and subtherapeutic level use of antibiotics in aquaculture may promote AMR emergence [2,7,45]. Antibiotics are typically used in water and non-metabolized residues and unused antibiotics might flow out to the surrounding environment [27]. In Thailand, the prophylactic use of antibiotics is a common practice by 86% of farmers with 14% of farmers using them on a daily basis [36]. In Vietnam, a study reported that 20% of the small-scale freshwater aquaculture farmers in the upper Mekong Delta, commonly used antibiotics as a prophylactic measure to prevent disease [34]. Our study found evidences of antibiotic use by fish farmers for both therapeutic and prophylactic purposes. Our results are in support with findings from a previous study that reported 12-31% of Bangladeshi fish hatcheries using antibiotics as a preventive measure against disease [35]."},{"index":8,"size":67,"text":"Based on our findings from farmers' reports, antibiotics usage was higher in freshwater fish farms compared to brackishwater fish farms. In their study in Bangladesh, Neela et al. (2012) reported that bacterial isolates (Bacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp., Staphylococcus spp., Acinetobacter spp., Brevibacillus spp., and Enterobacter spp.) from freshwater samples collected on shrimp farms showed more resistance against antibiotics than isolates recovered from shrimp brackish water samples [28]."},{"index":9,"size":230,"text":"Many factors can influence antibiotic usage in fish farming. Our study showed that fish morbidity and mortality, farming of fish in ponds and in freshwater systems, lack of farmers exposure to aquaculture training, poor farmers knowledge on the purposes of antibiotics, and shorter farming experiences were all associated with more antibiotic being used. Hassan et al. (2021) showed that the number of chemical and biological products used by farmers was found to be positively correlated with high stocking density of fishes [46]. In an assessment study looking at chemical and biological product uses in aquaculture in Bangladesh, Ali et al. (2016) found that lack of knowledge and awareness of farmers on the proper use of chemicals, was a key driver that led to indiscriminate use of chemicals with dosing and method of application, not being followed [25]. In a study conducted by Holmstrom et al. (2003) on shrimp farming in Thailand, 86% of farmers experienced disease outbreaks, many of whom knew very little or nothing about safe antibiotic practices, and 27% of farmers used antibiotics to treat or prevent viral diseases, such as white spot. [36]. Farmers in Vietnam with a higher education level were more likely to give a correct explanation of antibiotic use (OR 16.3, 95% CI: 1.5-180) [34]. >70% of those farmers heard about the risk of AMR, and 20% believed their farm had AMR pathogens [34]."},{"index":10,"size":243,"text":"In Bangladesh, veterinary drugs are widely available in animal feed dealers shops and veterinary pharmacies. Farmers can easily purchase antibiotics over-the-counter (OTC) without a prescription from a veterinarian but the Bangladesh national drug policy from 2016, clearly states that no drugs except the ones approved for sell OTC can be dispensed without a prescription from a registered physician and/or veterinarian [47,48]. However, our study revealed that majority of the uses of antibiotics reported by the farmers, were suggested either by the feed dealers or the drug sellers. Although most feed dealers had a basic understanding of the risk of antimicrobial resistance, they still recommend farmers to purchase antibiotics from their shops for business interest. This unauthorized practice may contribute to irrational, over and sub-optimal use of antibiotics in aquaculture. Currently, Bangladesh has no approved standard treatment guideline for fish to guide the rational use of antibiotics [48]. Mixing antibiotics in animal feed is prohibited by law in Bangladesh but in certain situations (e.g. disease outbreaks), the Drug administration of the Government of Bangladesh may approve some antibiotics for use to prepare medicated fish feed pellets with the provision of a veterinarian prescription indicating the nature of the bacterial infection, type of antibiotic to be used, instruction on the safe handling of the antibiotic with accurate dosage information for preparation and clear treatment duration, Indication of the withdrawal periods to be observed by farmers before selling their fish to consumers is also very important."},{"index":11,"size":102,"text":"This study has some limitations. We used purposive sampling instead of random sampling to select fish farms. Limited time and funding did not allow us to conduct a census of all fish farms in each selected upazila to support their random sampling. However, this may not have influenced the study findings as to the farm characteristics and reported antibiotics usage was consistent [32]. The information provided by fish farmers may have been affected by social desirability bias and recall bias for past occurrences (e.g., antibiotic usage in the previous week or month); this may have resulted in underestimating the usage of antibiotics."},{"index":12,"size":202,"text":"In conclusion, the study's findings provide evidence of antibiotic usage in aquaculture production. Unrestricted use of antibiotics for prophylactic purposes increases the risk of developing AMR in the aquatic environment. Good farming practices through improved farmlevel biosecurity, routine passive disease surveillance with better disease diagnostics by health professionals will be key to prevent and minimize introduction of pathogens and allow early pathogen identification to rule out bacterial infection as soon as the first unusual mortalities are observed. Enforcement by the national and local authorities to control and monitor antibiotic usage and sale along with education and training of drug sellers, feed dealers and farmers will increase awareness on the risks of AMU and AMR, and will contribute to reduce unnecessary use of antibiotics in aquaculture. Using antibiotics in aquaculture through water needs to be reevaluated carefully, considering that mixing antibiotics in water and spraying them throughout ponds is not a good practice as the antibiotic(s) are less effective because of dilution, leading to accumulation of antibiotic residues and contributing to AMR pool. The national AMR containment plan should have a clear direction or plan for reducing antibiotic use in aquaculture to protect the health of the aquatic environments/animals, aquaculture workers, and consumers."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 Demographic characteristics of fish farms (n = 672) investigated during March to September 2021 in Bangladesh. Characteristics Number of fish farms (%) 95% CI CharacteristicsNumber of fish farms (%)95% CI Areas, n (%) 192 (29) 25-32% Areas, n (%)192 (29)25-32% Mymensingh 96 (14) 12-17% Mymensingh96 (14)12-17% Cumilla 96 (14) 12-17% Cumilla96 (14)12-17% Bagerhat 96 (14) 12-17% Bagerhat96 (14)12-17% Jashore 96 (14) 12-17% Jashore96 (14)12-17% Khulna 96 (14) 12-17% Khulna96 (14)12-17% Satkhira 96 (14) 12-17% Satkhira96 (14)12-17% Types of water bodies   Types of water bodies Pond 495 (74) 70-77% Pond495 (74)70-77% Enclosure cultures 160 (24) 21-27% Enclosure cultures160 (24)21-27% Both 17 (3) 1-4% Both17 (3)1-4% Types of aquaculture   Types of aquaculture Monoculture (single species) 9 (1) 1-3% Monoculture (single species)9 (1)1-3% Polyculture (> single species) 663 (99) 97-99% Polyculture (> single species)663 (99)97-99% Types of fish species   Types of fish species Pangas 155 (23) 20-26% Pangas155 (23)20-26% Tilapia 465 (69) 66-73% Tilapia465 (69)66-73% Prawn 243 (36) 33-40% Prawn243 (36)33-40% Shrimp 200 (30) 26-33% Shrimp200 (30)26-33% Common carp 339 (50) 47-54% Common carp339 (50)47-54% Tyangra (tengra) 53 (8) 6-10% Tyangra (tengra)53 (8)6-10% Grass carp 494 (74) 70-77% Grass carp494 (74)70-77% Silver carp 551 (82) 79-85% Silver carp551 (82)79-85% Rohu 642 (96) 94-97% Rohu642 (96)94-97% Catla 610 (91) 88-93% Catla610 (91)88-93% Climbing perch 8 (1) 1-2% Climbing perch8 (1)1-2% Walking Catfish 55 (8) 6-11% Walking Catfish55 (8)6-11% Mrigal 477 (71) 67-74% Mrigal477 (71)67-74% Pabda 82 (12) 10-15% Pabda82 (12)10-15% Stinging catfish (shingi) 176 (26) 23-30% Stinging catfish (shingi)176 (26)23-30%  "},{"text":"Table 2 Farm-level antibiotic use within the 24 h preceding visits to selected fish farms (N = 672) in Bangladesh during March to September 2021. Variables Number of farms 95% CI VariablesNumber of farms95% CI  n (%)  n (%) Uses of at least one antibiotic 22 (3) 2-5% Uses of at least one antibiotic22 (3)2-5% Number of antibiotics N ¼ 22  Number of antibioticsN ¼ 22 Single antibiotic 13 (59) 36-79% Single antibiotic13 (59)36-79% Two antibiotics 9 (41) 21-64% Two antibiotics9 (41)21-64% Purposes of antibiotic use N ¼ 22  Purposes of antibiotic useN ¼ 22 Prophylaxis - - Prophylaxis-- Treatment 5 (23) 7-45% Treatment5 (23)7-45% Both 17 (77) 55-92% Both17 (77)55-92% Antibiotic suggested by N ¼ 22  Antibiotic suggested byN ¼ 22 local service providers 5 (23) 8-45% local service providers5 (23)8-45% Feed dealers or drug sellers 12 (54) 32-76% Feed dealers or drug sellers12 (54)32-76% Self-decision 5 (23) 8-45% Self-decision5 (23)8-45% Name of the antibiotic N ¼ 22  Name of the antibioticN ¼ 22 Oxytetracycline 14 (63) 41-83% Oxytetracycline14 (63)41-83% Amoxicillin 6 (27) 11-50% Amoxicillin6 (27)11-50% Ciprofloxacin 4 (18) 5-40% Ciprofloxacin4 (18)5-40% Levofloxacin 1 (5) 1-22% Levofloxacin1 (5)1-22% Erythromycin 1 (5) 1-22% Erythromycin1 (5)1-22% Sulfadiazine 1 (5) 1-22% Sulfadiazine1 (5)1-22% Trimethoprim 1 (5) 1-22% Trimethoprim1 (5)1-22%  "},{"text":"Table 3 Drugs, and associated products used within the 72 h preceding visits to selected fish farms (N = 672) in Bangladesh during March to September 2021. Product Yes No ProductYesNo  n (%) n (%) n (%)n (%) Vitamins 150 (22) 522 (78) Vitamins150 (22)522 (78) Minerals 37 (6) 635 (94) Minerals37 (6)635 (94) Antibiotics 36 (5) 636 (95) Antibiotics36 (5)636 (95) Antifungal 181 (27) 491 (73) Antifungal181 (27)491 (73) Antiprotozoal 16 (2) 656 (98) Antiprotozoal16 (2)656 (98) Growth promoters 13 (2) 659 (98) Growth promoters13 (2)659 (98) Probiotics 20 (3) 652 (97) Probiotics20 (3)652 (97)  "},{"text":"Table 4 Farm-level antibiotics used within the 14 days preceding visits to fish farms (N = 672) in Bangladesh, during March to September 2021. Variables Number of farms 95% CI VariablesNumber of farms95% CI  n (%)  n (%) Usage of at least one antibiotic 141 (21) 18-24% Usage of at least one antibiotic141 (21)18-24% Purposes of antibiotic use N ¼ 141  Purposes of antibiotic useN ¼ 141 Prophylaxis 8 (6) 2-11% Prophylaxis8 (6)2-11% Treatment 33 (23) 17-31% Treatment33 (23)17-31% Both 100 (71) 63-78% Both100 (71)63-78% Antibiotic suggested by N ¼ 141  Antibiotic suggested byN ¼ 141 local service providers 26 (18) 12-25% local service providers26 (18)12-25% Feed dealers or drug sellers 72 (51) 43-60% Feed dealers or drug sellers72 (51)43-60% Self-decision 43 (31) 23-38% Self-decision43 (31)23-38% Water types N ¼ 141  Water typesN ¼ 141 Brackish water 3 (2) 1-6% Brackish water3 (2)1-6% Fresh water 138 (98) 94-99% Fresh water138 (98)94-99% Both - - Both--  "},{"text":"Table 5 Nature of interaction between farmers, feed dealers and other associated partners (N = 672). Characteristics Number of fish farms CharacteristicsNumber of fish farms  (%) (%) Presence of interaction between fish farmers and feed 219 (33) Presence of interaction between fish farmers and feed219 (33) dealers  dealers Types of support provided by feed dealers  Types of support provided by feed dealers Feed supply to the fish farms 219 (33) Feed supply to the fish farms219 (33) Fish seedsupply to the fish farms 16 (2) Fish seedsupply to the fish farms16 (2) Medicine supply to the fish farms 185 (28) Medicine supply to the fish farms185 (28) Aquaculture depends on  Aquaculture depends on Credits from feed dealers 5 (1) Credits from feed dealers5 (1) Credits from large fish farms 12 (2) Credits from large fish farms12 (2) Credits from hatcheries 5 (1) Credits from hatcheries5 (1) Agreements between farmers and feed dealers 184 (27) Agreements between farmers and feed dealers184 (27) Agreements between farmers and large fish farms 7 (1) Agreements between farmers and large fish farms7 (1) Agreements between farmer and hatcheries 5 (1) Agreements between farmer and hatcheries5 (1) No dependency (no financial agreements) 477 (71) No dependency (no financial agreements)477 (71)  "}],"sieverID":"3049d6bf-ea07-4107-b9d6-a95759b8429d","abstract":"Background: Irrational and inappropriate use of antibiotics in aquaculture can contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance. Objectives: In this study, we aimed to assess antibiotic usage in inland and coastal fish farms in Bangladesh and identify factors associated with this practice. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study to collect antibiotic usage information from 672 fish farmers in Bangladesh. The frequency of use, the types of antibiotics, the purpose of usage, and antibiotic prescribing practices were estimated. Adjusted odds ratios (aOR) were calculated to measure the association between antibiotic usage and factors related to the characteristics of the farms and farmers using multivariable logistic regression models. Results: Twenty-two farms reported using antibiotics in the last 24 h preceding the interview (3%, 95% CI: 2-5%); 36 farms (5%, 95% CI: 4-7%) in the last 72 h, 141 farms (21%, 95% CI: 18-24%) in the last 14 days, and 478 farms (71%, 68-75%) reported antibiotic usage at least once since the start of their production cycle. Antibiotics usage in the last 14 days preceding the interviews was higher in freshwater fish farms (98%) than in brackish water farms (2%). Oxytetracycline, ciprofloxacin, and amoxicillin were the most frequently used antibiotics. Most of the antibiotics were reported to be used for both therapeutic and prophylactic purposes (71%, 95% CI: 63-78%). Antibiotics used within the last 14 days were mainly advised by feed dealers or drug sellers (51%, 95% CI: 43-60%), followed by farmers themselves (31%, 95% CI: 23-38%) and local service providers (18%, 95% CI, 12-25%). Fish farms having history of antibiotic use within the last 14 days preceding interviews was significantly associated with illness in fish (aOR 1.98, 95% CI:1.21-3.29) compared to farms with healthy fish and fishes cultured in ponds (aOR 9.34, 95% CI: 3.69-23.62) compared to enclosure cultures. Conclusions: Improvement of fish health through better farming practices and changes in feed dealers' and farmers' attitudes towards self-prescription of antibiotic without veterinarian diagnostics may help to reduce the levels of antibiotic usage and thus contribute to mitigating antimicrobial resistance."}

data/part_1/036598e1f77d1595ed4de17b308ce3f3.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"036598e1f77d1595ed4de17b308ce3f3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/55ff7804-6aa9-415e-8011-f934b1bb8361/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"CRP: Livestock Flagship: FP3 -Feeds and Forages Cluster: 2 -Development of new feed and forage options Activity: P1685 -Activity/Product Line 3.2.1: Improved feed & forage germplasm and new tools and technologies for breeding Deliverable: Adicional -INFORME DE CAPACITACION -MEJORAMIENTO DE","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Informe de capacitación 2020 mejoramiento de cultivos forrajeros","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Valheria Castiblanco","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"La capacitación \"Mejoramiento de cultivos forrajeros\" se realizó el 09 de octubre de 2020 en horario de 02:00pm a 4:00pm, liderada por la investigadora Valheria Castiblanco. La capacitación fue dirigida a 60 participantes, entre ellos: estudiantes, profesionales y profesores pertenecientes a la Universidad de Costa Rica y al Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería. Este grupo se divide en más de 29 estudiantes pertenecientes a la carrera de Agronomía y a cursos relacionados con esta carrera, como lo son el curso de tecnología de semillas y el curso de Fito mejoramiento perteneciente a la carrera de agronomía. El grupo inicial se divide en más de 3 profesionales de ingeniería agrónoma, quienes asistieron por interés profesional. El otro grupo está conformado por más de 8 profesores especializados en el área de Fito mejoramiento, estadística aplicada, biotecnología, en cultivos tropicales, en el área de suelos y en zootecnia. Este grupo asistió por interés profesional. La información anteriormente mencionada, se encuentra de forma parcial ya que lamentablemente no todos los participantes se registraron correctamente."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"De acuerdo a los comentarios de los participantes se evidencio los puntos de mayor interés:"},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"• Como se maneja de manera integral un programa de mejoramiento • Los factores que influyen en un proceso de mejoramiento y de investigación • Los forrajes como cultivo para llevar una ganadería más responsable • Los pros y contras de un esquema de selección recurrente recíproca."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"Según los comentarios de la profesora de la Universidad de Costa Rica, Maria Fernanda Herrera Fallas, la Dra. Castiblanco hizo una gran labor en resaltar todas las partes de la institución que se unen para producir cada variedad. Además, menciona que la Dra. Castiblanco, demostró de manera muy real que son procesos que toman mucho tiempo en completarse pero que se puede intensificar de manera que se trabaja en varios proyectos al mismo tiempo y se es muy eficiente. También menciona que los estudiantes se manifestaron muy positivos sobre el hecho de poder aprender los forrajes como cultivo, ya que esto conlleva una ganadería más responsable. Capacitación parte del curso de Fitomejoramiento perteneciente a la carrera de Agronomía, en la Sede de Guanacaste."}]},{"head":"Los participantes registrados de esta capacitación fueron:","index":3,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Nombre del participante Edad Institución a la que pertenece Nivel educativo La capacitación la recibe en el contexto de …. Explique     Profesora especializada en el área  Profesora especializada en el área HERRERA FALLAS MARÍA FERNANDA 32 Universidad de Costa Rica de fitomejoramiento Interés profesional HERRERA FALLAS MARÍA FERNANDA32Universidad de Costa Ricade fitomejoramientoInterés profesional    Profesor especializado en  Profesor especializado en VARGAS ROJAS CLAUDIO 33 Universidad de Costa Rica estadística aplicada Interés profesional VARGAS ROJAS CLAUDIO33Universidad de Costa Ricaestadística aplicadaInterés profesional    Profesora especializada en el área  Profesora especializada en el área CERDAS SOLANO JACQUELINE 34 Universidad de Costa Rica de biotecnología Interés profesional CERDAS SOLANO JACQUELINE34Universidad de Costa Ricade biotecnologíaInterés profesional    Profesor especializado en cultivos  Profesor especializado en cultivos VEGA VILLALOBOS EDGAR VIDAL - Universidad de Costa Rica tropicales Interés profesional VEGA VILLALOBOS EDGAR VIDAL-Universidad de Costa RicatropicalesInterés profesional    Profesor retirado de la Universidad  Profesor retirado de la Universidad    de Costa Rica-especialista en el  de Costa Rica-especialista en el CERDAS RAMÍREZ ROBERTO - Universidad de Costa Rica área de zootecnia. Interés profesional CERDAS RAMÍREZ ROBERTO-Universidad de Costa Ricaárea de zootecnia.Interés profesional    Director de la finca experimental  Director de la finca experimental DORMOND HERRERA HERBERT - Universidad de Costa Rica Santa Cruz Interés profesional DORMOND HERRERA HERBERT-Universidad de Costa RicaSanta CruzInterés profesional    Profesor especializado en el área  Profesor especializado en el área LEIVA JORGE - Universidad de Costa Rica de suelos. Interés profesional LEIVA JORGE-Universidad de Costa Ricade suelos.Interés profesional    Profesor de la Escuela de  Profesor de la Escuela de VILLALOBOS LUIS  Universidad de Costa Rica Zootecnia Interés profesional VILLALOBOS LUISUniversidad de Costa RicaZootecniaInterés profesional QUESADA JESÚS ERNESTO  Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería Ingeniero agrónomo Interés profesional QUESADA JESÚS ERNESTOMinisterio de Agricultura y GanaderíaIngeniero agrónomoInterés profesional    Estudiante de licenciatura e ing.  Estudiante de licenciatura e ing.    Agr. En el Ministerio de Agricultura  Agr. En el Ministerio de Agricultura FALLAS ISAAC  Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería y Ganadería Capacitación por interés propio FALLAS ISAACMinisterio de Agricultura y Ganaderíay GanaderíaCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Bachillerato en Capacitación parte del curso de Fitomejoramiento perteneciente a la Estudiante de Bachillerato enCapacitación parte del curso de Fitomejoramiento perteneciente a la ARIAS ZUÑIGA ROMARIO DE JESUS 23 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía carrera de Agronomía, en la Sede de Guanacaste. ARIAS ZUÑIGA ROMARIO DE JESUS23Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíacarrera de Agronomía, en la Sede de Guanacaste.    Bachiller en Agronomía-Ing.  Bachiller en Agronomía-Ing.    Agronómo, estudiante de Capacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de Agronómo, estudiante deCapacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de VARGAS SARMIENTO FRANK 25 Universidad de Costa Rica Licenciatura semillas. Sede del Atlántico. VARGAS SARMIENTO FRANK25Universidad de Costa RicaLicenciaturasemillas. Sede del Atlántico.    Bachiller en Agronomía-Ing.  Bachiller en Agronomía-Ing.    Agronómo, estudiante de Capacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de Agronómo, estudiante deCapacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de REDONDO RIVERA MARIA SOFIA 24 Universidad de Costa Rica Licenciatura semillas. Sede del Atlántico. REDONDO RIVERA MARIA SOFIA24Universidad de Costa RicaLicenciaturasemillas. Sede del Atlántico.    Bachiller en Agronomía-Ing.  Bachiller en Agronomía-Ing.    Agronómo, estudiante de Capacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de Agronómo, estudiante deCapacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de PARRA RODRIGUEZ LEIDY ARLETTE 23 Universidad de Costa Rica Licenciatura semillas. Sede del Atlántico. PARRA RODRIGUEZ LEIDY ARLETTE23Universidad de Costa RicaLicenciaturasemillas. Sede del Atlántico.    Bachiller en Agronomía-Ing.  Bachiller en Agronomía-Ing.    Agronómo, estudiante de Capacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de Agronómo, estudiante deCapacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de MORA MENA SILVIA ELENA 24 Universidad de Costa Rica Licenciatura semillas. Sede del Atlántico. MORA MENA SILVIA ELENA24Universidad de Costa RicaLicenciaturasemillas. Sede del Atlántico.    Estudiante de Bachillerato en Capacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de Estudiante de Bachillerato enCapacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de MATAMOROS MOYA KEVIN ANDRES 24 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía semillas. Sede del Atlántico. MATAMOROS MOYA KEVIN ANDRES24Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíasemillas. Sede del Atlántico.    Estudiante de Bachillerato en Capacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de Estudiante de Bachillerato enCapacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de ZAMORA LIZANO MARIA GUADALU 24 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía semillas. Sede de Guanacaste. ZAMORA LIZANO MARIA GUADALU24Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíasemillas. Sede de Guanacaste. HERNANDEZ PALOMINO VICTOR   Estudiante de Bachillerato en Capacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de HERNANDEZ PALOMINO VICTOREstudiante de Bachillerato enCapacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de MANUEL 22 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía semillas. Sede de Guanacaste. MANUEL22Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíasemillas. Sede de Guanacaste.    Estudiante de Bachillerato en Capacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de Estudiante de Bachillerato enCapacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de SANCHEZ QUINTANILLA MARIA CECILIA 22 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía semillas. Sede de Guanacaste. SANCHEZ QUINTANILLA MARIA CECILIA22Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíasemillas. Sede de Guanacaste.    Estudiante de Bachillerato en Capacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de Estudiante de Bachillerato enCapacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de MEJIAS ELIZONDO DANNY ESTEBAN 21 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía semillas. Sede de Guanacaste. MEJIAS ELIZONDO DANNY ESTEBAN21Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíasemillas. Sede de Guanacaste.    Estudiante de Bachillerato en Capacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de Estudiante de Bachillerato enCapacitación por interés propio y complemento al curso de Tecnología de VARGAS FALLAS ANGELICA MARIA 21 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía semillas. Sede de Guanacaste. VARGAS FALLAS ANGELICA MARIA21Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíasemillas. Sede de Guanacaste.    Estudiante de Bachillerato en  Estudiante de Bachillerato en BRICEÑO GUERRERO YASDANY 23 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía Capacitación por interés propio BRICEÑO GUERRERO YASDANY23Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíaCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Bachillerato en  Estudiante de Bachillerato en GUZMÁN RODRÍGUEZ LUIS ALEJANDRO 23 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía Capacitación por interés propio GUZMÁN RODRÍGUEZ LUIS ALEJANDRO23Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíaCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Bachillerato en  Estudiante de Bachillerato en MORAGA GONZÁLEZ MARÍA FERNANDA 23 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía Capacitación por interés propio MORAGA GONZÁLEZ MARÍA FERNANDA23Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíaCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Bachillerato en  Estudiante de Bachillerato en DELGADO ROJAS MARÍA JESÚS 24 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía Capacitación por interés propio DELGADO ROJAS MARÍA JESÚS24Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíaCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Bachillerato en  Estudiante de Bachillerato en GUILLÉN JENNIFER 22 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía Capacitación por interés propio GUILLÉN JENNIFER22Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíaCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Bachillerato en  Estudiante de Bachillerato en MORA LAURA 25 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía Capacitación por interés propio MORA LAURA25Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíaCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Licenciatura en  Estudiante de Licenciatura en SOLANO GABRIEL 23 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía Capacitación por interés propio SOLANO GABRIEL23Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíaCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Bachillerato en  Estudiante de Bachillerato en AGUILAR CORDERO KATHERINE 23 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía Capacitación por interés propio AGUILAR CORDERO KATHERINE23Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíaCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Bachillerato en  Estudiante de Bachillerato en CASTILLO RANDY 23 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía Capacitación por interés propio CASTILLO RANDY23Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíaCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Bachillerato en  Estudiante de Bachillerato en CAMBRONERO BRAYAN 24 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía Capacitación por interés propio CAMBRONERO BRAYAN24Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíaCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Bachillerato en  Estudiante de Bachillerato en GÓMEZ CARLOS 22 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía Capacitación por interés propio GÓMEZ CARLOS22Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíaCapacitación por interés propio RODRÍGUEZ ALEJANDRA - Universidad de Costa Rica Ingeniero agrónomo Capacitación por interés propio RODRÍGUEZ ALEJANDRA-Universidad de Costa RicaIngeniero agrónomoCapacitación por interés propio VINDAS FABIÁN - Universidad de Costa Rica Ingeniero agrónomo Capacitación por interés propio VINDAS FABIÁN-Universidad de Costa RicaIngeniero agrónomoCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Bachillerato en  Estudiante de Bachillerato en RAMÍREZ ARLETTE 23 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía Capacitación por interés propio RAMÍREZ ARLETTE23Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíaCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Bachillerato en  Estudiante de Bachillerato en BARRANTES ALEJANDRO 24 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía Capacitación por interés propio BARRANTES ALEJANDRO24Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíaCapacitación por interés propio    Estudiante de Licenciatura en Capacitación parte del curso de Fitomejoramiento perteneciente a la Estudiante de Licenciatura enCapacitación parte del curso de Fitomejoramiento perteneciente a la GUZMAN RAMIREZ KATHERINE YANORY 24 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía carrera de Agronomía, en la Sede de Guanacaste. GUZMAN RAMIREZ KATHERINE YANORY24Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomíacarrera de Agronomía, en la Sede de Guanacaste.    Estudiante de Licenciatura en  Estudiante de Licenciatura en MEJIAS MUÑOZ DAGUI NATALIA 24 Universidad de Costa Rica Agronomía  MEJIAS MUÑOZ DAGUI NATALIA24Universidad de Costa RicaAgronomía  "}],"sieverID":"47d9618b-dc2b-4d4f-afef-481828dd780d","abstract":"Nota: Asistieron un total de 60 personas, sin embargo, no todos los participantes se registraron correctamente, por lo tanto esta lista es parcial."}

data/part_1/03765e871be7135fdbb405f9ee130624.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03765e871be7135fdbb405f9ee130624","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7245f3b9-129c-495c-98ff-669869236623/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Improving forage productivity for increased livestock production using biochar and green manure amendments","keywords":["Gliricidia sepium","livestock production","Mucuna pruriens","organic amendments","Benin"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":200,"text":"In Benin, animal production represents the second most important economic activity after agriculture, particularly in the Alibori and Borgou departments (Saka et al. 1991;De Haan, 1997;Djenontin, 2011). However, due to the deterioration of the environment, the dairy sector remains fragile and fails to meet the increasing population demand, resulting in a short-term response of imports of powdered milk at high prices (SOS Faim, 2015). Despite frequent climatic and food crises, the national livestock herd is constantly growing. This increase is due to a strong demand for milk and meat, following rising incomes, population growth and increasing urbanization (SOS Faim, 2015). According to Hamadou et al. (2005), Brachiaria grasses are important forage that boosts ruminants' milk and meat productions. In Benin, fodder shortage usually occurs during the dry season when transhumant herds move into the country from the Sahelian regions. To satisfy the needs of the herders and increase forage availability for animal production, the present study aimed to evaluate the performance of Brachiaria brizantha cv. Xaraés, a very palatable plant to ruminants as affected by the (i) biochar treatment alone; (i) green manure of Gliricidia sepium and Mucuna pruriens, and the (3) combined effect of biochar and green manure amendments."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study environment","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"The trial was set-up at the Faculty of Agronomy, University of Parakou (Benin Republic, West Africa) located at 9°21' latitude north and 2°36'east longitude and at 350 m above sea level. Parakou is neighbored in the north by the municipality of N'Dali, in the south, east and west by the municipality of Tchaourou and covers an area of 441 km² (Monograph Parakou, 2006). The climate is tropical sub-humid with an average annual precipitation of about 1200 mm (Akoègninou et al. 2006)."}]},{"head":"Plant materials used","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Mucuna puriens var utilis, a perennial legume of the Fabaceae family that protects and retains soil moisture through its mulching capacity (ProSol, 2017) and Gliricidia sepium, a shrub legume belonging to the Papilionaceae (Figures 1a, b) family were used. Their biomass (leaves plus twigs less than 5 cm) were used as green manure solely or in combination."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Brachiaria brizantha cv. Xaraés is a perennial C4 herbaceous grasses of the Poaceae family, originating from Africa. This cultivar was released by Embrapa in 2003 after 15 years evaluation in Brazil. It is a 1.5 m height grass with high biomass production, fast regrowth and late flowering (Embrapa, 2004). According to Husson et al. (2008), Brachiaria grasses produce a high biomass (quality fodder, Figure 1c), and can suppress weeds through their powerful and deep rooting system. They have a great ability to sequester and accumulate large amounts of soil organic carbon through their large shoots and roots biomass (Peters et al., 2012) and thus important for livestock feed production and soil improvement (Gichangi et al. 2017). "}]},{"head":"Biochar treatment","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Biochar is the by-product of artisanal or industrial pyrolysis of plant biomass. It has a porous structure which confirms its water absorption and retention properties (Brodowski et al. 2006;Liang et al. 2006). Biochar increases soil porosity, allowing oxygen supply to the soil (Yanai et al. 2007). The biochar used in the trial was produced from corn cobs' biomass at 350°C for 5 hours (Figure 2). "}]},{"head":"Experimental design","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":155,"text":"The set-up was a randomized complete block design consisting of three blocks, each containing eight experimental units as follows: T0: Plots of Brachiaria brizantha cv. Xaraés with no amendment; T1: Plots of Brachiaria amended with biomass of Mucuna at 2 t dry matter (DM/ha); T2: Plots of Brachiaria amended with biomass of Gliricidia 2 t DM/ha, T3: Plots of Brachiaria amended with mixture of biomass at 2 t DM/ha (1 t/ha Mucuna + 1 t/ha Gliricidia); T4: Plots of Brachiaria amended with biochar at 300 kg DM/ha; T5: Plots of Brachiaria amended with biochar at 60 kg DM / ha + 2 t DM/ha Mucuna; T6: Plots of Brachiaria amended with biochar 60 kg DM/ha + 2 t DM/ha Gliricidia; T7: Plots of Brachiaria amended with biochar 60 kg DM/ha + 2 t DM/ha mixture of biomass (1 t/ha Mucuna + 1 t/ha Gliricidia). The biomass was incorporated into the soil 15 days after sowing."},{"index":2,"size":145,"text":"The seeds of B. brizantha cv. Xaraés were installed on the experimental plots of 3.6 m² according to sowing patterns of 20 by 20cm. The average number of seeds per pocket was five. The first germination started on the fourth day after sowing. The biomass of M. puriens and G. sepium were incorporated at 2 t DM/ ha on plots that received each of the treatment alone, and at 1 t DM/ha on the plots that received the combined biomasses. Biochar was applied at 300 kg DM/ha alone, but the rate of 60 kg DM/ha referring to 20% sole biochar treatment was used when combined with any of the biomass used for its effectiveness as suggested by Schmidt (2017). It was introduced at 5 cm soil depth near the B. brizantha cv. Xaraés plant roots. Each treatment was replicated three times, totaling 24 experimental units."}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Five plants of B. brizantha cv. Xaraés were chosen randomly to assess plant growth per treatment. The height of the plants from the crown to the flag leaf tips was measured using a tape and the number of leaves counted every 15 days for two months. The biomass was cut at two and three months after application of the treatments in a 1 m² net plot to avoid border effects. Samples of fresh biomass were put in an oven at 105°C for 2-3 days to determine DM."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Data collected were checked for homogeneity and normality assumption before F-test was performed using oneway ANOVA. The statistical analysis was performed using the R programming software."}]},{"head":"Results","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Effect of treatments on B. brizantha cv. Xaraés growth and biomass","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Plots that received green biomass plus biochar grew more than plots with sole green biomass and biochar treatment alone. The greatest plant height obtained was with T7 (biochar plus biomass of legumes) compared to the other treatments (Table 1, P<0.05). Likewise, the number of leaves determined increased significantly with biochar and legume treatments, Table 1, P<0.05). With regard to biomass, no significant difference was obtained between the treatment at the first pruning two months after sowing (MAS). At the second cut (3MAS), the treatment T7 performed best with significantly higher biomass compared to the other treatments (Table 1). Moreover, the treatments T3, T5 and T6 produced greater biomass compared to the control (P>0.05). "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":244,"text":"The different growth parameters and biomass production show that the combined application of biochar and legume biomass of G. sepium and M. pruriens significantly improve the growth of Brachiaria brizantha cv. Xaraés plants. The supply of biochar in the soil generally increases the retention of water and nutrients, through the cation exchange capacity of the soil-biochar system, the permeability, the penetration of the roots deeper without counting its indirect effects on biological and chemical properties in the soil (Lehmann and Joseph, 2009;Sohi et al. 2010). The biomass produced under different treatments showed a marked difference between the amended plots and the control plots. This is explained by the nutrient content of the legume plants used which were favoured by the biochar amendment to create favourable environment for the nutrient uptake by the B. brizantha cv. Xaraés plant. Therefore, the combination of biochar plus biomass of G. sepium and M. pruriens is recommended to improve the performance of B. brizantha cv. Xaraés fodder availability for animals. These results corroborate the findings by Sohi (2012); Kanouo (2017); Oguntunde et al. (2004) and Crane-Droesch et al. (2013) who showed that incorporating charcoal into the soil improves crop yields. However, the charcoal is not a biochar as their production processes are different. Nonetheless, they play similar role. Beyond serving as forage, our findings confirm the importance of G. sepium and M. pruriens in the restoration and protection of soil (ProSol, 2017) and could be promoted as green amendment."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The present study investigating the effect of biochar and green manure amendments of Mucuna pruriens and Gliricidium sepium shows that the green biomass of these legumes could be combined with biochar to conserve their nutrient to improve Brachiaria brizantha cv. Xaraés forage production and soil restoration through fertility improvement. Our findings could be useful to several actors working in the field of food intensification and animal production. This approach could be used to increase forage production that maximizes milk and meat production in Benin."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. The green legume biomass used (a and b) and applied to Brachiaria brizantha cv. Xaraés plots (c). Source: Photo by Nambima A. (2020). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Biochar from Zea mays cobs' biomass. Source: Photo by Diogo RVC. (2019). "},{"text":"Table 1 . Effect of treatments on growth parameters (2-month after sowing, MAS) and on total biomass of Brachiaria brizantha cv. Xaraés 3MAS Gliricidia 2 t DM/ ha, T3: Plots of Brachiaria amended with mixture of biomass at 2 t DM / ha (1 t / ha Mucuna + 1 t / ha Gliricidia); T4: Plots of Brachiaria amended with biochar at 300 kg DM / ha; T5: Plots of Brachiaria amended with biochar at 60 kg DM / ha + 2 t DM / ha Mucuna; T6: Plots of Brachiaria amended with biochar 60 kg DM / ha + 2 t DM/ ha Gliricidia; T7: Plots of Brachiaria amended with biochar 60 kg DM / ha + 2 t DM/ ha mixture of biomass (1 t / ha Mucuna + 1 t / ha Treatment Height (cm) Number of leaves 1 st cut (t DM / ha, 2MAS) 2 nd cut (t DM / ha, 3MAS) Total biomass (t DM / ha) TreatmentHeight (cm)Number of leaves1 st cut (t DM / ha, 2MAS)2 nd cut (t DM / ha, 3MAS)Total biomass (t DM / ha) T0 47.1 ± 17.71 d 13.3 ± 4.69 b 2.4 ± 1.71 a 1.8 ± 0.46 d 3.9 ± 1.80 c T047.1 ± 17.71 d13.3 ± 4.69 b2.4 ± 1.71 a1.8 ± 0.46 d3.9 ± 1.80 c T1 57.1 ± 8.58 cd 15.6 ± 5.64 b 2.3 ± 0.93 a 6.4 ± 0.76 bcd 7.1 ± 2.15 bc T157.1 ± 8.58 cd15.6 ± 5.64 b2.3 ± 0.93 a6.4 ± 0.76 bcd7.1 ± 2.15 bc T2 69.5 ± 10.30 c 16.9 ±4.77 b 2.9 ± 1.40 a 3.8 ± 0.24 cd 6.7 ± 1.41 bc T269.5 ± 10.30 c16.9 ±4.77 b2.9 ± 1.40 a3.8 ± 0.24 cd6.7 ± 1.41 bc T3 86.3 ± 8.70 b 18.3 ± 5.08 ab 4.4 ± 2.84 a 8.2 ± 0.75 bc 13.6 ± 1.80 ab T386.3 ± 8.70 b18.3 ± 5.08 ab4.4 ± 2.84 a8.2 ± 0.75 bc13.6 ± 1.80 ab T4 60.9 ± 11.50 c 15.5 ± 4.67 b 2.5 ± 1.3 a 4.6 ± 0.89 bcd 8.4 ± 0.21 bc T460.9 ± 11.50 c15.5 ± 4.67 b2.5 ± 1.3 a4.6 ± 0.89 bcd8.4 ± 0.21 bc T5 79.3 ± 14.25 b 16.5 ± 4.21 b 2.5 ± 0.44 a 9.1 ± 0.93 b 11.6 ± 0.79 b T579.3 ± 14.25 b16.5 ± 4.21 b2.5 ± 0.44 a9.1 ± 0.93 b11.6 ± 0.79 b T6 82.7 ± 13.13 b 17.5 ± 4.70 ab 5.0 ± 2.98 a 7.9 ± 1.60 bc 12.1 ± 1.86 b T682.7 ± 13.13 b17.5 ± 4.70 ab5.0 ± 2.98 a7.9 ± 1.60 bc12.1 ± 1.86 b T7 103.8 ± 17.12 a 22.9 ± 5.82 a 6.0 ± 1.55 a 14.3 ± 4.14 a 20.3 ± 5.65 a T7103.8 ± 17.12 a22.9 ± 5.82 a6.0 ± 1.55 a14.3 ± 4.14 a20.3 ± 5.65 a Means in the same column followed by different letters differ significantly at 5% level.   Means in the same column followed by different letters differ significantly at 5% level. Gliricidia).      Gliricidia).  "}],"sieverID":"cc541543-88d0-4441-a3bf-c4d82df3eb9c","abstract":"The rapid population growth in West African cities resulted in rising demand for animal source foods. However, this high demand for animal source food is rarely met by domestic production in Benin due to several factors, including low feed availability and poor animal nutrition, especially during the dry months, and degraded soils. To overcome this situation, the effects of maize (Zea mays) cob biochar and green manure from Gliricidia sepium and Mucuna pruriens (2 t/ha each) and their combination (1 t/ha each) were tested on Brachiaria brizantha cv. Xaraés agronomic performance over three months. The combination of biochar and green manure performed best with plant height increased by 57% (103.8 ± 17.12 cm) when compared to the un-amended control plots and each treatment alone two-month after planting. In addition, the number of leaves (22.9 ± 5.82) and the biomass determined (20.3 ± 5.64 t dry matter/ha) were highest with the combined treatment than the un-amended control plots three-months after planting. B. brizantha cv. Xaraés, fertilized with locally available biochar and green manure, could contribute significantly to increasing feed availability at farm level and boost meat and milk production."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03bbc5f0f0c656179f189195140c0be7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/13ae64c6-e2af-4b45-9445-d4c6b00794de/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"World's largest coalition of researchers on climate change, agriculture and food security gears up! CGIAR Challenge Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS)","keywords":["CCAFS 2011 accelerated adaptation","action research","capacity-enhancement","climate risk management","decision-making","downscaling global climate change models","farmer testimonials","food security","gender","knowledge to action","partnerships","pro-poor mitigation","social differentiation"],"chapters":[{"head":"Objectives and background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"From mid 2009 through 2010, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) initiated the Challenge Program (CP) on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Almost immediately the change process in terms of the new CGIAR research programs was initiated and one of two fast-tracked CGIAR Research Programs was also entitled Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) The CP team spent a good portion of 2010 preparing for the new program by leading the drafting of the proposal and conducting a number of stakeholder meetings for input into the research design Many research activities were conducted on the CP in the period 2009-2010 and these now form an essential part of the start-up of the new program The new program, some six-times the size of the CP, started in January 2011"},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"The overall goal of the CP was to overcome the additional threats posed by a changing climate to achieving food security, enhancing livelihoods and improving environmental management The three objectives of the program were:"},{"index":3,"size":370,"text":"1 To close critical gaps in knowledge of how to enhance -and manage the trade-offs between -food security, livelihood and environmental goals in the face of a changing climate 2 To develop and evaluate options for adapting to a changing climate to inform agricultural development, food security policy and donor investment strategies 3 To enable and assist farmers (both men and women), policy makers, researchers and donors to continually monitor, assess and adjust their actions in response to observed and anticipated changes in climate The work started in mid 2009 with the appointment of the Director Subsequently seven Theme Leaders were appointed in late 2009 (there is joint leadership of one of the Themes) The Secretariat staff was recruited in early 2010 and Regional Program Leaders (either substantive or interim) were in place by mid 2010 The Secretariat is based at the University of Copenhagen, while the Theme Leaders and Regional Program Leaders are based at six CGIAR centres (CIAT, ICRAF, ICRISAT, IFPRI, ILRI, IWMI) and three universities (Columbia, Leeds, Vermont) (Annex 1) A Steering Committee (Annex 2) guides the strategic development and implementation of the program All Themes were initiated in 2009 and the first results have now been achieved Global engagement in key policy processes is well developed, and many regional engagement activities have been completed in the three target regions (West Africa, Eastern Africa and the Indo-Gangetic Plains) Most of the planned activities have been completed as per the Workplan and Budget for 2009 and 2010 (see www ccafs cgiar org) for detailed information on the activities conducted In 2010 a series of major stakeholder events were held to ensure the close interaction of researchers and stakeholders in defining the agenda After carefully mapping potential partners, partnership engagement strategies have been developed, and now some 50+ partners are working on specific components of the work These include Advanced Research Institutes (e g University of Oxford), international agencies (e g STARTthe capacity-building arm of the global change community), regional agricultural agencies (e g CORAF, ASARECA), regional climate centres (e g ACMAD, AGHRYMET) and civil society organizations (e g FANRPAN, CARE) As part of the stakeholder engagement, CCAFS developed strategies for capacity-enhancement, communications and mainstreaming gender and social differentiation"}]},{"head":"Some significant achievements","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":199,"text":"Organizational change • World's largest coalition of scientists working on the nexus between agriculture and climate change Partnerships, capacity-enhancement and communications • Several stakeholder meetings convened to drive a userdriven research agenda; • Significant coalitions developed with non-research partners and capacity enhanced for uptake and impact; To improve the policy-level impact of CCAFS research related to food security, CCAFS work on climate risk management has built a partnership with the WFP at its headquarters, and in Africa and Asia. In East Africa, CCAFS collaboration with WFP on institutional arrangements associated with climate forecasting and the use of forecasts at national and regional levels contributed to the CCAFS strategy for engagement with regional food security stakeholders, and contributed to the jointly sponsored Climate and Society Report No. 3 on \"A Better Climate for Disaster Risk Management\". This was facilitated along with the IRI, WFP, IFRC, Red Cross/Red Crescent Climate Centre and OCHA. In Asia, the WFP has made a request to include CCAFS as a future partner in the rollout of the Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC), which will provide a direct pathway for the incorporation of CCAFS research into regional and national-level food security initiatives in the IGP."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The WFP partnership positions CCAFS to develop demanddriven action research and link it with action in the area of managing climate risk through the food system. The partnership is helping CCAFS identify and engage regional and national partners that partner with WFP. It has already led to joint efforts to mobilize resources for CCAFS-related food security work in South Asia."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Capacity-enhancement for research and impact CCAFS aims to make a lasting difference through a strategic, fully embedded focus on capacity-enhancement To achieve its overall goals, the two related areas in which CCAFS needs to raise capacity are A baseline household survey training manual for supervisors was developed and used to guide the implementation of the survey. Methods and training materials were made freely available on the website, and there have been requests by other agencies to use the materials in their own study regions."},{"index":4,"size":143,"text":"Capacity-enhancement activities with non-research stakeholders are crucial to facilitate uptake and impact Multiple demand-driven activities were undertaken in 2010 For example, in Ethiopia, CCAFS worked with a national meteorological agency to improve the delivery of climate time series data, which is a crucial element needed for better climate forecasting and ultimately improved climate risk management by farmers (Box 5) CCAFS also worked with media to increase their capacity in amplifying messages coming out of research (Box 6) In Niger, following the country's drought and flood crises in 2010, CCAFS supported START to convene a science-policy dialogue on the crises to share knowledge and insights about the ever-increasing risks of climate change to Niger's -and, more broadly, the Sahel region's -agriculture and food security, and to examine measures, technologies, policies, and approaches for managing current climate risks and adapting better to future climate change"}]},{"head":"Box 5: Strengthening capacity for meteorological data quality control in Ethiopia","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Seven staff members from the National Meteorological Agency (NMA) of Ethiopia were trained on quality control of daily climate time series. The training course covered methods for checking temporal homogeneity of daily rainfall and temperature data; incorporating station metadata; using reference stations; and identifying and adjusting for breakpoints in a time series. A follow-up workshop provided support for ongoing analyses, addressed problems encountered while working on their data, and enabled NMA staff to master the quality-control routines."},{"index":2,"size":71,"text":"Using the methods in which they had been trained, NMA staff prepared a set of quality-controlled, long-term stations, provided project partners with daily rainfall data from over 500 stations; and initiated an effort to combine these with historic METEOSAT rainfall estimates. NMA is also preparing to redesign its web page to provide analyses based on combined station-satellite records, and has proposed follow-up activities around agricultural applications of the new data sets. "}]},{"head":"Communications and outreach","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"Part of the vision of success for CCAFS is that it becomes the 'go-to' place for key stakeholders seeking relevant evidence, knowledge and tools to formulate options and strategies for tackling food insecurity in the face of climate change A focus of the research strategy is on developing and implementing innovative approaches to strengthen the links among research, policy and practice, and this inevitably rests on a sound communications and outreach strategy that is intimately connected to partnership and capacity-enhancement Partnerships will be essential The Future of Food and Farming program of the UK government and CCAFS generated combinations of quantitative drivers that were selected to generate three scenarios: a baseline scenario that is \"middle of the road\"; a pessimistic scenario that chooses driver combinations which, while plausible, are likely to result in more negative outcomes for human well-being; and an optimistic scenario that is likely to result in improved outcomes relative to the baseline. Each of these overall scenarios was combined with five climate scenarios. Finally, in order to test the sensitivity of the scenario outcomes to the choice of underlying parameters, a series of simulations were performed on the baseline -the \"middle of the road\" scenario. These experiments provide a perspective on possible policy and program innovations that might make a sustainable future for food and farming more likely."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"A "}]},{"head":"Ensuring a pro-poor, gender-differentiated focus","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"CCAFS research aims to improve understanding of the underlying drivers of social differentiation and gender disparities as influenced by climate change, formulate strategies to tackle these, and provide inclusive access to emerging investments (e g carbon payments), as well as information and policies that deal with climate change Gender matters in how we transform our farming and food systems in response to climate change Any effort to increase productivity, adapt to climate change, better manage climate risks, or mitigate agricultural emissions, must address the differences and relationships in how women and men manage their assets and activities In particular, we need to redress historical tendencies to underplay the roles of women Gender and social differentiation are tackled in CCAFS through mainstreaming them in all Themes Some significant outputs were achieved in 2010:"},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"• Gender and social differentiation was captured in the baseline survey of 5000+ households For example, results of the baseline survey in western Kenya showed that women tend to receive more weather-related information than men, although male-headed households have greater access to new technologies such as mobile phones In the Lower Nyando benchmark location, this may reflect women's higher day-to-day involvement on the farm, with many men periodically leaving for off-farm activities and employment "}]},{"head":"Box 9: Socially differentiated farmers' voices heard through the Adaptation and Mitigation Knowledge Network (AMKN)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":252,"text":"A central outcome of the first year of CCAFS has been the development of an Adaptation and Mitigation Knowledge Network (AMKN), which manages and connects knowledge from farmer through to researcher, and vice versa (www. amkn.org). This ambitious and comprehensive portal is to become the 'go-to' place to share and access adaptation and mitigation knowledge in agriculture. The platform brings together location-specific evidence on farmers' realities on the ground and links them with scientific research outputs. AMKN builds on the vision that the way forward for researchers and smallholder farmers facing both current and imminent challenges lies in learning from each other while sharing knowledge and experiences to ensure the transfer of promising measures that may benefit other communities. A first version of the platform (developed in partnership with the ICT-KM Program of the CGIAR and the AGCommons program, and with the technical partnership of ESRI) was released in December. The user interface is an interactive map application which aggregates CCAFS geo-referenced web content and media, namely the location and description of the 36 CCAFS benchmark sites, 31 three-to five-minute video testimonials on gender-specific farmers' adaptation and mitigation strategies and coping mechanisms collected across the three CCAFS regions (East Africa, West Africa, the Indo-Gangetic Plains), 13 stories reflecting realities on the ground and 18 photo sets (>400 photographs). The platform architecture allows the organization and visualization of the information gathered with a location-specific criterion and is designed to guarantee data openness so that data can be exported, retrieved, queried, syndicated and reused."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"The goal of the AMKN is ambitious and in 2011 content will expand towards including climatic, socio-economical (baseline survey data) and agricultural information and tools, as well as links to external sources for more complex analysis and the development of a more comprehensive user interface. At this early stage the platform serves as a public awareness channel for research on adaptation and mitigation themes on the basis of farmers' stories and solid science. Over time, however, the platform will expand and its community of users will be developed from that of information users into one of information providers that generate new knowledge in the form of data, videos and stories."}]},{"head":"Breakthroughs in cutting-edge science","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"As The studies identify organizations that are working to empower women through enhanced access to information, and highlight the implications for women of the ongoing transition toward more ICT-based and 'demand-driven' models for delivering agricultural advisory services."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"This work helped understand the factors that may prevent poor and marginalized farmers from accessing or using climate information, and helped to identify other kinds of support that poor farmers need for climate information to be of use. Many warned that increasing emphasis on 'demanddriven advisory services' and diminished face-to-face interactions between farmers and extension agents in favour of ICT might be increasing the information access gap along equity lines. Five of the eight case studies that were examined had components that specifically targeted women who would otherwise face barriers to information access. Although such innovative use of ICT has potential for reducing the access gap, remote and socially marginalized farmers are often the last to be provided with services, are most likely to lack the necessary skills for using ICT, and are least likely to be informed of existing ICT-enabled information services."}]},{"head":"Box 11: Downscaled climate data for downloading","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"A suite of downscaled climate data for the three GHG emission scenarios of the IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report (scenarios A1B, A2 and B1) for climatologies for the 2030s, 2050s and 2080s was developed. The dataset was generated by a generalized downscaling and data generation method that takes the outputs of a General Circulation Model and allows the stochastic generation of daily weather data that are to some extent characteristic of future climatologies. Such data can then be used to drive any impacts model that requires daily (or otherwise aggregated) weather data. These climate data grids provide a consistent product that can be applied in many different ways."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"Two hundred and eleven users have registered and downloaded the data. These users were CGIAR Centres, universities, research centres, meteorological departments, and NGOs. Users were from North America, South Asia, South-East Asia, East Asia (including China), Latin America, Europe, Africa, and Australasia. People who downloaded the data had intentions of using them in many different ways: these include crop modelling and adaptation studies, agricultural impacts analysis, human disease burden studies, amphibian population modelling studies, flood management, terrestrial and marine biodiversity studies, forestry modelling, and academic teaching. A beta version of the analogue tool is now available. The climate analogue tool calculates measures of climatic dissimilarity between a projection of a future climate at a user-specified location and the current climate globally. The tool is therefore designed to identify areas of the globe that are presently analogous in some way to the projection of a future climate at the user-specified location."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"In 2011 the second phase of this project will include the validation of the tool and the development of a web-based platform. Its implementation will provide insights into the vulnerability of crops to climate change and facilitate onthe-ground evaluations of agricultural adaptation options for 2030 and beyond. Furthermore, it will also be a key instrument that will allow the transfer of farming practices to areas that may face similar climate conditions in the future. This tool will be a key feature of the future farmer-to-farmer exchange program that will be trialled in 2011. It allows farmers to go to 'analogue sites' that represent what their future climate may be like, and to learn from current practices at those sites."}]},{"head":"Establishing a rigorous framework for monitoring and evaluation","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"A globally common set of appropriate baseline indicators on agricultural productivity, rural livelihoods, and biogeophysical attributes, as well as the key variables that CCAFS research is likely to impact on, has been collected at the selected study sites, so that monitoring and post-impact assessment can be carried out (see description in Box 4) This baseline survey has also helped to characterize current farmer practices, and the ability to adapt The statistics unit at the University of Reading was engaged to help design and implement the baseline survey so that a rigorous framework was established for future monitoring and evaluation"}]},{"head":"Knowledge to action -from local to global","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"CCAFS is becoming known for delivering useful user-driven research products, and as such is receiving many requests for products from diverse agencies (farmers' organizations, international development agencies, civil society organizations, advanced research institutes) For example, CCAFS has been approached by a regional farmers' organization to prepare the At each of the four project sites ten farmers have been selected to carry out field experiments to test the performance of ten wheat varieties -procured by the Directorate of Wheat Research (DWR), India -relative to four landraces."},{"index":2,"size":207,"text":"The final objective of this participatory project is to understand the role of seed systems in enabling adaptation under changing production constraints, to understand the social and cultural barriers to adoption of adapted landraces and varieties, and to explore effective means of introducing new varieties, taking into account these barriers. The project is also addressing gender, engaging both male and female farmers in the on-farm trials and in project implementation. Disaggregated analyses of results will also be produced based on gender.  ARDD is not a once-off event but rather the culmination of a process leading up to the ARDD. For example, in 2010, CCAFS made a significant contribution to an issues paper of the Global Donor Platform for Rural Development. This set out the agenda for policy engagement in 2010. Then in June 2010 a side event was held in the Bonn meeting of the UNFCCC that set the scene for future work towards ARDD 2010. A number of relevant research papers were also commissioned in order to feed into the deliberations on ARDD 2010. In a follow-up activity CCAFS has launched the \"Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change\", led by the UK chief scientist (Professor Sir John Beddington), and comprising eminent scientists from 13 nations."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"More: www.ccafs.cgiar.org/events/04/dec/2010/agricultureand-rural-development-day-ardd-2010"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"Box 16: Regional scenarios for East Africa"},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"Scenario analyses conducted at the regional level help to systematically explore policy and technical options for improving food security in the face of environmental and other stresses. They provide a suitable framework for (i) raising awareness of key environmental and policy concerns;"},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"(ii) discussing viable adaptation options; and (iii) analysing the possible consequences of different adaptation options for food security, livelihoods and environmental goals -the three areas of interest for CCAFS."},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"Working closely with regional partners and in close collaboration with ASARECA, CCAFS has developed a set of prototype scenarios for researching the interactions between food security and environmental change at the East African regional level."},{"index":8,"size":95,"text":"Through stakeholder consultation workshops involving regional scientists and policy makers, participants developed sets of key variables for the region in terms of food security, livelihoods and environment. They identified key drivers of regional development pathways by 2030 as (1) the extent of regional integration (both political and economic): 'Status Quo' or 'More Integrated' and (2) the proactive/reactive stance of governments (and other regional actors) at the regional level in relation to environmental management and food security. From these came four storylines, each with different implications for major regional and national concerns such as food affordability."},{"index":9,"size":84,"text":"The key outputs of the exercise so far are raised awareness by researchers, policy makers and other stakeholders of interactions between multiple goals in the context of climate change, a systematically structured debate relating to environmental issues and food security and a science-policy regional 'team' built on shared vision, understanding and trust. Preliminary analyses of food security, environment and livelihoods outcomes for a range of plausible futures will next be quantified, with reference to future climate scenarios, and further interrogated by wider regional groupings.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"1 Summary and context of the ProgramTechniques such as micro-dosing, which helps to optimise the use of fertiliser, are essential for supporting farmers in the CCAFS regions. Bouwere Village, Mali. Photo: P. CasierThe CP covered six Themes:• Diagnosing vulnerability and analysing opportunities;• Unlocking the potential of macro-level policies;• Enhancing engagement and communication for decision making; • Adaptation pathways for managing current climate risk; • Adaptation pathways under progressive climate change; • Poverty alleviation through climate change mitigation CCAFS is a joint program of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) and the Earth Systems Science Partnership (ESSP) The research-fordevelopment program builds on ongoing CGIAR and national research infrastructure and research sites The ESSP is especially important to the partnership because of its expertise in global change For instance, it is crucial to the work of downscaling climate change models to scales that are relevant for agricultural research and planning "},{"text":"Box 6 : Enhancing the capacity of communicators Dr Ousmane Ndiaye has worked with CCAFS on various issues related to climate change and climate risk management. He then represented CCAFS as a resource person for a three-day media training workshop: \"Getting it right: reporting climate change for sustainable development in Africa\". The workshop drew media representatives from west, central, northern and southern Africa and took place as a pre-event to the seventh African Development Forum (ADF), held in October 2010, with the theme: \"Acting for Climate Change for Sustainable Development in Africa\". The training workshop informed African media about the threats and opportunities presented by climate change, built the capacity of African media to analyse and report more effectively on climate change concerns, familiarized African media about the process so far and the issues that required targeted awareness in the lead-up to the Cancun negotiations, and supported the prioritization of Africa's agenda, priorities, initiatives and programs in the news media. www.uneca.org/adfvii/documents/PreADF/ ReportTraining-unitar.pdf Household baseline training in Mali. Photo by W Foerch. "},{"text":" Preliminary results from another baseline village in coastal Bangladesh suggest a very different pattern In a village within the Khulna district, men are the predominant contributors to labour in the household's agricultural fields Women tend to be responsible for poultry and other activities located closer to the home • Farmer perspectives were highlighted through photo films, video testimonials and other communication platforms (Box 9) The 31 video testimonials covered gender-specific adaptation and mitigation strategies, coping mechanisms and adaptive capacity In India, a local woman was part of the film crew and carried out the interviews • To reach the vulnerable and disenfranchised often means understanding the power dynamics among key players and knowing who the influential individuals and institutions are The Advocates Coalition for Development and Environment (ACODE) carried out a study in Uganda to identify such influential actors Similar work will be conducted in other countries now that the method has been trialled • Equity was one of the criteria examined in a set of studies of ICT-based and institutional models for disseminating information to rural communities (see next section) • How equity is tackled has been examined for a number of mitigation projects in Africa The action research relies on a dialogue process that engages a range of smallholder institutions, interest groups, governments, and other institutions to evaluate what is meant by benefits, who benefits and how The results have been and will be used to feed back into project design so that projects are more focused on pro-poor outcomes Farmers can no longer rely on floods for irrigation. Water levels are decreasing, and farmers in Jamnapur village, Bihar, are demanding electrical infrastructure so they can use water pumps and to irrigate the fields. Photo: P. Casier Village Baseline Study Pre-Test, Kenya. Photo by W Foerch. "},{"text":" During this initial development a knowledge network has already started to be established through collaborations with diverse stakeholders across Africa and IGP that are interested in sharing and applying climate change research to agricultural development and food security. Those include: Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), The International Small Group and Tree Planting Program (TIST, project jointly implemented by the Institute for Environmental Innovation and Clean Air Action Corporation), Kenya, NAAM -Farmers Union (Burkina Faso), International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC), Ghana, Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA-AGRIC), Ghana; Institue d'Economie Rurale (IER), Mali; Association Malienne d'Eveil au Développement Durable (AMMED), Mali; Action for Food Production (AFPRO, Indian NGO), SPARK (Indian NGO) and CG centres (CIP, ICRAF, CIAT). "},{"text":" is evident in Section 2 and in the publications list (Annex 3) a wide variety of research products have been initiated and completed Here we focus on three different kinds of research products that consider (a) information needs of farmers and how these can be met (Box 10 -models for delivery of climate information); (b) information needs of researchers and agricultural planners (Box 11 -downscaled climate change data); and (c) farmer-to-farmer learning about likely future climates and farming systems (Box 12 -analogue method) Box 10: Models for delivering climate information and services to rural communitiesCCAFS commissioned studies of institutional and ICTbased models for delivering climate-related information and advisory services to rural communities in East Africa, West Africa and South Asia. They provide detailed descriptions of many existing initiatives for delivering information and advice to rural communities, as well as a critical assessment of their potential to support climate risk management from the standpoint of salience, equity (in terms of gender and social differentiation), scalability, transferability and sustainability. "},{"text":" background paper setting out the major issues at the interface of climate change and agriculture, a paper that will be used as the basis for the organization's development of their messaging for UNFCCC A hallmark of CCAFS research is that it invariably takes an 'action research' perspective, whereby the research is undertaken with partners -from design to analysis Thisapproach is practised from field to global levels Examples of local action research are the farmer-based experimentation network (Box 13) and the work with CARE and other partners in Western Kenya (Box 14) Examples at the global level include Agriculture and Rural Development Day (Box 15) and the Commission on Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change, which was launched at the end of 2010 At intermediate levels, action research is also practised The key example is the scenario development activities by regional stakeholder groups (Box 16) Action research ensures that research meets the needs of potential users CCAFS has made an extensive survey of current CGIAR science and projects and how they can contribute to solving issues at the climate-agriculture nexus This includes a detailed database for ongoing projects in the three target regions The database includes information on partners and helps identify who is doing what in the regions This work, published as a booklet, and then synthesised as one of the background papers for The Hague Conference on Climate Change and Food Security, is important to identifying gaps in the current climate-related agricultural research and development and to identify where synergies can be achieved through the development of the CCAFS portfolio Most importantly, the work also highlights options that can be immediately tested in the context of early action in climate change adaptation and mitigation We have the knowledge right now to make vast improvements to agricultural systems -improvements that can compensate for the negative impacts of climate change Decision makers are urged to take the steps needed to put this research into action At a research station in Cinzana, Mali, CCAFS research partners select different crop varieties, test them and then give them to farmers to test their adaptability, productivity and resistance to different diseases. Photo: P. Casier Box 13: Establishment of a farmer-based experimentation network in the Indo-Gangetic Plains region A farmer-based experimentation network of 40 farmers has been established in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) region in the frame of a pilot project for on-farm participatory climate change adaptation and visualization, led by Bioversity International. This pilot project, set up across four Indian sites (Karnal, Haryana; Ludhiana, Punjab; Pusa, Bihar; and Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh), seeks to investigate whether a wider range of diversity in key crops important for food security (e.g. wheat) enhances the adaptive capacity of farmers in areas experiencing climate variability and change. The project utilizes a participatory approach, allowing farmers to freely experiment with the supplied crop diversity during the on-farm trials. Farmers are permitted and encouraged to manage the crop selection for the trials, according to their own preferences and needs. "},{"text":" More: www.ccafs.cgiar.org/our-work/research-themes/ progressive-adaptation/farmer-based-experimentationnetwork Box 14: Action research helps project developers implement agricultural mitigation projects CCAFS, in partnership with EcoAgriculture Partners, implemented a series of activities in Africa with staff from six carbon projects. The work focuses on institutional arrangements and incentives for smallholder mitigation. At a workshop, project representatives shared their experiences through presentations based on a set of questions sent to them beforehand. Participants also discussed and finalized the research methodology that was subsequently implemented during field work in the following months by the EcoAgriculture team and CCAFS, in collaboration with staff from participating projects. The agencies/projects that participated in the workshop included: The International Small Group Tree Planting Program (TIST) in Kenya; World Vision, the Humbo Assisted Natural Regeneration Project in Ethiopia; Environmental Conservation Trust (EcoTRUST, Uganda), Managing Trees for Global Benefits (TGB) Program; Vi Agroforestry (Kenya), African agricultural and soil carbon finance project; and CARE, a carbon-financed agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU) project in Western Kenya. Field work was conducted where each project was visited by a team from EcoAgriculture and CCAFS. "},{"text":"Annex 3 : List of publications by CCAFS staff in 2010 Scientific papers, books and book chapters Aggarwal PK, Baethegen WE, Cooper P, Gommes R, Lee B, Meinke H, Rathore LS, Sivakumar MVK 2010 Managing climatic risks to combat land degradation and enhance food security: Key information needs Procedia Environmental Sciences 1: 305-312 Bhatia A, Pathak H, Aggarwal P K, Jain N 2010 Trade-off between productivity enhancement and global warming potential of rice and wheat in India Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 86 (3): 413-424 Boomiraj K, Chakrabarti B, Aggarwal PK, Choudhary R, Chander S, 2010 Assessing the vulnerability of Indian mustard to climate change Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 138: 265-273 Brussaard L, Caron P, Campbell BM, Lipper L, Mainka S, Rabbinge R, Babin D, Pulleman M 2010 Reconciling biodiversity conservation and food security: scientific challenges for a new agriculture Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2: 34-42 Byjesh K, Naresh Kumar S, Aggarwal PK 2010 Simulating impacts, potential adaptation and vulnerability of maize to climate change in India Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 15 (5): 413-431 Chakrabarti B, Aggarwal PK, Singh SD, Nagarajan S, Pathak H 2010 Impact of high temperature on pollen germination and spikelet sterility in rice: comparison between basmati and nonbasmati varieties Crop and Pasture Science 61 (5): 363-368 Challinor AJ, Simelton ES, Fraser EDG, Hemming D, Collins M 2010 Increased crop failure due to climate change: assessing adaptation options using models and socio-economic data for wheat in China Environmental Research Letters 5 (3): 034012 Doherty RM, Sitch S, Smith B, Lewis SL, Thornton PK 2010 Implications of future climate and atmospheric CO2 content for regional biogeochemistry, biogeography and ecosystem services across East Africa Global Change Biology 16 (2): 617-640 Ericksen P, Stewart B, Eriksen S, Tschakert P, Sabates-Wheeler R, Hansen J, Thornton PK 2010 Adapting food systems In: Ingram J, Ericksen P, Liverman D, eds Food Security and Global Environmental. London, UK: Earthscan p 115-143 Herrero M, Thornton PK, Gerber P, Van der Zijpp A, Van de Steeg J, Notenbaert A, Lecomte P, Grace D 2010 The way forward for livestock and the environment In: Swanepoel F, Moyo S, Stroebel A The Role of Livestock in Developing Communities: Enhancing Multifunctionality The Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Press Thornton PK 2010 Climate change and livestock keepers in developing countries: what are the prospects? Agriculture for Development 9: 6-10 Thornton PK 2010 Livestock production: recent trends, future prospects Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Series B, 365 (1554): 2853-2867 Thornton PK, Gerber P 2010 Climate change and the growth of the livestock sector in developing countries Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 15 (2): 169-184 Thornton PK, Herrero, M 2010 The potential for reduced methane and carbon dioxide emissions from livestock and pasture management in the tropics Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107 (46): 19667-19672 Thornton PK, Jones PG, Alagarswamy G, Andresen J, Herrero M 2010 Adapting to climate change: agricultural system and household impacts in East Africa Agricultural Systems 103 (2): 73-82 Vermeulen S, Cotula L 2010 Over the heads of local people: consultation, consent, and recompense in large-scale land deals for biofuels projects in Africa Journal of Peasant Studies 37(4): 899-916 Walker B, Sayer J, Andrew NL , Campbell BM 2010 Should enhanced resilience be an objective of natural resource management research in developing countries? Crop Science 50 (1): 10-19 Wassmann R, Nelson GC, Peng SB, Sumfleth K, Jagadish SVK, Hosen Y Rosegrant MW 2010 Rice and global climate change In: Pandey S, Byerlee D, Dawe D, Dobermann A, Mohanty S, Rozelle S, Hardy B, eds Rice in the Global Economy: Strategic Research and Policy Issues for Food Security Los Banos, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute Wood S, Ericksen PJ, Stewart B, Thornton PK, Anderson M 2010 Lessons learned from international assessments In: Ingram, JSI, Ericksen PJ, Liverman DM Food Security and Global Environmental Change London, UK: Earthscan p 46-62 Reports and policy briefs Clark WC, Kristjanson P, Campbell BM, Juma C, Holbrook NM, Nelson G, Dickson N 2010 Enhancing Food Security in an Era of Global Climate Change: An Executive Session on Grand Challenges of the Sustainability Transition, San Servolo Island, Venice June 6-9, 2010 CID Working Paper 198 Boston, USA: Center for International Development at Harvard University Hansen JW, Tippett M, Bell M, Ines AVM 2010 Linking Seasonal Forecasts into Risk View to Enhance Food Security Contingency Planning IRI Technical Report 10-13 Palisades, New York, USA: International Research Institute for Climate and Society Herrero M, Van de Steeg J, Ringler C, Thornton PK, Zuo T, Bryan E, Koo J 2010 Kenya: Climate variability and climate change and their impacts on the agricultural sector International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI-IFPRI World Bank Project Report Jarvis A, Zapata CE, Laderach P, Ramírez J 2010 Incremento en la presión sobre los ecosistemas altoandinos por cambios en la adaptación de cultivos In: Franco V, CL, Muñoz AM, Andrade GI, Naranjo LG, eds Experiencias de adaptación al cambio climático en ecosistemas de montaña (páramos y bosques de niebla) en los Andes del Norte: Memorias del taller regional Bogotá, DC: Fondo Mundial para la Naturaleza (WWF) 19-20 February 2009 ; Cali, Colombia: Fundación Humedales p 55-63 Laderach P, Kathleen S, Ramirez J, Jarvis A, Eitzinger A 2010 Impacto del cambio climatico para el cultivo de café en Nicaragua In: Martinez C Adaptación al cambio climático y servicios ecosistemicos en América Latina Publicación CATIE 99 Turialba, Costa Rica: Centro Tropical Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza Jarvis A, Upadhyaya H, Gowda CLL, Aggarwal PK, Fujisaka S, Anderson B 2010 Climate Change and its effect on conservation and use of plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and Associated Biodiversity for Food Security FAO Thematic Background Study Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations Laderach P, Hagger J, Lau C, Eitzinger A, Ovalle O, Baca M, Jarvis A, Lundy M 2010 Mesoamerican coffee: building a climate change adaptation strategy CIAT Policy Brief Cali, Colombia: International Center for Tropical Agriculture Lau C, Jarvis A, Ramirez J 2010 Colombian agriculture: adapting to climate change CIAT policy brief Cali, Colombia: International Center for Tropical Agriculture Margulis S, Narain U, Chinowsky P, Cretegny L, Hughes G, Kirshen P, Kuriakose A, Lange GM, Nelson GC, Neumann J, Nicholls R, Pandy K, Price J, Schlosser A, Schneider R, Sedjo R, Strzepek K, Sumaila R, Ward P, Wheeler D 2010 Cost to Developing Countries of Adapting to Climate Change: New Methods and Estimates Washington DC, USA: World Bank Nelson GC, Rosegrant MW, Palazzo A, Gray I, Ingersoll C, Robertson R, Tokgoz S, Zhu T, Sulser TB, Ringler C, Msangi S, You L 2010 Food Security, Farming, And Climate Change To 2050: Challenges to 2050 and Beyond IFPRI Issue Brief 66 Washington DC, USA: International Food Policy Research Institute Nelson GC, Rosegrant MW, Palazzo A, Gray I, Ingersoll C, Robertson R, Tokgoz S, Zhu T, Sulser TB, Ringler C, Msangi S, You L 2010 : Food Security, Farming, and Climate Change to 2050: Scenarios, Results, Policy Options Washington DC, USA: International Food Policy Research Institute Nzuma JM, Waithaka M, Mbithi Mulwa R, Kyotalimye M, Nelson GC 2010 Strategies for Adapting to Climate Change in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa IFPRI Discussion Paper 01013 Washington DC, USA: International Food Policy Research Institute Simelton E, Fraser EDG, Termansen M, Benton TG, Gosling SN, South A, Arnell NW, Challinor AJ, Dougill AJ, Forster PM 2010 Climate change and the socioeconomics of global food production: a quantitative analysis of how socioeconomic factors influence the vulnerability of grain crops to drought Working Paper 29 Leeds, UK: Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Springate-Baginski O, Wollenberg E, eds 2010 REDD, Forest Governance and Rural Livelihoods, The Emerging Agenda Bogor, Indonesia: CIFOR Policy Brief Centre for International Forestry Research Vermeulen SJ, Aggarwal PK, Ainslie A, Angelone C, Campbell BM, Challinor AJ, Hansen J, Ingram JSI, Jarvis A, Kristjanson P, Lau C, Thornton PK, Wollenberg E 2010 Agriculture, Food Security and Climate Change: Outlook for Knowledge, Tools and Action CCAFS Report 3 Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Vermeulen SJ 2010 Hamburgers or yamburgers? Fourdegree futures for food in Africa Ag-Clim Letters 1, December 2010 Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (Available from www ccafs cgiar org/blog/hamburgers-and-yamburgers-fourdegree-futures-food-africa Young scientists at a research site in Bangladesh. Cross-site learning is an important part of capacity-enhancement. Photo: N.A. Omolo "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"largest coalition of scientists working on the nexus between agriculture and climate change 2010 saw the culmination of the most significant reform of the CGIAR system in its some 40 years of existence A key element of this reform was the reorganization of the CGIAR around research programs that cut across Centres One of the new research programs is on climate change Because the Challenge Program was well positioned in terms of having initiated work on climate change, it was asked to lead the process of developing an expanded climate change program, one of only two fasttracked programs The climate change portfolio in the CGIAR is now expected to at least treble in size in 2011  regional dialogues (for East Africa, West Africa and the Indo- regional dialogues (for East Africa, West Africa and the Indo- World's Partnership engagement • Several major initiatives initiated to enhance capacity for research delivery (e g CLIFF Ph D network; major training conducted on baseline survey implementation); • Communication strategy implemented with good media outreach for various research products and for major events; • Ag-Clim Letters established and reaching 1000+ significant decision makers Pro-poor and gender focus • Gender and social differentiation mainstreamed into all work, with some significant outputs in 2010; • Farmer perspectives highlighted through video and other communication platforms Breakthroughs in cutting-edge science • Models for delivering climate information assessed; • Downscaled climate data available; • Analogue method allows learning about future climates Establishing a rigorous framework for monitoring and evaluation • A baseline survey was conducted in 12 countries (5000+ households) Gangetic Plains) These, and other activities, have ensured deep engagement of non-research stakeholders in CCAFS, in order to facilitate a user-driven research agenda Box 1: World's Partnership engagement• Several major initiatives initiated to enhance capacity for research delivery (e g CLIFF Ph D network; major training conducted on baseline survey implementation); • Communication strategy implemented with good media outreach for various research products and for major events; • Ag-Clim Letters established and reaching 1000+ significant decision makers Pro-poor and gender focus • Gender and social differentiation mainstreamed into all work, with some significant outputs in 2010; • Farmer perspectives highlighted through video and other communication platforms Breakthroughs in cutting-edge science • Models for delivering climate information assessed; • Downscaled climate data available; • Analogue method allows learning about future climates Establishing a rigorous framework for monitoring and evaluation • A baseline survey was conducted in 12 countries (5000+ households) Gangetic Plains) These, and other activities, have ensured deep engagement of non-research stakeholders in CCAFS, in order to facilitate a user-driven research agenda Box 1: Through 2010, CCAFS hosted several major stakeholder Knowledge to action from local to global levels Through 2010, CCAFS hosted several major stakeholderKnowledge to action from local to global levels events, including the Nairobi Conference on Climate Change, • Action research helps project developers implement events, including the Nairobi Conference on Climate Change,• Action research helps project developers implement Agriculture and Food Security (Box 1), the Venice executive agricultural mitigation projects; Agriculture and Food Security (Box 1), the Venice executiveagricultural mitigation projects; meeting for leaders in private and public sector, and three • CCAFS synthesises current knowledge on climate-resilient meeting for leaders in private and public sector, and three• CCAFS synthesises current knowledge on climate-resilient  agriculture and responds to user demands for specific agriculture and responds to user demands for specific  knowledge; knowledge;  • Arguably the largest coalition of actors united together to put • Arguably the largest coalition of actors united together to put  agriculture on the UNFCCC agenda; agriculture on the UNFCCC agenda;  • Scenario modelling helps decision makers plan for climate • Scenario modelling helps decision makers plan for climate  change change  "},{"text":"Nairobi Conference and Planning Workshop In May 2010, 172 people attended the Nairobi Conference on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security. Participants came from the public and private sector, and from international, regional and national agencies. The climate and agricultural communities were present and covered the entire researchdevelopment continuum. Keynotes were delivered by the Director General of UNEP, and the Senior Policy Officer in Agricultural Research for Development, DG Development,  "},{"text":"Box 3: The Climate Food and Farming Research Network (CLIFF) CLIFF is a Ph.D. network initiated by CCAFS in collaboration with the Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen. The aim of the network is to generate new and rigorous knowledge, and facilitate the sharing of knowledge on climate change mitigation and related adaption activities in small-scale farming and food systems in developing countries. The aim of the CLIFF network is thus to provide A woman farmer talks about the lack of water and how it made life fragile:  A woman farmer talks about the lack of water and how it made life fragile: the youth are leaving the village and she abandoned her land and has to  the youth are leaving the village and she abandoned her land and has to work as day labourer with great uncertainties for the future. Jamnapur  work as day labourer with great uncertainties for the future. Jamnapur Village, Bihar, India. Photo: P. Casier  Village, Bihar, India. Photo: P. Casier : (1) researchers' capacity to generate  : (1) researchers' capacity to generate knowledge on managing agriculture and food security under a platform for knowledge sharing and knowledge building knowledge on managing agriculture and food security undera platform for knowledge sharing and knowledge building climate change and (2) multiple stakeholders' capacity to for researchers and doctoral students working within the climate change and (2) multiple stakeholders' capacity tofor researchers and doctoral students working within the demand, shape and effectively use this knowledge to develop, following core research themes: demand, shape and effectively use this knowledge to develop,following core research themes: implement and review policy and technical options in a  implement and review policy and technical options in a dynamic environment These stakeholders include members 1. Mitigation potential: Research to evaluate and document dynamic environment These stakeholders include members1. Mitigation potential: Research to evaluate and document of farmers' organizations and other community-based the potential technically and economically feasible GHG of farmers' organizations and other community-basedthe potential technically and economically feasible GHG organizations; frontline extension agents and development abatement potential of various agricultural practices and organizations; frontline extension agents and developmentabatement potential of various agricultural practices and workers; policy makers in civil service departments, technologies and their synergies with adaptation. workers; policy makers in civil service departments,technologies and their synergies with adaptation. parliaments and funding agencies; opinion-formers in civil 2. Monitoring and measuring: Standardized, widely accepted, parliaments and funding agencies; opinion-formers in civil2. Monitoring and measuring: Standardized, widely accepted, society, research organizations, national meteorological credible and scientifically sound methodology to measure society, research organizations, national meteorologicalcredible and scientifically sound methodology to measure services (NMS), university networks and the media; and and monitor reduced GHG emissions at farm and services (NMS), university networks and the media; andand monitor reduced GHG emissions at farm and managers and strategists in businesses and NGOs landscape scale. managers and strategists in businesses and NGOslandscape scale.  3. Incentive systems: Research to investigate how institutional 3. Incentive systems: Research to investigate how institutional Numerous capacity-enhancement activities were initiated arrangements and incentives available through the trade of Numerous capacity-enhancement activities were initiatedarrangements and incentives available through the trade of with researchers to build their capacity to generate research carbon and other GHGs can benefit poor farmers. with researchers to build their capacity to generate researchcarbon and other GHGs can benefit poor farmers. that is directly useful to, and accessible by, policy at multiple  that is directly useful to, and accessible by, policy at multiple levels, with sustainability beyond the span of the CCAFS GHG emissions data for agricultural systems in developing levels, with sustainability beyond the span of the CCAFSGHG emissions data for agricultural systems in developing program Among the more formal activities are the CLIFF countries are notoriously difficult to come by, and universities program Among the more formal activities are the CLIFFcountries are notoriously difficult to come by, and universities Ph D network (Box 3), training in areas such as modelling and students are ideally placed to collect and analyse such Ph D network (Box 3), training in areas such as modellingand students are ideally placed to collect and analyse such and survey techniques, such as for the baseline survey (Box information. By establishing a network of such students and and survey techniques, such as for the baseline survey (Boxinformation. By establishing a network of such students and 4) and paid placements, internships and studentships (e g universities the aim is to collect data from a diverse range of 4) and paid placements, internships and studentships (e guniversities the aim is to collect data from a diverse range of post-doc positions at the University of Leeds and CIAT) In farming systems in developing countries. post-doc positions at the University of Leeds and CIAT) Infarming systems in developing countries. addition, CCAFS has provided many less formal, ad hoc  addition, CCAFS has provided many less formal, ad hoc opportunities for early-career and mid-career scientists from Eight Ph.D. students working on the three themes in China, opportunities for early-career and mid-career scientists fromEight Ph.D. students working on the three themes in China, the three CCAFS regions, such as any support they may need India, Indonesia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Brazil the three CCAFS regions, such as any support they may needIndia, Indonesia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Brazil to attend CCAFS and non-CCAFS meetings or to contribute have, on a competitive basis, received small grants towards to attend CCAFS and non-CCAFS meetings or to contributehave, on a competitive basis, received small grants towards policy findings from previous research For example, three their fieldwork. The students will convene, together with policy findings from previous research For example, threetheir fieldwork. The students will convene, together with young researchers were selected and supported in each of a range of interested parties from Advanced Research young researchers were selected and supported in each ofa range of interested parties from Advanced Research the regions to participate with more senior colleagues in the Institutions, in late 2011, to share learning on research the regions to participate with more senior colleagues in theInstitutions, in late 2011, to share learning on research scenarios development exercises (described for East Africa in methods and deliberate on the next steps for the network. scenarios development exercises (described for East Africa inmethods and deliberate on the next steps for the network. Box 16) www.cliff.life.ku.dk/ Box 16)www.cliff.life.ku.dk/  "},{"text":"Box 4: Building capacity to implement the baseline survey  Survey teams from 12 local partner organizations in three Survey teams from 12 local partner organizations in three regions, and involving more than 50 individuals, were regions, and involving more than 50 individuals, were trained to implement the CCAFS baseline household trained to implement the CCAFS baseline household survey. The partners included NGOs, national research survey. The partners included NGOs, national research agencies and regional research agencies. Training was agencies and regional research agencies. Training was directed at supervisors, enumerators and data clerks, and directed at supervisors, enumerators and data clerks, and covered implementation, data cleaning, data management, covered implementation, data cleaning, data management, and analysis. The survey was then implemented by those and analysis. The survey was then implemented by those partners in 36 sites (252 villages) with 5040 households in 12 partners in 36 sites (252 villages) with 5040 households in 12 countries in East Africa, West Africa and the Indo-Gangetic countries in East Africa, West Africa and the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Plains.  "},{"text":"Box 7: Reducing carbon hoofprints and increasing tropical farming incomes , especially with organizations that communicate directly with farmers, and with global and local media, to capture the attention of policy makers and general interest groups in public, private and civil society sectors Examples of some of these activities that were carried out in 2010 are given below Ag-Clim Letters Ag-Clim Letters Agriculture-Climate Letters is a monthly email that introduces Agriculture-Climate Letters is a monthly email that introduces a key policy topic via an interesting recent paper on a specific a key policy topic via an interesting recent paper on a specific subject in the field of climate change, agriculture and food subject in the field of climate change, agriculture and food security (http://ccafs cgiar org/blog/category/ag-clim-letters) security (http://ccafs cgiar org/blog/category/ag-clim-letters) The bulletin is sent to the CCAFS contacts list, which includes The bulletin is sent to the CCAFS contacts list, which includes policy makers, researchers, development professionals and policy makers, researchers, development professionals and other stakeholders worldwide The first issue of Ag-Clim other stakeholders worldwide The first issue of Ag-Clim (December 2010) was sent to 1327 recipients It was viewed in (December 2010) was sent to 1327 recipients It was viewed in some 60 countries some 60 countries Website and social media Website and social media The CCAFS website launched on 5 July 2010 and has been The CCAFS website launched on 5 July 2010 and has been generating increasing traffic as more information becomes generating increasing traffic as more information becomes available The launch of the CCAFS blog (www ccafs cgiar org/ available The launch of the CCAFS blog (www ccafs cgiar org/ blog) on 18 October 2010 has been particularly important in blog) on 18 October 2010 has been particularly important in encouraging traffic to the site The blog features stories from encouraging traffic to the site The blog features stories from across the program, with contributions from all key partners, across the program, with contributions from all key partners, including farmer testimonials, stories from ongoing research, including farmer testimonials, stories from ongoing research, opinions and commentary, news updates, and features on opinions and commentary, news updates, and features on related topics related topics Philip Thornton and Mario Herrero published a paper in the Philip Thornton and Mario Herrero published a paper in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, entitled journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, entitled \"Potential for reduced methane and carbon dioxide emissions \"Potential for reduced methane and carbon dioxide emissions from livestock and pasture management in the tropics\". The from livestock and pasture management in the tropics\". The paper presents estimates of the potential reductions in methane paper presents estimates of the potential reductions in methane and carbon dioxide emissions from different livestock and and carbon dioxide emissions from different livestock and pasture management options in mixed and rangeland-based pasture management options in mixed and rangeland-based outlets, production systems in the tropics and calculates the impacts of outlets, production systems in the tropics and calculates the impacts of including Deutsche Welle Radio, Reuters, Public Radio adoption of different management options. including Deutsche Welle Radio, Reuters, Public Radio adoption of different management options. International, Bangkok Post (Thailand), and Le Figaro International, Bangkok Post (Thailand), and Le Figaro (France) Several individual interviews were also arranged On the basis of the paper the authors contributed to the (France) Several individual interviews were also arranged On the basis of the paper the authors contributed to the throughout the day, and these included Bangkok Post Global Food Security Blog. The paper resulted in media throughout the day, and these included Bangkok Post Global Food Security Blog. The paper resulted in media (Thailand), Independent Newspapers (South Africa), Mercury coverage across Africa and Europe in at least six languages, (Thailand), Independent Newspapers (South Africa), Mercury coverage across Africa and Europe in at least six languages, Newspaper (South Africa), Public Radio International, including English, Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian, Newspaper (South Africa), Public Radio International, including English, Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian,  "},{"text":" press call and briefing was held in conjunction with the release of the report \"Food Security, Farming, and Climate Change to 2050\". A policy seminar in Cancun was held with a panel consisting of Andrew Steer (VP, World Bank), Sam Bickersteth (DFID) and Lloyd Le Page (CGIAR CEO) to launch the report and several sub-Saharan African country studies.In a separate but related initiative, country reports were prepared for 30 countries. CCAFS provided the data and standard analysis for each country based on the above scenario analysis, with combinations of quantitative drivers resulting in baseline, pessimistic, and optimistic scenarios. Partners from each country provided narrative and additional data and analysis as appropriate and a national stakeholder meeting was held in each country to make the report most useful to national policy makers. The national reports have already been used in program and policy formation. In East Africa, the national meeting in Tanzania was chaired by the Director of National Food Security, and was closed by the Director of Agriculture Environment from the Office of the Vice President. The Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives in Tanzania has regarded the country report as important and it is recognized as a government document. The country author in Tanzania was invited by the Prime Minister's office to make a presentation at the East African Community climate change policy meeting. Media coverage included: Media coverage included: • Guardian (UK): \"Climate change could push staple food • Guardian (UK): \"Climate change could push staple food prices up 130% -study\"; prices up 130% -study\"; • Associated Press: \"UN Climate Conference: Global • Associated Press: \"UN Climate Conference: Global Warming Could Double Food Prices\"; Warming Could Double Food Prices\"; • Science News: \"Food Security Wanes as World Warms\"; • Science News: \"Food Security Wanes as World Warms\"; • IRIN: \"Staple food crops do not want global warming\"; • IRIN: \"Staple food crops do not want global warming\"; • VOA: \"Climate Change: Alleviating Poverty Helps • VOA: \"Climate Change: Alleviating Poverty Helps Developing Countries Adapt\". Developing Countries Adapt\".  "},{"text":"12: Initial development of an analogue methodology and proof of concept for identifying and mapping spatial and temporal analogue sites across the globe CCAFS has supported the first phase of the development of an analogue methodology and proof of concept for identifying and mapping spatial and temporal analogue sites across the globe based on multiple climate projections.  "},{"text":" This dairy farmer in Raipur Gujra, Punjab, India has experienced decreasing milk production due to lack of water and water infrastructure. Enhancing the adaptive capacity of livestock owners in the Indo-Gangetic Plains sites will be crucial. Photo: P. Casier Box 15: Agriculture and Rural Development Day Box 15: Agriculture and Rural Development Day A coalition of agricultural interest groups presented A coalition of agricultural interest groups presented Agriculture and Rural Development Day (ARDD 2009) at Agriculture and Rural Development Day (ARDD 2009) at COP15 in Copenhagen, and a similar coalition then put on COP15 in Copenhagen, and a similar coalition then put on ARDD 2010 at COP16 in Cancun. This coalition is arguably ARDD 2010 at COP16 in Cancun. This coalition is arguably one of the largest in the agricultural world, comprising one of the largest in the agricultural world, comprising international agencies, research providers, national international agencies, research providers, national governments agencies, private sector players, NGOs and governments agencies, private sector players, NGOs and farmer organizations. For example, at COP16 the partnership farmer organizations. For example, at COP16 the partnership involved 19 organisations. CCAFS and the Global Donor involved 19 organisations. CCAFS and the Global Donor Platform for Rural Development were the lead organizing Platform for Rural Development were the lead organizing agencies at both COP15 and COP16. agencies at both COP15 and COP16. As the Platform reported after COP15, significant progress As the Platform reported after COP15, significant progress was made inside and outside the UNFCCC negotiations was made inside and outside the UNFCCC negotiations in relation to agriculture, forestry and food security, even in relation to agriculture, forestry and food security, even though the overall outcome from COP15 was extremely though the overall outcome from COP15 was extremely disappointing. ARDD brought together the \"biggest names disappointing. ARDD brought together the \"biggest names on the global agriculture scene\" as The Ecologist reported on the global agriculture scene\" as The Ecologist reported (Dec 14). ARDD was the first full-day focus on agriculture (Dec 14). ARDD was the first full-day focus on agriculture in conjunction with a UN Climate Change Conference. Jeff in conjunction with a UN Climate Change Conference. Jeff Sayer, The International Union for Conservation of Nature Sayer, The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), noted: \"Agriculture day was playing catch-up and (IUCN), noted: \"Agriculture day was playing catch-up and used science to argue -apparently successfully -for used science to argue -apparently successfully -for remedying the present lack of attention given to agriculture remedying the present lack of attention given to agriculture in the climate change negotiations\". ARDD aimed to build in the climate change negotiations\". ARDD aimed to build consensus on ways to fully incorporate agriculture into the consensus on ways to fully incorporate agriculture into the post-Copenhagen climate agenda and to discuss strategies post-Copenhagen climate agenda and to discuss strategies and actions needed to address climate change adaptation and actions needed to address climate change adaptation and mitigation in the agriculture sector. and mitigation in the agriculture sector. The workshop and subsequent field work has initiated a The workshop and subsequent field work has initiated a process of reflection in the projects that has strengthened process of reflection in the projects that has strengthened the outlook of each initiative, through learning how other the outlook of each initiative, through learning how other projects have navigated different circumstances to succeed. projects have navigated different circumstances to succeed. It also highlighted training needs, analysed the different It also highlighted training needs, analysed the different conditions for smallholder participation in C projects and conditions for smallholder participation in C projects and benefits sharing, and drew useful lessons for taking some benefits sharing, and drew useful lessons for taking some initiatives to scale. One of the participating agencies, CARE, initiatives to scale. One of the participating agencies, CARE, is using the process of this research to roll out a new initiative is using the process of this research to roll out a new initiative in Nyando District of Kenya. CARE is partly depending on this in Nyando District of Kenya. CARE is partly depending on this work to ensure smallholders share benefits equitably. work to ensure smallholders share benefits equitably. More: www.ccafs.cgiar.org/our-work/research-themes/pro- More: www.ccafs.cgiar.org/our-work/research-themes/pro- poor-mitigation/agricultural-carbon-projects-africa poor-mitigation/agricultural-carbon-projects-africa  "},{"text":"List of CCAFS staff   Annex 2: List of Steering Committee members Annex 2: List of Steering Committee members Coordinating Unit • Thomas Rosswall (Sweden), Chair Coordinating Unit• Thomas Rosswall (Sweden), Chair • Bruce Campbell, Director • Takeshi Horie, National Agricultural and Food Research • Bruce Campbell, Director• Takeshi Horie, National Agricultural and Food Research • Torben Timmermann, Head of Program Coordination and Organization (NARO) (Japan) • Torben Timmermann, Head of Program Coordination andOrganization (NARO) (Japan) Communications • Pramod Joshi, National Academy of Agricultural Research Communications• Pramod Joshi, National Academy of Agricultural Research • Sonja Vermeulen, Head of Research Management, Hyderabad (India) • Sonja Vermeulen, Head of ResearchManagement, Hyderabad (India) • Misha Wolsgaard-Iversen, Program Manager • Thierry Lebel, Laboratoire d'étude des Transferts en • Misha Wolsgaard-Iversen, Program Manager• Thierry Lebel, Laboratoire d'étude des Transferts en  Hydrologie et Environnement (LTHE) (France) Hydrologie et Environnement (LTHE) (France) Theme Leaders • Holger Meinke, Tasmanian Institute of Agricultural Research Theme Leaders• Holger Meinke, Tasmanian Institute of Agricultural Research • Philip Thornton, Theme Leader 1, ILRI (TIAR) and the School of Agricultural Science at the • Philip Thornton, Theme Leader 1, ILRI(TIAR) and the School of Agricultural Science at the • Gerald Nelson, Theme Leader 2, IFPRI University of Tasmania (UTAS) (Australia) • Gerald Nelson, Theme Leader 2, IFPRIUniversity of Tasmania (UTAS) (Australia) • Patti Kristjanson, Theme Leader 3, ICRAF • Mary Scholes, School of Animal Plant & Environmental • Patti Kristjanson, Theme Leader 3, ICRAF• Mary Scholes, School of Animal Plant & Environmental • James Hansen, Theme Leader 4, Columbia University Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, (South Africa) • James Hansen, Theme Leader 4, Columbia UniversitySciences, University of the Witwatersrand, (South Africa) • Andrew Challinor, Theme Leader 5a, University of Leeds • Rashid Hassan, University of Pretoria (South Africa), • Andrew Challinor, Theme Leader 5a, University of Leeds• Rashid Hassan, University of Pretoria (South Africa), • Andrew Jarvis, Theme Leader 5b, CIAT resigned in late 2010 on appointment to the newly formed • Andrew Jarvis, Theme Leader 5b, CIATresigned in late 2010 on appointment to the newly formed • Eva Wollenberg , Theme Leader 6, University of Vermont Independent Science and Partnership Council (ISPC) of the • Eva Wollenberg , Theme Leader 6, University of VermontIndependent Science and Partnership Council (ISPC) of the  CGIAR Funders Council CGIAR Funders Council Regional Program Leaders • Rik Leemans (Netherlands), ex officio, ESSP Regional Program Leaders• Rik Leemans (Netherlands), ex officio, ESSP • Pramod Aggarwal, Regional Program Leader, Indo-Gangetic • Stephen Hall (UK), ex officio, CGIAR • Pramod Aggarwal, Regional Program Leader, Indo-Gangetic• Stephen Hall (UK), ex officio, CGIAR Plains (IGP), IWMI  Plains (IGP), IWMI • James Kinyangi, Regional Program Leader, East Africa, ILRI  • James Kinyangi, Regional Program Leader, East Africa, ILRI • Robert Zougmoré, Regional Program Leader, West Africa,  • Robert Zougmoré, Regional Program Leader, West Africa, ICRISAT  ICRISAT  "}],"sieverID":"db717959-132b-4b1d-bda4-dcc803e2d5d6","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03e7e8bbe4e115cc02730be4f480400f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/1590/1100.pdf"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Genetic quality of cultured tilapia stocks in Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Quality of Current Stocks","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"African aquaculture has for many years been dominated by small-scale producers who purchase few inputs, relying almost exclusively on family labor and composts or manures that can be found on the farm. The species most commonly produced is Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), fingerlings of which are usually obtained from friends or neighbors. The typical practice is to sell or eat all fish of a certain minimum size, leaving smaller individuals to be either sold as fingerlings to other farmers or restocked to continue growing. In the case of tilapia, only some of these small fish are actually fingerlings, many being small, sexually mature adults. Such selection for small adults amounts to inadvertent selection for slow growth and/or early sexual maturation (Doyle 1983) and can lead to declines of up to 20 percent in growth rate within six generations, or less than three years (Silliman 1975)."},{"index":2,"size":352,"text":"Even in hatcheries, the situation is little better. Smallscale fingerling production in Africa is typically based on earthen ponds between 50 and 500 m 2 , with or without some kind of hatchery building (Figure 1). Into these ponds are stocked various numbers and sex ratios of male and female tilapia of mixed sizes and genetic backgrounds. New broodfish are expensive, difficult and sometimes illegal to aquire, so individuals seeking them often resort to obtaining minimal numbers, thus building low genetic diversity into their production systems from the outset (Eknath 1991). Often the effective number of broodfish that contribute to each subsequent generation (N e ) is far less than the 100-150 pairs needed to maintain healthy genetic variability (Smitherman and Tave 1987). Even when the numbers are sufficient, simply stocking 100 males and 100 females into a brood pond will not solve the problem. Inasmuch as male tilapia are highly territorial and competitive for mates, only about 30 percent of males (the most aggressive; not necessarily the fastest growing) dominate the fertilization of the females (Fessehaye et al. 2006). Without some method of ensuring that all males are represented, N e will still be too low. Declines in growth performance are often associated with such loss of genetic diversity (Table 1). Typically, genetic variability of fish held in small-scale African hatcheries is 40-70 percent less than for wild populations (Table 1). These levels of loss are associated with growth rate declines on the order of 12-40 percent compared to wild stocks. In addition, response to selective breeding (see below) can be reduced by up to a third by even moderate reduction of genetic variation (Bentsen and Olesen 2002). Heritability (h 2 ) for growth in tilapia is naturally low to moderate, averaging less than 20 percent and can easily be swamped by low N e (ICLARM/ UNDP 1998). Even with the relatively low fish production in Africa, a 20 percent decline in growth rate represents lost production on the order of 80,000 t, with associated lost profits on the order of US$200 million per year to Africa's fish farmers (FAO 2000)."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Large farms are not immune to the problems of deteriorating genetic quality. Largely out of ignorance, rather than lack of capital, larger-scale fish farms have both inbreeding and outcrossing problems. Not only are most large hatcheries based on the same type of open pond spawning system used by small-scale hatcheries, they also tend to import stocks and species from other farms and countries. The Baobab Fish Farm Kenya, for example, until recently (they are Table 1. Documented erosion of genetic variability and growth performance among African hatchery tilapia populations."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• Introgression O. macrochir into O. niloticus reduced growth 20% (Micha et al. 1996) • Backcrossing 3 generations of red hybrids lowers reproduction 4"},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"• Well-managed stock 12% better than small hatcheries (Morissens et al. 1996) • Genetic variability down 50% in small hatchery stock (Morissens et al. 1996) • Wild fish 43% more genetic variability than small hatcheries (Pouyard and Agnese 1996)"},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"• 50% loss of genetic variability in small hatchery stocks (Agustin et al. 1997) • Wild populations better than African hatchery stocks (Eknath et al. 1993) • 70% loss of genetic variability among hatchery stocks (Ambali et al. 1999) • 50% less growth in hatchery Vs Lake Victoria stocks 5"},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"• 40% decline in growth of stocks held on small-scale farms (Brummett et al. 2006) now "}]},{"head":"Genetic Improvement Strategies","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"While difficult, proper management of captive tilapia genetic resources is not impossible. In those few cases where the genetic diversity of hatchery stocks has been systematically managed either through the use of large effective breeding numbers, rotational mating or controlled outcrossing, growth rates equal or exceed those of natural populations (Pauly et al. 1988). In addition, organized selective breeding can, if properly conducted, lead to increases in growth rate of 16-70 percent per generation (Jarimopas 1990, Rognon and Guyomard 1996, Vreven et al. 1998)."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"That improvements in genetic quality can increase production is unarguable. To be profitable at all, crop agriculture relies heavily on improved varieties. However, how these improvements are made can have a large impact on the rate of progress and who benefits and how. There are two general approaches to improving the genetic quality of fish raised in aquaculture: 1. Import an exotic species or improved variety developed elsewhere (centralized approach)."}]},{"head":"Locally develop a new species or variety (decentralized approach).","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Agricultural research and development has long relied on the option of domesticating or breeding a new variety in a central location and then subsequently disseminating seed or broodstock. This approach requires the international and often intercontinental transfer of genetic material thus risking both negative environmental impacts and the possibility of genotype by environment (G X E) interaction, which renders improved genotypes less competitive in culture systems that differ from those under which they were bred."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"The major advantage of the centralized approach is that complicated technologies can be more easily managed in larger, more sophisticated facilities. Breeding progress is faster. For example, the Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT) strain of O. niloticus developed by ICLARM, the Asian Development Bank and the United Nations Development Program in the Philippines and Malaysia grows 20-70 percent faster than most captive O. niloticus strains (ADB 2005). However, in Thailand and China, GIFT exhibit signs of G X E interaction and are not substantially superior to locally adapted and bred strains under certain conditions. GIFT was produced in four years while the strains in Thailand and China were slowly selected over 30 and 20 years, respectively (ICLARM 1998)."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"Decentralized genetic improvement normally takes longer than the centralized approach. Decentralization requires more people to be involved and is consequently less efficient in terms of capital use. It also tends to be more difficult to implement within the short-term projects preferred by government. On the other hand, one of the key constraints to improved ge-netic management of African aquaculture species is the lack of high quality human resources and hatchery infrastructure. Without the capacity to undertake proper management and breeding, the potential gains inherent in a new strain will be quickly lost. The on-the-job training opportunities created by decentralized genetic improvement projects is an excellent means of creating both new strains for culture and the capacity to manage them at the same time."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"For indigenous or feral (alien species already established in the wild) species, there are ready reserves of broodstock well-adapted to local environmental and climatic conditions. If those populations are large enough (over 1,000 randomly breeding individuals) they will usually be more genetically diverse than captive populations. If new wild or feral broodfish were regularly outcrossed into hatchery populations to maintain genetic diversity at natural levels, the performance of most captive tilapia populations, even those with low N e , could be enhanced."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"It should be reiterated that the relatively low-cost option of maintaining genetic variation through outcrossing to local wild populations exists, most typically, only for indigenous species, making a strong argument against the importation of aliens as a simple solution to poor performance in culture. Even if the alien species in question outgrow local species at the time of introduction, without careful genetic management they will deteriorate with the resulting need to repeatedly import new broodfish."}]},{"head":"Risks of Using Improved Lines in Africa","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"As part of the domestication process that has produced all of the strains used in modern animal husbandry and as the result of relatively new initiatives to selectively breed tilapia, a number of tilapia populations housed on fish farms outside Africa have been improved, sometimes considerably so, as compared to the wild African stocks from which they were derived. For example, GIFT, which have been maintained in captivity in Asia by professional geneticists and selectively bred since the late 1980s, has a growth rate at least 60 percent, and even 100 percent in some cases better than most cultured stocks, and now reaches over 800 g in 10 months under good conditions. Despite a certain loss in genetic diversity as a result of the selection process, rates of gain in performance per generation remain in excess of 10 percent."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"There are currently insufficient data available on tilapia ecology and/or genetic diversity to permit fully informed decision-making with regard to the potential negative impacts on wild African tilapia stocks of bringing back or developing new improved strains. However, in general, the debate over the use of genetically modified fishes, either naturally through selective breeding or through the use of transgenetic techniques, has become global and includes a large number of case studies from, especially, Europe and North America. Whether or not those data are sufficient to adequately assess the risks involved in the use of selected tilapia strains for aquaculture is debatable."},{"index":3,"size":227,"text":"Genetic Introgression. That cultured populations of indigenous species, such as caged Atlantic salmon in Europe, will escape and breed with wild fish is undeniable. Huge negative affects of the accidental escape of cultured salmon and/or the purposeful introduction of hatchery stocks on wild salmon runs have been repeatedly documented (Utter andEpifanio 2002, McGinnity et al. 2003). The main cause of those declines has been through the process of genetic introgression; that is, the migration of genes from the captive population into the wild population through interbreeding. Mixing the genomes of captive fish that are specifically adapted to a hatchery environment with those that are specifically adapted to a particular river, or by increasing the relative percentage of genes from one subset of a wild popu-lation into a river or lake, the overall degree of adaptation or fitness of the wild population could be reduced (Ryman 1991). The magnitude of this problem is proportional to: 1. The degree and importance of the adaptation of the wild population to the waterbody in question. In cases where only a narrow range of genotypes can survive in a particular waterbody, the genetic base (variability) of the fish population narrows, rendering the wild population vulnerable to environmental changes, one of which is the presence of large numbers of fish of other genotypes. 2. The relative sizes of the captive and wild populations."},{"index":4,"size":168,"text":"In cases where relatively small (<10,000 individuals) wild fish populations that are highly adapted to a particular river or lake are inundated by hundreds of thousands of stocked or escaped fish, such as is the case for many wild runs of Atlantic salmon, the consequences of the reduction in fitness can be catastrophic and may ultimately result in the extinction of the wild genome, even in cases where the total number of fish in the waterbody has actually increased (McGinnity et al. 2003). 3. The degree of difference between the genomes of the wild and captive populations. The more distant the relationship between the introduced and wild genomes, the greater could be the reduction in fitness. 4. The goals of having captive and wild populations in the same stream. If preservation of the indigenous genome is considered of primary importance, the increased number of fish in a particular waterbody as a result of stocking or escapes may be of less interest than the relative fitness of the population."},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":"In the case of small, highly adapted, with relatively narrow genetic diversity Atlantic salmon runs, the risk of introducing large numbers of less well adapted hatchery fish has been shown to reduce whole lifetime population fitness, at least in the short term (McGinnity et al. 2003). On the other hand, long-term and large-scale releases of marine fish fingerlings in an effort to enhance relatively large and genetically diverse species such as cod, redfish and red sea bream have generally failed to produce any noticeable change in productivity (Utter and Epifanio 2002)."},{"index":6,"size":78,"text":"Incidences of ecological disruption resulting from, or in conjunction with, the introduction of Oreochromiines have been widely if not thoroughly documented (Lever 1996, Canonico et al. 2005). The introduction of any strain of O. niloticus to places where it currently is not should, therefore, be undertaken with the utmost caution. Inasmuch as most captive populations eventually find their way into the wild, the transfer and culture of O. niloticus into new watersheds would be wisely avoided (Figure 2)."},{"index":7,"size":145,"text":"However, the principal debate between wildlife conservationists and fish farmers with regard to the importation of domesticated tilapia species to Africa revolves around the danger of genetic introgression with wild populations that probably contain genetic diversity of important adaptive significance that is lacking in captive stocks. Nevertheless, there are substantial and important differences between Atlantic salmon (for which the majority of documented cases of genetic erosion have been published) and tilapia (Table 2).    (Continued on page 70) While it must be stressed that there is no compelling empirical evidence arguing either for or against the possibility of negative impacts resulting from the introgression of captive tilapia strains into indigenous populations, the substantial differences between tilapia and salmon, upon which most of the concerns over genetic erosion are based, imply that the risks of introducing improved tilapia specifically for aquaculture might be significantly less than feared."},{"index":8,"size":71,"text":"for example) by farmers trying to protect their investments. 3. In terms of growth performance, hatchery populations of tilapia are 40-60 percent different from wild populations, at least in terms of growth rate. 4. Food security and economic growth in impoverished communities are key concerns. In addition to the ethical issues involved, failure to address food security needs probably increases the threats to biodiversity posed by overfishing and the bushmeat trade."},{"index":9,"size":77,"text":"Only number three gives substantial cause for concern. If, for example, there are serious threats to a tilapia population of particular significance for local capture fisheries or of special value as a locally adapted race, the rather large difference between captive and wild fishes could represent a real danger. On the other hand, the dangers associated with these genetic differences are proportional to the absolute value of the difference, not whether the difference is positive or negative."},{"index":10,"size":100,"text":"At present, hatchery populations across Africa differ substantially, mostly negatively, from wild populations. From Figure 3, it can be seen that the difference between the threat of introducing an improved strain (GIFT in this example) is not measurable in terms of risk, but in time (8-10 years in this case). That is, if an African hatchery either begins breeding its own improved line, or if the current negative situation continues, whatever the absolute danger to wild populations may be, it will be eventually realized regardless of whether or not GIFT are imported. It is mostly just a matter of time."},{"index":11,"size":198,"text":"There are two additional realities that should not be ignored when making decisions about conservation 3 of indigenous tilapia biodiversity in Africa: 1. O. niloticus has been repeatedly introduced into thousands of water bodies throughout the African continent since at least the 1940s. Many of those introductions have resulted in the establishment of feral populations. 2. Commercial fish farmers, who are facing increasing competition in both local and international markets from foreign producers using improved strains of tilapia, have in the past made illegal introductions and, confronted with the demise of their businesses, may well resort to such tactics in future. Regardless of whether existing improved breeds are imported, local hatcheries breed their own local strains or nothing is done at all, risks to the environment and the livelihoods of local people are unavoidable. However, prior to introducing or developing improved lines of tilapia for aquaculture, a careful cost/benefit analysis and risk assessment following the recommendations of the Nairobi Declaration on the Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity and Use of Genetically Improved and Alien Species for Aquaculture in Africa and similar policy instruments (available on-line at: http://www.worldfishcenter.org/cms/list_article. aspx?catID=39&ddlID=109) made within the prevailing ecological and socio-economic contexts should be conducted."}]},{"head":"Notes","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"1 WorldFish Centre, BP 2008, Yaoundé, Cameroon 2 Fergus Flynn, Kafue Fish Farm, Personal Communication, September 2003  3 Pullin (2000) promoted the definition of \"conservation\" as \"management and sustainable use\" as opposed to \"preservation\" in which no use is envisaged. 4 Behrends pers comm, 1985 5 Gregory pers comm. 2003"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. A typical small-scale tilapia hatchery in Cameroon, comprised of 23 small ponds of 10-150 m 2 selling an average of 5,000 tilapia per month based on feral O. niloticus broodfish captured from the Sanaga River. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Oreochromis andersonii, a fast-growing and docile tilapia native to the upper Zambezi is being threatened by rampant introduction of O. niloticus for aquaculture. "},{"text":"Tilapia• Fig. 3. Theoretical trajectories of hatchery populations under various management regimes, relative to a hypothetical panmictic wild population from which they were derived. "},{"text":" no longer operating) grew a hybrid strain of O. niloticus, O. spilurus and O. mossambicus. Kafue Fish Farm in Zambia maintains stocks of O. niloticus, O. andersonii, O. aureus and gets wild O. mortermeri and O,s macrochir from the Kafue River. All of these easily cross with each other and perform less well than the original O. andersonii stock. 2  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Comparison of key biological and ecological traits of salmon and tilapia.  "}],"sieverID":"67dd75e4-7b7d-42c4-bd49-01961294bb18","abstract":"African aquaculture is poised for rapid expansion. Local and international markets for the Oreochromiine tilapia species in particular have been growing in the face of dramatic declines in marine and inland capture fisheries, growth of human populations in developing countries and increases in wealth and health consciousness. One of the key constraints holding back growth of the sector is the poor quality of the fish stocks available for culture."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04095e9cd74212813b0c5cc7b673a27d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3e2ed2b-4324-463d-9a64-f092e4117ce5/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"IPMS Environmental Screening Report","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"current commercialisation efforts both the area under this crop and the quantity produced is believed to increase over time. Improvement in quantity and quality of haricot bean is however possible if the export type variety is accompanied with improved management practices. Currently, exporters are interested with the Red Wolyta land races. As a result, they are fetching good prices in the market. Therefore, focus will not only be on the white varieties but also on the local land races as well. IPMS will support the wereda OoARD in order to improve the commercialisation of this crop."}]},{"head":"Enhancement of irrigation water use for Horticultural Development","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"There are 2 Rivers in the Alaba. However, the area under irrigation is very small compared to the potential. Using these irrigation schemes, farmers could grow different vegetables and fruits. Currently, there are 3 horticulture nurseries in the wereda where different fruits and vegetables are tested, multiplied and distributed. IPMS will support the wereda OoARD in order to enhance efficient irrigation use in the wereda. In the process of growing the vegetables and fruits however, minimum amount of agrochemicals will be used. Use of irrigation and agrochemicals will be during the dry season when the volume of river water is low. With the expansion of irrigation, concentration of agrochemicals may be increased. As these crops will be grown along the rivers, care should be made in order to minimise pollution of rivers by these agrochemicals. This is because humans and livestock in the down stream areas within and outside of the wereda and the fauna in the rivers will be affected."}]},{"head":"Cultivation with Agrochemicals","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Herbicides are widely used in Alaba. The commercialization and expansion of haricot bean could also enhance the use both herbicides and pesticides. Expansion of this and other crops will require a more modest use of agrochemicals."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Unlike other highlands, cow dung is mainly used for fertilizations purposes. The current introduction of enset (false banana) into the farming systems would also lead to application of large amount of manure."}]},{"head":"Use of Livestock Veterinary Drugs and Chemicals","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The improved small ruminant production will be accompanied by the modest utilisation of veterinary drugs and chemicals. Fattening sheep and goats is becoming important livelihoods in the area because of the bigger size, particularly the sheep. IPMS will support the wereda OoARD in order to expand this effort. It is intended that these drugs and chemicals will be supplied by private suppliers in and around three Farmer Training Centres, the volume depending on the demand."}]},{"head":"Expansion of pepper Production","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Pepper is a dominant crop and is mainly grown from land races under rainfed conditions. Pepper produced in Alaba is marked in far away places as Dessie in the north and Dire Dawa in the east of the country, including the Addis Ababa market. Even though seasonal variabilities determine, productivity of pepper, it is usually around 8-10 qt/ha. Alaba is very flat in its topography; however, land preparation is often made by oxen while hoe is often used for weeding. In the pepper dominated PAs, it is common for farmers to grow pepper in 0.25-0.5 ha. Pepper seedbeds are normally located around residential areas. However, pepper fields could be as far as 1 km away from the house. The small rains are used for raising seedling at nursery (seedbed preparation and raising seedling in the nursery), which extend from mid February to mid March. IPMS will support the introduction high yielding disease free/resistant pepper varieties to the area."}]},{"head":"Description of Alaba Woreda","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":234,"text":"Alaba is located 310 km south of Addis Ababa and about 85 km southwest of Awasa, the capital of Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples Regional (SNNPR). There are 73 peasant and 2 urban associations. In 2004/05, the total number of rural households in the 73 peasant associations (PA) was 35,719. Out of these, 26,698 (75%) are men and 9,021 (25%) were women households. During the same year, the total woreda population was 210,243, while economically active population (15-55 years of age) was 102,176 which is about 49% of the total population. Shortage and poor distribution of rainfall are major limiting factors in agricultural production in Alaba. Consequently, it is one of the woredas in SNNPR where drought is recurrently affecting many households. Agroecologically, the woreda is classified as Weina Dega (intermediate highland). The annual rainfall varies from 857 to 1085 mm and is bimodal where the small rain falls between March and April while the main rain falls from July to September. Reliability of the small rains is very low that farmers only raise pepper seedlings to be transplanted in the main rains. However, during the main rains, all crops grown in the area are planted, including maize, teff, wheat, pepper, haricot bean, sorghum and millet. The woreda experiences crop failures almost every 3 years. Annual mean temperatures vary from 17 O C to 20 O C with mean value of 18 O C."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Most of the woreda is found at about 1800 metres above sea level (m asl), but ranges from 1554 to 2149 m asl. Except for small hills, the topography is suitable for agriculture. However, flooding is a major problem and wide areas are affected."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Major soils in the woreda are Andosol (Ferralic, Orthic), Chromic Luvisols (Orthic), Phaeozem (Orthic), Solonchak (Orthic). The most dominant soil is Andosol (Orthic) followed by Phaeozems (Ortic) and Chromic Luivisols (Orthic). The soils are relatively fertile and during good rains farmers can harvest good yield even without fertilizer application."},{"index":4,"size":162,"text":"Vegetative cover is very low because of long history of agriculture and high population. Erosion hazards from steep slops are enormous. Huge gullies are observed towards the southern end of the woreda, where soil is totally removed beyond recovery. This is aggravated due to easily detachability of the soils. Even though there were some efforts on soil and water conservation (SWC) over the last twenty years, these efforts have yielded minimal benefits. Many NGOs were involved in SWC efforts in the woreda. Currently, there are about 7500 ha under area closure in Alaba. The commonly observed remnant tree species in the farm lands are Acacia species, Cordia africana, Croton spp. and Eucalyptus spp. Around Babisa mountain, there are about 540 ha covered with eucalyptus. These trees were planted by Food for Hungry International (FHI) about 20 years ago. However, the area which is under the trees is deprived of under cover. This has contributed to formation of extensive gullies in the area."},{"index":5,"size":208,"text":"Effort in the use of irrigation water is recent even though there are 4 rivers. The biggest among these rivers is Bilate. This river is the source irrigation water for many farming families and commercial farms south of Alaba woreda. However, the use of this river in this woreda is minimal. Currently, there are two irrigation sites developed through funds from International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) and World Vision-Ethiopia. These irrigation schemes, Bedene Alem Tena and Lebeko irrigation schemes are using Bilate and Ebala rivers, respectively. Bedene irrigation scheme irrigates 225 ha and supports 300 farm households while, Lebeko irrigation scheme irrigates 25 ha and supports 75 farm families. Maize, pepper and onion are major crops grown using the irrigation schemes. On the other hand, livestock feeds like Rhodes grass, cowpea and others are also grown. Recent studies have indicated that two additional areas (Jejebicho dam and Lobe Chore pond) which could be developed with a total potential irrigable area of 155 ha. Community managed ponds are common but the new household level water harvesting schemes are also wide spread. About twenty years ago, domestic and livestock sources of drinking water were scarce. This could be attributed mainly to the deep water tables as sources of water."},{"index":6,"size":115,"text":"Livestock are a major source of farm power, cash income and energy (some households) in Alaba. Among the livestock, donkey is the main source of power for transporting water for both domestic and livestock. It is also used for transporting other goods for the rural households. In Alaba livestock suffer from feed shortages. Free grazing and use of supplemental crop residues are the major sources of livestock feed. Sale of butter, especially after the rains help earn additional income for women. In addition to the shortage of feed resources, many livestock diseases are also reported. The common animal diseases reported include, anthrax, blackleg, internal and external parasites. Farmers spend major resources for treating their livestock."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"There are no natural forests in the PLW. Vegetation on the mountain slopes consists mainly of bushes and shrubs and sometimes eucalyptus. Acacia woodlands are found in some parts of the alluvial plain."},{"index":8,"size":8,"text":"Fauna is limited mainly to the mountainous areas."},{"index":9,"size":31,"text":"Cultural sites are principally mosques, churches and burial grounds, which will remain unaffected by the project. It is not considered likely that there are unregistered significant cultural sites in the PLW."}]},{"head":"Existing Environmental Issues","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The principal environmental issues in the PLW are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":" Shortage and poor distribution of rainfall is a problem affecting productivity of crops and livestock."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":" Malaria is one of the major diseases affecting many households."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":" Majority of the wereda is flat and flooding is a major problem in Alaba. This is because of poor vegetative cover, erratic rains and soil crusting effects. Flooded areas are extensive and effects could sometimes be very high. The effect is not only limited to poor crop and livestock productivity but it also creates conducive environment for malaria to breed and increase incidences of water borne diseases."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":" Even though majority of the wereda is flat, erosion and water retention of soils is very poor. This is because of Soil crusting (pan formation). This pan formation is a result of the nature of the soil and continuous cultivation. Hence, poor crop productivity is common."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":" Grazing lands are privately owned. However, over grazing is wide spread. The size of the grazing land is much smaller in proportion to the number of livestock."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":" Water tables are very low and range from 140 to 360 m in most places. Hence, it is difficult to use ground water for domestic use, crop and livestock production."}]},{"head":"Environmental Effects and Public Concerns associated with Planned Initiatives","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Table (i) sets out:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":" Possible negative environmental impacts before the introduction of mitigating measures;  Planned mitigating measures;  Expected negative environmental impacts after implementation of mitigating measures."}]},{"head":"Notes","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":" It should be noted new crop varieties will be limited to those produced and approved by government public bodies, notably the Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE) and the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR). No varieties involving any form of genetic engineering, or likely to introduce new environmental impacts, will be introduced."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":" Expanded cultivation of vegetables will be accompanied by organic fertilizer and composting programmes, thus producing a positive environmental impact. However, minimum amount of agrochemicals may also be used while appropriate mitigating measures will be in place."}]},{"head":"Public Concerns","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"There is no public concern regarding IPMS's initiatives, but flooding and related effects are major public concerns in the area."}]},{"head":"Project Phases","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"Table (i) relates to the operations phase of the project. There is no pre-construction phase, construction or closure phase. Accidents and malfunctions are covered within the Integrated Pesticide Management (IPM) Plan."}]},{"head":"Table (i) incorporates both direct and indirect impacts.","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Significance of Adverse Environmental Effects (after implementation of Mitigating Measures)","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"No significant adverse effects are likely."}]},{"head":"Mitigation Measures","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Technically and economically feasible mitigation measures are set out in (i) As a result of unwise use of agrochemicals onto rivers human and animal health down stream will be affected."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"(ii) It will also affect the fauna in the rivers (iii) Excessive application of irrigation water may result in salinity of soils."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"(iv) Extensive use of irrigztionr by upper stream farmers may deprive/ reduce available water to farmers in the low lying areas during the dry season."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"(i) Uncontrolled or careless use of agrochemicals may pollute the groundwater, resulting in health hazards for human and animal life, and may pose a hazard for bees."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"(i) Uncontrolled or careless use of livestock veterinary drugs or chemicals may pollute the groundwater, resulting in health hazards for human and animal life (ii) As a result of improved health conditions of livestock, the number may increase and hence enhance overgrazing of natural pastures."},{"index":6,"size":57,"text":"(i) There are markets also appearing for the Red Wolayta types and hence the likelihood of this land race to be eroded is very low. On the other hand, experts in the Wereda OoARD will also monitor and make sure that there is a balanced production of these crops (improved varieties and land races) in the wereda."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"(i)Training will be given to farmers, NRM, agronomists, horticulturists and environment experts on the side effects of excessive use agrochemicals on rivers."},{"index":8,"size":61,"text":"(ii) Use of appropriate irrigation technologies can address problems of salinity and equity (i) An Integrated Pesticide Management (IPM) plan covering use of a combination of natural methods and agrochemicals will be drawn up and implemented, covering acquisition, application, accidents, storage and disposal of agrochemicals. In addition, the location of use will take into account proximity to PAs dependent on apiculture."},{"index":9,"size":98,"text":"(i) Drugs and Chemicals Management plan will be drawn up and implemented, covering acquisition, application, accidents, storage and disposal of livestock veterinary drugs and chemicals. (ii) Livestock marketing is being enhanced in the country. It is therefore expected that take off by the market will be increased and intensive livestock management will be encouraged. As a result overgrazing will not be a problem (iii) Through enhanced community based sustainable veterinary service delivery mechanism, enhanced awareness and market linkages, it will improve production of marketable livestock while maintaining a balance between the environment and sustainable livelihood of farm families"}]},{"head":"Likely Impacts (after mitigating measures)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"After implementation of mitigating measures, no adverse environmental impacts are expected."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"After implementation of mitigating measures, no adverse environmental impacts are expected."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"After implementation of mitigating measures, no adverse environmental impacts are expected."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"After implementation of mitigating measures, no adverse environmental impacts are expected."}]},{"head":"Cumulative or Interactive Environmental Effects","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"The following potential long-term cumulative effects could be postulated:"}]},{"head":"Ratio of Cash:Food Crop Production","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"If the cultivation of cash crops becomes so popular that cash crops come to displace food crops to a significant extent, this could produce an imbalance that might lead to food shortages within, or outside, the PLW. However, the wereda Agriculture Office and the Regional Food Security Bureau have planning systems to address such a trend before it becomes a problem. There are many NGOs and even FAO working on food security which could also be supporting the wereda with this regard."}]},{"head":"Loss of Species Diversity","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Uncontrolled adoption of throughout the PLW and beyond of a newly introduced improved white haricot bean and pepper varieties could lead to a situation whereby the genetic base of the crop concerned is unduly narrowed. This could mean, for example, that in the event of an outbreak of disease, there is very narrow genetic base where very few/no alternative strains will be available. It is thus recommended that the regional or wereda agricultural office should monitor production rates of new crop varieties, and should liaise with the Biodiversity Institute to ensure that the gene banks contain alternative varieties 2 ."}]},{"head":"Urban Zero-Grazing","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The Project is supporting and encouraging zero-grazing in the less densely populated rural areas. The zero-grazing being promoted means reduced grazing and often less livestock numbers which is generally environmentally beneficial. It may however lead to uncontrolled adoption of zero-grazing in high-density urban areas, with resultant health hazards, noise and smell pollution. To avoid this happening, the project will liaise with the urban Public Health authority and will include their representative in training workshops, in order that any regulations controlling the keeping of cattle in the urban areas are recognized and enforced."}]},{"head":"Effects of the Environment on the Project","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Drought","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Extended periods of drought would affect farm household livelihoods by reducing food and feed availability. However, the encouragement of individual water harvesting ponds and river diversion schemes are designed to offset such eventualities."}]},{"head":"Flooding","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Alaba is mostly flat and flooding is a major problem. In addition, it, is poorly vegetated, rainfall is usually erratic and soils form crust and enhance erosion and hence flooding. Flooded areas are sometimes extensive and effects become very high. The effect is not only limited to poor crop and livestock productivity but also creates conducive environment for malaria to breed and increase incidences of water borne diseases. However, there are efforts under way to reduce this. Currently, reclamation of about 7000 ha abandoned land has made. This will reduce effects of flooding through increased vegetation cover and hence water infiltration. In addition, training on improved land management tools (in situ water harvesting, minimum tillage, etc.) has been given and implementation of these tools in selected areas is expected soon. These are all expected to contribute to reduced flooding in the long term."}]},{"head":"Nature of Public Participation","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"There has been extensive public participation in the design of the IPMS interventions in this PLW, including a two-day workshop on 27-28, April 2005. In addition, a number of training sessions for farmers and Development Agents (DAs) and visits to various areas for training purposes have been conducted since the launching of the project. The public concern expressed about possible eruption of the wetlands has been addressed (see Table (i))."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Issues and discussion points provided in public participation workshops are included in this EASR as the writer of this report was part of this exercise. In addition, consultation of other IPMS staff in both Addis and Alaba was made and referred to in Section 10 below."}]},{"head":"Follow-up Program","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"A follow-up program to ensure that the recommended mitigating measures are implemented as required will be conducted by the staff of the Environment and Natural Resources Unit in the wereda agricultural office, with support from IPMS as required."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table ( i) Matrix of Mitigating Measures and Likely Impacts after taking Mitigating Measures into account Activities 1. Expansion of haricot bean and pepper 2. Enhancement of irrigation water use for Horticultural Development 3. Cultivation with Agrochemicals 4. Use of Livestock Drugs & Chemicals  Likely Impacts (i) Extensive use of improved white Likely Impacts(i) Extensive use of improved white before Mitigating Measures haricot bean and pepper varieties may result in the genetic erosion of the locally available Red Wolayta and pepper land races 1. before Mitigating Measuresharicot bean and pepper varieties may result in the genetic erosion of the locally available Red Wolayta and pepper land races 1.  "}],"sieverID":"4a9fc798-acc1-4c56-96b0-2b3e9be3913c","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0494c9299c2b96ed6ce743692bb9f887","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/113bb989-f0ef-47e5-83b4-b13e64e64804/retrieve"},"pageCount":24,"title":"International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 31 DECEMBER 2003","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Note: Supplies and services include provision for doubtful donors amounting to US$ 170,000."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"The accompanying Notes 1 to 18 and Appendices 1 I 2 and 3 form an integral part of these financial statements."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) NOTES TO TEE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS The Center's headquarters are situated in Tel Hadya, near Aleppo, Syrian Arab Republic. In 1977, the Syrian Government leased land on which the Center's premises are built, at nominal rent for its absolute use. The lease agreement was for a period of 15 years and expired in 1992. The terms of the lease incorporate an automatic renewal, unless objected by either party. In the event of dissolution of the Center or termination of the lease agreement, the land and permanent fixed capital improvements thereon revert to the host country Government."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Owing to its international status, the Center operates under a general immunity granted by the host country government fiom local laws and taxes accorded to bodies like the United Nations."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"The Center employed 1 16 internationally recruited staff and 407 support staff as of 3 1 December 2003 (2002: 109 internationally recruited staff and 408 support staff)."}]},{"head":"SIGNIFICANT ACCOUNTING POLICIES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The Center follows the accounting policies and reporting practices recommended by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), an association established to support a system of agricultural research centers and programs around the world."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"The Center adopted the CGIAR Accounting Policies and Reporting Practices Manual for report presentation and specific accounting principles, effective 1 January 1999. These financial statements were authorised for issue by the Director General on 23 January 2004."}]},{"head":"a)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Basis of preparation These financial statements have been prepared on a going concern assumption based on the financial support expected from members of CGIAR and the expected flow of grants that secure the source of funding of the operations of the Center, without having any adverse impact on the Center's research agenda."}]},{"head":"b)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Accounting convention The financial statements are prepared under the historical cost convention."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"These accounting policies are applied consistently in dealing with items that are ,considered material in relation to the financial statements."}]},{"head":"c) Revenue recognition","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Grants, are recognised as revenue upon fulfillment of the grant conditions or when the conditions have been explicitly waived by the donor. Recognition of grants as revenue does not depend on the time when they were pledged. The recognition point is when the donor imposed conditions are met. Grants in kind, if any, are recorded at the fair value of the assets (or services) received or promised, or the fair value of the liabilities satisfied."}]},{"head":"Unrestricted revenue","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"This relates to grants, which do not have any permanent or temporary donor restrictions."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA)"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS "}]},{"head":"Revenue recognition (continued) Permanent restriction","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"This comprises a donor-imposed restriction that stipulates that resources be maintained permanently but permits the Center to expend part or all of the income (or other economic benefits) derived from the donated assets."}]},{"head":"Temporary restriction","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"This comprises a donor-imposed restriction that permits the Center to expend the donated assets as specified and is satisfied either by the passage of time or by actions of the Center."}]},{"head":"d) Accounts receivable-Donors","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"These represent claims on donors for grants promised or pledged for which conditions have already been met. Donor receivables are stated at their gross principal amounts less provision for doubtful amounts. The provision for doubtful amounts is based on the estimated collectibility developed through management's periodic review and analysis of the receivable balances. Uncollectible outstanding grants receivable are written off in the year in which they are identified."}]},{"head":"e) Foreign currency transactions","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"The unit for accounting and maintenance of the Center's books and presentation of the financial statements is the United States dollar since it is the principal currency of operations of the Center. Grants in foreign currencies are recorded at the actual amounts received. At the year end, unrestricted receivables which are funded in foreign currencies are translated into foreign currencies at the year end exchange rates and the difference with actual amounts received treated as exchange gain or loss. Other transactions involving currencies other than the US dollar are recorded at the exchange rate prevailing on the date of transaction. Monetary assets and liabilities in currencies other than US dollar are restated to the prevailing exchange rate at year-end. Any resulting exchange differences are charged directly to statement of activities. On 1 January 2003, the exchange rate between Syrian Pound and the US Dollar was changed from 46 to 5 1 SO."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"n Cash and cash equivalents Cash and cash equivalents comprise cash on hand and at banks and short-term deposits with an original maturity of three months or less."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"i@"}]},{"head":"Property and equipment","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"Property and equipment relating to unrestricted projects, which do not revert to host country, and have a cost greater than US$ 500 are stated at cost. Other items of property and equipment are expensed in the year of acquisition. Cost comprises the purchase price and all other incidental costs incurred in bringing the asset to its present location and condition for its intended.use. Depreciation of property and equipment, is calculated on a straight-line method commencing from the month in which the property or equipment is placed in operation, so as to expense the cost of the assets over their expected useful lives, as follows: Expenses incurred for renovation of existing property or equipment, exceeding US$ 500 that increases the estimated life, the capacity or operating efficiency of the property and equipment are capitalized. Cost of normal repairs and maintenance of existing property and equipment is treated as current operating expense."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"When property and equipment is sold, the cost as well as the accumulated depreciation is removed from the books. Any gain or loss from the sale is included as other income under other revenues and supports."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"1nternatio.nal Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA)"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS"},{"index":5,"size":42,"text":"h) Inventories Inventories are stated at moving average cost less provision for obsolescence. Cost includes the purchase value and other incidental charges such as freight, handling charges and other related costs, incurred in bringing the inventories to their present location and condition."}]},{"head":"i)","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Accounts payable donors","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"These represent liabilities for amounts received in advance from donors for which conditions have not been fulfilled, include amounts repayable to donors."}]},{"head":"1)","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Other accounts payable and accruals","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"These represent amounts to be paid in the future for goods or services received, whether billed by the supplier or not."}]},{"head":"k)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Provision for employee benefts The Center provides for end of service benefits payable to employees in accordance with the personnel policies of the Center based on the period of service and level of compensation."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"The Center also provides repatriation benefits towards the cost of repatriating expatriate staff and vacation benefits for unused leave, which are both calculated in accordance with the personnel policies of the Center. For the regional staff, a staff savings scheme is being administered by the Center. The staff contribute up to sixty per cent of their basic pay and the Center contributes between 5 and 25 per cent of the basic pay to the savings scheme. For the international staff, a pension fund is being administered by the Association of International Agricultural Research Centers (AIARC). The Center's contribution to the pension fund is charged to the statement of activities in the year in which the benefit accrues based on the level of salary and the age of the employee."}]},{"head":"0","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The Center provides for the above reviews in equal annual instalments based on the estimated cost and timing of such reviews."}]},{"head":"Provision for External Programme Management Review and Center Commissioned External Review","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS 2002002","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"US$'OOO US$ '000","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Cash on hand and at banks"}]},{"head":"7,558 4,974","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Short term depositswith original maturity of less than three months Short term deposits bear interest at current market rates with maturities ranging from periods of two weeks to three months."}]},{"head":"CASH AND CASH EQUIVALENTS (continued)","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Restricted cash Restricted cash as shown above represents funds allocated out of total cash balances for meeting the specific commitments and obligations of the Center."}]},{"head":"4","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"OTHER BANK DEPOSITS","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"This represent deposits with commercial banks which mature in April 2004. These deposits are denominated in UK Pound Sterling and US Dollars and carry interest at current market rates."}]},{"head":"5","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"OTHER ASSETS","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Other assets represent cash received from donors for certain temporarily restricted projects (Note 3). Equipment includes farming, laboratory and scientific, office, housing and kitchen equipment, computers, and vehicles."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"As per the terms of the land lease agreement, the building, constructed facilities and all other immovable assets shall revert to the host country in the event of dissolution of the Center or termination of the lease agreement."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"The CGIAR guidelines require that the facilities constructed for the use of the Center, which will revert to the host countries in the event the Center ceases to operate, shall not be capitalised."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Refer to Appendix 3 for a detailed schedule of fixed assets. "}]},{"head":"ACCRUALS AND PROVISIONS (continued)","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Movements in provision for EPMR and CCER are as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"i . -Contributions made by staff and the Center are invested in short-term deposits with maturities of three months or less. The cash held in trust has been offset against the recorded accrued benefits to report the status of the employee savings scheme. Such presentation more accurately reflects the Center's financial position since this cash held in trust represents funds invested directly related to the discharge of the Center's responsibilities under the savings scheme. Earnings on the invested hnds are added to the accrued benefits. The funds involved are not available for the Center's activities."}]},{"head":"Balance as of","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Other accrued benefits for staff","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"End of service indemnity Repatriation "}]},{"head":"NETASSETS","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Net assets represent the residual balances of the total assets minus total liabilities and are further classified as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Unrestricted and unappropriated net assets These represent the accumulated surplus (deficit) of the Center's revenue over expenses."}]},{"head":"Unrestricted and appropriated net assets","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"These represent the cost of property and equipment net of disposals and accumulated depreciation, the reserve for replacement of fixed assets and certain designated funds, the usage of which is restricted by the Center management for specific purposes."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"The "}]},{"head":"Training","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Except for amounts charged directly to research programs, training includes expenditures applicable to trainees invited from various developing countries served by the Center together with related expenses."}]},{"head":"I n formation services","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Covers the cost of publication of annual'reports and technical bulletins, translation and printing of various public information activities and the library service."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Program related expenses are as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":".. . "}]},{"head":"b)'","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"' Manage'ment and general'expenses are'comprised of the following:"}]},{"head":"Gen era1 adin in istration","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Includes expenditure applicable to the Board of Trustees, Management and Finance."}]},{"head":"Corpornre services","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Include expenditure related to personnel, purchasing and supplies departments, the outreach offices, catering services, workshops, building maintenance, security and site maintenance sections. Also included are expenses incurred in respect of general services at Tel Hadya and housing expenses. "}]},{"head":"17","index":37,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"SEGMENT REPORTING","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Segment reporting is defined on the basis of determining the source of risks and rewards of the agenda activity."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"The Center is organised into one segment, namely agricultural research."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Geographically, the Center operates in West Asia and North Africa, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa. Over 95% of the Center's assets are held in its headquarters in Syria. The assets held are used in carrying out the Center's research activities but do not directly generate revenue."}]},{"head":"FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The financial instruments comprise of cash and cash equivalents, deposits with banks, accounts receivable, accounts payable and accrued staff benefits."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Credit risk Cash on hand and at banks represent balances held to meet the ongoing operational requirements of the Center. Bank deposits are with financial institutions of international repute. Accounts receivable mainly represents balances due from donors, which represent various countries and international sponsor organisations. The credit risk relating to these receivables is limited."}]},{"head":"Interest rate risk","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Interest rate risk arises from the possibility that changes in interest rates will affect the value of financial instruments or future interest income of the Center. Interest rate risk relates to deposits with banks which are all short term in nature."}]},{"head":"Currency risk","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Currency risk arises from the possibility that changes in foreign exchange rates. will affect the value of financial instruments. As of 31 December 2003, except for the following balances, the Center's other financial instruments are denominated in US Dollars and the exposure to currency risk is minimal."}]},{"head":"US$ '000","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Bank  NET BOOK VALUE"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"' Indirect costs represent management hnctions with no direct link to the project activities and common ' sustenance services, which support the performance of the Center's activities on an institutional basis. The indirect cost recovery represents. the overhead recovered from certain restricted projects based on the rates agreed with the donors.The indirect cost recovery of US$ 760,000 (2002: US$ 998,000) relates to recoveries from certain donors based on a proportion of expenses incurred. The indirecddirect cost ratio for the year 2003 is 2 1.9% (2002: 2 1.8%). December 2003, the Center had commitments of US$ 699,000 (2002: US$ 501,000) outstanding for purchases of capital and operating items. "},{"text":"-  "},{"text":"Year ended 3 1 December 2003 International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) STATEMENT OF ACTIVITIES      STATEMENT OF ACTIVITIES    Temporarily Total Total TemporarilyTotalTotal   Unrestricted restricted 2003 2002 Unrestrictedrestricted20032002 Note US$ '000 US$'OOO US$'OOO US$ '000 NoteUS$ '000US$'OOOUS$'OOOUS$ '000 REVENUES, GAINS AND SUPPORTS      REVENUES, GAINS AND SUPPORTS Grants (refer appendices 1 and 2) Other revenues and supports 14 8,290 806 16,066 - 24,356 806 23, 134 1.091 Grants (refer appendices 1 and 2) Other revenues and supports148,290 80616,066 -24,356 80623, 134 1.091 Total revenues, gains and supports  9,096 16,066 25,162 24.225 Total revenues, gains and supports9,09616,06625,16224.225 Expenses and losses      Expenses and losses Program related expenses 15 6,608 16,066 22,674 22.445 Program related expenses156,60816,06622,67422.445 Management and general expenses * 15 3,246  3,246 2,782 Management and general expenses *153,2463,2462,782 Total expenses and losses **  9,854 16,066 25,920 25,227 Total expenses and losses **9,85416,06625,92025,227 'Indirect cost recovery 15 (760) - (760) (998) 'Indirect cost recovery15(760)-(760)(998) Total net expenses and losses  9,094 16,066 25,160 24,229 Total net expenses and losses9,09416,06625,16024,229   ~ ~~   ~~~ Change in net assets  2 - 2 (41 Change in net assets2-2(41 Net assets at beginning of the year  11,556 - 1 1,556 11,560 Net assets at beginning of the year11,556-1 1,55611,560 Net assets at the end of the year 13 1 1,558 - 11,558 11,556 Net assets at the end of the year131 1,558-11,55811,556 * Management and general expenses by      * Management and general expenses by natural classifications are as follows:      natural classifications are as follows: Personnel cost Supplies and services (see note below) Travelling Depreciation  1,585 1,191 320 150 --- 1,585 1,191 320 150 1,529 772 269 212 Personnel cost Supplies and services (see note below) Travelling Depreciation1,585 1,191 320 150---1,585 1,191 320 1501,529 772 269 212   3,246 - 3,246 2,782 3,246-3,2462,782 ** Total expenses and losses by      ** Total expenses and losses by natural classifications are as follows:      natural classifications are as follows: Personnel cost  5,537 4,104 9,641 9,858 Personnel cost5,5374,1049,6419,858 Supplies and services (see note below)  3,140 9,85 1 12,991 11,575 Supplies and services (see note below)3,1409,85 112,99111,575 Travelling  64 1 1,877 2,518 2,858 Travelling64 11,8772,5182,858 Depreciation  536 234 770 936 Depreciation536234770936   9,854 16,066 25,920 25,22 7 9,85416,06625,92025,22 7  "},{"text":"3 1 December 2003 1 CHARTER The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA or the Center) is an autonomous, not for profit, international institute, governed by a Board of Trustees. The Center's charter was executed in November 1975, as amended in June 1976 and May 1990. The objectives of the Center are to promote improved and more productive agriculture in the developing countries having a dry, sub-tropical or temperate climate, through research and training activities conducted primarily in the countries of the Near East, Central Asia, North Africa and Mediterranean region.  "},{"text":"DONORS 2003 2002 US$'OOO US$ '000 Unrestricted   2,496 1,264 2,4961,264 ' Temporarily restricted 3,396 5.021 ' Temporarily restricted3,3965.021 ,Refer to appendix 1 5,892 6,285 ,Refer to appendix 15,8926,285 Less: provision for doubtful donors (170)  Less: provision for doubtful donors(170)  5,722 6,285 5,7226,285  "},{"text":"7 INVENTORIES 2003 2002 US$ '000 US$ '000 December 2003 and 2002, no inventories were in transit or in possession of third parties. 9 PROPERTY AND EQUIPMENT    9PROPERTY AND EQUIPMENT    2003  2002 20032002    Capital work  Capital work   Equipment in progress Total Total Equipmentin progressTotalTotal   US$ '000 US$ '000 US$ '000 US$ '000 US$ '000US$ '000US$ '000US$ '000 cost     cost Balance at 1 January 26,53 1 515 27,046 26,094 Balance at 1 January26,53 151527,04626,094 Additions, net 202 69 271 952 Additions, net20269271952 Balance at 31 December 26,733 5 84 27,317 27,046 Balance at 31 December26,7335 8427,31727,046 Accumulated depreciation    Accumulated depreciation Balance at 1 January 23,759  23,759 22,772 Balance at 1 January23,75923,75922,772 Charge for the year 820  820 98 7 Charge for the year82082098 7 Balance at 31 December 24,579 - 24,579 23,759 Balance at 31 December24,579-24,57923,759 Net book value at 31 December 2,154 5 84 2,738 3,287 Net book value at 31 December2,1545 842,7383,287 General supplies   202 111 General supplies202111 Fuel, oil and lubricants   30 21 Fuel, oil and lubricants3021 Spare parts   341 248 Spare parts341248 .. .   573 380 .. .573380 Less: provision for obsolescence   (100) (75) Less: provision for obsolescence(100)(75)     473 305 473305 As. . at . . 3 1 8 PREPAID EXPENSES    As. . at . . 3 1 8PREPAID EXPENSES     2003 2002 20032002     US$'OOO US$ .ooo US$'OOOUS$ .ooo Advances to suppliers   403 658 Advances to suppliers403658 Other prepaid expenses   39 39 Other prepaid expenses3939     442 697 442697  "},{"text":"990 888 7,401 8,560 8,391 9,448 11 ACCRUALS AND PROVISIONS 2003 2002 US$ '000 US$ '000   2003 2002 20032002  US$'OOO US$ '000 US$'OOOUS$ '000 Unrestricted   Unrestricted Temporarily restricted   Temporarily restricted Refer to appendix 1   Refer to appendix 1 Accrued expenses 2,037 1,476 Accrued expenses2,0371,476 Taxes payable relating to employees 150 I 74 Taxes payable relating to employees150I 74 Provision for EPMR and CCER 888 600 Provision for EPMR and CCER888600  3,075 2,250 3,0752,250  "},{"text":"Total 2003 US$ '000 1 1,556 2 1 1,558 Total 2002 US$ '000 I1.560 11,556 I ~~ I 14 OTHER REVENUES AND SUPPORTS 2003 2002 US$'OOO US$ '000 following is a summary of changes in net assets balances during 2003 and 2002 Program related expenses are incurred by main programs and supporting cost centers as described below: NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS NOTES TO THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 3 1 December 2003    3 1 December 2003 15  EXPENSES AND LOSSES   15EXPENSES AND LOSSES a) . Program related expenses , ,  a) .Program related expenses , , Research    Research . . Natural Resource Management Program Programs:  . . Natural Resource Management Program Programs: 0 Germplasm Program    0 Germplasm Program 0 International Co-operation Projects   0 International Co-operation Projects Supporting cost centers:.    Supporting cost centers:. 0 Offices of Directors of Research and International Co-operation 0 Offices of Directors of Research and International Co-operation 0 Genetic Resource Unit    0Genetic Resource Unit  SeedUnit    SeedUnit   Unappropriated  Appropriated . UnappropriatedAppropriated .      Reserve for Reserve for      replacement replacement   Accumulated  of ProPerry Accumulatedof ProPerry    surplus/ Capital and Other surplus/CapitalandOther    (deficil) build up equipment reserves Total (deficil)build up equipmentreservesTotal   US$ '000   US$ '000 Balance at  (590) 3,287 8,214 645 12,146 Balance at(590)3,2878,21464512,146 1 January    1 January Depreciation for    Depreciation for the year     the year Additions during    Additions during the year   27 1 (27 1) the year27 1(27 1) Surplus (deficit) 01    Surplus (deficit) 01 revenue over    revenue over expenditure 2   expenditure2 Balance at     Balance at 31 December  2,738 8,763 645 12,146 31 December2,7388,76364512,146 Interest income    165 . I97 Interest income165 .I97 Exchange gain School -net    325 1 382 200 Exchange gain School -net325 1382 200 Other income    315 312 Other income315312       806 1.091 8061.091  "},{"text":"0 Station Operations -Farm Operations, Green Houses, etc.  "},{"text":"134 Appendix 2 lnternational Center for' Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) STATEMENT OF PLEDGES AND EXPENDITURE FOR TEMPORARILY RESTRICTED PROJECTS of high b-carotene , iron & zink ClATfiFPRI Identification lentil of high b-carotene , iron & zink Consultative Group on lnternational Agricultural Research (CGlAR) & System Wide Collaborative program for CAC -Forages Farm soil & Water management in CAC PARC / CG /Afghanistan Disasters Campaign Soil water & Nutrition management (SWNM) . TEMPORARILY RESTRICTED PROJECTS' . '          TEMPORARILY RESTRICTED PROJECTS' . ' Year ended 3 1 December 2003 Year ended 3 I December 2003             Year ended 3 1 December 2003 Year ended 3 I December 2003        €xpenses Expenses Expenses Expenses €xpenses ExpensesExpenses Expenses      Grant Grow prior prior   current current Total Total Grant Growprior priorcurrent currentTotal Total  Funds Receivable Grant Period Grant Period US$'OOO Pledge Pledge usrooo Current Year uss'ooo years years Usroo0 Previous Year uss'ooo year Expenses lJSS'000 year fipenses uss'ooo uss'ooo FundsReceivable Grant Period Grant PeriodUS$'OOO Pledge Pledge usroooCurrent Year uss'ooo years years Usroo0Previous Year uss'ooo year Expenses lJSS'000 year fipenses uss'ooo uss'ooo Arab Fund Received uss'ooo 31 December uss' ooo    Grants uss '000  Grants uss'ooo Arab FundReceived uss'ooo31 December uss' oooGrants uss '000Grants uss'ooo Arabian Peninsula (Phase 11)    05.05.96-31.12.04 01.04.01-31.03.06 3,253 696 3,269 I88   236 131 3.505 319 Arabian Peninsula (Phase 11)05.05.96-31.12.04 01.04.01-31.03.063,253 6963,269 I88236 1313.505 319 B. Temporarily Restricted Option for Coping with Increased Water Scarcity in Agriculture in WANA Training 2003   01.08.02-01.08.06 18.06.01-17.06.04 0 I .o I .03-3 I. I 2.03 15.08.01-14.08.04 1,012 205 503 263  44 89 I29   77 62 503 64 121 I51 503 193 B. Temporarily Restricted Option for Coping with Increased Water Scarcity in Agriculture in WANA Training 200301.08.02-01.08.06 18.06.01-17.06.04 0 I .o I .03-3 I. I 2.03 15.08.01-14.08.041,012 205 503 26344 89 I2977 62 503 64121 I51 503 193       4.768 1,164 3.3 I3 406   816 257 4,129 663 4.768 1,1643.3 I3 406816 2574,129 663 Asian Development Bank Arab Fund Water Management in Central Asia Asian Development Bank Australia Austria Canada Challenge Program CGlAR CIHEAM Australia Central genetic resources GRDC -ICA-I -VIR-Bread Wheat Germpalsm ACA4 Ass.Expert legume pathology Coordinated Improvement of Chickpeas in Australia Faba Bean Improvement  1,153 202 356 126 726 40 311 6 334 16 01.01 .OO-30.06.03 I42 01.02.03-.31.05.04 4 . I 5 14 01.01.99-31.I2-03 01.07.01-01.06.04 01.08.02-01.08.03 07.01.02-31.07.05 0 I .o I .02-3 I .o 1.04 01.07.02-30.06.07 01.04 1,200 I87 330 282 5 212 1 IO 80 1,146 292 44 I 22 6 816 89 542 1 351 2 5 33 1 7   89 47 44 77 2 17 8 I7 I , 000 445 I90 24 492 6 1.235 47 336 121 4 18 30 23 Asian Development Bank Arab Fund Water Management in Central Asia Asian Development Bank Australia Austria Canada Challenge Program CGlAR CIHEAM Australia Central genetic resources GRDC -ICA-I -VIR-Bread Wheat Germpalsm ACA4 Ass.Expert legume pathology Coordinated Improvement of Chickpeas in Australia Faba Bean Improvement1,153 202 356 126 726 40 311 6334 16 01.01 .OO-30.06.03 I42 01.02.03-.31.05.04 4 . I 5 14 01.01.99-31.I2-03 01.07.01-01.06.04 01.08.02-01.08.03 07.01.02-31.07.05 0 I .o I .02-3 I .o 1.04 01.07.02-30.06.07 01.041,200 I87 330 282 5 212 1 IO 801,146 292 44 I 22 6816 89 542 1 351 2 5 33 1 789 47 44 77 2 17 8 I7I , 000 445 I90 24 492 61.235 47 336 121 4 18 30 23 Denmark ERF-FEMISE Collaborative Barley Breeding for low rain fall environments AClAR -Evaluation of plant genetic resource AClAR -Host resistance epidemiology Ethiopia European Commission F A 0 France Germany . Gulf Cooperation Council . ICLARM GM-UNCCD Southern Cross University Barley Breeding,Molecular Biology RWA-Screening ClPAL Lentils improvement -GRDC International Durum Wheat -NSW lamworth Improvement of drought tolerance-Lentils NPA  297 34 3 1,774 107 98 1,124 235 200 30 13 01.07.03-30.06.05 01.07.01-30.06.04 01.07.01-30.06.04 1,818 19 1 15 01.01.03-31.12.05 08.03.99-08.03 .O I 01.01.03-31 .I 2.03 01.07.00-30.06.05 01.07.02-30.06.03 01.07.01-30.06.04  207 357 333 71 161 4 76 27 44 2,294 . 257 47 18 2,125 I03 75 130 91 ' 900 . 61 141 44 4 7 5 739   27 195 64 17 12 4 I5 . 24 21 542 I00 44 1,458 50 80 580 - 27 298 139 17 153 4 59 28 28 1.281 Denmark ERF-FEMISE Collaborative Barley Breeding for low rain fall environments AClAR -Evaluation of plant genetic resource AClAR -Host resistance epidemiology Ethiopia European Commission F A 0 France Germany . Gulf Cooperation Council . ICLARM GM-UNCCD Southern Cross University Barley Breeding,Molecular Biology RWA-Screening ClPAL Lentils improvement -GRDC International Durum Wheat -NSW lamworth Improvement of drought tolerance-Lentils NPA297 34 3 1,774 107 98 1,124 235 200 3013 01.07.03-30.06.05 01.07.01-30.06.04 01.07.01-30.06.04 1,818 19 1 15 01.01.03-31.12.05 08.03.99-08.03 .O I 01.01.03-31 .I 2.03 01.07.00-30.06.05 01.07.02-30.06.03 01.07.01-30.06.04207 357 333 71 161 4 76 27 44 2,294.257 47 18 2,125 I03 75 130 91 ' 900 . 61 141 44 4 7 5 73927 195 64 17 12 4 I5 . 24 21 542I00 44 1,458 50 80 580 -27 298 139 17 153 4 59 28 28 1.281 International Development Research Center (IDRC) Austria International Nutrition Foundation International Fund for Agricultural Development.(lFAD) Production diversification and income generating options for small scale I69 18 1,132 17 206 01.12.03-01.12.05  392  194 53 1,032   I 232 10 788 I I , 380 2,038 International Development Research Center (IDRC) Austria International Nutrition Foundation International Fund for Agricultural Development.(lFAD) Production diversification and income generating options for small scaleI69 18 1,13217 206 01.12.03-01.12.05392194 53 1,032I232 10 788II , 380 2,038 Total (A) Canadian lnternational h e l o p m e n t Agency Iran Italy Canada Linkage Fund (Universi:ty of Guelph) Canada For Africa IWMl Japan . . 1,264 434 456 366 (888) 502 28 01.04.99-30.07.02 01.04.03-01.04.05  (50) 82 1,102 1.184  80 80 7,109 467 502 28 322 2 349 351 116 42 I 391 2,496 82 349 431 (990) 8,290 7,998 Total (A) Canadian lnternational h e l o p m e n t Agency Iran Italy Canada Linkage Fund (Universi:ty of Guelph) Canada For Africa IWMl Japan . .1,264434 456 366(888) 502 28 01.04.99-30.07.02 01.04.03-01.04.05(50) 82 1,102 1.18480 807,109 467 502 28 3222 349 351116 42 I 3912,496 82 349 431(990)8,2907,998 balances Bank deposits Donor receivables Core Temporarily restricted 19 FAIR VALUES The fair values of the Center's financial assets and liabilities are not materially different from their carrying Euro 946 Pound Sterling 1,296 Euro 440 Euro 1,839 350 34 South Africa Morocco OPEC Pakistan Switzerland ' Turkey UNCCD UNDP UNEP United Kingdom (DFID) University of Sasktchewan USDA USAID USAID / RAMP / CHEMONICS World Bank -Reg. Ini. For Dry land Mgt. World Bank -Others Miscellaneous 148 130 25 445 17 186 70 1,310 I5 424 . 119 1,555 1,544 I09 18 I22 93 113 209 20 I77 35 1 . 2 ' 1 ' 9 I 1 244 3,945 23 7 49 10 18 28 78 1,045 23 I Challenge Program 01.09.03-01.05.04 25 1 01.09.03-01.05.04 25 4 50 5 01.01.98-31.12.02 01 .01.98-31 .I 2.02 01.06.03-01.06.04 01.01.95-31.12.01 01.01.02-28.02.02 45 57 40 72 1 35 18 39 600 33 1 18 I 1 60 CIATIIFPW Identification barley llTA -SP IPM soil Biotech workshop PRGN CIAT 01.01.02-31.I2.03 6 6 5.799 ILRVICARDA on farm small ruminant 01.06.00-31.05.01 25 22 3 122 89 I 354 System wide initiative Central Asia & Caucasus 01.01.03-31 .I 2.03 1.700 1,275 183 714 28.1 1.97-31.12.98 3 89 346 16 SLP prog. Shrubs & Trees 0 1 .o I .03-3 I. 12.03 6 3 ILRI-Small Ruminants I I5 12 165 500 IAEG study on impact of Gerrnplasm improvement 0 I .01.99-31 .I 2.00 60 55 3 France amounts. Total (B) ClHEAM Totals (A plus B) 15,850 22,959 3,396 5,892 16,066 24,356 3,166 2,442 33 1 -15, 136 01.03.00-01.09.02 30 21 9 France Additional 2002 Pilot side/ Egypt SP IPM Pilot sites -Morocco 01.03.00-01.09-03 52 33 18 JPO's France I 4 5 19 57 I1 660 33 6 25 1.458 362 3 58 2,773 30 51 balances Bank deposits Donor receivables Core Temporarily restricted 19 FAIR VALUES The fair values of the Center's financial assets and liabilities are not materially different from their carrying Euro 946 Pound Sterling 1,296 Euro 440 Euro 1,839 350 34 South Africa Morocco OPEC Pakistan Switzerland ' Turkey UNCCD UNDP UNEP United Kingdom (DFID) University of Sasktchewan USDA USAID USAID / RAMP / CHEMONICS World Bank -Reg. Ini. For Dry land Mgt. World Bank -Others Miscellaneous 148 130 25 445 17 186 70 1,310 I5 424 . 119 1,555 1,544 I09 18 I22 93 113 209 20 I77 35 1 . 2 ' 1 ' 9 I 1 244 3,945 23 7 49 10 18 28 78 1,045 23 I Challenge Program 01.09.03-01.05.04 25 1 01.09.03-01.05.04 25 4 50 5 01.01.98-31.12.02 01 .01.98-31 .I 2.02 01.06.03-01.06.04 01.01.95-31.12.01 01.01.02-28.02.02 45 57 40 72 1 35 18 39 600 33 1 18 I 1 60 CIATIIFPW Identification barley llTA -SP IPM soil Biotech workshop PRGN CIAT 01.01.02-31.I2.03 6 6 5.799 ILRVICARDA on farm small ruminant 01.06.00-31.05.01 25 22 3 122 89 I 354 System wide initiative Central Asia & Caucasus 01.01.03-31 .I 2.03 1.700 1,275 183 714 28.1 1.97-31.12.98 3 89 346 16 SLP prog. Shrubs & Trees 0 1 .o I .03-3 I. 12.03 6 3 ILRI-Small Ruminants I I5 12 165 500 IAEG study on impact of Gerrnplasm improvement 0 I .01.99-31 .I 2.00 60 55 3 France amounts. Total (B) ClHEAM Totals (A plus B) 15,850 22,959 3,396 5,892 16,066 24,356 3,166 2,442 33 1 -15, 136 01.03.00-01.09.02 30 21 9 France Additional 2002 Pilot side/ Egypt SP IPM Pilot sites -Morocco 01.03.00-01.09-03 52 33 18 JPO's FranceI 4 5 19 57 I1 660 33 6 25 1.458 362 3 58 2,773 30 51 Screening of legumes & forage    01.09.00-31-07.02  12  10   2 12 Screening of legumes & forage01.09.00-31-07.021210212 Mederate    01.03.01 -31.12.03  26  21    5 26 Mederate01.03.01 -31.12.032621526       38  31    7 38 3831738  "},{"text":".03-31.12.03 3 3 3 01.07.98-31.12.01 616 463 13 476 624 465    . 18 483 .18483 01.04.94-3 I , 12.03 7.380 3.215 : 93 3.408 01.04.94-3 I , 12.037.3803.215: 933.408 01.01.03-30.12.05 31  4 4 01.01.03-30.12.053144 01.01.03-30.12.05 31  2 2 01.01.03-30.12.053122 26.08.03-25.08.06 I38    26.08.03-25.08.06I38 26.08.03-25.08.06 I37  4 . 4 26.08.03-25.08.06I374 .4 26.08.03-25.08.06 I40  2 2 26.08.03-25.08.06I4022 0 I .o I .03-0 I .01.05 60  11 I 1 0 I .o I .03-0 I .01.056011I 1 01.01.02-31.12.003 32    01.01.02-31.12.00332 01.01.02-3 I. 12.003 32    01.01.02-3 I. 12.00332 01.01.02-31.12.003 33    01.01.02-31.12.00333 01.01.03-31.12.03 743    01.01.03-31.12.03743  "},{"text":"32 32 . 32 32 33 33 743 743 01.01.03-3 1.12.03 317 . 317 317 Ol.01.03-31.12.03 , 752 752 752 9,826 3,215 2,125 5.340 27.05.01-31.05.01 05.1 I .01-30.05.02 19.09.02-30.10.02 01.02.03-31.07.03   IO 6  6 IO66  5 5  5 555  3  (3) (3) 3(3)(3)  20  2 2 2022 14.01.03-15.06.03 10  10 . IO 14.01.03-15.06.031010 .IO 23.06.03-25.06.03 18  5 5 23.06.03-25.06.031855 22.12.02-30.06.03 48  48 48 22.12.02-30.06.03484848 14.09.03-1 7.09.03 3  3 3 14.09.03-1 7.09.03333 01.09.03-31.12.03 5 , 5 5 01.09.03-31.12.035,55 04.1 1.03-31.12.03 9  8  04.1 1.03-31.12.0398 01.12.03-31.12.03 I5    01.12.03-31.12.03I5 08.03.03-08.01.04 29    08.03.03-08.01.0429 06.12.01-31.12.02 50 24   06.12.01-31.12.025024  225 .35   225.35  "},{"text":"8 12 12 IS' I5 25 49 130 165 01.01.03-31.12.03 I8 18 18 01.09.02-01.09.04 I53 73 73 171 91 91 International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) STATEMENT OF PLEDGES AND EXPENDITURE FOR TEMPORARILY RESTRICTED PROJECTS Year ended 3 1 December 2003 Local Initiatives Promotion Program in the South East '    Expenses Expenses  ExpensesExpenses   Grant prior current Total GrantpriorcurrentTotal  Grant Period Pledge years year Expenses Grant PeriodPledgeyearsyearExpenses   US$'OOO US$'OOO uss'ooo US$' OOO US$'OOOUS$'OOOuss'oooUS$' OOO German Agency for Technical Co-operation      German Agency for Technical Co-operation Functional genomic of drought and cold tolerance in ICARDA mandated legumes 01.01.02-31.12.05 1,004 31 I 265 5 76 Functional genomic of drought and cold tolerance in ICARDA mandated legumes01.01.02-31.12.051,00431 I2655 76 Printing of variety maint. 01.01.03-31.12.03 7  2 2 Printing of variety maint.01.01.03-31.12.03722 Exploration ofGen. Res. Collection at ICARDA for adaptation to Climate Change 0 I .o 1.03-3 1.1 2.05 1,318  183 183 Exploration ofGen. Res. Collection at ICARDA for adaptation to Climate Change0 I .o 1.03-3 1.1 2.051,318183183 Integrated Sustainable land management 01.01.01-31.12.04 1,284 38 I 450 831 Integrated Sustainable land management01.01.01-31.12.041,28438 I450831  3 613 A 692 900 1.592 3 613 A6929001.592 ' CM-UNCCD      ' CM-UNCCD Dev. Facil. unit for the estab. of a reg. pro. for sust. Dev. Dry lands WANA 01.07.03-30.06.04 50  1 I Dev. Facil. unit for the estab. of a reg. pro. for sust. Dev. Dry lands WANA01.07.03-30.06.04501I Inventory of Activities & Gap Analysis 01.07.03-30.06.04 50  1 I Inventory of Activities & Gap Analysis01.07.03-30.06.04501I GM-Desertification Poverty and Agriculture Building 01.01.02-18.08.03 70 46 8 54 GM-Desertification Poverty and Agriculture Building01.01.02-18.08.037046854 Recruitment of Regional Environmental Mgt. Officer to ICARDA CAC 04.12.02-04.12.05 I99 14 51 65 Recruitment of Regional Environmental Mgt. Officer to ICARDA CAC04.12.02-04.12.05I99145165   369 60 61 121 3696061121 GULF COOPERATION COUNCIL'      GULF COOPERATION COUNCIL' Support for Arabian peninsula 20.10.03-19.10.04 200    Support for Arabian peninsula20.10.03-19.10.04200 ICLARM      ICLARM .SPIA-lmpact Assessment M&M 01.09.03-01.09.04 30  5 5 .SPIA-lmpact Assessment M&M01.09.03-01.09.043055 International Development Research Center (IDRC)      International Development Research Center (IDRC) Strengthening Seed Systems-food Security in Afghanistan 01.09.02-31.10.04 386 9 148 157 Strengthening Seed Systems-food Security in Afghanistan01.09.02-31.10.043869148157 Participatory plant breeding Jordan 20.01 .OO-20.01.03 I78 172 6 I 78 Participatory plant breeding Jordan20.01 .OO-20.01.03I781726I 78 Scaling up Decentralized Participatory Plant Breeding in Syria 01.07.03-30.06.04 19  9 9 Scaling up Decentralized Participatory Plant Breeding in Syria01.07.03-30.06.041999 Mountains terraces in Yemen II 20.01.00-20.01.03 28 I 245 31 276 Mountains terraces in Yemen II20.01.00-20.01.0328 I24531276   864 426 194 620 864426194620 ..      .. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)      International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) Arabian Peninsula Phase I1      Arabian Peninsula Phase I1 Technology generation and dissemination for sustainable      Technology generation and dissemination for sustainable Accelerated Project Performance in North Africa      Accelerated Project Performance in North Africa Agro Pastoral Devt & Strengthening Inst. Cap. to Improve Market. of small ruminant prod. L America      Agro Pastoral Devt & Strengthening Inst. Cap. to Improve Market. of small ruminant prod. L America Assist. in Devt Policies and Strategies to improve livestock policy in CAC      Assist. in Devt Policies and Strategies to improve livestock policy in CAC IFAD / lLRl Livestock Health Project      IFAD / lLRl Livestock Health Project Program To Foster Wider Adoption of Low-cost Durum Technologies      Program To Foster Wider Adoption of Low-cost Durum Technologies Integrated Feed & Livestock Production      Integrated Feed & Livestock Production  "},{"text":"01.01.97-31.12.04 18.07.02-17.07.05 01.07.02-31.12.04 15.04.03-31.12.03 18.11.03-17.1 1.06 21.07.03-20.07.04 01.01.03-31.12.03 24.04.02-23.04.06 01.10.99-30.09.03 1,413 48 1,670 1,169 85 73 1,000 55 6 1,100 1,500 6.658 99 108 252 22 53 32 32 1 500 32 1.032 53 1.521 300 22 53 32 32 I 576 1.500 4,03 7 63 76 1,468 3,005 IO  International Nutrition Foundation      International Nutrition Foundation Impact of Lysine Forti. wheat & Nutr. Status of Rural Families in N. W. Syria 3 I. 12.01-31.12.04     Impact of Lysine Forti. wheat & Nutr. Status of Rural Families in N. W. Syria3 I. 12.01-31.12.04 Iran Yellow rust workshop 0 I .o 1 .o 1-31. I 2.03 I59 59 64 123 Iran Yellow rust workshop0 I .o 1 .o 1-31. I 2.03I595964123 Training & Highlands project 01.01 .ob31 .I 2.05 7,771 432 403 835 Training & Highlands project01.01 .ob31 .I 2.057,771432403835   7.930 49 I 467 958 7.93049 I467958 Italy      Italy Participatory plant.breeding Eritrea 01.01     Participatory plant.breeding Eritrea01.01 MTP 1.1 Barley Germplasm irnp.Rpring Barley      MTP 1.1 Barley Germplasm irnp.Rpring Barley MTP I .2 Durum Wheat Germplasm Imp.      MTP I .2 Durum Wheat Germplasm Imp. MTP I .5 Food legume Germplasm Imp./Kabuli-Chickpea      MTP I .5 Food legume Germplasm Imp./Kabuli-Chickpea  "},{"text":".02-31.I2.02 01.01.03-31.12.03 01.01.03-31.12.03 01.01.03-31.12.03 10 25 I I38 I I3        Total Total  Grant Period uss'ooo Pledge uss'ooo years uss'ooo year Expenses usrooo Grant Perioduss'ooo Pledgeuss'ooo yearsuss'ooo yearExpenses usrooo  01.01 .OO-30.03.04 600 319 . 161 480 01.01 .OO-30.03.04600319.161480  01.01.02-3 I . 12.03 129 I22  61 183 01.01.02-3 I . 12.03129I2261183  01.01:03-31.12.03 . 25   2s 25 01.01:03-31.12.03 .252s25  01.01.03-31.12.03 D1 .ol..O3-31.12.03 25 50   25 so 25 50 01.01.03-31.12.03 D1 .ol..O3-31.12.0325 5025 so25 50   829 44 I  322 763 82944 I322763  01.06.03-30.06.04 350   34 34 01.06.03-30.06.043503434  01.06.00-3 I .07.03 200 151  49 200 01.06.00-3 I .07.0320015149200  0 I .     0 I .      251 251 251251      138 I38 138I38      I I3 113 I I3113   512   502 502 512502502 IWMl      IWMl WMlllCARDA Qadir Manmor -Joint Water Marginal Position 01.10.03-31.09.04 122   28 28 WMlllCARDA Qadir Manmor -Joint Water Marginal Position01.10.03-31.09.041222828  "},{"text":"07.03-30-06-04 IO0 10 10 0 I .07.01-30.06.02 IO0 64 34      98 98 . .I 400 215 93 308 . .I40021593308 17.07.99-1 7.07.05 1.731 708 113 821 17.07.99-1 7.07.051.731708113821 01.01.02-31 .I 2.03 50 3 5 . 1 - 35 01.01.02-31 .I 2.03503 5 .1 -35  "},{"text":"97-31:06.02 . ' I 308 277 277 Ol.01.02-31.12.04 -.,307 . 6 4 64 01.04.03-01.04.05 I54 56 56 02.03.03-02.03.06 305 a9 89 A I 074 277 . . 209 486 . 01.02.00-31.12.02 I86 I48 20 168   "},{"text":"12.03$1.03.04    Expenses Erpenses  ExpensesErpenses   prior  current Total priorcurrentTotal   yeurs  year Expenses yeursyearExpenses   US$'OOO US$'OOO uss'ooo US$'OOOUS$'OOOuss'ooo    5 18  23 51823     51  51 5151   98 9s  I93 989sI93   23 32  55 233255    I 21  28 I2128     21  21 2121   127 244  371 127244371   32 24  56 322456   48 2s  73 482s73   55 21  76 552176     19  19 1919     10  10 1010   3.194 3,806  7.000 3.1943,8067.000   62 14  76 621476   25 3  28 25328    5   5 55   46 23  69 462369   3,467 3,945 ~ 7.412 3,4673,945~7.412     26  26 2626     31  31 3131     36  36 3636  1,625 -. 29  29 1,625-.2929  6,115.   122  122 6,115.122122  7,846 6,955 89 I  7,846 7,8466,95589 I7,846  95 I . 9s  95 95I.9s95  8 . , . 17 5   S 2  5 2 8 . , . 17 5S 25 2  1,519   252  252 1,519252252 23.03.99-23.03.04 16.01.02-30.04.01 06.04.03-3 I .I 2.05 1,124 , 1,627 25 I59 I84 4.460 81 954 - 695 I I 4,029 34, I76 177 354 26 9 3s 165 16.066 - 354 872 27 9 36 4.194 50.242 23.03.99-23.03.04 16.01.02-30.04.01 06.04.03-3 I .I 2.051,124 , 1,627 25 I59 I84 4.460 81 954 -695 I I 4,029 34, I76177 354 26 9 3s 165 16.066 -354 872 27 9 36 4.194 50.242 01.04.01-31.08.05 1,109 51 I 354  865 01.04.01-31.08.051,10951 I354865 01.01.02-31.05.04 26  I 7  8 01.01.02-31.05.0426I78 01.01.03-31.l2.03 306   306  306 01.01.03-31.l2.03306306306 01.01.03-31.12.03 01.01.03-31 .I 2.03 306 306 -2 053 512 . 1,279 1.791 306 306 306 306 01.01.03-31.12.03 01.01.03-31 .I 2.03306 306 -2 053 512 . 1,279 1.791 306 306 306 306 01.04.02-31.3.07 95 IO 11 , 21 01.04.02-31.3.0795IO11,21  "}],"sieverID":"7399e7ca-73da-4657-bd39-4a5904aae038","abstract":"We have audited the accompanying statement of financial position of International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (\"the Center\"), a not for profit organisation, as at 3 1 December 2003, and the related statements of activities and cash flows for the year then ended. These financial statements are the responsibility of the Center's management. Our responsibility is to express an opinion on these financial statements based on our audit.We conducted our audit in accordance with International Standards on Auditing. Those Standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements are free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts and disclosures in the financial statements. An audit also includes assessing the accounting principles used and significant estimates made by management, as well as evaluating the overall financial statement presentation. We believe that our audit provides a reasonable basis for our opinion.In our opinion, the financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Center as at 31 December 2003 and the results of its activities and its cash flows for the year then ended in accordance with Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Accounting Policies and Reporting Practices."}

data/part_1/053b9deff798a793c01e9b79c75062a2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"053b9deff798a793c01e9b79c75062a2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f456e73b-3e78-4115-8063-e5318791a341/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"This technical note provides research evidence debunking these myths. Women's and men's roles in wheat and maize are changing rapidly due to high levels of male outmigration, improved educational opportunities, and development activities which promote gender equality and women's empowerment. Agriculture in Nepal is becoming strongly feminized. Women are working ever longer hours in the field, and, increasingly, taking control over decision making in wheat and maize, including in communities where women have previously been secluded."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"Understanding and working with women in wheat-or maize-related innovation processes will help to improve the design and relevance of innovations, and contribute towards adoption and adaptation of technologies and practices. However, there is a mismatch between the reality of women's roles and responsibilities in wheat and maize on the ground, and the almost complete lack of targeting of women for capacity development by rural advisory services, particularly in wheat. Fortunately, policies in Nepal are encouraging to women, there is a thriving research sector, and civil society actors are generally strong. Supporting women alongside men to innovate in maize and wheat is very feasible."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Research data for this technical note is drawn from GENNOVATE (Enabling Gender Equality in Agricultural and Environmental Innovation) research in Nepal conducted in 2015 1 . Six case studies, three for wheat and three for maize, were developed in Myagdi, Chitwan, Rupandehi, and Jajarkot Districts. Whilst each location had specific socioeconomic characteristics, the study findings are comparable across all sites."}]},{"head":"MYTH 1. Men are the main decision makers","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":238,"text":"A widely held myth in Nepal is that men are key decision makers in all aspects of life. Farmers reflected these norms in discussions. One man said, \"I am the household head. So I decide everything.\" Another man explained that \"without the support of the husband, the wife can't act. Her husband's agreement is needed. His support and advice is needed to bring change in the field.\" A young woman commented on the effect of male dominance, \"Men do not allow women to go ahead. They prohibit us from taking decisions. If women go out or take decisions, men raise questions about their character.\" However, the majority of men discuss innovation options with their wives, parents, seed sellers, extension agents, and friends. The \"soft power\" and influence of the spouse is important. As one man commented, \"My wife and I discuss together if hired labor is needed or not. We make a crop calendar and manage all the things accordingly. I am the household head and I consult with my wife. I share everything with my wife. We discuss and come to a conclusion as to what to do. We decide together.\" Another man added, \"When selecting hybrid seed we, the couple, argue. I may say we should plant the same seed across the whole plot and my wife may say -based on her observations in a friend's field -'No, we will plant multiple varieties.' We decide together.\""},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"The GENNOVATE data further shows that extended families increasingly recognize that, in the absence of men who have migrated to other countries, their daughters-in-law must be empowered to take important farming decisions. According to the men, \"A wife consults with her husband and if the husband is away she consults with in-laws.\" Women who are successful in gaining the backing of their extended family benefit strongly from their wholehearted support and provision of resources."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"The reality of male outmigration means that women's mobility is increasing as well, including in districts where women's mobility has been strongly limited in the past. This relaxation enables women to market crops and livestock, attend agricultural training events, and to join community groups. As a consequence, women are becoming more knowledgeable about wheat and maize innovations, contacting agricultural experts for advice, and sharing ideas with other women on how best to proceed. These new roles build on domains where women have traditionally held key decision-making responsibilities in seed selection, post-harvest processing, and storage."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Nevertheless, marital status, age, religion, socio-economic status, caste, and literacy levels can all play a role in limiting women's ability to innovate. Mothers often exert strong influence over their adult sons' decisions. Newly married younger women generally experience the least influence, particularly in extended families. Women in some castes/ethnicities generally enjoy more decision-making power than in other castes/ethnicities, though the GENNOVATE data cannot make categorical associations between caste/ethnicity and innovative behaviors."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"Overall, however, the GENNOVATE data shows that enormous changes have occurred in a very short time span, generally over the past 10 years. It is no longer true for most locations that men are the main decision makers."}]},{"head":"MYTH 2. Women don't do much in wheat and maize","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":225,"text":"It is often assumed that women are primarily responsible for work in the household and for looking after children. Empirical evidence of women working in the fields across the production cycle of wheat and maize is overlooked, with the result that men are typically targeted by the rural advisory services for training in wheat and maize innovations. As one woman observed, \"Women do not get opportunities like men.\" However, women generally conduct the same work in the fields as men (apart from ploughing). One woman said, \"We don't have such a thing as men working on men's plots and women working on women's plots. All tasks are done together regardless of who owns the farmland and other assets.\" However, the absence of working-age men in many communities means that women are taking on the burden of any added labor associated with innovations. A woman explained, \"The key issues here are how to control pests and to get good seeds. We all try laborsaving methods because it is difficult to find laborers, and it is expensive to employ them. Only a limited group of women have access to training and information; others do not have any opportunity.\" In some cases, men retain control over the marketing of wheat and maize, but in other cases, men as well as women agree that women can and should sell."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"Young men help in farming, but many lack motivation because they expect to out-migrate. Conversely, many young women are strongly active in farming because few leave the community to work elsewhere. In some communities this allows them to participate actively in learning processes, as reflected by this quote from a young women's focus group: \"Women do not go abroad for foreign employment. Therefore women are getting more opportunities. Girls are taking up further education, attending training courses and excursions, and joining groups and associations.\" Other young women reported, however, that social norms hamper their participation in innovation processes. They are being groomed for early marriage and to fulfill household duties and future maternal responsibilities."},{"index":3,"size":264,"text":"Across the case studies, there was little evidence that rural advisory services actively target women in these crops as part of their institutional level targeting strategy. As a consequence, men have better access to sources of information, and to networks which facilitate innovation. Since they are trained directly by agricultural technicians, men are able to learn rapidly and to try out their ideas straightaway under expert guidance. Men are also much more likely than women to operate tractors and other labor-saving machinery. Women remarked on their isolation: \"If there had been a woman technician, she would have visited our village regularly, and we could have asked about many things regarding agriculture. But we don't have a woman technician.\" Taken together, these factors explain the common belief that women do not innovate in wheat and maize. However, despite these constraints, the GENNOVATE data overwhelmingly shows that many women farmers are active innovators. Women negotiate with their husbands and extended families to get training and to join groups. Some women seek out extension advisors and successful farmers to learn more. According to one woman, \"We have learned to use improved wheat seeds, agricultural machinery, and different types of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. As a result, we can produce more wheat and earn more money. We cultivate all crops for sale.\" Another woman remarked, \"We are cultivating wheat on a large scale. We really need improved varieties.\" There is also evidence that individual extension agents work with women due to their personal commitment to women's development. This support really makes a difference. As explained by one woman:"},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"I was the first person to innovate in the village. I was selected to test improved varieties of wheat using new cultivation methods. Another woman was selected to continue with the traditional method of sowing. I prepared rows at a distance of 20 cm and sowed seeds. As a consequence, the wheat plants grew very nicely with 8 to 9 bunches in each plant. Later the extension officer came and compared production on my land and the woman following the traditional method. They found mine was better with big bunches and more wheat production."},{"index":5,"size":131,"text":"Despite this experience, many women innovate without any support from extension services. They explained that they watch other farmers experiment and then create their own experiments. Women highlighted how they feel strongly motivated through working with other women innovators: they share ideas and advice with each other. The lack of extension support usually means that their learning cycles take longer than for men, but this does not appear to discourage women, and some have become very successful. As one woman observed, \"At first I was not aware of new technologies in agriculture. However, these days I plant improved varieties of wheat and use chemical fertilizers and mechanized agricultural tools. I am making a lot of money.\" Women inspire and support other women, and they act as role models for each other."}]},{"head":"MYTH 3. Women don't innovate","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Photo: Andrew McDonald/CSISA."}]},{"head":"MYTH 4. Women lack resources for innovation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"In Nepal, it is quite common to hear the adjective \"destitute\" used to describe the state of women. In agriculture this concept shades into a belief that women lack the resources required for innovation in wheat and maize. In common with the other myths, there is some veracity to this. Negative feedback loops caused by the myth that women do not innovate contribute to a paucity of resources being made available to women innovators."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"For instance, agricultural equipment is rarely designed to suit the needs of women farmers and few efforts are made to gain social acceptance for women to use rotavators. Working and investment capital can be problematic: it can be more difficult for women, in the absence of their husbands, to obtain enough money to finance their innovations, even when they hold land title. Time is a particularly prominent constraint. Housework, managed almost exclusively by women, is very time consuming. One woman explained that \"the workload of women has increased due to the absence of our husbands. Now we have to do housework and go out to hire machinery, manage labor, and do irrigation ourselves.\" In some cases, women address labor constraints by engaging in reciprocal labor exchange schemes. This is very common in hilly districts."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Nevertheless, women are gaining improved access to some resources. Credit providers increasingly target women. This is assisting poorer women and their families to escape bonded labor conditions and sharecropping, and to enter own account farming. For the first time, some of the poorest women and men are starting to innovate."},{"index":4,"size":119,"text":"The data is clear that women are innovating in wheat and maize through necessity and sometimes the sheer pleasure of doing things differently. Many women linked their drive to innovate, despite all the difficulties, to their roles as mothers and aspirations for their children's future. They continue to attend to family responsibilities, but equally are becoming breadwinners. Success is not only associated with higher yields or more income. An improvement in technical capacity translates into women being seen as competent, respectful, and progressive farmers. Women stressed how success in innovating in wheat and maize helps them meet cultural values. These include harmonious relationships with friends and family, raising children with good values, spiritual wellbeing, and being content in life."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"Finally, community groups are pivotal in spreading the concept of equality between women and men. Women frequently emphasized that the active promotion of equal treatment for women and gender equality in these groups is fundamental to building their confidence and willingness to innovate. Indeed, some women said it was a precondition. Believing they are as good as men provides women with the courage to succeed."},{"index":6,"size":64,"text":"Moving ahead: Opportunities for research and development occupation as viable for their sons? Young women are Nepal's future farmers. How can extension services encourage and support them to innovate, and how can this learning be sustained through periods when young women, for example upon marriage, may experience mobility and other constraints? How can parents be persuaded to encourage their daughters to become active innovators?"},{"index":7,"size":3,"text":"Photo: Peter Lowe/CIMMYT."}]},{"head":"Distinguishing between gender","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"myths about what women \"don't decide\" and \"don't do\" in wheat and maize, and the reality of what women actually decide and do, is important. Widely held gender norms (from which myths are drawn) continue to structure expectations of what men and women should do, but in myriad ways these norms are being \"hollowed out\" and renegotiated in ways which support important cultural values whilst allowing change to happen. Understanding, recognizing, and building on these change processes is essential if innovation processes in wheat and maize are to be successful. A few thoughts on how key actors can support women in innovation are given here."}]},{"head":"Researchers","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"More research studies into how women innovate are needed. Potential areas of inquiry include: How do women develop formal and informal innovation networks with other women, and with local experts? In what ways do women expand their decisionmaking power in intra-household discussions with their spouses, and with their extended family, in order to promote their innovation capacity? Does the absence of men in the household facilitate, or hamper, women's innovation? In what ways are men, including men decision makers at the community level, supporting women to innovate? How are gender norms shifting to accommodate women as innovators, and are changes to norms likely to be permanent? How are innovation processes supporting valued concepts of a \"good life\"? Research into intersectionalities between gender, socio-cultural markers of identity (caste, religion, ethnicity), age, economic status, household typology, and participation in innovation processes would provide valuable information for project design."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Agronomic research, preferably crosscutting with some of the above areas of inquiry, into women's preferred technical innovations is essential, including with respect to labor-saving machinery. Research into gendered trade-offs between different kinds of innovation is also needed."}]},{"head":"Rural advisory services","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"It is critical for rural advisory services, at an institutional level, to recognize women as innovators in wheat and maize. Gender-sensitive targeting and capacity development strategies need to be developed. Women-friendly training events are essential, as is ongoing support. This may require the deployment of more women extension staff (with support as necessary) in some locations, and re-orientating men staff to recognize women as wheat and maize innovators."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Few young men see a future in agriculture. Is it possible to turn this around by finding ways to support some young men in agricultural innovation processes? What needs to happen to allow parents and other family members to see an agricultural"}]},{"head":"NGOs and other development partners","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Gender equality messages set out by development partners and the government make a difference. Community organizations which walk the talk on gender, for instance by training women in budgeting, planning, public speaking, and leadership, help women to feel powerful and be able to innovate."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Development partners can help to introduce labor-saving machinery to save women's time in wheat and maize, and in other agricultural tasks. It is equally important to develop and introduce labor-saving devices to help women manage house and care work."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"Household methodologies can help women and men to develop shared visions for their lives, and to recognize and work together to overcome gender barriers to innovation. Household methodologies encourage women and men to share household chores and care work by helping spouses and the wider family to see the win-win situation this creates. Other gendertransformative approaches include some which recruit women and men as farmer scientists. This helps them to develop their research skills on their own land with their own crops and animals. They are trained to develop hypotheses, to set up study conditions, and to record and discuss results. The field research underpinning this note was implemented in collaboration with Women Leading for Change in Natural Resource Management, (W-LCN), Nepal."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"To learn more visit: "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Photo: Peter Lowe/CIMMYT. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Correct citation: Farnworth, C. R., Jafry, T., Lama, K., Chatterjee, S., & Badstue, L. (2017). Challenging gender myths: Promoting inclusive wheat and maize research for development in Nepal. GENNOVATE resources for scientists and research teams. CDMX, Mexico: CIMMYT. gender.cgiar.org/collaborative- gender.cgiar.org/collaborative- research/gennovate/ research/gennovate/ Contact: Contact: Lone Badstue Lone Badstue International Maize and Wheat International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) Improvement Center (CIMMYT) email: l.badstue@cgiar.org email: l.badstue@cgiar.org  "}],"sieverID":"81f63e02-d597-4b59-aa0b-545211f68786","abstract":"Myth 1. Men are the main decision makers.Myth 2. Women don't do much in wheat and maize. Myth 3. Women don't innovate.Myth 4. Women lack resources for innovation.A resource for scientists and research teams 1. For more information, including individual reports from across the CGIAR, please visit https://gender.cgiar.org/themes/gennovate/."}

data/part_1/056014245db57518937aa15d509a48ba.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"056014245db57518937aa15d509a48ba","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5dc0e1aa-4647-41ea-87bd-4e760b5248e8/retrieve"},"pageCount":34,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Développé par une équipe multidisciplinaire de chercheurs de l'Institut international de recherche sur l'élevage (ILRI) et de l'Université Emory, le module WELI est un nouvel outil standardisé qui mesure l'autonomisation des femmes impliquées dans le secteur de l'élevage."},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"Remarque aux concepteurs de l'enquête : Les informations du module G1 peuvent être saisies de différentes manières, mais il y a un moyen particulier de le faire. Il consiste à : (a) identifier l'individu approprié au sein du ménage en mesure de répondre à l'enquête, (b) relier cet individu du module au fichier du ménage, (c) coder le résultat de l'entretien, en particulier si ledit individu n'est pas disponible, pour le distinguer des données manquantes, et (d) enregistrer les personnes du ménage qui étaient présentes au cours de l'entretien. Cet outil doit être adapté au contexte du pays, notamment en ajoutant des exemples pertinents et des traductions dans les langues locales, le cas échéant."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"Remarque aux recenseurs : Ce questionnaire doit être administré séparément aux répondants primaires et secondaires identifiés dans la liste des ménages du questionnaire au niveau du ménage. Vous devez renseigner la page de couverture pour chaque individu identifié dans la « Section de sélection », même si l'individu n'est pas disponible pour être interviewé à des fins de déclaration. Pour certaines enquêtes (telles que celles axées sur les résultats nutritionnels), le répondant féminin peut être la femme bénéficiaire ou la mère, ou encore la personne qui s'occupe principalement de l'enfant index (également le répondant féminin pour le module de nutrition pro-WEAI). Veuillez-vous assurer qu'elle est également la personne interrogée pour ce questionnaire et que le répondant masculin est son époux/partenaire (le cas échéant). Veuillez vérifier à nouveau, pour vous en assurer, que :"},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"• Vous avez rempli la section de la liste du questionnaire ménage pour identifier la/les personne(s) interrogée(s) primaire(s) et/ou secondaire(s) correcte(s) ;"},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"• Vous avez correctement noté l'ID du ménage et l'ID de l'individu pour la personne que vous allez interroger ;"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"• Vous avez obtenu le consentement éclairé de l'individu dans le questionnaire ménage ;"},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"• Vous avez cherché à interroger la personne en privé ou lorsque les autres membres du ménage ne peuvent pas influencer ses réponses."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"2 Préparation des dispositifs de collecte de données et réalisation de l'enquête sur les dispositifs numériques 3 Instructions générales relatives à toutes les sections"},{"index":9,"size":80,"text":"• Ne lisez pas aux répondants la liste des modalités de réponses, à moins qu'on ne leur demande explicitement de « LIRE ». Laissez plutôt la personne interrogée vous donner sa réponse à la question et elle choisira la réponse la plus appropriée dans la liste des modalités de réponse. Si la réponse du répondant n'est pas claire, cela peut signifier qu'il/elle n'a pas compris la question. Dans ce cas, approfondissez et reformulez la question pour qu'elle soit correctement comprise."},{"index":10,"size":17,"text":"• Le mois doit toujours être écrit en chiffres, en utilisant des nombres de 1 à 12."},{"index":11,"size":9,"text":"• L'année doit toujours être écrite avec 4 chiffres."},{"index":12,"size":36,"text":"• Les dates complètes telles que les dates de naissance ou les dates d'interview doivent respecter le format suivant : JJ-MM-AAAA (c.-à-d. le jour à 2 chiffres, le mois à 2 chiffres, l'année à 4 chiffres)."},{"index":13,"size":15,"text":"• Les pourcentages doivent toujours être écrits avec des chiffres compris entre 0 et 100."},{"index":14,"size":41,"text":"• Commencez par le questionnaire ménage, puis poursuivez avec les questionnaires individuels. Si possible, et si la composition de l'équipe de terrain le permet, les enquêteurs masculins doivent interroger le principal répondant masculin et les enquêteurs féminins, le principal répondant féminin."},{"index":15,"size":71,"text":"• Pour le questionnaire individuel, les répondants individuels doivent si possible être interrogés séparément, sans la présence d'autres membres du ménage ou de personnes extérieures. Il N'EST PAS conseillé que d'autres membres du ménage aident à se souvenir des questions du questionnaire individuel. Il est cependant acceptable que d'autres membres du ménage aident à se rappeler les questions posées au répondant dans le cadre des questions au niveau du ménage UNIQUEMENT."},{"index":16,"size":153,"text":"• Bien que la recherche repose sur différents indicateurs, le principal étant l'Indice d'autonomisation des femmes dans l'élevage (WELI), la mention de la recherche en cours doit porter sur le projet dans le cadre duquel les estimations du WELI sont nécessaires soit pour suivre l'avancement du projet, soit pour informer les activités du projet, et non pas nécessairement pour décrire les outils d'analyse (c'est-à-dire le WELI, etc.). Comme indiqué dans le formulaire de consentement à l'étude, les questions portent directement sur la prise de décision au sein du ménage. Afin de ne pas donner l'impression que nous voulons changer ou influencer les rôles de genre ou l'autonomisation des femmes en utilisant l'étude, ce qui pourrait biaiser ou fausser les résultats, il est préférable de présenter le projet en question et ce que l'outil couvre en termes de prise de décision au sein du ménage, et non pas l'analyse des données (autonomisation des femmes)."},{"index":17,"size":4,"text":"4 Facteurs de conversion"},{"index":18,"size":6,"text":"• 1 kilomètre = 0,6 mille"},{"index":19,"size":6,"text":"• 1,67 kilomètre = 1 mille"},{"index":20,"size":7,"text":"• 1 mile = 1 667 mètres"},{"index":21,"size":6,"text":"• 1 pied = 0,30 mètre"},{"index":22,"size":6,"text":"• 1 mètre = 0,91 mètre"},{"index":23,"size":6,"text":"• 1 kilomètre = 0,62 mille"},{"index":24,"size":6,"text":"• 1 acre = 100 décimales"},{"index":25,"size":6,"text":"• 1 hectare = 2,47 acres"},{"index":26,"size":8,"text":"• 10 000 mètres carrés = 1 hectare"},{"index":27,"size":8,"text":"• 4 048 mètres carrés = 1 acre"},{"index":28,"size":7,"text":"• 1 mètre carré = 0,000245 acres"}]},{"head":"Codes universels","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Les codes suivants peuvent être appropriés pour toute question de l'enquête sur les ménages. En aucun cas (à l'exception des invitations à passer à la question suivante), une question ne doit être laissée sans réponse. Si vous n'êtes pas sûr(e), prenez une note et demandez à votre superviseur à la fin du questionnaire de quelle manière renseigner la question particulière."}]},{"head":"Ne sait pas 88","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Sans objet (SO)/Aucune décision prise 98"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Si autre, précisez 99"},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"6 Instructions par section : Questionnaire pour les ménages Afin de faciliter les comparaisons entre pays, nous recommandons les définitions standard à utiliser pour identifier ce qui peut être qualifié de « ménage », et qui de sujet d'entretien ou de répondant « primaire » et « secondaire ».dent."},{"index":4,"size":191,"text":"Plusieurs enquêtes portant sur les ménages à buts multiples définissent un ménage comme étant un groupe de personnes vivant ensemble et prenant de la nourriture dans la « même marmite » (Ayad et. al., 1994 ;Glewwe, 2000). La partie importante de cette définition est que le groupe d'individus partage au moins certaines ressources communes et prend certaines décisions communes en matière de budget et de dépenses (partage de la même marmite). Un membre du ménage est une personne qui vit dans ledit ménage depuis au moins six (6) mois, et au moins la moitié de la semaine de chaque semaine au cours de ces mêmes mois. Même les personnes qui n'ont pas de liens de parenté (comme les domestiques, les locataires ou les travailleurs agricoles) sont des membres du ménage si elles remplissent ces conditions, et inversement, les individus qui dorment dans le ménage, mais qui ne supportent aucun coût relatif à la nourriture ou ne prennent pas de nourriture dans « la même marmite », ne sont pas considérés comme des membres du ménage. Cette définition, qui comprend des exemples et des directives plus spécifiques, est intégrée dans les questionnaires."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"Il convient de noter que, par exception aux règles susmentionnées, les personnes suivantes doivent être considérées comme membres du ménage:"},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• Un nouveau-né de moins de 3 mois."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"• Une personne qui a rejoint le ménage par mariage il y a de cela moins de 3 mois."},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"• Les serviteurs, les locataires et les travailleurs agricoles qui font actuellement partie du ménage et qui y resteront plus longtemps mais qui sont arrivés il y a moins de 3 mois."},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"Ne pas considérer comme membre du ménage :"},{"index":10,"size":20,"text":"• Une personne décédée très récemment mais qui est restée plus de 3 mois au cours des 6 derniers mois."},{"index":11,"size":17,"text":"• Une personne qui a quitté le ménage suite à un mariage moins de 3 mois auparavant."},{"index":12,"size":27,"text":"• Les serviteurs, les locataires et les travailleurs agricoles qui sont restés plus de 3 mois au cours des 6 derniers mois mais qui sont partis définitivement."}]},{"head":"Conseils de bonne pratique","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"• Si la définition standard du ménage n'a aucun sens dans le contexte où les enquêtes seront mises en oeuvre, le plus important est de s'assurer que les recenseurs ont la même compréhension des définitions afin que la mise en oeuvre soit cohérente pour l'ensemble des ménages. En cas de doute sur la personne à inclure ou exclure, veuillez en discuter avec votre superviseur."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Les répondants primaires et secondaires sont ceux qui sont identifiés comme étant les principaux responsables de la prise de décision, tant sociale qu'économique, au sein du ménage. Ils sont généralement mari et femme ; ils peuvent cependant également correspondre à d'autres membres tant qu'il y a un homme et une femme âgés de 18 ans et plus. Par exemple, une mère veuve et son fils adulte peuvent être les principaux responsables de la prise de décision au sein du ménage. La femme index peut être soit la répondante principale, soit la répondante secondaire."}]},{"head":"Consentement éclairé","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Before beginning the interview, it is necessary to introduce the household to the survey and obtain their consent to participate. Make it clear to them that their participation in the survey is voluntary."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"After reading out the informed and seeking consent from the respondents, ensure that you sign the duplicate copies of the informed consent for each household and leave one copy with the household after the interview."}]},{"head":"Module G1. Individual identification","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"La couverture : Veuillez-vous assurer que les informations recueillies sur la page de couverture du questionnaire individuel sont cohérentes avec les informations de la page de couverture du questionnaire ménage. Il est très important que l'ID du ménage et l'ID de l'individu soient corrects (obtenus à partir de la liste des ménages)."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"G1.01. Identification du ménage -il s'agit d'un identifiant unique attribué à chaque ménage. Il peut être numérique ou alphanumérique. Avant de vous rendre dans un ménage, assurez-vous que votre superviseur a bien attribué l'ID du ménage que vous allez interroger. Notez l'ID du ménage assigné pour faciliter la référence une fois que vous commencez l'interview."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"• Conseil destinés aux superviseurs de l'enquête : Le meilleur identifiant de ménage à utiliser est l'« identifiant de ménage intelligent » qui donne plus d'informations qu'un simple numéro. Il est préférable de les donner sous forme alphanumérique où, par exemple, là où les premières lettres représentent le pays, là où les secondes lettres représentent le district/village, etc. et sont suivies d'un ou de plusieurs chiffres pour chaque ménage."},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"Les ménages interrogés dans le comté de Nairobi (Kenya) pourraient par exemple se voir attribuer un numéro d'identification de ménage comme suit : KENAI001 ... KENAI300 (KE=Kenya, NAI=Nairobi, 001=premier ménage à être interrogé et 300=le 300ème ménage à être interrogé). • La période de référence pour cette question est toujours de 12 mois. Dans certains cas, pour les activités liées à la production de cultures, il sera utile de demander au répondant de penser aux deux dernières saisons de culture si la zone est soumise à une saison de culture biannuelle. Dans d'autres cas, la période de référence devrait correspondre à une seule saison de culture, selon le nombre de saisons de culture par année, l'intervention et le moment entre les enquêtes. Il convient d'en décider et de le normaliser au cours de la période de formation."},{"index":5,"size":98,"text":"• Dans certaines langues, il y a un « vous » au singulier (lorsqu'on s'adresse à une seule personne) et un « vous » au pluriel (si l'on s'adresse à plusieurs personnes). Cette question se réfère au « vous » singulier (la personne interrogée, et non elle et sa famille). Si la langue locale ne fait pas la distinction entre le singulier et le pluriel, assurez-vous que le répondant comprenne que cela s'applique uniquement à lui ou à elle (cela s'appliquera également chaque fois que nous posons des questions employant le « vous » dans le questionnaire individuel)."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"• Si le répondant répond « non », cela signifie qu'il n'a pas participé à l'activité. Dans ce cas, passez à l'activité suivante."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"G2.02: Lorsque des décisions sont prises concernant [ACTIVITÉ], qui prend généralement la décision?"},{"index":8,"size":34,"text":"• IMPORTANT: Lorsque vous demandez qui prend une décision, indiquez les codes d'identification des membres du ménage afin de relier les décisions aux répondants individuels. Vous pouvez entrer jusqu'à 3 codes d'identification de membre."},{"index":9,"size":30,"text":"• Si la personne interrogée mentionne des décideurs qui ne font pas partie du ménage, sélectionnez les options suivantes, selon ce qui est approprié, comme indiqué par le répondant :"},{"index":10,"size":5,"text":"• NON-MEMBRE DU FOYER (HOMME)"},{"index":11,"size":5,"text":"• NON-MEMBRE DU FOYER (FEMME)"},{"index":12,"size":18,"text":"• Si aucune décision n'a été prise concernant l'[ACTIVITÉ], sélectionnez AUCUNE DÉCISION PRISE et passez à l'activité suivante."},{"index":13,"size":19,"text":"• S'il y a plus de 3 décideurs, demandez à la personne interrogée de mentionner les 3 plus importants."},{"index":14,"size":77,"text":"• Remarque : si le répondant répond « moi-même » seulement (c.-à-d., qu'il n'y a pas d'autres décideurs mentionnés à part le répondant lui-même), alors passez directement à la question G2.05. Les questions G2.03 et G2.04 portent sur le niveau de contribution et de contrôle que le répondant estime avoir sur l'activité, mais s'il indique qu'il/elle prend seul(e) la décision, alors on peut supposer sans risque qu'il/elle contribue grandement et a un grand contrôle sur la décision."},{"index":15,"size":18,"text":"• Il est facultatif d'ajouter ici une question demandant au répondant qui il/elle aimerait voir prendre la décision."},{"index":16,"size":16,"text":"G2.03: Quelle a été votre contribution (au singulier) à la prise de décisions concernant [ACTIVITÉ] ?"},{"index":17,"size":24,"text":"• Inscrivez le code de réponse approprié parmi les codes énumérés au bas du module (en écrire un) :Little to no input in decisions"},{"index":18,"size":8,"text":"• Faible à aucune pour les décisions 01"},{"index":19,"size":6,"text":"• Totale pour certaines décisions 02"},{"index":20,"size":10,"text":"• Totale pour la plupart ou toutes les décisions 03"},{"index":21,"size":17,"text":"• Sans opinion/Aucune décision prise 98 ≥ Si ce code est sélectionné, alors passez à l'activité suivante."},{"index":22,"size":35,"text":"• Dans certains cas, dans la langue locale, la question G2.03 doit être posée en deux questions séparées (demandez d'abord si le répondant contribue à la prise de décision, puis demandez son niveau de contribution)."},{"index":23,"size":17,"text":"G2.04: A quel niveau pensez-vous pouvoir participer aux décisions concernant cette [ACTIVITÉ] si vous le souhaitiez ?"},{"index":24,"size":10,"text":"• Entourez une seule réponse parmi les catégories suivantes :"},{"index":25,"size":3,"text":"• Aucunement 01"},{"index":26,"size":3,"text":"• Faiblement 02"},{"index":27,"size":3,"text":"• Moyennement 03"},{"index":28,"size":3,"text":"• Grandement 04"},{"index":29,"size":53,"text":"• Même si un répondant n'a pas pris part aux décisions, il peut le faire par choix, comme lorsqu'une décision est déléguée à d'autres, ou lorsque le répondant n'a aucun intérêt dans l'activité ou la décision particulière. Cette question vise à déterminer si le répondant peut participer au processus décisionnel s'il le désire."},{"index":30,"size":20,"text":"G2.05: A quel niveau pouvez-vous accéder à l'information que vous jugez importante pour prendre des décisions éclairées concernant [ACTIVITÉ] ?"},{"index":31,"size":10,"text":"• Entourez une seule réponse parmi les catégories suivantes :"},{"index":32,"size":3,"text":"• Aucunement 01"},{"index":33,"size":3,"text":"• Faiblement 02"},{"index":34,"size":3,"text":"• Moyennement 03"},{"index":35,"size":3,"text":"• Grandement 04"},{"index":36,"size":29,"text":"G2.06: Quel a été votre niveau de contribution à la prise de décisions prises concernant la quantité de produits de [ACTIVITÉ] à conserver pour la consommation du ménage ?"},{"index":37,"size":19,"text":"• Entrez le code de réponse approprié parmi les codes énumérés au bas du module (en écrire un) :"},{"index":38,"size":10,"text":"• Peu ou pas de contribution aux les décisions 01"},{"index":39,"size":6,"text":"• Contribution à certaines décisions 02"},{"index":40,"size":11,"text":"• Contribution à la plupart ou à toutes les décisions 03"},{"index":41,"size":7,"text":"• Sans objet/Aucune décision prise 98 →"},{"index":42,"size":3,"text":"• Activité suivante"},{"index":43,"size":18,"text":"• G2.07: How much input did you have in decisions about how to use income generated from [ACTIVITY]?"},{"index":44,"size":18,"text":"• Enter the appropriate response code from the codes listed at the bottom of the module (write one):"},{"index":45,"size":8,"text":"• Little to no input in decisions 01"},{"index":46,"size":6,"text":"• Input into some decisions 02"},{"index":47,"size":8,"text":"• Input into most or all decisions 03"},{"index":48,"size":14,"text":"En ce qui concerne G2.03, G2.06 et G2.07, veuillez noter ce qui suit :"},{"index":49,"size":94,"text":"• Le code 98 (« sans objet ») doit être inscrit dans le cas où la décision n'est pas prise, par exemple, les cultures peuvent avoir été perdues et aucun revenu n'a par conséquent été généré, ou bien le bétail/les produits du bétail n'ont pas été vendus et aucun revenu n'a donc été généré. Dans tous les autres cas, cette catégorie ne doit pas être laissée vide. Si la réponse donnée à l'une des questions G2.02, G2.06 ou G2.07 est « sans objet ou aucune décision n'a été prise », passez à l'activité suivante."},{"index":50,"size":19,"text":"Pour les rangées G et H, les questions G2.07 ne doivent pas être posées, et passez à l'activité suivante."},{"index":51,"size":21,"text":"Pour les rangées I à K, les questions G2.07 et G2.08 ne doivent pas être posées, et passez à l'activité suivante."},{"index":52,"size":5,"text":"6.5.2 Éléments du TableauG2.01 -G2.07"},{"index":53,"size":52,"text":"Dans certains cas, les répondants auront besoin de plus d'explications quant au contenu de certaines catégories. Dans ce cas, le recenseur peut utiliser des exemples simples en guise d'explication. Ces exemples peuvent être adaptés aux activités spécifiques entreprises par les ménages dans la zone d'enquête. Voici quelques exemples susceptibles d'être utilisés :"},{"index":54,"size":70,"text":"• Culture de céréales de base et transformation de la récolte : Céréales qui sont principalement cultivées pour la consommation alimentaire : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part aux décisions concernant le type de céréales (riz, maïs, manioc, millet, blé) à planter cette année ou au sujet des parcelles dans lesquelles elles seraient plantées, ou encore en ce qui concerne les semences, les engrais (autres intrants) que votre famille achèterait ?"},{"index":55,"size":86,"text":"• Horticulture (jardins) ou Maraîchage et traitement de la récolte : Comprend la production alimentaire à petite échelle dans le jardin pour la consommation personnelle et la vente, qu'elle soit génératrice de revenus ou destinée à la consommation domestique. Par exemple, avez-vous participé aux décisions concernant le type de cultures de rente ou de cultures vivrières (fruits, légumes et autres produits de base) à planter cette année ou dans quelles parcelles elles seraient plantées, ou encore les semences, l'engrais (autres intrants) que votre famille achèterait ?"},{"index":56,"size":39,"text":"• L'élevage de gros bétail et la transformation du lait et/ou de la viande : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part aux décisions concernant l'achat, les soins ou la vente de gros bétail comme les bovins ou les chameaux ?"},{"index":57,"size":38,"text":"• Petit élevage et transformation du lait et/ou de la viande : Par exemple, avez-vous participé aux décisions concernant l'achat, les soins ou la vente de petits animaux d'élevage comme les moutons, les chèvres ou les porcs ?"},{"index":58,"size":47,"text":"• Élevage de volaille et d'autres petits animaux : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part aux décisions concernant l'achat, les soins ou la vente de poulets, de canards, de dindes, de pigeons, de cailles et la transformation des oeufs et/ou de la viande de ces animaux d'élevage ?"},{"index":59,"size":32,"text":"• Activités économiques non agricoles : Petite entreprise, travail indépendant, achat et vente : Par exemple, avez-vous participé aux achats effectués pour une petite entreprise ou à la vente de biens ?"},{"index":60,"size":42,"text":"• Emploi salarié : Travail en nature ou activité rémunérée, à la fois dans l'agriculture et dans d'autres domaines : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part aux décisions concernant votre travail ou celui d'autres membres du ménage à l'extérieur de la maison ?"},{"index":61,"size":41,"text":"• Grands achats occasionnels du ménage : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part à l'achat d'appareils électroménagers coûteux pour la maison, comme un réfrigérateur ou des meubles ? Ou de biens de plus grande valeur comme un terrain ou une bicyclette ?"},{"index":62,"size":89,"text":"• Achats courants des ménages : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part à des dépenses moins importantes du ménage, telles que celles liées aux besoins quotidiens, comme la consommation de nourriture ? Ces catégories d'achats sont axées sur la taille (faible valeur) et la fréquence des achats (achats de routine, achats quotidiens), contrairement aux catégories d'achats des ménages collectées dans le module sur la nutrition et la santé qui se concentrent sur les articles et qui ont une pertinence particulière pour les résultats en matière de santé et de nutrition."},{"index":63,"size":29,"text":"• Obtention d'intrants agricoles : Par exemple, avez-vous pris part à l'obtention d'intrants agricoles comme des engrais, des aliments pour animaux, et des services, tels que vétérinaires, conseils ?"},{"index":64,"size":102,"text":"6.6 Module G2: Rôle dans la prise de décision du ménage concernant la production et le revenu GRAND RUMINANT (BOVINS OU RACES AMÉLIORÉES MIXTES …), 4 -il s'agit de races exotiques ou croisées de bovins exotiques élevés à la fois pour la production de lait et de viande bovine (double usage). C'est ce que l'on trouve surtout dans les ménages de petits exploitants agricoles qui élèvent des bovins. Remarque : Sélectionnez cette option lorsque le troupeau entier est composé de races améliorées et qu'il possède à la fois des bovins destinés à la production laitière et à la production de viande bovine."},{"index":65,"size":14,"text":"PETIT RUMINANT (OVINS, CHÈVRES LOCAUX …), 5 -il s'agit d'ovins et de caprins locaux/indigènes."},{"index":66,"size":22,"text":"PETITS RUMINANTS (OVINS, CHÈVRES, RACES AMÉLIORÉES …), 6 -il s'agit de races exotiques ou de croisements de moutons et de chèvres exotiques."},{"index":67,"size":26,"text":"VOLAILLE (LOCALE)…7 -il s'agit de races locales/indigènes de tout type de volaille domestique, telles que les poulets, les dindes, les canards, les oies, les cailles, etc."},{"index":68,"size":34,"text":"VOLAILLE (RACES AMÉLIORÉES …), 8 -il s'agit de races exotiques ou de croisements de races exotiques de tout type de volaille domestique, comme les poulets, les dindes, les canards, les oies, les cailles, etc."},{"index":69,"size":20,"text":"CHAMEAUX …, 9. Il s'agit de races locales et exotiques venues de la région de Louga ou de la Mauritanie."},{"index":70,"size":8,"text":"Posez les questions suivantes à la personne interrogée:"},{"index":71,"size":27,"text":"G2.08 : Parmi les espèces de bétail suivantes, lesquelles sont élevées dans votre ménage -Sélectionnez toutes les espèces que le ménage garde, selon la personne interrogée. Remarque:"},{"index":72,"size":44,"text":"• Pour les gros ruminants, si un ménage possède à la fois des animaux laitiers et des animaux de boucherie, sélectionnez seulement l'option GRAND RUMINANT (BOVIN ou MIXTE...) et non pas les deux options GRAND RUMINANT (LOCAL LAITIER) et GRAND RUMINANT (BOVIN OU MIXTE)."},{"index":73,"size":35,"text":"• Si une espèce de bétail qui n'appartient à aucune des catégories énumérées est mentionnée par le répondant, sélectionnez l'option « Autre spécification » et procédez à l'inscription du nom de ladite espèce de bétail."},{"index":74,"size":47,"text":"G2.09: Veuillez sélectionner l'espèce et le type de race les plus importants pour les moyens de subsistance de votre ménage -sélectionnez une seule espèce de bétail dans la liste, celle que la personne interrogée identifie comme étant la plus importante pour les moyens de subsistance du ménage."},{"index":75,"size":49,"text":"G2.09a: Raison pour laquelle elle est la plus importante pour le bien-être/moyen de subsistance de votre ménage : -Il s'agit d'un champ de texte libre dans lequel vous devez saisir la raison citée par la personne interrogée qui explique pourquoi l'espèce de bétail sélectionnée est importante pour le ménage."},{"index":76,"size":51,"text":"G2.10: Veuillez sélectionner l'espèce et le type de race les plus importants pour votre propre moyen de subsistance -Sélectionnez une seule espèce de bétail dans la liste, celle que la personne interrogée identifie comme la plus importante pour son propre moyen de subsistance. 6.6.3 Liste des activités du Tableau G2.12 -G2.20"},{"index":77,"size":17,"text":"• Alimentation des animaux -il s'agit de collecter, d'acheter, de préparer et/ou d'apporter des aliments aux animaux."},{"index":78,"size":13,"text":"• Abreuvement des animaux-il s'agit de recueillir ou d'apporter de l'eau à l'animal."},{"index":79,"size":17,"text":"• Pâturage des animaux -cela implique de sortir les animaux de la ferme pour les faire paître."},{"index":80,"size":19,"text":"• Vérification de la santé de l'animal -cela implique d'observer l'animal pour relever tout signe de problème de santé."},{"index":81,"size":20,"text":"• Application des mesures de prévention des maladies-cela comprend la pulvérisation, la désinfection ou le fait de laver les animaux."},{"index":82,"size":20,"text":"• Mise en oeuvre des mesures curatives -cela comprend l'administration de médicaments dans le but de guérir les animaux malades."},{"index":83,"size":20,"text":"• Traite des animaux -il s'agit de tirer le lait (d'une vache ou d'un autre animal), soit manuellement, soit mécaniquement."},{"index":84,"size":28,"text":"• Vente de lait/d'oeufs -il s'agit de parler du lait à un acheteur ou de le livrer à un centre de collecte afin de l'échanger contre de l'argent."},{"index":85,"size":35,"text":"• Nettoyage des animaux, des abris ou des outils-il s'agit d'enlever la saleté des abris pour animaux et de s'assurer que ces mêmes abris et les ustensiles utilisés pour la manipulation des animaux sont propres."},{"index":86,"size":13,"text":"• Abattage des animaux -il s'agit de tuer (les animaux) pour se nourrir."},{"index":87,"size":32,"text":"• Préparation de la viande, des oeufs et du lait des animaux pour en faire de la nourriture -cela implique la cuisson/le nettoyage et le service des produits du bétail comme nourriture."},{"index":88,"size":12,"text":"• Élevage des animaux dans son propre troupeau -cela implique de :"},{"index":89,"size":12,"text":"• Choisir des animaux femelles et mâles pour organiser la reproduction ;"},{"index":90,"size":13,"text":"• Prendre soin des parents sélectionnés en leur prodiguant les meilleurs soins ;"},{"index":91,"size":16,"text":"• Séparer les mâles et les femelles géniteurs et organiser leur accouplement à des moments appropriés."},{"index":92,"size":16,"text":"Remarque : l'un ou l'autre ou les trois ci-dessus doivent être considérés comme des animaux reproducteurs"},{"index":93,"size":10,"text":"• Organisation de l'insémination artificielle (IA) -cela implique de :"},{"index":94,"size":6,"text":"• Contacter le fournisseur d'IA ;"},{"index":95,"size":8,"text":"• Choisir les géniteurs pour la reproduction ;"},{"index":96,"size":9,"text":"• Prendre des dispositions pour recevoir le service d'IA."},{"index":97,"size":20,"text":"Remarque : l'un ou l'autre ou les trois éléments ci-dessus doivent être considérés comme des dispositions prises pour l'insémination artificielle."},{"index":98,"size":10,"text":"• Recours à un service de reproduction-cela implique de :"},{"index":99,"size":13,"text":"• Rechercher d'autres personnes pour fournir un animal géniteur pour la reproduction ;"},{"index":100,"size":13,"text":"• Choisir les animaux qui seront les parents de la prochaine génération ;"},{"index":101,"size":9,"text":"• Prendre des dispositions pour ledit service de reproduction."},{"index":102,"size":18,"text":"Remarque : l'un ou l'autre ou les trois ci-dessus doivent être considérés comme des services de taureaux receveurs."},{"index":103,"size":25,"text":"• Décision quant à la quantité de produits [ANIMAUX]à mettre de côté pour la consommation des ménagesquelle quantité consommer par rapport à quelle quantité vendre."},{"index":104,"size":59,"text":"• Commercialisation d'animaux vivants et de produits d'animaux vivants -cela implique la préparation et la livraison d'animaux (animaux vivants) et de produits d'animaux (par exemple, la viande d'abattage, les cuirs et les peaux, etc., à l'exception du lait et des oeufs) à un acheteur ou à un lieu de vente dans le but de les échanger contre de l'argent."},{"index":105,"size":9,"text":"• Choix des espèces et des races à élever."},{"index":106,"size":29,"text":"• Partage de la charge de travail du bétail entre les membres du ménage -cela implique de répartir les tâches liées au bétail entre les différents membres du ménage."},{"index":107,"size":10,"text":"• Fourniture du bétail en garantie pour accéder au crédit."},{"index":108,"size":42,"text":"• Utilisation du fumier du bétail ou utilisation du bétail même comme moyen de travail agricole -cela implique d'utiliser le purin pour produire du fumier et l'appliquer sur l'exploitation, et également d'utiliser le bétail pour le labour et le transport des marchandises."},{"index":109,"size":23,"text":"• Activités supplémentaires, qui peuvent être ajoutées si un projet se concentre sur les vaccins, par exemple pour les chèvres, la volaille :"},{"index":110,"size":50,"text":"• Vaccination des chèvres contre la FVR -FVR est un acronyme pour la fièvre de la vallée du Rift. La FVR est une maladie virale aiguë et fébrile qui s'observe le plus souvent chez les animaux domestiques (tels que les bovins, les buffles, les moutons, les chèvres et les chameaux)."},{"index":111,"size":44,"text":"• Vaccination des chèvres contre la PPCC -PPCC est l'acronyme de la Pleuropneumonie contagieuse caprine. La PPCC est une maladie hautement mortelle qui survient chez les chèvres, dont les signes cliniques comprennent la faiblesse, l'anorexie, la toux, l'hyperpnée et l'écoulement nasal accompagné de fièvre."},{"index":112,"size":56,"text":"• Vaccination des chèvres contre la PPR -PPR est l'acronyme de la Peste des petits ruminants, également connue sous le nom de « peste caprine ». Il s'agit d'une maladie virale chez les chèvres et les moutons, caractérisée par de la fièvre, des plaies dans la bouche, de la diarrhée, une pneumonie et parfois la mort."},{"index":113,"size":37,"text":"• Vaccination du poulet contre la MN -MN est un acronyme pour la maladie de Newcastle. La MN est une infection virale très contagieuse qui affecte à des degrés divers de nombreuses espèces d'oiseaux domestiques et sauvages."},{"index":114,"size":53,"text":"G2.12: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez au répondant s'il/si elle a participé à l'activité au cours des 12 derniers mois G2.13: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez à la personne interrogée à quelle fréquence elle participe à l'activité (intervalles prédéfinis, par exemple, tous les jours, deux fois par semaine, etc.)."},{"index":115,"size":24,"text":"G2.13a: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez au répondant combien d'heures il consacre à l'activité (selon l'intervalle de fréquence choisi au point G2.13a)."},{"index":116,"size":48,"text":"G2.14: Lorsque des décisions sont prises concernant [L'ACTIVITÉ], pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez à la personne interrogée qui prend généralement les décisions concernant l'activité. Remarque : Veuillez noter jusqu'à 3 membres. Si la réponse est MOI SEULEMENT (c.-à-d. le répondant seulement), passez à la question G2.16."}]},{"head":"G2.14 (dans la version FULLBARE) :","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Dans cette question, demandez si le répondant a lui-même participé à la prise de décision concernant chacune des activités."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"G2.15: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez au répondant de quelle façon il a pris part à la prise de décisions concernant l'activité."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"G2.16A: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez au répondant s'il a reçu ou acquis une formation, des informations ou des conseils (formels et informels) sur l'activité au cours des 12 derniers mois."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"G2.16: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez à la personne interrogée dans à quel niveau elle pense pouvoir participer aux décisions concernant l'activité si elle le veut."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"G2.17: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez au répondant qui il préfère pour prendre les décisions concernant l'activité. Remarque : Notez jusqu'à 3 membres."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"G2.18: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez à la personne interrogée dans quelle mesure elle peut accéder aux informations qu'elle juge importantes pour prendre des décisions éclairées concernant l'activité."},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":"G2.19: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez à la personne interrogée quel était son niveau de contribution aux décisions concernant la quantité de produits de l'activité à garder pour la consommation domestique plutôt que pour la vente."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"G2.20: Pour chacune des activités d'élevage énumérées, demandez au répondant quel a été son niveau de contribution aux décisions concernant l'utilisation du revenu généré par l'activité."}]},{"head":"Module G3(A): Accès au capital productif","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Veuillez introduire la section en disant à la personne interrogée que vous aimeriez parler des actifs de son ménage et de la façon dont les décisions concernant les actifs sont prises, afin de donner un aperçu de la façon dont les actifs sont utilisés pour autonomiser les membres du ménage. • Gros ruminants (laitiers) -il s'agit des bovins laitiers. Les bovins laitiers (aussi appelés vaches laitières) sont des bovins élevés pour leur capacité à produire de grandes quantités de lait. Les vaches laitières sont généralement des vaches élevées uniquement pour la production de lait."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"• Gros ruminants (bovins ou mixtes)-il s'agit de bovins élevés à la fois pour la production de lait et de viande (double usage). C'est ce que l'on trouve surtout dans les ménages de petits exploitants agricoles qui élèvent des bovins."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"• Petits ruminants (moutons, chèvres) -il s'agit des moutons et des chèvres."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• Volaille -il s'agit de tous les types de volailles domestiques, telles que les poulets, les dindes, les canards, les oies, les cailles, etc."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"• Équipement agricole non mécanisé (outils à main, charrue à traction animale) -notamment charrette à bras/ boeuf/âne ; pelle ; hache ; houe à main ; charrue à boeuf, herse à boeuf, brouette à roue, pompe de pulvérisation à main, coupe-paillettes manuel, pulvérisateur manuel, bidons de traite, etc."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"• Équipement agricole mécanisé-il s'agit notamment des tracteurs charrues, tracteurs herses, motoculteurs et pompes à pédales, pompes à eau."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"• Matériel non agricole -ceci inclut les panneaux solaires, les machines à coudre, le matériel de brasserie, les friteuses."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"• Maison ou bâtiment (en dur) -il s'agit des locaux d'habitation du ménage et d'autres bâtiments appartenant au ménage."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"• Les biens de consommation durables de grande taille-les réfrigérateurs, les téléviseurs, les canapés, les cuisinières à gaz ou électriques, les réservoirs d'eau."},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"• Petits biens de consommation durables -les radios, les ustensiles de cuisine."},{"index":11,"size":3,"text":"• Téléphone portable."},{"index":12,"size":19,"text":"• Autres terres non utilisées à des fins agricoles -il s'agit notamment de parcelles, de terrains résidentiels ou commerciaux."},{"index":13,"size":48,"text":"• Moyens de transport -ceux-ci comprennent les véhicules motorisés à deux roues, les bicyclettes, les motocyclettes, les pousses-pousses, les voitures. G3.07b: Nombre détenu en propriété exclusive : Sur le nombre total d'articles appartenant à la personne interrogée (G3.07a), demandez le nombre total d'[article] appartenant au répondant lui-même (individuellement)."},{"index":14,"size":29,"text":"G3.07c: Nombre détenu en commun : Sur le nombre total d'articles appartenant au répondant (G3.07a), demandez le nombre total d'[article] appartenant conjointement au répondant et à toute autre personne."},{"index":15,"size":30,"text":"G3.08 : Dans le cas de biens appartenant uniquement au répondant, demandez-lui ce qu'il peut faire de ces biens par lui-même, sans consultation. Remarque : sélectionnez toutes les options possibles."},{"index":16,"size":15,"text":"G3.09 : Pour les avoirs détenus conjointement, demandez au répondant avec qui il est copropriétaire."},{"index":17,"size":34,"text":"G3.10 : Dans le cas de biens détenus conjointement avec une autre personne, demandez au répondant ce qu'il peut faire de ces biens par lui-même, sans consultation. Remarque : sélectionnez toutes les options possibles."},{"index":18,"size":36,"text":"G3.11 : Pour tous les biens appartenant au répondant (seul ou conjointement), demandez au répondant ce que son conjoint peut faire de ces biens par lui/elle-même, sans le consulter. Remarque : sélectionner toutes les options possibles."},{"index":19,"size":14,"text":"• Pour les éléments autres que le bétail, seule la question G3.07 est posée."}]},{"head":"Module G3 (B): Accès au crédit","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Ce module contient des questions sur l'accès au crédit. Quelques éléments sont à considérer :"},{"index":2,"size":160,"text":"• Les sources de crédit peuvent être adaptées au contexte du pays, mais il est important de les distinguer les unes des autres et de ne pas les comptabiliser deux fois. Si la langue locale ne fait pas de distinction entre les catégories, elles peuvent être combinées en une seule. Par exemple, si une organisation non gouvernementale et une microfinance ou un prêt de groupe sont les mêmes dans le contexte local (si toute la microfinance de groupe est gérée par des ONG), il est alors possible de combiner les catégories en une seule. Dans ce cas, il y aura cinq catégories au lieu de six sur lesquelles poser des questions à la personne interrogée. Il ne faut jamais compter la même source de prêt dans plusieurs catégories. Si vous pensez que ce que la personne interrogée décrit peut appartenir à deux catégories ou plus, faites preuve de jugement et optez pour la catégorie qui vous semble être la meilleure."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"• La période de rappel se situe dans la dernière année ; cependant, si une source de crédit est en cours depuis plus d'un an (c.-à-d. un prêt pluriannuel qui a commencé deux ans auparavant), elle doit être comptée."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"• « En nature » désigne le crédit accordé sous forme de biens, de marchandises ou de services, par opposition à l'argent comptant."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"• Les « prêteurs informels » sont ceux qui, comme les prêteurs d'argent ou autres, NE sont PAS inclus dans l'une des autres catégories de crédit."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"• Il est à noter que la question G3.08 n'est pas incluse dans le calcul de l'indice pro-WEAI. Toutefois, nous vous recommandons de la poser, car elle vous permet de déterminer si les particuliers sont en mesure d'emprunter auprès d'une source particulière, même s'ils n'ont pas essayé de le faire au cours de la dernière année. C'est important pour les programmes, car cela indique s'il y a une contrainte de crédit en termes de demande de crédit non satisfaite."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"• En ce qui concerne le G3.09, dans certains cas, l'individu peut ne pas savoir si d'autres membres du ménage ont accédé ou utilisé un type de crédit spécifique et, dans ce cas, la réponse 97 « Ne sait pas » peut être choisie."},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"• Pour les G3.10, G3.11 et G3.12, entrez jusqu'à 3 ID de membres ; assurez-vous de sonder la personne interrogée et de lui demander « y a-t-il quelqu'un d'autre ?»."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"G3.10, G3.11, G3.12 (dans la version FULLBARE) : Dans ces questions, demandez si le répondant a lui-même été impliqué"},{"index":10,"size":35,"text":"• La question G3.15 porte sur les comptes bancaires individuels et les comptes bancaires conjoints. Toutefois, cela exclut les comptes bancaires détenus par des groupes (VSLA, SACCOS, etc.), même si un individu en est membre."},{"index":11,"size":32,"text":"• La question G3.14 porte sur les services financiers numériques (argent mobile). Toutefois, cela exclut les comptes bancaires détenus par des groupes (VSLA, SACCOS, etc.), même si un individu en est membre."}]},{"head":"Module G4: Répartition du temps","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Le but de ce module est de se faire une idée de la façon dont le temps des hommes et des femmes est réparti. Les types d'activités et leur durée peuvent être utilisés dans l'analyse économique aussi bien que sociale, par exemple la contribution des femmes aux activités économiques ; la valeur de la production domestique et du secteur informel ; la productivité ; la pauvreté et autres. Nous nous intéressons particulièrement aux activités agricoles telles que l'agriculture, le jardinage et l'élevage, que ce soit dans les champs ou au sein des fermes. Nous nous intéressons également au temps passé à s'occuper des enfants, surtout si cela se produit pendant que le répondant pratique d'autres activités ."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"GG4.01 : Veuillez consigner un registre des activités de la personne au cours des dernières 24 heures complètes (commençant la veille au matin, à 4 h, et se terminant à 3 h 59 de la journée en cours). (Remarque : Si les dernières 24 heures ont été extrêmement inhabituelles, c'est-à-dire si elles ne peuvent être comparées à une journée typique, p. ex. un jour férié, un jour de mariage, un jour d'enterrement, etc., demandez au répondant de choisir le jour qu'il considère comme le plus typique)."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"G4.02: Cochez cette case si la personne interrogée s'occupe aussi des enfants pendant qu'elle pratique une autre activité. Pour cette question, les soins aux enfants comprennent à la fois des soins dits « actifs » (comme par exemple : nourrir, baigner l'enfant) et des soins dits « passifs » (comme par exemple : recueillir de l'eau tout en portant un enfant). Remarque : Cette question doit être posée à partir du moment où les activités principales sont remplies.."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"• La grille horaire commence à 4 heures du matin pour tenir compte des répondants qui se réveillent très tôt. Il est plus utile de remplir cette grille tout en engageant une conversation avec le répondant, plutôt que de lui demander ce qu'il faisait à 4 h 15, 4 h 30, 4 h 45 et ainsi de suite. D'abord, il est utile d'établir l'heure à laquelle le répondant s'est réveillé et s'est couché, de sorte qu'il ne reste plus que les heures au cours desquelles il était éveillé."},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"• Le recenseur doit d'abord demander à la personne interrogée à quelle heure elle s'est réveillée le jour précédent, puis indiquer n'importe quelle heure avant cela comme « sommeil et repos »."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"• Ensuite, le recenseur peut demander au répondant à quelle heure il s'est endormi) la veille, puis indiquer n'importe quelle heure après cela comme « sommeil et repos ». En suivant cette procédure de deux premières étapes au début, on établit ainsi les limites de temps pour la journée qui doivent être prises en compte."},{"index":7,"size":178,"text":"• Après avoir établi les heures de réveil et de sommeil, le recenseur peut ensuite demander à la personne interrogée ce qu'elle a ensuite fait, et pendant combien de temps, et ainsi de suite jusqu'à ce que la journée entière soit remplie. Par exemple, demandez ce que cette personne a fait après s'être levée. Le répondant raconte alors ce qu'il a fait et pendant combien de temps. La tâche du recenseur est alors d'identifier le code correct associé à chaque activité et d'entrer la réponse dans l'intervalle de temps correct. Ensuite, le recenseur demande : « Avez-vous également pris soin des enfants pendant que vous pratiquiez cette activité ?» Le recenseur doit cocher la case si la personne interrogée s'occupait aussi d'un enfant pendant qu'elle faisait autre chose. Même si le répondant ne s'occupe pas activement de l'enfant ou n'interagit pas avec lui (par exemple, l'enfant dort ou fait autre chose), tant qu'il est responsable de l'enfant pendant ce temps, il faut considérer cela comme un « Oui » et cocher la case pour l'intervalle de temps approprié."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"• Selon le contexte, il peut également être utile d'utiliser des marqueurs temporels communs pour aider les répondants à se rappeler des activités en rapport avec d'autres événements qui se produisent de manière prévisible tout au long de la journée (à savoir le déjeuner à 13 heures, l'heure de la prière, le lever/coucher du soleil, etc.)."},{"index":9,"size":90,"text":"• Les intervalles de temps sont marqués par périodes de 15 min et une activité peut être marquée pour chaque période de temps en inscrivant le code de l'activité dans la case. Ne laissez aucun des intervalles de temps en blanc. Si une activité est effectuée sur de longues périodes (plus de 15 minutes), le même code d'activité doit être répété pour la durée de l'activité. Par exemple, si l'activité « E » a été effectuée pendant 1 heure, alors « E » doit être indiqué dans quatre cases consécutives."},{"index":10,"size":75,"text":"• Assurez-vous que vos marques sont très claires. Vous ne devez jamais avoir plus d'une activité marquée pour une même période. Si la personne interrogée faisait plusieurs choses en même temps (par exemple, prendre son petit déjeuner et écouter la radio), demandez-lui quelle était l'activité principale et inscrivez le code de l'activité pour la période de temps appropriée. Si l'activité secondaire consiste à prendre soin d'un enfant, assurez-vous de cocher également la case du G4.02."},{"index":11,"size":127,"text":"• Si une activité est réalisée pendant la majeure partie des 15 minutes (jusqu'à 8 minutes), cochez alors la case entière pour cette activité. Cependant, si une activité n'est complétée que pour la partie mineure ou moindre de 15 minutes (moins de 8 minutes), alors ne comptez tout simplement pas l'activité dans le tableau. Par exemple, si la personne interrogée a mangé/bu pendant 20 minutes, une seule case doit être remplie (15 minutes sont comptées et les 5 minutes restantes sont perdues parce que les 8 minutes ne sont pas atteintes). Par contre, si la personne interrogée a mangé/bu pendant 25 minutes, alors deux cases doivent être remplies (15 minutes dans la première case et 10 minutes dans la seconde). Un intervalle ne peut jamais être divisé."},{"index":12,"size":44,"text":"• Lorsqu'une personne interrogée décrit de nombreuses activités sur une courte période, comme par exemple sa routine matinale, faites appel à votre meilleur jugement pour déterminer à quelles catégories appartiennent la majorité des activités et remplissez cette grille de temps pour la période concernée."},{"index":13,"size":20,"text":"• Ne laissez jamais un intervalle de 15 minutes en blanc. Il faut tenir compte de toutes les 24 heures."},{"index":14,"size":74,"text":"Exemple: Dans le diagramme ci-dessous, on peut voir que le répondant dormait ou se reposait jusqu'à 5 h 30. À partir de 5 h 30, il a écouté la radio pendant 30 min, puis a pris son petit déjeuner pendant 15 min et s'est lavé et habillé sur une durée de 15 min. À 6h30, il a commencé à travailler dans un magasin, ce qu'il a continué à faire pendant une heure et demie."}]},{"head":"Nuitt","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Matin Jour 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00"}]},{"head":"Activités de détermination","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"TLa liste des activités est assez générale. Il se peut donc que quelque chose que le répondant a fait ne soit pas décrit parmi les activités. Réfléchissez d'abord si l'activité s'inscrit dans l'une ou l'autre des activités précitées. Si ce n'est pas le cas, utilisez la catégorie « Autres, précisez». Essayez de la décrire de la façon la plus détaillée possible. Si plus d'une activité entre dans la catégorie « Autres », assurez-vous qu'une description distincte est disponible pour chaque activité."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Le travail formel et l'école ont préséance sur les autres activités. Les soins personnels (ornements, maquillage), l'alimentation, la lecture, les voyages, etc. pendant les heures de travail et d'école sont toujours marqués comme travail/école. Toutefois, une pause officielle est enregistrée comme étant consacrée à l'alimentation, aux soins personnels, aux achats ou à tout ce qui a pu être fait. De nombreuses activités, comme les courses, sont liées aux voyages. Si ces déplacements constituent la partie la plus longue d'une période de 15 minutes, il faut le noter comme un déplacement. Les déplacements spécifiques pour se rendre au travail ou à l'école et en revenir doivent être enregistrés comme des déplacements quotidiens (ou déplacements pendulaires), (activité M), et non comme des voyages."},{"index":3,"size":94,"text":"Remarque : Les activités G-L couvrent TOUS les aspects de la catégorie. Par exemple, en ce qui concerne l'élevage de gros bétail (comme une vache), cela signifie le temps passé à nourrir la vache, à la traire, à traiter et à vendre son lait. • Si la personne interrogée est une femme, l'agent recenseur doit vérifier le fichier pour s'assurer qu'elle a un enfant de moins de 5 ans. Puisque cette information a déjà été recueillie dans le fichier, nous ne conseillons pas de lui poser cette question, ce afin de minimiser sa fatigue."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"G4.04a: Demandez à la personne interrogée si elle peut prendre un enfant avec elle si elle veut faire quelque chose qui est lié à la subsistance, à la formation ou aux soins personnels."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"G4.04b: Si vous vouliez faire quelque chose (lié à la subsistance, à la formation, aux soins personnels) et ne pouviez pas emmener votre enfant avec vous, quelqu'un qui pourrait s'occuper de lui en votre absence ?"},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"• Pour ces deux dernières questions, nous nous intéressons à l'accès de la répondante à la garde d'enfants. La participation à de nombreux types de projets de développement exige de consacrer du temps supplémentaire à la formation, aux réunions de groupe, etc. L'accès à d'autres prestataires de services de garde d'enfants peut donc déterminer la facilité avec laquelle les femmes peuvent participer à de tels projets."},{"index":7,"size":47,"text":"G4.05: Entrez jusqu'à trois identifiants de membres des personnes susceptibles de s'occuper de l'enfant ou des enfants de la personne interrogée, en son absence. Si la personne n'est pas un membre du ménage, veuillez sélectionner d'autres membres ne faisant pas partie intégrante du ménage, le cas échéant."},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"6.10 Module G4 : Répartition du temps dans la version fullbare :"},{"index":9,"size":85,"text":"• Dans cette version de l'outil, commencez par demander au répondant l'heure à laquelle il s'est réveillé la veille au matin. À partir de l'heure du réveil, notez les activités que le répondant a effectuées au cours des 24 heures suivant l'heure du réveil (un journal d'activités sur 24 heures) -un carnet de notes serait utile à cet effet. Regroupez les activités liées à chacune des 10 activités principales suivantes (en additionnant toutes les heures pour chacune d'entre elles) et notez-les pour chacune d'entre elles."},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"• Travail agricole (culture, horticulture, élevage, volaille/petits animaux, pêche)"},{"index":11,"size":3,"text":"• Travail salarié"},{"index":12,"size":6,"text":"• Travail dans sa propre entreprise"},{"index":13,"size":11,"text":"• Travail domestique (cuisine, nettoyage, textile, collecte d'eau, collecte de combustible)"},{"index":14,"size":10,"text":"• Travail de soins (pour les enfants et les adultes)"},{"index":15,"size":16,"text":"• Travail mobile (déplacements, achats, services (par exemple, services de santé animale, coiffure), vente de produits)"},{"index":16,"size":8,"text":"• Activités scolaires (y compris formation / devoirs)"},{"index":17,"size":14,"text":"• Alimentation et soins personnels (prendre un bain, s'habiller, se brosser les dents/les cheveux)"},{"index":18,"size":7,"text":"• Loisirs, activités sociales et religieuses, voyages"},{"index":19,"size":5,"text":"• Dormir / se reposer"},{"index":20,"size":6,"text":"• Autres activités (préciser : _______________)"},{"index":21,"size":34,"text":"• Sur le temps de travail total (exploitation agricole, emploi, entreprise personnelle, travail domestique, soins et travail mobile), demandez combien d'heures le répondant s'est AUSSI occupé de ses enfants pendant qu'il effectuait ces tâches."}]},{"head":"Module G5: Appartenance à un groupe","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Quelques éléments à noter :"},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"• Notez que les groupes dans la communauté peuvent être soit formels, soit informels et coutumiers. • Notez que la définition de la notion de « collectivité » est laissée à la discrétion du répondant et qu'il peut s'agir de groupes dans son propre village ou d'un groupe plus vaste comprenant un village ou une ville à proximité."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"• Il est à noter que de nombreux groupes ont des activités multiples. Par exemple, un groupe agricole peut avoir une composante de microfinance. Lorsque c'est le cas, choisissez la catégorie de groupe qui représente l'activité principale. Si le groupe agricole fournit de nombreux services de vulgarisation, y compris la microfinance, alors le groupe agricole, et non le groupe de crédit ou de microfinance, doit être sélectionné. Demandez au répondant de décrire le groupe plus en détail si vous n'êtes pas clair."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"• Un « groupe religieux » peut inclure le fait d'aller à l'église, à la mosquée, etc. ou encore d'être membre d'un petit groupe de prière ou de discussion religieuse."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"• Si un certain groupe n'est pas approprié au contexte, il peut être remplacé par le groupe approprié dans la même catégorie ; si aucun remplacement n'est possible, il peut être omis du questionnaire. La décision d'omettre ou non un groupe doit être prise au cours de la formation ; un groupe ne doit jamais être omis lors de la conduite d'un questionnaire."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"6.12 Module G6: Mobilité physique"},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":"Le but de ce module est d'obtenir des informations quant aux endroits où les hommes et les femmes se déplacent à l'extérieur de la maison. Les questions G6.01-G6.07 sont obligatoires."},{"index":8,"size":55,"text":"• Remarque : Un centre urbain est une grande région urbaine densément peuplée ; il peut comprendre la municipalité d'une ville. Veuillez considérer la définition officielle du recensement ou du gouvernement d'un centre urbain ou d'une municipalité qui est utilisée dans votre contexte particulier. Les questions G6.02-G6.07doivent être posées UNIQUEMENT SI LE RÉPONDANT EST UNEFEMME."},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"• Cette partie du module est facultative (c.-à-d. G6.02, G6.05, G6.06 et G6.07)."},{"index":10,"size":28,"text":"• Remarque : l'endroit « À l'extérieur de votre communauté ou de votre village » est une vaste catégorie d'endroits (peut inclure, sans s'y limiter, un centre urbain)."},{"index":11,"size":51,"text":"• Remarque : Si la personne interrogée dit qu'elle ne veut pas aller à [LIEU], alors le responsable de la collecte des données doit lui demander : « Si vous vouliez y aller, qui déciderait habituellement si vous pouvez aller à [LIEU] ?» 6.13 Module G7: Relations au sein du ménage"},{"index":12,"size":27,"text":"Le but de ce module est d'obtenir des informations sur le respect mutuel et les conflits entre mari et femme ou entre les deux décideurs du ménage."},{"index":13,"size":49,"text":"• Remarque : les rangées A et B sont OBLIGATOIRES ; les rangées C et D sont FACULTATIVES. Ajoutez des rangées pour poser des questions sur les personnes extérieures au ménage, comme une belle-mère qui vit en dehors du ménage et les autres épouses lorsqu'il s'agit de ménages polygames."},{"index":14,"size":21,"text":"• G7.01: IMPORTANT : entrez le numéro d'identification du membre du ménage qui correspond à la personne inscrite dans la rangée."},{"index":15,"size":42,"text":"• G7.06: NE LISEZ PAS À HAUTE VOIX AU RÉPONDANT. Le recenseur doit vérifier le fichier/la page de couverture pour voir si la personne à laquelle le répondant fait référence est aussi l'autre répondant. Le répondant ne connaît pas nécessairement cette information."},{"index":16,"size":18,"text":"• G7.07: il est GRANDEMENT RECOMMANDÉ de poser cette question aux RÉPONDANTS FÉMININS dans les contextes de polygamie."}]},{"head":"Module G8(A): Autonomie dans la prise de décision","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Le but de ce module est de comprendre les motivations à l'origine des actions des hommes et des femmes dans différentes activités."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"• Chaque situation (par exemple, A1, A2, A3, A4, A4, B1, B2, B3, B4, D1, D2, D3, D4) décrit un type de motivation différent. La motivation #1 est de faire quelque chose parce que vous n'avez pas le choix. La motivation #2 est de faire quelque chose parce que vous aurez des problèmes avec une personne en particulier si vous agissez différemment. La motivation #3 est de faire quelque chose pour que les autres ne pensent pas du mal de vous. La motivation #4 est de faire quelque chose parce que vous pensez personnellement que c'est la bonne chose à faire."},{"index":3,"size":87,"text":"• Les recenseurs doivent lire à haute voix chaque histoire, les questions qui suivent et les codes de réponse. Assurez-vous de changer les noms pour refléter les noms locaux masculins et féminins couramment utilisés. Les noms doivent être masculins/féminins selon le sexe du répondant, de sorte que les noms masculins soient dans les histoires lues au répondant masculin et les noms féminins dans les histoires lues au répondant féminin. L'ordre des sujets a-d doit être aléatoire, et dans chaque sujet, l'ordre des histoires 1-4 doit être aléatoire."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"• Nous recommandons de poser toutes les questions de cette section (G8.01, G8.02, G8.03) pour saisir un indicateur plus précis de l'autonomie. Cependant, certains utilisateurs peuvent choisir d'ignorer les questions G8.02 et G8.03 s'il y a un risque important de non-réponse, ou si ce n'est pas un indicateur prioritaire pour le projet. Dans ce cas, seul le G8.01 « Es-tu comme cette personne ? » sera collecté. Notez que l'abandon des questions de suivi (G8.02 et G8.03) est susceptible d'identifier plus de personnes comme étant dépourvues de pouvoir."}]},{"head":"Module G8(b): Nouveau échelle générale d'auto-efficacité","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Le but de ce module est d'obtenir des informations concernant la confiance en soi et la capacité des répondants à atteindre les objectifs qu'ils se sont fixés."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"• Pensez à la façon dont chaque énoncé se rapporte à votre vie, puis dites-moi dans quelle mesure vous êtes d'accord ou en désaccord avec l'énoncé sur une échelle de 1 à 5, où 1 signifie que vous êtes « Fortement en désaccord » et 5, que vous êtes « Fortement d'accord »."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• Remarque : Il peut être utile de randomiser (confirmer) l'ordre des énoncés."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"6.16 Module G8(c): Satisfaction de la vie"},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"• tLes questions suivantes vous demandent dans quelle mesure vous êtes satisfait(e) de votre vie dans son ensemble, sur une échelle de 1 à 5, où 1 signifie que vous vous sentez « Très insatisfait(e) » et 5 que vous vous sentez «Très satisfait(e)»."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"6.17 Module G9: Attitudes à l'égard de la violence familiale"},{"index":7,"size":72,"text":"Le but de ce module est d'obtenir des informations sur les attitudes et les croyances concernant la tolérance de l'usage de la violence contre les femmes dans les relations intimes. Les questions de ce module ne portent pas sur l'expérience personnelle, mais plutôt sur les attitudes à l'égard de la violence familiale en général. Il est important que ce module soit placé à la fin de l'enquête pour des raisons de sensibilité."},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"• IMPORTANT: Ces questions s'adressent aux hommes comme aux femmes."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"• Si vous interrogez une personne non mariée, posez la question de la même façon."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" a. Téléchargez et installez ODK collect de l'App Store sur votre appareil mobile Android. b. Lancez l'application et, en haut à droite, vous verrez ces trois points. c. Launch the app and on the top right side see these three dots. (needs to be translated) d. Cliquez sur Paramètres Généraux, puis entrez l'option suivante comme serveur : URL: http://data.ilri.org/collect/weli/ Nom d'utilisateur: weli Mot de passe : _______ (utilisez le bon mot de passe fourni pour votre projet) e. Retournez ensuite à l'écran principal d'ODK et cliquez sur « Get blank form ». f. Sélectionnez weli_ilri_2019_...(choisissez l'outil le plus récent/approprié pour votre projet) et « Get selected ».. g. Cliquez sur OK pour télécharger le formulaire' h. Une fois le téléchargement terminé, cliquez sur « Remplir le formulaire vierge » pour lancer l'application de collecte des données.. "},{"text":"G3. 06 : Demandez à la personne interrogée si quelqu'un dans le ménage possède actuellement un [article]. G3.07 : Demandez au répondant s'il possède (en propriété exclusive)) un [article]. G3.07a: Nombre total détenu : Demandez au répondant le nombre total d'[article] qu'il possède (conjointement et en propriété exclusive). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Ne posez pas cette question si le genre est évident, que ce soit par le nom ou par l'observation physique, mais posez-la en cas de doute et si le membre n'est pas présent pour que vous puissiez le constater. G1.03a. Qui interrogez-vous ? -Il s'agit d'identifier précisément la personne interrogée, qu'il s'agisse du répondant G1.03a. Qui interrogez-vous ? -Il s'agit d'identifier précisément la personne interrogée, qu'il s'agisse du répondant principal ou du répondant secondaire. principal ou du répondant secondaire. 6.4 Module B. Liste des ménages et données 6.4 Module B. Liste des ménages et données démographiques (obligatoire). démographiques (obligatoire). Recenseur : Posez ces questions pour tous les membres du ménage Recenseur : Posez ces questions pour tous les membres du ménage Veuillez introduire la section en disant à la personne interrogée que, pour commencer la discussion, vous aimeriez Veuillez introduire la section en disant à la personne interrogée que, pour commencer la discussion, vous aimeriez parler un peu de chaque membre du ménage, c'est-à-dire de son/ses nom(s), de son lien avec le répondant principal parler un peu de chaque membre du ménage, c'est-à-dire de son/ses nom(s), de son lien avec le répondant principal et de sa date de naissance. Veuillez énumérer les noms de toutes les personnes considérées comme membres de ce et de sa date de naissance. Veuillez énumérer les noms de toutes les personnes considérées comme membres de ce ménage, en commençant par le répondant principal. ménage, en commençant par le répondant principal. B01: Nom du membre du ménage -demandez les noms de chacun des membres du ménage, en commençant par le B01: Nom du membre du ménage -demandez les noms de chacun des membres du ménage, en commençant par le répondant principal, suivi du répondant secondaire, et des autres membres par ordre décroissant d'âge. Fournissez répondant principal, suivi du répondant secondaire, et des autres membres par ordre décroissant d'âge. Fournissez les noms dans l'ordre suivant : nom de famille, prénom. les noms dans l'ordre suivant : nom de famille, prénom. B02: Quel est le genre de [NOM] ? -Le genre de chaque membre doit être indiqué comme étant soit Masculin, soit B02: Quel est le genre de [NOM] ? -Le genre de chaque membre doit être indiqué comme étant soit Masculin, soit Féminin. Féminin. • Bonne pratique : B03: Quelle est la relation entre [NOM] et le répondant principal ? -Vous demandez ici, pour chaque membre, le • Bonne pratique : B03: Quelle est la relation entre [NOM] et le répondant principal ? -Vous demandez ici, pour chaque membre, le lien avec le répondant principal, et pas nécessairement avec le chef du ménage.. lien avec le répondant principal, et pas nécessairement avec le chef du ménage.. B04: Quand est né [NOM] ? (AAAA ans) -La meilleure façon d'obtenir l'âge d'un membre du ménage est de B04: Quand est né [NOM] ? (AAAA ans) -La meilleure façon d'obtenir l'âge d'un membre du ménage est de demander quand (en quelle année) ce dernier est né. demander quand (en quelle année) ce dernier est né. 6.5 Module G2: Rôle dans les décisions du 6.5 Module G2: Rôle dans les décisions du ménage concernant la production et le revenu ménage concernant la production et le revenu 6.5.1 Tableau G2.01 -G2.07 6.5.1 Tableau G2.01 -G2.07 Le but de ce module est d'avoir une idée quant aux rôles relatifs des hommes et des femmes dans la prise de Le but de ce module est d'avoir une idée quant aux rôles relatifs des hommes et des femmes dans la prise de décision concernant les activités génératrices de revenus. N'essayez pas de vous assurer que les réponses sont les décision concernant les activités génératrices de revenus. N'essayez pas de vous assurer que les réponses sont les mêmes pour l'homme et la femme. Il n'y a aucun souci à ce qu'elles soient différentes. mêmes pour l'homme et la femme. Il n'y a aucun souci à ce qu'elles soient différentes. Lorsque nous demandons qui prend une décision, nous demandons des codes d'identification afin de pouvoir Lorsque nous demandons qui prend une décision, nous demandons des codes d'identification afin de pouvoir • Conseils destinés aux recenseurs et aux superviseurs : Veuillez vérifier attentivement que l'identification du relier les décisions aux répondants individuels. Les concepteurs de l'enquête doivent insérer des exemples • Conseils destinés aux recenseurs et aux superviseurs : Veuillez vérifier attentivement que l'identification du relier les décisions aux répondants individuels. Les concepteurs de l'enquête doivent insérer des exemples ménage est correcte (à partir de la liste d'échantillonnage). supplémentaires d'activités locales, le cas échéant. ménage est correcte (à partir de la liste d'échantillonnage). supplémentaires d'activités locales, le cas échéant. G1.02. Nom de la personne interrogée actuellement -Ceci permet d'identifier spécifiquement la personne Veuillez introduire la section en disant à la personne interrogée que vous aimeriez parler de sa participation à certains G1.02. Nom de la personne interrogée actuellement -Ceci permet d'identifier spécifiquement la personne Veuillez introduire la section en disant à la personne interrogée que vous aimeriez parler de sa participation à certains interrogée par son nom (code tiré de la liste de la section B) : Indiquez le nom dans l'ordre suivant : Nom de famille, types d'activités professionnelles et de la prise de décision concernant divers aspects de la vie du ménage. interrogée par son nom (code tiré de la liste de la section B) : Indiquez le nom dans l'ordre suivant : Nom de famille, types d'activités professionnelles et de la prise de décision concernant divers aspects de la vie du ménage. Prénom. Le nom de famille est le même que ce qu'on appelle le « Nom et nom de famille ».. Prénom. Le nom de famille est le même que ce qu'on appelle le « Nom et nom de famille ».. Ce module comprend les questions suivantes: Ce module comprend les questions suivantes: G1.03. Genre du répondant -Le genre du répondant doit être indiqué comme étant soit Masculin, soit G1.03. Genre du répondant -Le genre du répondant doit être indiqué comme étant soit Masculin, soit G2.01: Avez-vous (NOM) participé à [ACTIVITÉ] au cours des 12 derniers mois (c'est-à-dire durant la dernière saison • Bonne pratique : Ne posez pas cette question si le genre est évident, que ce soit par le nom ou par l'observation d'ensemencement/production/investissement) ? Il est possible de répondre à cette question par OUI ou par NON. physique. Cependant, posez-la en cas de doute et si le membre n'est pas présent pour que vous puissiez le constater. Veuillez noter ce qui suit : G2.01: Avez-vous (NOM) participé à [ACTIVITÉ] au cours des 12 derniers mois (c'est-à-dire durant la dernière saison • Bonne pratique : Ne posez pas cette question si le genre est évident, que ce soit par le nom ou par l'observation d'ensemencement/production/investissement) ? Il est possible de répondre à cette question par OUI ou par NON. physique. Cependant, posez-la en cas de doute et si le membre n'est pas présent pour que vous puissiez le constater. Veuillez noter ce qui suit :  "},{"text":" Veuillez introduire la section en disant à la personne interrogée que vous aimeriez parler de la prise de décisions concernant les activités d'élevage dans son ménage, afin de donner un aperçu de la façon dont les biens d'élevage sont utilisés par les membres du ménage 6.6.2 Définition des éléments du Tableau G2.08-G2.20 GRAND RUMINANT (LOCAL LAITIER …), 1-il s'agit des bovins laitiers locaux/indigènes de la région. Remarque : Les bovins laitiers (également appelés vaches laitières) sont des vaches élevées uniquement pour la production de lait. Remarque : Sélectionnez cette option uniquement lorsque tout le troupeau de bovins locaux est gardé pour la production de lait seulement.GRAND RUMINANT (RACES AMÉLIORÉES POUR LE LAIT …), 2-il s'agit de bovins laitiers qui sont soit exotiques, soit croisés avec des bovins exotiques. Les bovins laitiers (également appelés vaches laitières) sont des vaches élevées uniquement pour la production de lait. Remarque : Sélectionnez cette option uniquement lorsque le troupeau entier de bovins améliorés est gardé pour la production laitière seulement.  "},{"text":" G2.10a: Raison pour laquelle elle est la plus importante pour votre propre subsistance : -Il s'agit d'un champ de texte libre dans lequel vous devez taper la raison citée par la personne interrogée qui explique pourquoi l'espèce de bétail sélectionnée est importante pour sa propre subsistance.  "},{"text":" Demandez à la personne interrogée si un membre du ménage possède ou cultive actuellement de la terre. Si à la question de savoir si quelqu'un possède de la terre ou si quelqu'un cultive actuellement de la terre la réponse est oui, indiquez OUI dans le Tableau. Si la réponse est NON, passez à la question G3.06, POINT A. Demandez au répondant comment les femmes acquièrent des terres dans sa région. il s'agit d'un champ a sélection multiple, il faut donc demander plus d'une réponse, le cas échéant. 6.7.1 Questions G3.01 à G3.06 6.7.1 Questions G3.01 à G3.06 G3.01: G3.01(a): Demandez au répondant quelle est la superficie de terre que possède le ménage. Convertissez le total des G3.01: G3.01(a): Demandez au répondant quelle est la superficie de terre que possède le ménage. Convertissez le total des unités en acres et donnez la quantité en hectares. unités en acres et donnez la quantité en hectares. G3.01(b): Énumérez au total la superficie de terre que le ménage possède en cultures (cultivées), à l'exclusion des G3.01(b): Énumérez au total la superficie de terre que le ménage possède en cultures (cultivées), à l'exclusion des terres laissées en jachère. Convertissez les mesures en hectares. terres laissées en jachère. Convertissez les mesures en hectares. G3.01(c): Indiquez au total la superficie des terres louées qui sont cultivées, à l'exclusion des terres laissées en G3.01(c): Indiquez au total la superficie des terres louées qui sont cultivées, à l'exclusion des terres laissées en jachère. Convertissez les mesures en hectares. jachère. Convertissez les mesures en hectares. G3.01(d): 6.7.2 Tableau G3.06 -G3.11 G3.01(d): 6.7.2 Tableau G3.06 -G3.11 Introduisez la section en disant au répondant que vous aimeriez parler d'un certain nombre d'éléments qui pourraient Introduisez la section en disant au répondant que vous aimeriez parler d'un certain nombre d'éléments qui pourraient être utilisés pour générer des revenus dans le ménage. Choisissez un élément à la fois et posez les questions G3.06 à être utilisés pour générer des revenus dans le ménage. Choisissez un élément à la fois et posez les questions G3.06 à G3.11 à la personne interrogée. G3.11 à la personne interrogée. 6.7.3 Définition des éléments du tableau G3.06 -G3.11 6.7.3 Définition des éléments du tableau G3.06 -G3.11  "},{"text":" Travail en tant qu'employé Comprend les soins personnels, l'alimentation, les déplacements, la lecture, etc. pendant les heures de travail qui font partie de vos activités génératrices de revenu (c.-à-d. que vous êtes envoyé de l'autre côté de la ville pour assister à une réunion ou que vous lisez pour votre travail), mais cela exclut les déplacements entre le domicile et le lieu de travail (inscrivez sous « voyages et déplacements pendulaires »).Comprend la production alimentaire à petite échelle dans le jardin pour la consommation propre et la vente. Cela comprend la transformation post-récolte dans les champs et au sein de la ferme, qu'elle soit génératrice de revenus ou destinée à la consommation domestique. I: Élevage de grands ruminants Alimentation, élevage, pâturage, transport du bétail, des buffles, etc. au marché ; transformation des produits et transport du lait au marché.J: Élevage de petits ruminants Alimentation, élevage d'ovins, de caprins et de porcins et commercialisation de ces animaux ou de leurs produits.Cette catégorie englobe toutes les activités sociales, comme s'asseoir en famille, rendre visite à des amis, parler au téléphone avec des amis, aller boire un verre ou manger au restaurant avec des amis, assister à des activités sportives, etc. Cette catégorie englobe également les activités conjugales si elles ne sont pas rémunérées (sinon, elles peuvent être saisies comme « Travail en tant qu'employé » ou « Propre entreprise »). Cette catégorie comprend également le jardinage, la pêche et d'autres activités de production si elles ne sont effectuées uniquement pour le plaisir. Tous les types d'activités sportives physiques, y compris la marche, si le but n'est pas de se déplacer d'un endroit à l'autre (ce qui est alors compté comme « voyages et déplacements pendulaires »). Au cours des dernières 24 heures, avez-vous travaillé moins que d'habitude, à peu près autant que d'habitude ou plus que d'habitude ? Activité Activité Spécification Spécification Activité ActivitéSpécification Spécification V: Activités sociales et passe-E: F: Travail pour son compte temps Comprend le travail pour son compte propre et les activités liées au ménage, à l'exception de V: Activités sociales et passe-E: F: Travail pour son compte tempsComprend le travail pour son compte propre et les activités liées au ménage, à l'exception de propre l'agriculture, de la pêche et du textile, même pour la vente. proprel'agriculture, de la pêche et du textile, même pour la vente. G: Culture de céréales de Céréales qui sont cultivées principalement pour la consommation alimentaire (riz, maïs, G: Culture de céréales deCéréales qui sont cultivées principalement pour la consommation alimentaire (riz, maïs, base et transformation de la W: Activités religieuses manioc, millet, blé). Cela comprend la transformation après la récolte dans les champs et dans Inclut la participation à des services, des prières ou d'autres activités/cérémonies religieuses. base et transformation de la W: Activités religieusesmanioc, millet, blé). Cela comprend la transformation après la récolte dans les champs et dans Inclut la participation à des services, des prières ou d'autres activités/cérémonies religieuses. récolte les exploitations familiales, qu'elle soit génératrice de revenus ou destinée à la consommation Notez que si la personne est un pasteur, un imam ou une autre personne qui fait cela en tant récolteles exploitations familiales, qu'elle soit génératrice de revenus ou destinée à la consommation Notez que si la personne est un pasteur, un imam ou une autre personne qui fait cela en tant  domestique. qu'occupation/travail, cela doit être compté dans la catégorie « Travail comme employé » et domestique. qu'occupation/travail, cela doit être compté dans la catégorie « Travail comme employé » et  non comme une activité religieuse. non comme une activité religieuse. H: Horticulture (jardins) ou écouter la radio maraîchage Z: Regarder la télévision, Comprend le fait de regarder la télévision, d'écouter la radio ou de lire H: Horticulture (jardins) ou écouter la radio maraîchage Z: Regarder la télévision,Comprend le fait de regarder la télévision, d'écouter la radio ou de lire Autre (précisez)  Autre (précisez) G4.03:  G4.03: K: Volailles et autres petits Alimentation, élevage, poulets, canards, dindes, pintades, et commercialisation de ceux-ci ou K: Volailles et autres petitsAlimentation, élevage, poulets, canards, dindes, pintades, et commercialisation de ceux-ci ou animaux de leurs produits. animauxde leurs produits. L: Réunion (association Comprend la pêche pour la consommation personnelle et la vente, mais exclut la pêche pour L: Réunion (associationComprend la pêche pour la consommation personnelle et la vente, mais exclut la pêche pour villageoise, groupement de le plaisir (à enregistrer comme « activités sociales et passe-temps »). villageoise, groupement dele plaisir (à enregistrer comme « activités sociales et passe-temps »). femmes, formations (ONG,  femmes, formations (ONG, projets)  projets) M: Déplacements pendulaires Déplacements domicile-travail ou école.. M: Déplacements pendulaires Déplacements domicile-travail ou école.. N: Service d'achat/de prise en Comprend les soins personnels rémunérés, comme la coupe de cheveux, la visite chez le N: Service d'achat/de prise enComprend les soins personnels rémunérés, comme la coupe de cheveux, la visite chez le charge (y compris les services médecin ou dans un établissement de santé (obtention de services de santé), l'entretien de la charge (y compris les servicesmédecin ou dans un établissement de santé (obtention de services de santé), l'entretien de la de santé) voiture et les opérations bancaires, etc. Tout déplacement lié aux achats sera noté comme un de santé)voiture et les opérations bancaires, etc. Tout déplacement lié aux achats sera noté comme un  voyage voyage O: Tissage, couture, soins des Comprend les travaux textiles pour la vente et la consommation personnelle, mais exclut la O: Tissage, couture, soins desComprend les travaux textiles pour la vente et la consommation personnelle, mais exclut la textiles réparation des textiles (à noter comme « travaux domestiques »). textilesréparation des textiles (à noter comme « travaux domestiques »). P: Cuisine Comprend le temps consacré à l'achat de nourriture au marché (mais pas le temps de P: CuisineComprend le temps consacré à l'achat de nourriture au marché (mais pas le temps de  transport, qui est compté dans la catégorie transports), à la préparation des aliments à cuisiner, transport, qui est compté dans la catégorie transports), à la préparation des aliments à cuisiner,  au temps de cuisson et de nettoyage par la suite. Ne comprend pas le temps passé à récolter au temps de cuisson et de nettoyage par la suite. Ne comprend pas le temps passé à récolter  (à inclure dans « agriculture/élevage/pêche »). (à inclure dans « agriculture/élevage/pêche »). Q: Travail domestique Comprend tous les travaux domestiques non rémunérés, tels que la corvée d'eau et de bois de Q: Travail domestiqueComprend tous les travaux domestiques non rémunérés, tels que la corvée d'eau et de bois de Activité chauffage, le nettoyage, la lessive et toute autre tâche ménagère (à l'exclusion de la cuisine). Le Spécification travail domestique rémunéré est compté comme « Travail en tant qu'employé ». Activitéchauffage, le nettoyage, la lessive et toute autre tâche ménagère (à l'exclusion de la cuisine). Le Spécification travail domestique rémunéré est compté comme « Travail en tant qu'employé ». A: Dormir et se reposer R: Soins aux enfants Comprend le repos, par exemple essayer de dormir. CLes soins aux enfants impliquent des soins à la fois « actifs » et « passifs ». A: Dormir et se reposer R: Soins aux enfantsComprend le repos, par exemple essayer de dormir. CLes soins aux enfants impliquent des soins à la fois « actifs » et « passifs ». B: Manger et boire S: Soins aux adultes (malades, personnes âgées) Comprend le temps passé à consommer de la nourriture et des boissons. Inscrire les repas et Comprend les soins non rémunérés pour toutes les personnes à la maison et à l'extérieur de la les boissons avec une composante sociale comme « activités sociales et passe-temps ». Le fait de prendre seulement une collation avec des amis ou en regardant la télévision ne peut pas maison. Les soins rémunérés sont comptés comme « Travail en tant qu'employé ». B: Manger et boire S: Soins aux adultes (malades, personnes âgées)Comprend le temps passé à consommer de la nourriture et des boissons. Inscrire les repas et Comprend les soins non rémunérés pour toutes les personnes à la maison et à l'extérieur de la les boissons avec une composante sociale comme « activités sociales et passe-temps ». Le fait de prendre seulement une collation avec des amis ou en regardant la télévision ne peut pas maison. Les soins rémunérés sont comptés comme « Travail en tant qu'employé ». T: Voyages (rendre visite à la être considéré comme une activité principale. Les voyages comprennent tous les déplacements, à l'exception des déplacements pendulaires T: Voyages (rendre visite à laêtre considéré comme une activité principale. Les voyages comprennent tous les déplacements, à l'exception des déplacements pendulaires C: Soins personnels famille/Cérémonie, pas pour le travail ou l'école) et des déplacements pendant les heures de travail. Comprend la marche si le but n'est pas Peut comprendre le bain, l'habillement, le brossage des dents/des cheveux, etc. Inscrivez de faire de l'exercice. Les voyages plus longs seront fragmentés par des activités comme les services achetés, comme la coupe de cheveux, comme « service de magasinage et d'accueil ». l'alimentation, les soins personnels, etc. C: Soins personnels famille/Cérémonie, pas pour le travail ou l'école)et des déplacements pendant les heures de travail. Comprend la marche si le but n'est pas Peut comprendre le bain, l'habillement, le brossage des dents/des cheveux, etc. Inscrivez de faire de l'exercice. Les voyages plus longs seront fragmentés par des activités comme les services achetés, comme la coupe de cheveux, comme « service de magasinage et d'accueil ». l'alimentation, les soins personnels, etc. D: École/Alphabétisation U: Exercice (sport) Toutes sortes d'activités sportives physiques, y compris la marche, si le but n'est pas de Les soins personnels et les pauses plus courtes pendant les heures de classe sont considérés se déplacer d'un endroit à un autre (ce qui est considéré comme « voyager et faire des comme relevant de l'école. déplacements pendulaires ») D: École/Alphabétisation U: Exercice (sport)Toutes sortes d'activités sportives physiques, y compris la marche, si le but n'est pas de Les soins personnels et les pauses plus courtes pendant les heures de classe sont considérés se déplacer d'un endroit à un autre (ce qui est considéré comme « voyager et faire des comme relevant de l'école. déplacements pendulaires »)  "},{"text":"• Il est à noter que le fait d'être un membre « actif » d'un groupe doit être défini par la personne interrogée (c'està-dire son idée subjective de ce que constitue le fait d'être membre). Si le répondant le demande, vous pouvez indiquer que le fait d'être membre « actif » peut signifier assister à des réunions, payer des frais d'utilisation, occuper un poste de direction au sein du groupe, etc. Cependant, expliquez qu'il y a trop de variations dans le type de groupe pour donner une définition standard d'un membre actif, par conséquent, encouragez le répondant à se référer à son propre jugement.  "}],"sieverID":"028392e0-fe57-4b72-8620-15e0702aa049","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0594628eaf51c4291eadcedb9fe3bd0d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e3f28c24-02ca-4c96-ad55-0d6bd2f55434/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Livestock 'Goods' and 'Bads'and why research on livestock diseases matters Livestock 'goods' and 'bads'","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"The 'bads' associated with the livestock sector are often portrayed by media in rich countries ('go vegetarian to save the planet'). But this is to ignore the many 'goods' of keeping farm animals, not least in terms of the global economy, with trade in live animals and animal products contributing 40% of the global value of agricultural output and the livestock sector contributing as much as 40% of the agricultural GDP in many developing countries. Importantly, some one billion poor people depend on livestock for their livelihoods."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"The fact is that livestock keeping, like many other things, generates both 'goods' and 'bads', impinging on areas as diverse as the environment, poverty, food security and human health. ILRI and its many partners are working to enhance the benefits and mitigate the harms of livestock production practised by poor people in poor countries, especially as smallholder agriculture intensifies and changes under increasing populations, urbanization, climate and other changes. (See a recent paper by ILRI scientists published in the science journal Animal that gives a detailed account of these livestock 'goods ' and 'bads'.) Why research infectious livestock diseases of the developing world?"}]},{"head":"Key messages","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":" Agriculture has huge impacts on human health, both positive and negative  Agriculture has not been oriented to achieving health outcomes  The livestock sector creates a disproportionate share of risks and benefits  Health problems related to livestock farming and food require solutions that include them  A consensus is growing that the disconnect between agriculture, health and nutrition is at least partly responsible for the disease burden associated with food and farming."}]},{"head":"How livestock contribute to human health","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Livestock contribute to human health by providing highquality foods and nutrition, by generating livelihoods for one billion poor people with few other ways to make an income, and by increasing and sustaining food production on the vast numbers of small-scale mixed crop-and-livestock farms in the developing world, where the sickness or death of a farm animal can spell under-nourishment and/or ill-health for members of the family, particularly children and women."}]},{"head":"How livestock hurt human health","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"First, livestock diseases imperil food security in the developing world (where some 700 million people keep farm animals) by reducing the availability of a critical source of protein."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Livestock-specific diseases include contagious bovine 'lung plague' of cattle, buffalo and yaks; peste des petits ruminants, an acute respiratory ailment of goats and sheep; African swine fever ('hog cholera'); and Newcastle disease, a highly infectious disease of domestic poultry and wild birds."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Second, animal diseases also threaten human health directly through food-borne illness such as diarrhea, which is a major cause of sickness and death, responsible for one in five deaths of poor children, most of this the result of contaminated food and water."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Third, animal diseases threaten human health when viruses such as those causing bird flu (H5N1 and now H7N9), SARS and Nipah virus encephalitus 'jump' from their livestock hosts into human populations."}]},{"head":"Livestock-associated human diseases","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Too many emerging economies fail to take into account the risks of intensified livestock operations along with the benefits. In these countries, increasing demand for meat, milk and eggs is fostering more intensive cattle and poultry farming. But the countries lack the veterinary staff, surveillance and other tools required to control diseases that come with this expansion. The best way to counter diseases associated with livestock is by assessing their impact on humans and animals alike, as well as the costs of implementing interventions to control them."}]},{"head":"Animal-to-human ('zoonotic') infections","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"As intensive agricultural production expands and populations push into uninhabited areas, plagues such as SARS and HIV, which started out as animal pathogens, are likely to become more common. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":" ' in people), brucellosis, cysticercosis (pig tapeworm), cryptosporidiosis and Rift Valley fever.A 2012 study led by ILRI veterinary epidemiologist Delia Grace estimates that the 'top 13 zoonoses each year kill 2.2 million people and make 2.4 billion people ill. The same study found that emerging zoonotic diseases are associated with intensive livestock production systems, with hotspots in western Europe and the USA, but that the high burden of neglected zoonotic diseases is associated with poor livestock keepers, with hotspots identified in Ethiopia, Nigeria and India. The rate at which these zoonotic diseases have appeared in people has increased over the past 40 years, with at least 43 newly identified outbreaks since 2004. In 2012, outbreaks included Ebola in Uganda, yellow fever in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Valley fever in Mauritania.Zoonotic diseases have a huge impact-and a disproportionate one on the poorest people in the poorest countries. In low-income countries, one-quarter of human sickness and death is due to zoonoses. The burden of 'neglected zoonoses'-the human sicknesses and deaths caused by them-is much, much higher than that caused by emerging diseases. And most are very manageable. So these are places we can and must act to alleviate human misery.While rich countries are better equipped than poor countries to cope with new diseases-and they are investing heavily in global surveillance and risk reduction activities-no one is spared the threat as growing numbers of livestock and easy livestock and human movements across borders increase the chances of global pandemics. Contacts: Contacts: Delia Grace Delia Grace ILRI ILRI d.grace@cgiar.org d.grace@cgiar.org  "}],"sieverID":"76e2fd5f-77c3-497d-96e4-20f70087532c","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"059d8e3fcf800cfbcbc716410ad33133","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1a4981e1-6863-4262-ab0c-da4ec37743d9/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Salmonella contamination and food safety practices along the pork value chain in a rural East African setting","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Introduction: Non-typhoidal salmonellosis disease burden"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• Non-typhoidal salmonellosis is one of the most prevalent foodborne diseases globally."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"• In 2010, the global burden attributed to NTS was 4.0 million DALYs, causing approximately 79 million illnesses and 59,000 deaths."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"• African sub-regions have a disproportionately higher burden of NTS compared to other regions (32,000 of deaths reported in Africa)"},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"• There is a scarcity of data to adequately estimate this burden in ASF in these regions. ▪ Pigs are considered some of the most significant sources of infection as their nature as asymptomatic non-Typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) carriers hampers the ability to prevent infected pigs from entering the food chain."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"▪ A recent study isolated NTS from 12.7% of pigs being presented to slaughter in rural western Kenya, including serotypes that cause human gastroenteritis -19.7% of these carried AMR genes ▪ This highlights pork as a potentially significant source of human salmonellosis in this region and emphasizes the need for the development of targeted intervention strategies."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"Introduction: Non-Typhoidal Salmonella and pork 1. To assess how Salmonella risk changes at various stages of production from slaughter to retail."},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"2. To understand associated food safety practices in this setting that may influence NTS contamination in pork products. ▪ There was more than one pig slaughtered at a time in 62% of the observations: contact between carcasses was observed in 12% of these carcasses."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"▪ All the carcasses were rinsed using room temperature water (24.8 o C) before dispatch."},{"index":10,"size":13,"text":"▪ Dispatched carcasses had a core carcass temperature averaging 38.6 o C ."},{"index":11,"size":12,"text":"▪ A government meat inspector was present in 58% of these observations."}]},{"head":"PIG CARCASS TRANSPORTATION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"▪ Only 20 % of the retailers owned serialized meat transportation boxes as required by the Kenyan laws ▪ About 8% of the containers transported more than one carcass (Average 3 carcasses; range 2-7 carcasses per container) ▪ Transportation containers were of different materials; Woven plastic sacks (56%), Plastic containers (13%), Metal (29%), and wood (2%). ▪ Average transportation duration of the carcasses to retail outlets was thirteen minutes."}]},{"head":"RAW PORK RETAIL","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"▪ Meat-sharing, a practice that involves joint pig purchases among several retailers, selling raw pork to other retailers, or purchasing pork from other retailers for resale at their own establishment, was practiced by 84% of the retailers ▪ All the retailers used a tree stump as a chopping surface -the average duration of use before replacement was 18 months, and only 20.5% indicated that they used soap and water to clean the chopping surface ▪ Flies were observed in 74% of these outlets ▪ 87% of the retailers stored a carcass for over 24 hours -63% kept the carcasses at room temperature (approx. ▪ The proportion of pork joints serving a raw vegetable side salad that also had a contaminated raw pork portion was 40.5%."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"▪ Food handlers who 'washed' their hands were 9%they, however, only rinsed their hands using plain water."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"▪ 86% of the retailers used the same plate for raw pork portion before cooking and also for serving the side salad -among this 29% of them 'cleaned' the plates by rinsing in plain water"}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"▪ This study shows that NTS is a significant foodborne disease hazard in this value chain located in an area with a high diarrheal disease burden and other co-endemic pathogens ▪ Further studies are required to assess how this hazard translates to risk to consumers to enable a more accurate estimation of the disease burden in the population."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"▪ The results contribute towards addressing the data gap on the incidence of significant foodborne disease hazards in animal source food value chains in developing countries."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" et al., 2015     "},{"text":"▪▪ 25 o C) 4.1. COOKED PORK RETAIL -PORK ▪ The proportion of cooked pork joints from which a raw pork sample was contaminated with Salmonella was 41% The average core maximum cooking temperature for pork was 185 o C. The average cooking duration was approximately 9 minutes ▪ The average core serving temperature for pork was 88 o C "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Salmonella prevalence across the different value chain nodes    1. PIG SLAUGHTER  1. PIG SLAUGHTER  1 2 3 4 1234 50 40 45 STUDY DESIGN SAMPLE ANALYSIS ▪ Decapitation and dehairing took place on the floor for all the pigs DATA ANALYSIS FIELD DATA Node Sample N Prevalence (95% CI) ▪ 51.1% of the carcasses leaked intestinal contents onto the carcass during 50 40 45STUDY DESIGNSAMPLE ANALYSIS ▪ Decapitation and dehairing took place on the floor for all the pigs DATA ANALYSIS FIELD DATA Node Sample N Prevalence (95% CI) ▪ 51.1% of the carcasses leaked intestinal contents onto the carcass during Cross-sectional surveys at each stage between slaughter and retail. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Data collected using Observational checklists, sample collection from: 1. 144 pig carcasses -14 slaughter facilities 2. 113 meat transport 3. 255 raw pork, 104 cooked pork, and 81 raw vegetable side-containers retail Cooked pork Raw pork retail questionnaires, and Carcass transportation Slaughter evisceration. spectrometry (MALDI -Raw vegetable salad + Cooked pork TOF MS) technique Raw vegetable salad 2. Confirmation of Salmonella spp. using matrix-assisted laser desorption -ionization time of flight mass Cooked pork Raw pork retail outlets Retail raw pork cuts 1. Isolation of Salmonella colonies using selective media (ISO 6579:2002) Meat transportation containers and sacks Dressed pig carcasses 80 10% (4.7 -19.3%) 81 8.6% (3.8 -17.5%) summarize data on safety practices within each stage. 104 1.9% (0.3 -7.5%) prevalence and food 125 46.4% (37.5 -55.5%) Salmonella 247 28.0% (22.6 -34.2%) Proportions and means with 95% Cis used to statistically 113 23.9% (16.6 -33.0%) 144 18.1% (12.3 -25.5%) Cross-sectional surveys at each stage between slaughter and retail. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35Data collected using Observational checklists, sample collection from: 1. 144 pig carcasses -14 slaughter facilities 2. 113 meat transport 3. 255 raw pork, 104 cooked pork, and 81 raw vegetable side-containers retail Cooked pork Raw pork retail questionnaires, and Carcass transportation Slaughter evisceration.spectrometry (MALDI -Raw vegetable salad + Cooked pork TOF MS) technique Raw vegetable salad 2. Confirmation of Salmonella spp. using matrix-assisted laser desorption -ionization time of flight mass Cooked pork Raw pork retail outlets Retail raw pork cuts 1. Isolation of Salmonella colonies using selective media (ISO 6579:2002) Meat transportation containers and sacks Dressed pig carcasses80 10% (4.7 -19.3%) 81 8.6% (3.8 -17.5%) summarize data on safety practices within each stage. 104 1.9% (0.3 -7.5%) prevalence and food 125 46.4% (37.5 -55.5%) Salmonella 247 28.0% (22.6 -34.2%) Proportions and means with 95% Cis used to statistically 113 23.9% (16.6 -33.0%) 144 18.1% (12.3 -25.5%)   salad samples from 130  salad samples from 130   retailers  retailers  "}],"sieverID":"3a5c9259-8946-4efe-badf-dc16c112c3eb","abstract":""}

data/part_1/06247cc10190aeb4400d05537fcdd315.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"06247cc10190aeb4400d05537fcdd315","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/830d9c28-496c-4493-a407-14b5e46f122e/retrieve"},"pageCount":84,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"-,N-,' o;.:.. _ _ _ p_H _ _ _ ( ppm )'--_~_(\"_p~p¡:¡~)'_ .. ~ meg 1:.../1:.:0.:.0 g\",,),---,,C m::..e,:.:.¡CJ:..-I 1:...:0:.:::0-\"'g)'-----.:(~~:L) Valores ponderados en base a la extensi6n de terrenos de diferente calidad.  e/ 68 ha propias, 18 ha alquiladas con caña para el Ingenio. d/ 22 ha lir.l'¡.lias alquiladas + 4.4 ha calculadas según la carga usada."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"e/ Tiene 10 ha alquiladas en rastrojo, valor pagado corresponde a solo 2.5 ha de terreno en pastos.   .? :-:."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":".«I'::'.::'i:"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":",,:,~-'l,\" -Z•;. ,oJO .:::~ -::--=--= -., 7\"\"   "}]},{"head":",","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Inventario ganado bovino y equino -_ .. _----------,-_._-..,.---....,-----,----,--~ Caballos (No.) b d 6.0 3.5 4.0 14.5 12.5, 8.S e 8.2 Unidades animales 6.0 3.5 4.0, 14.3 8.5 i 8.5 7.5 UA!ha 1--0,,-,.:..:2:.::.0+---.:::0.:.:. 0::.:;5,+-... 0,:..:. ceO,2-..¡' _0,,-,.:..:3:.::.0t-.O.:... 1:..:1+' --,O:..:' ..:..144----,0:,.: . ..' -14-' -1"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Total UAI_h_a categoría-------I!-'-=-.•-1-,---2--¡-...:oF-~ .cc. i ...:o n ,c-5-4 a ---5-~6 -1 prol~e6diol ---------¡---'--+-~~'----'--+--"}]},{"head":"-t","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Vacas Terneras (0-1 año)  -22.01_ 33 .7-T-2 -1 -.4-+-Ú.01"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Cuadro 12."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"-----~-----~--Gn li 10 racial: CoJ'1posición racial del hato de yacas (poreen ta j c)  Se incluvcn los c:Jhallnrcs. b."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Se ;:¡su¡:,e~ B/400 por limpieza de potreros en rastrojo.  1/ Calculado en base a partos registrados durante el período de monitoreo."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Pi¡'lUra 3. a Relación entro peso do las vacas y tasa do natalidad"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":".fl 60 a. Ajustado a edad 49-60 meses y vacía lactarldo hasta 6 meses."}]},{"head":"b.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Pesos no ajustados por falta de observaciones en el grupo de vacas de 49-60 meses de edad. c."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"ProJ11edio peso ajustado Visitas 2 r 3.   "}]},{"head":"(meses)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Cuadro 22."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"ETES-PAWiA."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Distribución mensual <le partos de novillas y vacas durante dos años."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Finca Ixo, ~ I ~o, \\ .\\0. t ~:-~j-\\ II\\oJ ~ .;;-. --t ~O.! % -+1 ~No-1.~o::\", -~,~\\.~r-,-1\"C:=.\"-, -+\\~,o--;J~'''-, -+;-\";0\";).1' ::' :::\":\"' , -\"-[ N~'o\";.I'::\":::~'--~-~-o';'í ':\"::\":,-+-: Incidencia de \\~cas con problemas reproductivos , 24"},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":", , :"},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Total (número / porcentaje)  1-3 meses 4-6 meses 7 -9 meses Peso CV"}]},{"head":"I '","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Finca No."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Edad Número Promedio en Número: Promedia: (%) I Número Promedio (%)     ! '\"'''' M trl 1-.~ I <Il+' ¡:,.-.. 0'\" rlro ct.+' <Ilro ~ <Il~ ¡:¡:fj ~ ce¡ , ¿ o o (J)\"\" ,..Il) '\"\"'\" ¡: o te >'-' h ' -' ::> '-': "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figura Figura 2.• "},{"text":"11 Inventario inicial (1) (Junio 1, 1981); Inventario final (F) (Jt:nio 30, 1982) \"Ji tncluycndo terrenos alquilo.dos~ "},{"text":" B:llboas ~nida¿¡1 B;iboas rnjd;~ B:J.lbo~~ Unid::l~ B:l1boas Lnidac~ Balboas I "},{"text":" Figura 4. "},{"text":" Figura 6.Distribuci6n mensual de partos durante dos años (%) "},{"text":"F  "},{"text":":' -'~~~~~~--'------~'i-----.2_~~•••~--~~•13--3~-.I,'I --43---r--5--~-6---pr~~~diO Vacas vendidas (;\\0) ======_.==-==:: . . . =.::===:::;:= . . . . = .. =. = . . _.~ . . . :: . . . . = =-=-.=. _._--.-_.-'::..-===:__ ~~~~_~....l .... _. ____ _ _ _ _ ..L.. _ _ L -__ ..--l~~....L _ _ -'--_ _ ---' Cuadro 26. Peso (kg) Y edad (meses) de novillas según el estado de preñez ESfAOO DE PREi\\Tf3Z "},{"text":" Figura 8. "},{"text":" PMpa.tum .ópp., AxonopUh épp.  mezclado con H.1W.6a. degradado. Patrones utilizados para calcular carga y producción (leche y carne) por hectárea. b/ Calcul ado en base del \\'alor pagado por los pastos alquilados. Cuadro 5. Cuadro 5. 1-6 71. 93 30.:l 40.46 i 14.51 , 3.43 0.23 1. 78 0.92 0.23 0.23 0.23 5.40 1. 78 Compuesto por las especies • 1 2 3 4 5 6 ¡ 24.90 ¡ 25.60 18.30 38.70 9.40 4.00 4.00 61.80 167.00 i 52.00 11. 98 I 67.32 12.45 .. ! -¡ -! 6.00 I 2.00 I 22.15 43.42 24.55 7.48 2.40 65.40 23.07 68.40 70.77 1.46 1.46 26.31 c 57. SO 97.40 2.60 i i Oladro 4. Apotrer¡urJento en las fincas I I I ----TamaF.o potrero (ha) Finca :t\\ú::cro ~._. No~ I potreros Promedio ~láximo Mínimo ; I 1 14 1.8 3.5 0.6 2 12 5.2 20.0 1.0 3 17 9.8 25.0 4.0 4 7 7.4 13.0 2.0 . Promedio 10.66 7.0 18.4 1.8 1-6 Tierra Pastos alqilados b Terreno total para Üquil. ~eranc Inventario Finca Propia (todo a. Invier \\'eranc Prome Año No. rel año) 80/81 1981 81/32 año Inicial Intenn Final 1 25 O 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.5 29.3 29.3 29.3 29.3 2 62 O O 8.6 O 4.3 62.0 70.6 62.0 67.1 3 167 O O O O O 167.0 167. O 167.0 167.0 4 52 O O O O O 52.0 52.0 52.0 52.0 5 50 c 26.i O O O O 76.4 76.4 76.4 76.4 6 57 2 re O O O O 59.4 59.4 59.5 59.5 .:> Promedie 68.3 4.8 0.7 2.15 0.7 1.4 74.4 75.8 74.4 75.1 1-6 5 7 9.8 29.0 2.0 6 8.2 20.0 1.5 7 a/ 1-6 71. 93 30.:l 40.46 i 14.51 , 3.43 0.23 1. 78 0.92 0.23 0.23 0.23 5.40 1. 78 Compuesto por las especies • 1 2 3 4 5 6 ¡ 24.90 ¡ 25.60 18.30 38.70 9.40 4.00 4.00 61.80 167.00 i 52.00 11. 98 I 67.32 12.45 .. ! -¡ -! 6.00 I 2.00 I 22.15 43.42 24.55 7.48 2.40 65.40 23.07 68.40 70.77 1.46 1.46 26.31 c 57. SO 97.40 2.60 i i Oladro 4. Apotrer¡urJento en las fincas I I I ----TamaF.o potrero (ha) Finca :t\\ú::cro ~._. No~ I potreros Promedio ~láximo Mínimo ; I 1 14 1.8 3.5 0.6 2 12 5.2 20.0 1.0 3 17 9.8 25.0 4.0 4 7 7.4 13.0 2.0 . Promedio 10.66 7.0 18.4 1.8 1-6 Tierra Pastos alqilados b Terreno total para Üquil. ~eranc Inventario Finca Propia (todo a. Invier \\'eranc Prome Año No. rel año) 80/81 1981 81/32 año Inicial Intenn Final 1 25 O 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.5 29.3 29.3 29.3 29.3 2 62 O O 8.6 O 4.3 62.0 70.6 62.0 67.1 3 167 O O O O O 167.0 167. O 167.0 167.0 4 52 O O O O O 52.0 52.0 52.0 52.0 5 50 c 26.i O O O O 76.4 76.4 76.4 76.4 6 57 2 re O O O O 59.4 59.4 59.5 59.5 .:> Promedie 68.3 4.8 0.7 2.15 0.7 1.4 74.4 75.8 74.4 75.1 1-6 5 7 9.8 29.0 2.0 6 8.2 20.0 1.5 7 a/  "},{"text":" Calculado en base a la edad del ternero estiplada en • \"layo 1981, partos registrados durante el año de monitoreo y resultado de la p¡llpación en ~layo 1982.Ponderado segím el níunero de vacas existentes en cada año. Calculado en base a los días que pennaneci.eron 1 as vacas en la finca. Cuadro 16. Cuadro 17. Tasa de n(ltalidad de vacas ETES-PA\\li\\H'\\. Tasa de natalidad de vacas a (p(lrtos de 1 Cuadro 16. Cuadro 17.Tasa de n(ltalidad de vacas ETES-PA\\li\\H'\\. Tasa de natalidad de vacas a (p(lrtos de1 novillas no incluídos) -1981 (partos de novillas no incluídos) ~\"\" ... -1982 -_. __ ._.-1981 Cuauro 18. Tasa .le natalidad No. _ _ _ Finca 1 de vacas en el ! Prom:;;dio t • 1981 -1982 1981/82 Z 1982 _ .. período 1.06.1981 -31.0S.1982 (partos Finca de novilla5 no íncluídos) novillas no incluídos) -1981 (partos de novillas no incluídos) ~\"\" ... -1982 -_. __ ._.-1981 Cuauro 18. Tasa .le natalidad No. _ _ _ Finca 1 de vacas en el ! Prom:;;dio t • 1981 -1982 1981/82 Z 1982 _ .. período 1.06.1981 -31.0S.1982 (partos Finca de novilla5 no íncluídos) 1 2 3 1 2 . 23.M I 75.9 63.1 64.2 14 59.22 ! 17.64 11 62.36 24.:í4 21 ¡-----_. 62.4 40.0 86.3 89.S 90.0 38.3 2 8 2 0.07 17 4.70 ! 19 17 89.,17 25 10 .. Prom~dio de I 84.7 59.2 71. 9 36.S 81.8 59.9 88.2 30.9 55.2 Número de vacasc l\\'(unero de partos Tasa de natalidEld Número de vacas e .,0. Partos (No. ) Tasa de nata1iebd Vacas (No. )3 Finca No. vacas existentesi ¡,JÚJnero de partos I _Tasa de 70.90 70.0 73.2 --75.92 nataliciHd en la finca i .. ~ _ . Partos (:lo. ) 7.41 29.34 Tasa de nat<Jlidad 40.00 86.28 63.14 79.1 79.6 52.7 65.3 78.0 53.3 65.7 Número de partos 10 24 1 20.0 14 70.0 63.3 73.6 46.7 60.8 72.2 55.4 63.8 57.7 Tasa de natalidad 3 6.48 81.79 59.92 _. Vacas (:lo.) 3 50 44.37 Partos (No. ) 45 17 2 28. 7 21 73.2 1 2 31 2. 23.M I 75.9 63.1 64.2 14 59.22 ! 17.64 11 62.36 24.:í4 21 ¡-----_. 62.4 40.0 86.3 89.S 90.0 38.3 2 8 2 0.07 17 4.70 ! 19 17 89.,17 25 10 .. Prom~dio de I 84.7 59.2 71. 9 36.S 81.8 59.9 88.2 30.9 55.2 Número de vacasc l\\'(unero de partos Tasa de natalidEld Número de vacas e .,0. Partos (No. ) Tasa de nata1iebd Vacas (No. )3 Finca No. vacas existentesi ¡,JÚJnero de partos I _Tasa de 70.90 70.0 73.2 --75.92 nataliciHd en la finca i .. ~ _ . Partos (:lo. ) 7.41 29.34 Tasa de nat<Jlidad 40.00 86.28 63.14 79.1 79.6 52.7 65.3 78.0 53.3 65.7 Número de partos 10 24 1 20.0 14 70.0 63.3 73.6 46.7 60.8 72.2 55.4 63.8 57.7 Tasa de natalidad 3 6.48 81.79 59.92 _. Vacas (:lo.) 3 50 44.37 Partos (No. ) 45 17 2 28. 7 21 73.2   69.2 8•l.7 Número de vacasc 79.0 Tasa de natalidad 3 60.7 69.2 95.8 5 2.13 90.00 48 82.5 71. 13 38.31 79.1 98.9 64.15 69.2 8•l.7 Número de vacasc 79.0 Tasa de natalidad 3 60.769.2 95.8 5 2.13 90.00 4882.5 71. 13 38.31 79.198.9 64.15  3 l\\Úfficro de partos   46 22 3l\\Úfficro de partos4622 4  72.0 Tasa de natalidad 52.3 65.2 Vacas (:.10.) 3 4 47.6 Número de vacasc Partos (No.) Tasa de natalidad 5 31. 2 ----75.9 58.5 8 8.24 41 32 4 1.46 32 -78.04 18 67.7 30.92 39.41 67.3 47.41 21 53.28 57.7 73.1 55.17 65.66 ! i 472.0 Tasa de natalidad 52.3 65.2 Vacas (:.10.) 3 4 47.6 Número de vacasc Partos (No.) Tasa de natalidad 5 31. 2----75.9 58.5 8 8.24 41 32 4 1.46 32 -78.04 1867.7 30.92 39.41 67.3 47.41 21 53.28 57.773.1 55.17 65.66! i s 4 Número de partos Tasa de natalidad Partos (;\";0. ) Tasa de natalidad Vacas (:.10. ) 3 6 17.2 I i 7 13 9.59 33 72.22 18 17 25 52.73 55.37 7 12.64 98.9 - 63.78 65.26 s4Número de partos Tasa de natalidad Partos (;\";0. ) Tasa de natalidad Vacas (:.10. ) 3 6 17.2I i7 13 9.59 33 72.22 18 1725 52.73 55.37 7 12.64 98.9 -63.78 65.26   :Número de vacas c  2 0.37 30.65 :Número de vacas c2 0.3730.65 6 5 l\\Úffiero de partos Vacas (No.) 3  13 15 : 16 10.44 65l\\Úffiero de partos Vacas (No.) 31315:16 10.44   Tasa de natalick,d Partos (No. )  7 9 3.64 46.65 10 60.76 Tasa de natalick,d Partos (No. )7 9 3.6446.65 1060.76    Tasa de natalidad  69.23 i 95.78 82.51 Tasa de natalidad69.23i95.7882.51   l\\úmero de vacase  1 3.00 .- 32.58 l\\úmero de vacase1 3.00 .-32.58 6 Promedio Nlll11ero de partos Vacas (No.) 3 166 9 27 148.84 157.42 6 PromedioNlll11ero de partos Vacas (No.) 3166927 148.84157.42 Tasa de natalidad ponderado Partos (Xo. ) 6 126 9.23 84.65 87 78.98 106.50 Tasa de natalidad ponderado Partos (Xo. )6 126 9.2384.65 8778.98 106.50 1-6  Tasa de natalIdad  75.90 58.45 67.65 1-6Tasa de natalIdad75.9058.4567.65 , IPromedi~ no ponderado 1-6 --¡ 73.16 65.23 69.2~ _. , IPromedi~ no ponderado 1-6 --¡ 73.16 65.23 69.2~ _. 1/ Calculado en base al grupo de vacas que ('stalxm en 13s 1/Calculado en base al grupo de vacas que ('stalxm en 13s  Visit:ls 1 y 2 O!a\\'o y llíci(,J11brc 1981) en la finca. Visit:ls 1 y 2 O!a\\'o y llíci(,J11brc 1981) en la finca. 2/ Ponderado s0g1m el nlunero de vacas existentes en caela año. 2/Ponderado s0g1m el nlunero de vacas existentes en caela año. }/ Calcu];1\\lo en' lKlse a los días que pCI1nanecieron las vacas }/Calcu];1\\lo en' lKlse a los días que pCI1nanecieron las vacas  en lil fjnca.    en lil fjnca.  "},{"text":" fES-Pj'0':NL\\. Tasa de abortos de vacas y novillas Cuadro 24 .          Cuadro 24 . Xo.  \";rrr'0S 11, Abortos  T~sa ele :lUcí }v\"     Xo.\";rrr'0S11,AbortosT~sa ele :lUcí }v\" 1 Vacas :\\oüllas 18 2 18 2 O O  --     1Vacas :\\oüllas18 218 2O O-- 2 Vacas No\\'illas 27 7 24 5 3 2  11.1 28.6     2Vacas No\\'illas27 724 53 211.1 28.6 3 Vacas Xovillas 47 27 45 23 2 4  4.4 15. O     3Vacas Xovillas47 2745 232 44.4 15. O 4 Vacas :\\O\\'illas 31 2 29 2 2 O  6.5 -     4Vacas :\\O\\'illas31 229 22 O6.5 - 5 Vacas :\\o\\'illas 21 15 3/4.3 21 15 1 11.0 O O I 25 111 . 1 -- 4/2.7 2/1.8 0/0 6/4.7 5Vacas :\\o\\'illas21 153/4.3 21 151 11.0 O OI25 111 . 1 --4/2.72/1.80/06/4.7 6 Vacas :\\ovillas 19 16 19 16 O O  --     6Vacas :\\ovillas19 1619 16O O-- X Hi Vacas :\\ovillas   1.2 1.0  4.3 8.7     X HiVacas :\\ovillas1.2 1.04.3 8.7  "},{"text":" Producción de leche y estado lactancia de las vacas en ordeño por mes (promedio en seis fincas) Efecto del mes de lactancia sobre la producción de leche (kg/día) durante el invierno. __ ~~ ___ ~4 ... 11'6~~14~~14~~17~~ __ ! _ .. _-_ .. _ .. Figura 7.'  Figura 7.' Cuadro 34.  Cuadro 34. •-14----r8 68 25 58 49 66 79 3 2 -195-155 39 24 5 21 51 48 3 3 98 96 Producción 3 Hembras + machos (13-24 meses) Hembras + machos (>24 meses) Vacas Reproductores TOTAL animales >12 meses 4 Hembras + machos (13-24 meses) Her.1bras + r.1achos (>24 meses) Vacas Reproductores TOnL animales > 12 meses Finca Número observacion~ .]}romedio (kg) 1 354 3.39 2 517 2.45 3 728 4.03 4 389 2.89 5 359 3.19 6 370 2.42 I TOTAL 2.717 3.15 (b) Promedio de estado de lactancia b Ivaca en ordeño (Jun.81 -Hayo 82) 76.0 u 46.5 5 10.8 -53.5 O -72. S 7 9.7 2.5 O -175.0 12 Ó.!J 31. S 3 9.5 13. O O -49.5 2 4.0 3.0 O ---91~j) ::'.¿ sro CV 1.23 36.4 0.83 33.7 1.13 28. 1 0.96 3.,.3 1.06 33.3 0.89 36.7 _._--1. 20 I 38.2 Finca Número a Promedio estado de sro CV r producción observac. lactancia. (meses) estado lactancia 1 354 5.74 3.95 68.7 -0.447 2 517 7.28 4.06 55.8 -0.427 3 728 5.25 3.17 60.4 -0.170 4 389 5.01 3.45 68.9 -0.358 5 359 6.06 3.97 65.5 -0.450 6 370 4.36 3.22 73.9 ! -0.007 -TOTAL 2.717 5.65 3.73 66.0 -0.295 (c) Producción promediolvaca/día punio 81 a Nov. 81) 2 Cuadro 35. Año y mes 1981 --Junio Julio Agosto Septiembre Octubre Noviembre Diciembre 1982 --Enero Febrero t•lano Abril Mayo Finca '1 O 9 9 10 9 s ._._M_M_ Producci6n/Vaca-en -Estado lactancia/vaca Número observac ordeño/día en ordeño X STD Q/ X srn Cuadro 36. Duración de la lactancia de las vacas en ordeño Cuadro 37. ETES-P}~•~. Rendimiento de leche (kg) por día por vaca en ordeño según grupo racial Cuadro 38. Producción de leche (kg/día) de vacas de (Período de control: Junio 1981 -Noviembre 1982) primer parto versus vacas con más partos Q/ 235 3.5 1 . 1 32.4 5.9 3.2 53.3 351 3.3 1.2 36.0 6.2 3.4 55.0 332 3.3 1.2 36.2 6.1 3.9 64.9 272 3.3 1.2 37.6 5.8 4.0 69.4 261 3.3 1.3 39.6 5.5 3.8 69.0 252 2.8 1.0 35.1 5.5 3.8 70.2 215 2.9 1.0 34.8 5.4 3.7 67.9 203 2.8 1.1 38.5 5.4 3.8 70.6 174 3.0 1.3 44.4 5.2 3.5 67.5 152 2.9 1.3 44.1 5.3 3.6 kg. Finca 2 10 15 13 ~. ~ Il Q' 14 8 e o <> kg. 26 1 S3 52 28 4 5 43 39 ,.....A--...:_l~O_ Finca 3 Finca \\'acas Xo. (~o. ) 1 16 2 26.5 3 46 4 29 S 20.5 6 28 Duración ce Ordeño Porcentaje Promedio :lenos -deTls~rro 12-10-365 ílas de (días) lS0 días, días ! días 365 días 354 -6.3 71. 9 21.8 407 --49.1 50.9 288 22.9 7.5 54.4 15.2 240 41.4 17.2 32.8 8.6 293 22.0 31. 7 26.8 19.5 240 10.5 66.7 14.0 8.8 I , GRUPO RACIAL Finca Cebú-Criollo I Cruce con Pardo Cruce con Holstein Cruce con otra i Cruce desconocido raza eurorea Vacas con Vacas de primer parto más de un parto , No. * X STD i No.* X i STn No.* X STD No.* X STD No.* X SfD I I ! I 1 : 34 3.34 1.3 I 105 3.34 1.0 215 3.42 1.3 ------2 I 242 2.37 0.7 180 . 2.57 0.9 95 2.46 0.9 ----Finca No. 1 Núrnero a Promedie STD Núrn a ero Promedie STD \"-49 2.6 0.8 287 3.4 1.2 --3 I 301 , 4.16 1.1 269 4.02 1.1 137 3.68 1.1 ---21 4.50 1.1 4 186 2.80 0.9 79 2.73 0.8 113 3.19 1.1 11 2.38 0.3 --2 41 2.9 1.2 458 2.4 0.8 -5 I 102 3.31 1.2 203 3.11 1.0 53 3.29 1.1 -3 90 3.8 1.1 638 4.1 1.1 --1 1.40 O 6 I 210 I 2.43 0.9 145 2.41 0.9 ---15 2.41 0.7 ---4 10 2.6 0.7 379 2.9 1.0 ¡ S 22 3.0 0.8 326 3.2 1.1 67.3 130 I 3.1 1.2 37.9 5.1 3.9 77.9 140 3.3 1.3 39.4 5.4 4.0 75.1 2.717 3.2 1.2 38.2 5.7 3.7 kg. !Tomed I 1-6 1075 3.08 1.2 981 6 185 2.5 0.9 185 2.4 0.9 3.15 I 1.2 613 3.27 1.2 26 2.40 0.6 22 4.30 1.2 ;6 38 Finca 4 --•\"\"~f9 12 10 5 -'---oQ--~~~ ___ • Promedie 27.7 , 1-6 304 16.1 21.6 41.5 20.8 * Xúmero de rendimientos Promedio 397 2.9 1.0 2273 3.2 1.2 1-6 64.9 5 S Hembras + machos (13-24 meses) 10 11 10.5 O -Hembras + machos (>24 meses) 27 7 17.0 O -Vacas 37 41 39.0 O -Reproductores 2 1 1.5 O -TOTAL animales >12 meses 7ó óO 68.11 u -Finca Número obse~aciom.;\" Prod~cción 1 174 3.66 1.17 2 305 2.51 0.86 34.4 3 387 4.17 1. 16 4 277 3.05 0.95 31.3 -<1 27.9 ... _-40_-.,;:21 Finca 5 ~9 7 31.9 kg. 22 21 promedio (kg) srD CV • a. Número de rendimientos. •-14----r8 68 25 58 49 66 79 3 2 -195-155 39 24 5 21 51 48 3 3 98 96 Producción 3 Hembras + machos (13-24 meses) Hembras + machos (>24 meses) Vacas Reproductores TOTAL animales >12 meses 4 Hembras + machos (13-24 meses) Her.1bras + r.1achos (>24 meses) Vacas Reproductores TOnL animales > 12 meses Finca Número observacion~ .]}romedio (kg) 1 354 3.39 2 517 2.45 3 728 4.03 4 389 2.89 5 359 3.19 6 370 2.42 I TOTAL 2.717 3.15 (b) Promedio de estado de lactancia b Ivaca en ordeño (Jun.81 -Hayo 82) 76.0 u 46.5 5 10.8 -53.5 O -72. S 7 9.7 2.5 O -175.0 12 Ó.!J 31. S 3 9.5 13. O O -49.5 2 4.0 3.0 O ---91~j) ::'.¿ sro CV 1.23 36.4 0.83 33.7 1.13 28. 1 0.96 3.,.3 1.06 33.3 0.89 36.7 _._--1. 20 I 38.2 Finca Número a Promedio estado de sro CV r producción observac. lactancia. (meses) estado lactancia 1 354 5.74 3.95 68.7 -0.447 2 517 7.28 4.06 55.8 -0.427 3 728 5.25 3.17 60.4 -0.170 4 389 5.01 3.45 68.9 -0.358 5 359 6.06 3.97 65.5 -0.450 6 370 4.36 3.22 73.9 ! -0.007 -TOTAL 2.717 5.65 3.73 66.0 -0.295 (c) Producción promediolvaca/día punio 81 a Nov. 81) 2 Cuadro 35. Año y mes 1981 --Junio Julio Agosto Septiembre Octubre Noviembre Diciembre 1982 --Enero Febrero t•lano Abril Mayo Finca '1 O 9 9 10 9 s ._._M_M_ Producci6n/Vaca-en -Estado lactancia/vaca Número observac ordeño/día en ordeño X STD Q/ X srn Cuadro 36. Duración de la lactancia de las vacas en ordeño Cuadro 37. ETES-P}~•~. Rendimiento de leche (kg) por día por vaca en ordeño según grupo racial Cuadro 38. Producción de leche (kg/día) de vacas de (Período de control: Junio 1981 -Noviembre 1982) primer parto versus vacas con más partos Q/ 235 3.5 1 . 1 32.4 5.9 3.2 53.3 351 3.3 1.2 36.0 6.2 3.4 55.0 332 3.3 1.2 36.2 6.1 3.9 64.9 272 3.3 1.2 37.6 5.8 4.0 69.4 261 3.3 1.3 39.6 5.5 3.8 69.0 252 2.8 1.0 35.1 5.5 3.8 70.2 215 2.9 1.0 34.8 5.4 3.7 67.9 203 2.8 1.1 38.5 5.4 3.8 70.6 174 3.0 1.3 44.4 5.2 3.5 67.5 152 2.9 1.3 44.1 5.3 3.6 kg. Finca 2 10 15 13 ~. ~ Il Q' 14 8 e o <> kg. 26 1 S3 52 28 4 5 43 39 ,.....A--...:_l~O_ Finca 3 Finca \\'acas Xo. (~o. ) 1 16 2 26.5 3 46 4 29 S 20.5 6 28 Duración ce Ordeño Porcentaje Promedio :lenos -deTls~rro 12-10-365 ílas de (días) lS0 días, días ! días 365 días 354 -6.3 71. 9 21.8 407 --49.1 50.9 288 22.9 7.5 54.4 15.2 240 41.4 17.2 32.8 8.6 293 22.0 31. 7 26.8 19.5 240 10.5 66.7 14.0 8.8 I , GRUPO RACIAL Finca Cebú-Criollo I Cruce con Pardo Cruce con Holstein Cruce con otra i Cruce desconocido raza eurorea Vacas con Vacas de primer parto más de un parto , No. * X STD i No.* X i STn No.* X STD No.* X STD No.* X SfD I I ! I 1 : 34 3.34 1.3 I 105 3.34 1.0 215 3.42 1.3 ------2 I 242 2.37 0.7 180 . 2.57 0.9 95 2.46 0.9 ----Finca No. 1 Núrnero a Promedie STD Núrn a ero Promedie STD \"-49 2.6 0.8 287 3.4 1.2 --3 I 301 , 4.16 1.1 269 4.02 1.1 137 3.68 1.1 ---21 4.50 1.1 4 186 2.80 0.9 79 2.73 0.8 113 3.19 1.1 11 2.38 0.3 --2 41 2.9 1.2 458 2.4 0.8 -5 I 102 3.31 1.2 203 3.11 1.0 53 3.29 1.1 -3 90 3.8 1.1 638 4.1 1.1 --1 1.40 O 6 I 210 I 2.43 0.9 145 2.41 0.9 ---15 2.41 0.7 ---4 10 2.6 0.7 379 2.9 1.0 ¡ S 22 3.0 0.8 326 3.2 1.1 67.3 130 I 3.1 1.2 37.9 5.1 3.9 77.9 140 3.3 1.3 39.4 5.4 4.0 75.1 2.717 3.2 1.2 38.2 5.7 3.7 kg. !Tomed I 1-6 1075 3.08 1.2 981 6 185 2.5 0.9 185 2.4 0.9 3.15 I 1.2 613 3.27 1.2 26 2.40 0.6 22 4.30 1.2 ;6 38 Finca 4 --•\"\"~f9 12 10 5 -'---oQ--~~~ ___ • Promedie 27.7 , 1-6 304 16.1 21.6 41.5 20.8 * Xúmero de rendimientos Promedio 397 2.9 1.0 2273 3.2 1.2 1-6 64.9 5 S Hembras + machos (13-24 meses) 10 11 10.5 O -Hembras + machos (>24 meses) 27 7 17.0 O -Vacas 37 41 39.0 O -Reproductores 2 1 1.5 O -TOTAL animales >12 meses 7ó óO 68.11 u -Finca Número obse~aciom.;\" Prod~cción 1 174 3.66 1.17 2 305 2.51 0.86 34.4 3 387 4.17 1. 16 4 277 3.05 0.95 31.3 -<1 27.9 ... _-40_-.,;:21 Finca 5 ~9 7 31.9 kg. 22 21 promedio (kg) srD CV • a. Número de rendimientos. 6 Hembras + machos (13-24 meses) 5 359 Hembras + machos (>24 meses) 6 201 Vacas Reproductores + bueyes (2+3) TOTAL animales >12 meses TOTAL 1.703 kg. (d) Promedio de estado de lactanciab/v'aca en ordeño (Jlffi.81 -Nov.81) 28 18 23.0 O 3.18 1.06 33.3 22 2 12.0 O 2.64 0.94 35.5 19 35 27.0 O 5 5 5.0 O 74 60 67.0 U 3.25 --33 Finca 6 49 49 42 -_-~~..:::.....~42 30 15 ' -X HePlbras + machos (13-24 meses) 187 119 153. O 8 Finca NÍimero a Promedio estado de sro r producción CV observac. lactancia (Jneses) estado lactancia 1-6 Hembras + machos (>24 meses) 121 99 110.0 O Vacas 227 261 244. O 9 1 174 5.41 3.38 62.4 -0.46 2 305 7.80 3.58 45.9 -0.50 kg. Reproductores + bueyes (2+3) 16 13 14.5 O TOTAL animales >12 meses 551 521.5 17 3 387 5.49 3.11 56.7 -0.25 4 277 5.28 3.46 65.7 ¡ -0.44 5 359 6.06 3.97 65.4 -0.45 Promedio Fincas 1-6 124 185 188 1» Q \" 1~o-3_0 _1 .. ~_~1 ..... , -...:4Q:a3:..-.....i~~4_-J.J~8 492 6 201 4.44 3.99 90.0 -0.00 -..J!ITAL 1. 703 5.86 3.71 63.3 -0.346 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -----5.3 -3.7 -3.3 6 Hembras + machos (13-24 meses) 5 359 Hembras + machos (>24 meses) 6 201 Vacas Reproductores + bueyes (2+3) TOTAL animales >12 meses TOTAL 1.703 kg. (d) Promedio de estado de lactanciab/v'aca en ordeño (Jlffi.81 -Nov.81) 28 18 23.0 O 3.18 1.06 33.3 22 2 12.0 O 2.64 0.94 35.5 19 35 27.0 O 5 5 5.0 O 74 60 67.0 U 3.25 --33 Finca 6 49 49 42 -_-~~..:::.....~42 30 15 ' -X HePlbras + machos (13-24 meses) 187 119 153. O 8 Finca NÍimero a Promedio estado de sro r producción CV observac. lactancia (Jneses) estado lactancia 1-6 Hembras + machos (>24 meses) 121 99 110.0 O Vacas 227 261 244. O 9 1 174 5.41 3.38 62.4 -0.46 2 305 7.80 3.58 45.9 -0.50 kg. Reproductores + bueyes (2+3) 16 13 14.5 O TOTAL animales >12 meses 551 521.5 17 3 387 5.49 3.11 56.7 -0.25 4 277 5.28 3.46 65.7 ¡ -0.44 5 359 6.06 3.97 65.4 -0.45 Promedio Fincas 1-6 124 185 188 1» Q \" 1~o-3_0 _1 .. ~_~1 ..... , -...:4Q:a3:..-.....i~~4_-J.J~8 492 6 201 4.44 3.99 90.0 -0.00 -..J!ITAL 1. 703 5.86 3.71 63.3 -0.346 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10-----5.3 -3.7 -3.3 ~IDS de lactancia  ~IDS de lactancia a. Número de observaciones  a. Número de observaciones  "},{"text":" Efecto de edad, sexo y ép0Ca de nncimionto sobre el peso (kg) de temeros y levantes Cuadro 42. Efecto de edad, sexo y época de nnc ¡mi ento sobre el atuuento (g/día) de terneros y levantes VACIAS: efecto de la época del nacimiento y del año sobre el aumento de peso (g/día) No. Edad,! CV No. 'Edad c Prom CV No. Edad c Prom CV No. DJad c Prom CV No. Edud c Prom! ~ Cuadro 41. Cuadro 43.     Cuadro 41. Cuadro 43. Cuadro 47. Consumo de energía (megaca1orías) en la época lluviosa y seca Cuadro 47.Consumo de energía (megaca1orías) en la época lluviosa y seca .. 0 Mayo Promedio Vacas en el hato versus vacas en ordeño y su producción de leche Ago Sep Oct Nov Dic Ene Feb Mar Abr * * Producción/vaca del hato Jun Jul 0----o' Producción/vaca en ordeño Cuadro 39. finca 1 2 3 4 5 6 1-6 Número de vacas: Promedio: en la finca/añ~ 23.8 31.0 72.3 49.4 38.0 30.6 40.9 en ordeñ%ño 14.3 19.5 29.3 16.3 13.6 14.8 18.0 Porcentaje de las vacas 59.1 62.9 39.8 33.0 36.0 48.4 43.9 i en ordeño del total del hato Producción de leche (kg): Total por año 17826 17357 43473 16987 15871 13103 20769 Totol por vaca en ordeño/di a 3.39 2.45 4.03 2.89 3.19 2.42 3.15 Total por vaca del hato/día 2.06 1.53 1.60 0.94 1. 14 1. 16 1.40 Total por voca en ordeño/año 1247 890 1484 783 584 662 1156 Total por vaca del hato/mio 751 560 578 344 418 425 509 a. Calculado en base a vaCas existentes cada 15 de mes. b. Calculado en base de vacas en ordeño en cada control lechero. , Peso al nacimiento SEXO Promedio Nachos Hembras machos y hembras LV • LV CV l'.Ülllero Promedio (%) I\\Ülllero Promedio (%) Número Promedio (%) Oladro 40. Finca No. 1 9 25.1 13 9 25.8 16 18 26.0 14 2 8 25.1 13 16 23. 1 6 24 24.2 9 3 38 34.1 17 24 31. O 15 62 33.4 16 4 15 27.3 14 19 24.2 14 34 26.0 15 5 21 30.0 10 5 27.6 8 26 30.0 10 6 12 23.9 15 25 25.2 14 37 24.0 14 Promedie 103 30.1 19 98 26.3 17 201 28.2 20 1-6 HDffiR\\Sa mCHOS Epoca Enoca t Finca Edad de nacimiento de nacimiento Promedio No. (meses) Verano I Invierno ------lInvierno I Verano 1 91 97 90 112 98 130 132 O O n1 167 205 O O 186 2 144 135 134 167 145 -186 136 212 178 --O O -3 120 140 142 130 133 157 165 209 145 169 182 192 224 152 188 4 73 84 95 102 89 105 95 116 120 109 128 109 O O 119 5 130 183 154 192 165 162 218 197 218 199 182 246 O O 214 6 131 166 171 183 163 O 194 O 251 223 O 258 O O \"\"\"\"-HE\\!BRAS a ~~\\CllOS PRO,IEDIO Enoca Elloca lIembras Finca y No. Edad entre: Verano Invierno! Verano rnvicrnc machos ._ .. _ .. _ .. _: Nacimiento-12 meses 175 190 173 233 193 1 13-18 meses 214 192 O O -18-24 meses 202 400 O O -Nacimiento-24 meses 192 244 O O -Nacimiento-12 meses 321 296 293 384 324 2 13-18 meses -280 11 247 179 18-24 meses --O O -Nacimiento-24 meses --O O -Nacimiento 12 meses 255 310 315 282 291 3 13-18 meses 203 137 367 82 197 18-24 meses 137 148 82 38 101 Nacimiento-24 meses 212 226 270 171 220 Nacimiento-12 meses 126 156 186 206 169 4 13-18 meses 175 60 115 97 112 18-24 meses 126 77 O O 102 Nac1~iento-24 meses 138 . 113 O O 125 Nacimiento-12 meses 282 427 348 452 377 5 13-18 meses 175 190 236 142 186 18-24 meses 110 154 O O 132 Nacimiento-24 meses 212 300 O -4. O 1. 20 (Valor usado) 256 EPOCA DEL ANO VERAJ\\!O INVIERNO 1981 VERANO 1982 INVIER'lO 1981 VERANO 1982 Finca Epoca de 1981-1982 No. l1acimientc ! a IProm t No.! Edad Prom 1f t,) (%) ü) m , 1 Verano 12 2.5 304 6 2.8 C 11 ~l 37 7 9.5 240 9 S 16.1 1 174 36 5 22.3 274 29 Invierno 3 6.2 a 187 3 6.2 206 37 2 11.5 196 6 1 17.5 432 -3 23.2 I 249 22 INVIERNO 1981 ........ ~ 2 Verano 17 3.9 340 3 S.6 c 36;1 16 1 11.5 -12 O ----3 21.8 51 62 I Invierno 4 5.0 a 317 4 5.0 256 13 1 7.5 326 O 10 16.7 61 118 -I Verano 40 4.5 473 21 4 _c 13~1 64 16 10.9 236 69 22 17.5 122 68 7 22.1 257 64 3 .:> Invierno 15 2.2 a 463 15 2.2 381 31 4 10.0 191 54 7 15.3 114 15 22.5 1 SS 57 2.5 c 21.6 173 4 Verano 15 3.5 218 5 6~1 68 4 8.8 198 92 13 17.0 146 • 57 8 33 Invierno 6 2.8 a 153 6 2.8 149 59 6 9.3 167 .25 7 16.4 -11 1503 8 22.81109 96 S Verano 9 2.8 410 5 2.9 c 26~1 32 6 10.0 191 84 2 16.5 166 71 1 21.5 2S Invierno 1 4.5 a 468 1 4.5 448 O 7 9.1 258 22 7 16.1 -4 2221 2 22.0 376 7 6 Verano 16 3.2 357 4 3.1 c 28~1 34 4 8.8 236 34 O O O O O -Invierno 19 2.8 a 514 19 2.8 340 34 4 10.8 364 12 5 17.5 -21 463 1 20.5 515 O Prom. Verano 109 3.6 389 44 3.8 c 17~1 66 38 10. 1 219 64 42 17.2 1 138 60 24 21. 9 150 100 1-6 Invierno 48 3.0 a 385 48 3.0 316 41 24 9.2 242 37 37 16.4 44 320 29 22.5 180 70 ...... -a. b. Aumento de peso/día calculado en base de 27 kg de peso al nacimiento. c. 3.5 1.10 Edad al principio de la época del año. 3. 3.0 1.01 Epoca de invierno = 215 días Edad al final de la época de nacimiento. EPOCA. SECA. e Nantenimiento b 2211 14.73 69 1648 10.98 106 1323 8.81 81 2702 18.00 103 1127 7.51 115 1759 11.72 97 Producción: leche 278 1.85 carne 693 4.61 22 -199 -1.32 -13 173 1.15 11 -162 -1.08 -6 -147 -0.97 -15 -16 0.10 13221.21 100 1554¡ 10.35 E?~ 1821 1 Total 1627 10.84 100 2615 17.49 100 1 980L6.54 100 12.14 100 ~--_ .. 1 1 I TOTAL A.~O (365 días) Mantenimiento b 5112 14.00 72 3596 9.85 76 3408 9.33 78 67751 18.56 87 3277 8.97 Producci6n: leche 713 1.95 10 311 0.85 7 312 0.85 7 392 1 1.07 5 249 0.68 6 265 0.73 Total .. Grasa (t) G,jegacal/kg) 7067 19.36 100 4731 12.96 100 4348 11.90 100 78Z{21.42 100 4310 11.80 100 5745 1S.73 100 Ré(!ué-:drlÍento carne ~42 3.40 18 825 2.26 17 628 1.72 15 654 1 1.79 8 783 2.14 18 904 2.47 15 Producción de leche c. Porcentaje de la producción/día en relación a invierno. 5 b. Verano: Enero-\\Iayo 1982 (155 días) 76 4576 12.53 I 80 a. Invierno: Junio-Diciembre 1981 (210 días) I 400 11. 5 13. 7 15.2 15.9 21.0 I levante: 150 5.6 200 6.8 300 9.3 6.5 6.9 7.3 8.4 8.2 9.0 9.5 11.4 11. 1 12.3 12.8 16.9 1-6 20769 57 14517 69 6252 40 58 Promedio , AnÍlllales -1 9 106 0.70 7 131 0.87 8 76 0.50 3 1 O O O 79 0.52 4• Hantenimiento Peso (kg) (Hegacal) 125 190 250 500 6 13103 36 9196 44 3907 25 57 Requerimiento 5 15871 43 15871 76 O O O Aumento de peso (gramos/día) 4 16987 47 13701 65 3286 21 32 I Finca 2 Finca 3 Finca 4 Finca 5 Finca 6 Cuadro 48. Cuadro 49. Efecto de la época del año sobre la Requerimientos de energía (megacalorías) producción total de leche por finca Finca 1 ha día/ha % ha día/ha % ha díalha % ha día/ha % ha día/ha \\ ha díalha % ! EPOCA. DE It'<'V1ERNO a Mantenimiento b 2901 13.52 75 1968 9.15 63 2084 9.69 77 4073 18.94 78 2150 9.99 65 2818 13.10 72 Producci6n: leche 435 2.02 11 202 0.94 6 181 0.84 6 316 1.46 6 249 1.16 7 187 0.87 carne 550 2.55 14 958 4.45 31 455 2.11 17 816 3.79 16 930 4.32 28 919 4.27 Total 3886 18.06 100 3129 14.54 100 2720 12.64 100 5205 24.20 100 3329 15.47 100 3924 18.24 1001 ~ ... 450 500 550 3 43473 119 25221 129 18252 118 98 14.4 2 17357 48 11869 56 5488 35 63 13.6 1 17826 49 11245 53 6581 42 80 12.4 23 400 11. 5 5 -Datos Básicos -Peso (kg) Vaca adulta: 350 ~,lantenimiento requer:iJnient() p!egacal) 10.3 Finca No. TOOO EL A' ::' O INVIER\\D a VERANO b por por por Total día Total día Total día -q c • \". 'O' 1•$4 > ,.-.. , ,-, rO ~ Ji: \"el Finca No. ~ > el .,.. ...... (J) ' \" ' -...... 'rl +' ' ('j ° ' \" ' \" !52P Categoría '-' ro > o : ~ VI ~ r-., .., .... .... ..., ,.-.. I .,..j (1) o bll . 0 o ~ ¡:,-. ,...... k\"-. <Il o o <Il I S~, v; >-\" . .., ro U) \"'\" p,,,, (J) +'<h o el -o.c: Ü 'M '-..l. ori ,,....¡ > c:I 0'-' ('j ...... '\" gj..8 > \"O> k..8 (/) .~ ..8 ~ oso. ,.. ~ , r l ' \" ' \" o ..... t:bJJ ....... o ........ ¡ o '\" +' \"\"O o .... ...OS Url '''; .. 0 Mayo Promedio Vacas en el hato versus vacas en ordeño y su producción de leche Ago Sep Oct Nov Dic Ene Feb Mar Abr * * Producción/vaca del hato Jun Jul 0----o' Producción/vaca en ordeño Cuadro 39. finca 1 2 3 4 5 6 1-6 Número de vacas: Promedio: en la finca/añ~ 23.8 31.0 72.3 49.4 38.0 30.6 40.9 en ordeñ%ño 14.3 19.5 29.3 16.3 13.6 14.8 18.0 Porcentaje de las vacas 59.1 62.9 39.8 33.0 36.0 48.4 43.9 i en ordeño del total del hato Producción de leche (kg): Total por año 17826 17357 43473 16987 15871 13103 20769 Totol por vaca en ordeño/di a 3.39 2.45 4.03 2.89 3.19 2.42 3.15 Total por vaca del hato/día 2.06 1.53 1.60 0.94 1. 14 1. 16 1.40 Total por voca en ordeño/año 1247 890 1484 783 584 662 1156 Total por vaca del hato/mio 751 560 578 344 418 425 509 a. Calculado en base a vaCas existentes cada 15 de mes. b. Calculado en base de vacas en ordeño en cada control lechero. , Peso al nacimiento SEXO Promedio Nachos Hembras machos y hembras LV • LV CV l'.Ülllero Promedio (%) I\\Ülllero Promedio (%) Número Promedio (%) Oladro 40. Finca No. 1 9 25.1 13 9 25.8 16 18 26.0 14 2 8 25.1 13 16 23. 1 6 24 24.2 9 3 38 34.1 17 24 31. O 15 62 33.4 16 4 15 27.3 14 19 24.2 14 34 26.0 15 5 21 30.0 10 5 27.6 8 26 30.0 10 6 12 23.9 15 25 25.2 14 37 24.0 14 Promedie 103 30.1 19 98 26.3 17 201 28.2 20 1-6 HDffiR\\Sa mCHOS Epoca Enoca t Finca Edad de nacimiento de nacimiento Promedio No. (meses) Verano I Invierno ------lInvierno I Verano 1 91 97 90 112 98 130 132 O O n1 167 205 O O 186 2 144 135 134 167 145 -186 136 212 178 --O O -3 120 140 142 130 133 157 165 209 145 169 182 192 224 152 188 4 73 84 95 102 89 105 95 116 120 109 128 109 O O 119 5 130 183 154 192 165 162 218 197 218 199 182 246 O O 214 6 131 166 171 183 163 O 194 O 251 223 O 258 O O \"\"\"\"-HE\\!BRAS a ~~\\CllOS PRO,IEDIO Enoca Elloca lIembras Finca y No. Edad entre: Verano Invierno! Verano rnvicrnc machos ._ .. _ .. _ .. _: Nacimiento-12 meses 175 190 173 233 193 1 13-18 meses 214 192 O O -18-24 meses 202 400 O O -Nacimiento-24 meses 192 244 O O -Nacimiento-12 meses 321 296 293 384 324 2 13-18 meses -280 11 247 179 18-24 meses --O O -Nacimiento-24 meses --O O -Nacimiento 12 meses 255 310 315 282 291 3 13-18 meses 203 137 367 82 197 18-24 meses 137 148 82 38 101 Nacimiento-24 meses 212 226 270 171 220 Nacimiento-12 meses 126 156 186 206 169 4 13-18 meses 175 60 115 97 112 18-24 meses 126 77 O O 102 Nac1~iento-24 meses 138 . 113 O O 125 Nacimiento-12 meses 282 427 348 452 377 5 13-18 meses 175 190 236 142 186 18-24 meses 110 154 O O 132 Nacimiento-24 meses 212 300 O -4. O 1. 20 (Valor usado) 256 EPOCA DEL ANO VERAJ\\!O INVIERNO 1981 VERANO 1982 INVIER'lO 1981 VERANO 1982 Finca Epoca de 1981-1982 No. l1acimientc ! a IProm t No.! Edad Prom 1f t,) (%) ü) m , 1 Verano 12 2.5 304 6 2.8 C 11 ~l 37 7 9.5 240 9 S 16.1 1 174 36 5 22.3 274 29 Invierno 3 6.2 a 187 3 6.2 206 37 2 11.5 196 6 1 17.5 432 -3 23.2 I 249 22 INVIERNO 1981 ........ ~ 2 Verano 17 3.9 340 3 S.6 c 36;1 16 1 11.5 -12 O ----3 21.8 51 62 I Invierno 4 5.0 a 317 4 5.0 256 13 1 7.5 326 O 10 16.7 61 118 -I Verano 40 4.5 473 21 4 _c 13~1 64 16 10.9 236 69 22 17.5 122 68 7 22.1 257 64 3 .:> Invierno 15 2.2 a 463 15 2.2 381 31 4 10.0 191 54 7 15.3 114 15 22.5 1 SS 57 2.5 c 21.6 173 4 Verano 15 3.5 218 5 6~1 68 4 8.8 198 92 13 17.0 146 • 57 8 33 Invierno 6 2.8 a 153 6 2.8 149 59 6 9.3 167 .25 7 16.4 -11 1503 8 22.81109 96 S Verano 9 2.8 410 5 2.9 c 26~1 32 6 10.0 191 84 2 16.5 166 71 1 21.5 2S Invierno 1 4.5 a 468 1 4.5 448 O 7 9.1 258 22 7 16.1 -4 2221 2 22.0 376 7 6 Verano 16 3.2 357 4 3.1 c 28~1 34 4 8.8 236 34 O O O O O -Invierno 19 2.8 a 514 19 2.8 340 34 4 10.8 364 12 5 17.5 -21 463 1 20.5 515 O Prom. Verano 109 3.6 389 44 3.8 c 17~1 66 38 10. 1 219 64 42 17.2 1 138 60 24 21. 9 150 100 1-6 Invierno 48 3.0 a 385 48 3.0 316 41 24 9.2 242 37 37 16.4 44 320 29 22.5 180 70 ...... -a. b. Aumento de peso/día calculado en base de 27 kg de peso al nacimiento. c. 3.5 1.10 Edad al principio de la época del año. 3. 3.0 1.01 Epoca de invierno = 215 días Edad al final de la época de nacimiento. EPOCA. SECA. e Nantenimiento b 2211 14.73 69 1648 10.98 106 1323 8.81 81 2702 18.00 103 1127 7.51 115 1759 11.72 97 Producción: leche 278 1.85 carne 693 4.61 22 -199 -1.32 -13 173 1.15 11 -162 -1.08 -6 -147 -0.97 -15 -16 0.10 13221.21 100 1554¡ 10.35 E?~ 1821 1 Total 1627 10.84 100 2615 17.49 100 1 980L6.54 100 12.14 100 ~--_ .. 1 1 I TOTAL A.~O (365 días) Mantenimiento b 5112 14.00 72 3596 9.85 76 3408 9.33 78 67751 18.56 87 3277 8.97 Producci6n: leche 713 1.95 10 311 0.85 7 312 0.85 7 392 1 1.07 5 249 0.68 6 265 0.73 Total .. Grasa (t) G,jegacal/kg) 7067 19.36 100 4731 12.96 100 4348 11.90 100 78Z{21.42 100 4310 11.80 100 5745 1S.73 100 Ré(!ué-:drlÍento carne ~42 3.40 18 825 2.26 17 628 1.72 15 654 1 1.79 8 783 2.14 18 904 2.47 15 Producción de leche c. Porcentaje de la producción/día en relación a invierno. 5 b. Verano: Enero-\\Iayo 1982 (155 días) 76 4576 12.53 I 80 a. Invierno: Junio-Diciembre 1981 (210 días) I 400 11. 5 13. 7 15.2 15.9 21.0 I levante: 150 5.6 200 6.8 300 9.3 6.5 6.9 7.3 8.4 8.2 9.0 9.5 11.4 11. 1 12.3 12.8 16.9 1-6 20769 57 14517 69 6252 40 58 Promedio , AnÍlllales -1 9 106 0.70 7 131 0.87 8 76 0.50 3 1 O O O 79 0.52 4• Hantenimiento Peso (kg) (Hegacal) 125 190 250 500 6 13103 36 9196 44 3907 25 57 Requerimiento 5 15871 43 15871 76 O O O Aumento de peso (gramos/día) 4 16987 47 13701 65 3286 21 32 I Finca 2 Finca 3 Finca 4 Finca 5 Finca 6 Cuadro 48. Cuadro 49. Efecto de la época del año sobre la Requerimientos de energía (megacalorías) producción total de leche por finca Finca 1 ha día/ha % ha día/ha % ha díalha % ha día/ha % ha día/ha \\ ha díalha % ! EPOCA. DE It'<'V1ERNO a Mantenimiento b 2901 13.52 75 1968 9.15 63 2084 9.69 77 4073 18.94 78 2150 9.99 65 2818 13.10 72 Producci6n: leche 435 2.02 11 202 0.94 6 181 0.84 6 316 1.46 6 249 1.16 7 187 0.87 carne 550 2.55 14 958 4.45 31 455 2.11 17 816 3.79 16 930 4.32 28 919 4.27 Total 3886 18.06 100 3129 14.54 100 2720 12.64 100 5205 24.20 100 3329 15.47 100 3924 18.24 1001 ~ ... 450 500 550 3 43473 119 25221 129 18252 118 98 14.4 2 17357 48 11869 56 5488 35 63 13.6 1 17826 49 11245 53 6581 42 80 12.4 23 400 11. 5 5 -Datos Básicos -Peso (kg) Vaca adulta: 350 ~,lantenimiento requer:iJnient() p!egacal) 10.3 Finca No. TOOO EL A' ::' O INVIER\\D a VERANO b por por por Total día Total día Total día -q c • \". 'O' 1•$4 > ,.-.. , ,-, rO ~ Ji: \"el Finca No. ~ > el .,.. ...... (J) ' \" ' -...... 'rl +' ' ('j ° ' \" ' \" !52P Categoría '-' ro > o : ~ VI ~ r-., .., .... .... ..., ,.-.. I .,..j (1) o bll . 0 o ~ ¡:,-. ,...... k\"-. <Il o o <Il I S~, v; >-\" . .., ro U) \"'\" p,,,, (J) +'<h o el -o.c: Ü 'M '-..l. ori ,,....¡ > c:I 0'-' ('j ...... '\" gj..8 > \"O> k..8 (/) .~ ..8 ~ oso. ,.. ~ , r l ' \" ' \" o ..... t:bJJ ....... o ........ ¡ o '\" +' \"\"O o .... ...OS Url '''; lPromedie 1-6 Nacimiento-12 meses l1S 139 165 6 13-18 meses 18-24 meses Nacimiento-24 meses 4.5 1 .29 134 165 202 285 O O O 131 165 O 381 154 350 316 148 189 O 395 O O O 132 165 184 O 427 O O ---372 lPromedie 1-6 Nacimiento-12 meses l1S 139 165 6 13-18 meses 18-24 meses Nacimiento-24 meses 4.5 1 .29134 165 202 285 O O O131 165 O 381 154 350 316148 189 O 395 O O O132 165 184 O 427 O O---372 a. Si n hembras preñadas     a. Si n hembras preñadas Nacimiento-12 meses !Promedie 13-18 meses 1-6 18-24 meses Nacimicnto-24 meses 241 132 142 189 293 I 385 170 I 186 202 O 240 O 331 225 O O 288 178 172 214 Nacimiento-12 meses !Promedie 13-18 meses 1-6 18-24 meses Nacimicnto-24 meses241 132 142 189293 I 385 170 I 186 202 O 240 O331 225 O O288 178 172 214 a. Sin hembras preñadas     a. Sin hembras preñadas  "},{"text":" DI \"flujo de caja\" se compono do las entradas en efectivo menos las salidas en efectivo. 2. El \"ingrese neto\" se compone de las ventas más cambios de inventario menos gastos en efectivo.  Cuadro 59. CUadro 68. Gastos en efectivo 1 (Balboas) Cuadro 61. Gastos en efectivo (Balboas) según destino Composici6n entre flujo de caja e ingreso neto. Cuadro 59. CUadro 68. Gastos en efectivo 1 (Balboas) Cuadro 61. Gastos en efectivo (Balboas) según destino Composici6n entre flujo de caja e ingreso neto.   G.ladro 58. Costos de mano de obra contratada (Balboas) G.ladro 58.Costos de mano de obra contratada (Balboas)  ~+' 4 1425 80 356 >'-' p..p, >~ .-<+' \" -, 975 74 0.68 O O O O O O O 3 360 20 120 335 26 0.93 7 2522 43 360 1710 41 0.68 O O O O O O O 13 3354 57 258 2510 S9 0.75 13 4320 21 332 3333 9 0.77 12 2474 12 206 2455 14 0.99 51 13926 67 273 11526 67 0.83 Venta de ganado según época (porcentaje) 1 Total anima1e: 7 1785 1310 0.73 Vacas Otras hembras ~lachos 2 Total aniJrale, 5876 4220 0.72 Vacas Otras hembras ~lachos 3 Total an:imale, 20720 17314 0.84 Vacas Otras hembras ~chos OJadro 51. ._--Fin c a Promedio E' Poca: 1 2 3 4 5 6 1-6 ~layo-Agosto (principio invierno) 57 35 50 8 56 39 Septiembre-Diciembre (fin invierno) O 65 22 64 O 32 ITotal invierno 57 1100 72 7Z 63 56 71 --_ .. _.-, Enero-Febrero (principio verano) O O 20 24 20 21 ~larzo -Abril (fin verano) 43 O 8 4 O 24 8 Total verano 43 I O 28 I 28 44 29 I Cuadro 52. Finca No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Promedio I , 1-6 lITES -P¡\\¡'l.l\\' lA. de ganado vs. peso vivo venta 1 de carne por peso vivo en la finca \" (kg) 0.027 0.173 0.379 0.225 0.447 0.357 0.305 Producción y venta carga expresado en ., ProCluccion de carne por peso vi m en la finca (k,ü 0.232 0.202 0.169 0.100 0.203 0.155 .. _--~,-0.170 L --_ _ \" I 11 Venta neta de ganado (venta nenas compras). Personal fijo Personal ocasional Jornales Pagado en S:tlario I Jornales Pagado Finca en Salario No. (}lo. ) Dinero Leche . promedio (No.) dinero promedio (No.) (Balboas) Total finca Jornales Valor 1 1 O ---93 369 3.96 I 93 369 2 105 395 -3.76 116 4 !JiI 4.25 221 889 3 600 i 2765 87-1 6.06 645 2814 4.36 1245 , 6453 4 264 1300 280 5.98 71 289 4.07 335 I 1869 I 5 135 695 83 5.80 167 677 4.94 302 1455 I 6 O ---O --O -PromCdii I 184 859 207 5.79 182 773 4.25 366 1839 1-6 Fin c a Gasto por: 1 2 3 4 5 lo H'll1o de Obra -Personal fij o2 O 395 3639 1530 778 -Personal ocasional 369 494 2814 239 677 TOTl\\L mano de obra 369 889 6453 1869 1455 2. Insumos -Sales + minerales 13 106 73 80 30S -Salud aninal 90 80 636 110 271 -Concentrados 6 O O 25 O -Herbicidas 10 242 75 O O -Utensilios 23 S4 381 94 97 -Alambre + grapas 92 184 338 13 2 -Postes 180 O 602 O 82 -Abonos O 72 18 O O -Otros O 105 O 30 6 O O O 173 252 40 30 119 483 37 56 O Cuadro 60. Finca No .. TOTAL 1 1142 2 2297 3 8966 4 2635 5 2322 6 1340 ~omedic 3117 1-6 Gastos en efectivo (Balboas) por hectárea y unidad animal Total por Porcentaje en ~bno I ha DA de obra Insumas Servicio, 46 25 32 36 32 37 28 39 37 24 54 44 72 24 4 51 24 71 12 17 46 28 63 34 3 24 17 O 88 12 46 30 S9 30 11 Finca Manejo ~ Infraes-? Renovación Control I No. ganado 1 de malezas tructura ¿ praderas i ! 1 37 238 I 376 O 2 407 491 224 518 3 4479 213 1962 1095 4 1601 244 17 464 5 778 555 206 O 6 O 30 520 56 ~omedi( 1-6 1217 295 551 355 1. Solo gastos en mano de obra contratada. Z. Alquiler pastos 359 312 30 O 80 150 155 Gasto directo Otros TOTAL , vaC1IDOS 109 23 1142 186 159 2297 709 478 8966 215 94 2635 576 127 2322 465 119 1340 377 167 Oladro 67. Retribución al capital Finca Ingreso Gasto a ~etribución Rentabilidad No. bruto total al capital (%) 1 6561 2042 4519 15.61 2 6371 3317 3054 6.98 3 19119 9206 9913 6.88 4 4293 3055 1238 2.49 S 6137 2622 3515 7.20 \" 6 8781 3740 5041 10.93 Promedio 8544 3997 4547 7.56 1-6 I OO'RADAS SALIDAS Finca -, Flujo de Ingreso I , Monto del crédito y porcentaje de la inversión inicial Cuadro 69. Ganado i Insumos No. Leche Carne Créditos Intereses¡ Amortiz caja 1 noto 2 I I . i I i ! , 1 3714 1310 3600 1550 869 , 985 O 5220 5419 2 4004 4220 I 3876 2500 40 Finca Monto Saldo en Desembolsos Amorti-Saldo en PorcentajQ No. aprobado ~!ayo 31/81 en el afio• zadones Nayo 31/82 capital ¡j --2297 I 2675 1674 i 2946 3 9081 17314 5700 O 8940 I 1634 SO 21471 10153 4 2798 4804 I 2300 O 2632 I 1125 O 6145 1 11. 500 7.900 3.600 O 11.500 29 1658 S 2943 I 7810 O O 2344 402 SO 7957 3815 I ¡ 6 2904 I 7281 O 250 1393 1 869 O 7673 7441 , 2 9.200 9.000 O 1.674 7.326 21 6.500 O 5.500 O 5.500 ¡ Promedio 4241 7123 2579 ¡ 717 3079 1282 296 8569 54 1-6 i 3 24.000 12.800 5.700 50 18.500 9 4 12.000 9.700 2.300 O 12.000 19 1. I Mantenimiento e inversión. a. Calculado sobre inventario promedio. 5 7.000 5.257 O SO 5.207 39 14.700 14.700 O O 14.700 10 TOrAL insumos 414 843 2133 322 787 1190 6 10.000 8.500 O O 8.550 18 - ~+' 4 1425 80 356 >'-' p..p, >~ .-<+' \" -, 975 74 0.68 O O O O O O O 3 360 20 120 335 26 0.93 7 2522 43 360 1710 41 0.68 O O O O O O O 13 3354 57 258 2510 S9 0.75 13 4320 21 332 3333 9 0.77 12 2474 12 206 2455 14 0.99 51 13926 67 273 11526 67 0.83 Venta de ganado según época (porcentaje) 1 Total anima1e: 7 1785 1310 0.73 Vacas Otras hembras ~lachos 2 Total aniJrale, 5876 4220 0.72 Vacas Otras hembras ~lachos 3 Total an:imale, 20720 17314 0.84 Vacas Otras hembras ~chos OJadro 51. ._--Fin c a Promedio E' Poca: 1 2 3 4 5 6 1-6 ~layo-Agosto (principio invierno) 57 35 50 8 56 39 Septiembre-Diciembre (fin invierno) O 65 22 64 O 32 ITotal invierno 57 1100 72 7Z 63 56 71 --_ .. _.-, Enero-Febrero (principio verano) O O 20 24 20 21 ~larzo -Abril (fin verano) 43 O 8 4 O 24 8 Total verano 43 I O 28 I 28 44 29 I Cuadro 52. Finca No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Promedio I , 1-6 lITES -P¡\\¡'l.l\\' lA. de ganado vs. peso vivo venta 1 de carne por peso vivo en la finca \" (kg) 0.027 0.173 0.379 0.225 0.447 0.357 0.305 Producción y venta carga expresado en ., ProCluccion de carne por peso vi m en la finca (k,ü 0.232 0.202 0.169 0.100 0.203 0.155 .. _--~,-0.170 L --_ _ \" I 11 Venta neta de ganado (venta nenas compras). Personal fijo Personal ocasional Jornales Pagado en S:tlario I Jornales Pagado Finca en Salario No. (}lo. ) Dinero Leche . promedio (No.) dinero promedio (No.) (Balboas) Total finca Jornales Valor 1 1 O ---93 369 3.96 I 93 369 2 105 395 -3.76 116 4 !JiI 4.25 221 889 3 600 i 2765 87-1 6.06 645 2814 4.36 1245 , 6453 4 264 1300 280 5.98 71 289 4.07 335 I 1869 I 5 135 695 83 5.80 167 677 4.94 302 1455 I 6 O ---O --O -PromCdii I 184 859 207 5.79 182 773 4.25 366 1839 1-6 Fin c a Gasto por: 1 2 3 4 5 lo H'll1o de Obra -Personal fij o2 O 395 3639 1530 778 -Personal ocasional 369 494 2814 239 677 TOTl\\L mano de obra 369 889 6453 1869 1455 2. Insumos -Sales + minerales 13 106 73 80 30S -Salud aninal 90 80 636 110 271 -Concentrados 6 O O 25 O -Herbicidas 10 242 75 O O -Utensilios 23 S4 381 94 97 -Alambre + grapas 92 184 338 13 2 -Postes 180 O 602 O 82 -Abonos O 72 18 O O -Otros O 105 O 30 6 O O O 173 252 40 30 119 483 37 56 O Cuadro 60. Finca No .. TOTAL 1 1142 2 2297 3 8966 4 2635 5 2322 6 1340 ~omedic 3117 1-6 Gastos en efectivo (Balboas) por hectárea y unidad animal Total por Porcentaje en ~bno I ha DA de obra Insumas Servicio, 46 25 32 36 32 37 28 39 37 24 54 44 72 24 4 51 24 71 12 17 46 28 63 34 3 24 17 O 88 12 46 30 S9 30 11 Finca Manejo ~ Infraes-? Renovación Control I No. ganado 1 de malezas tructura ¿ praderas i ! 1 37 238 I 376 O 2 407 491 224 518 3 4479 213 1962 1095 4 1601 244 17 464 5 778 555 206 O 6 O 30 520 56 ~omedi( 1-6 1217 295 551 355 1. Solo gastos en mano de obra contratada. Z. Alquiler pastos 359 312 30 O 80 150 155 Gasto directo Otros TOTAL , vaC1IDOS 109 23 1142 186 159 2297 709 478 8966 215 94 2635 576 127 2322 465 119 1340 377 167 Oladro 67. Retribución al capital Finca Ingreso Gasto a ~etribución Rentabilidad No. bruto total al capital (%) 1 6561 2042 4519 15.61 2 6371 3317 3054 6.98 3 19119 9206 9913 6.88 4 4293 3055 1238 2.49 S 6137 2622 3515 7.20 \" 6 8781 3740 5041 10.93 Promedio 8544 3997 4547 7.56 1-6 I OO'RADAS SALIDAS Finca -, Flujo de Ingreso I , Monto del crédito y porcentaje de la inversión inicial Cuadro 69. Ganado i Insumos No. Leche Carne Créditos Intereses¡ Amortiz caja 1 noto 2 I I . i I i ! , 1 3714 1310 3600 1550 869 , 985 O 5220 5419 2 4004 4220 I 3876 2500 40 Finca Monto Saldo en Desembolsos Amorti-Saldo en PorcentajQ No. aprobado ~!ayo 31/81 en el afio• zadones Nayo 31/82 capital ¡j --2297 I 2675 1674 i 2946 3 9081 17314 5700 O 8940 I 1634 SO 21471 10153 4 2798 4804 I 2300 O 2632 I 1125 O 6145 1 11. 500 7.900 3.600 O 11.500 29 1658 S 2943 I 7810 O O 2344 402 SO 7957 3815 I ¡ 6 2904 I 7281 O 250 1393 1 869 O 7673 7441 , 2 9.200 9.000 O 1.674 7.326 21 6.500 O 5.500 O 5.500 ¡ Promedio 4241 7123 2579 ¡ 717 3079 1282 296 8569 54 1-6 i 3 24.000 12.800 5.700 50 18.500 9 4 12.000 9.700 2.300 O 12.000 19 1. I Mantenimiento e inversión. a. Calculado sobre inventario promedio. 5 7.000 5.257 O SO 5.207 39 14.700 14.700 O O 14.700 10 TOrAL insumos 414 843 2133 322 787 1190 6 10.000 8.500 O O 8.550 18 - , . 4 Total an:imales 6224 4804 0.77 Vacas Otras hembras ~lachos S Total animales 10252 7810 0.76 Vacas Otras hembras riachos Tal'AL servicios 359 565 14 3500 44 3 834 17 278 8 1890 39 236 1400 29 0.74 604 13 0.72 250 2800 58 0.80 13 26 5093 SO -\"\" 196 3862 49 0.76 1 394 4 394 370 5 0.94 380 444 80 , 150 4765 46 367 3578 46 0.75 2/ Incluyendo venta y producción por cambio de inventario. 3. Servicios -.~quiler pastos 359 312 30 O 80 -Control malezas (maq.) O O O 144 O -Preparación terreno O 253 263 300 O ! -If.lPuestos O O O O O 87 (maquinaria) 150 O O Promedio 15.816 11. 317 :6.l~SO 296 13.871 21 . 1-6 , .4 Total an:imales 6224 4804 0.77 Vacas Otras hembras ~lachos S Total animales 10252 7810 0.76 Vacas Otras hembras riachos Tal'AL servicios 359 565 14 3500 44 3 834 17 278 8 1890 39 236 1400 29 0.74 604 13 0.72 250 2800 58 0.80 13 26 5093 SO -\"\" 196 3862 49 0.76 1 394 4 394 370 5 0.94 380 444 80 , 150 4765 46 367 3578 46 0.75 2/ Incluyendo venta y producción por cambio de inventario. 3. Servicios -.~quiler pastos 359 312 30 O 80 -Control malezas (maq.) O O O 144 O -Preparación terreno O 253 263 300 O ! -If.lPuestos O O O O O 87 (maquinaria) 150 O O Promedio 15.816 11. 317 :6.l~SO 296 13.871 21 . 1-6  6 Total animales 'lUJ'AL GASTOS 9407 7281 0.77 1142 2297 8966 2635 2322 1340 6 Total animales 'lUJ'AL GASTOS94077281 0.77 1142 2297 8966 2635 23221340  Vacas  4 1515 16 379 1000 14 0.66 Vacas4 1515 16 379 1000 14 0.66  'Otras hembras  O O O O O O O 'Otras hembrasOOOOOOO  madlos 1. Valores gastados en el año de estudio = compras ' !: ca.rnbio 21 7892 84 376 6281 ! inventario de mercancías en depósito. , . o Total animales .,..¡ .\"el Vacas ! 7 2564 28 350 1867 26 86 0.80 0.73 ~ Otras hembras ! 4 793 19 227 704 10 0.89 ~!achos 21 5688 , 63 267 4552 64 0.80 ¡ '. .. 9O' rL 79 2. Incluye raga con leche. madlos 1. Valores gastados en el año de estudio = compras ' !: ca.rnbio 21 7892 84 376 6281 ! inventario de mercancías en depósito. , . o Total animales .,..¡ .\"el Vacas ! 7 2564 28 350 1867 26 86 0.80 0.73 ~ Otras hembras ! 4 793 19 227 704 10 0.89 ~!achos 21 5688 , 63 267 4552 64 0.80 ¡ '. .. 9O' rL 79 2. Incluye raga con leche.  "}],"sieverID":"d4af9e41-e4e3-44c7-8c07-dd32f6acc68d","abstract":"Edad novillas al primer parto 28. Incidencia de problemas reproductivos en novillas según la edad ,Cuadro 29. Cuadro 30. Cuadro 31. Cuadro 32. Distribución de partos por vacas y novillas. 1981/1982 Terneros nacidos vs. terneros muertos entre 0-12 meses de edad (Junio 1981 -~layo 1982) Distribución por edades de los terneros muertos Mortalidad de terneros de O -12 meses de edad según la época del año Cuadro 33. }brtalidad en ganado de más de un año de edad '!JI Promedio cal cul ado en base del in\"entarío ini dal y final. el Incluyendo 2.5 bueyes ele trabajo di 1 caballo = 1. O UA; 1 potro = 0.5 UA el Bovinos y equinos; incluyendo pastos alquilados 1.Valor de la retribución PlínÍlna a la mano de obra familiar (S Balboas/jornal)."}

data/part_1/063a4bc2a59fad9a7030e9444c071ef8.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"063a4bc2a59fad9a7030e9444c071ef8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b2936b8f-e967-4d81-8166-d81a149649e5/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"International Livestock Research Institute Training course report Sampling and characterization of mosquito vectors of Rift Valley fever in Uganda","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"In Uganda, like most countries in sub-Saharan Africa, around 70% of all households keep at least one kind of livestock (including poultry). Livestock production is primarily a family business, but only a fraction of the food produced is used for home consumption. Most of it is sold at local markets which are mainly informal. Livestock production is limited by pathogens and losses faced by smallholder farmers due to disease or death of animals. This, in turn, threatens food security, availability of well-balanced diets and the overall livelihoods of animal keepers. Diseases transmitted between animals and humans (zoonoses) such as brucellosis, tuberculosis and Rift Valley fever (RVF) threaten the health of producers, processors and consumers. Improved animal health, therefore, directly contributes towards improved livelihoods and human health through better diets and fewer zoonotic diseases. Knowledge and awareness about animal diseases, their risks and intervention options are limited in Uganda. Because of this, health risks for humans due to zoonoses are not commonly recognized. For many of the animal health problems, there are effective solutions at hand (for example, vaccines). However, lack of infrastructure and institutions in low-and middle-income countries does not allow last-mile delivery of solutions or implementation of disease control. Lack of awareness on the benefits vaccines results in unwillingness to purchase them."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"To address some of these challenges, a new program called Boosting Uganda's Investment in Livestock Development (BUILD Uganda) has been developed. The program has four components: (1) support ongoing campaigns to eradicate peste des petits ruminants, (2) control zoonotic diseases, focussing initially on RVF, (3) control antimicrobial resistance and (4) improve veterinary public health at the point of slaughter."},{"index":3,"size":163,"text":"The RVF component aims to minimize the impacts of the disease by improving capacities for surveillance and response to outbreaks at national and community levels though better risk prediction, implementation of evidence-based disease control policies and improving levels of awareness on the disease. RVF is caused by a virus that mainly affects livestock and has the capacity to infect humans. It is spread between animals (mostly cattle, sheep, goats and camels) via many species of mosquitoes (for example, Culex spp., Aedes spp. and Mansonia spp.) or via contact with infected tissues. In animals, the disease manifests as widespread abortions and mortalities in the young while in humans, the disease occurs as a mild flu-like syndrome in most cases or a severe haemorrhagic fever and even death in a few cases. The virus was first identified in 1931 on a farm in the Rift Valley of Kenya and since then outbreaks have been reported in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Key activities that will be implemented under the RVF component are "}]},{"head":"Pre-training assessment","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Twenty-two trainees were identified from the RVF project districts prior to the training course. The pretraining assessment identified baseline knowledge and skills of the participants as well as the needs of their host institutions regarding entomological surveillance. Information obtained from this exercise was used to guide the training program. Questionnaires determined basic quantitative review of capacities, knowledge and needs:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"• 80% of the trainees (n = 18) had attained at least a bachelor's degree while 20% had a diploma."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"• 75% of the trainees had participated in entomological surveys. Out of the 15 trainees (75%) who had experience in entomological surveys, only five (33%) had been exposed to mosquito sampling and identification. • Only 30% of the trainees (n = 7) had access to a stereo microscope; these were staff from NADDEC, the National Livestock Resources Research Institute (NALIRRI) and Mbarara District Local Government. • Overall, 50% of the trainees had received professional training after graduation."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"• 60% of the trainees had an interest in understanding vector biology, epidemiology of vector-borne diseases and the role of an entomologists in the control of these diseases."}]},{"head":"Mosquito sampling and characterization","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The first three days covered theoretical background on arboviruses, vector biology, morphology of mosquitoes, sampling tools and biosafety measures that should be observed while sampling mosquitoes. The practical sessions involved setting mosquito traps in pre-identified field sites, collecting the catches and sorting and identification of mosquitoes based on mosquito identification keys. Participants worked in groups of four. The trainees were also trained on how to identify suitable mosquito breeding sites for setting traps."}]},{"head":"Theoretical sessions","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"An outline of the topics covered during these sessions is given below."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"General overview on arboviruses: Under this topic, a definition of arboviruses as well as the general symptoms associated with arboviruses, their diagnosis, prevention and control measures were discussed."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"Examples of arboviruses introduced were yellow fever, dengue, chikungunya, West Nile, RVF, o'nyong'nyong and Zika viruses (all mosquito-borne) and Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus (tickborne). Historical perspectives of these arboviruses, transmission cycles and drivers of virus emergence were also covered. It was noted that it is important to consider co-circulation of arboviruses during RVF outbreaks. This was emphasized through the example of the 2006-07 RVF outbreak in northeastern Kenya in which over 23 different arboviruses were isolated from different mosquito species. It was also noted that during surveillance, other vectors or potential vectors of arboviruses may be identified. The example of recent emergence of Aedes vittatus in Mombasa was noted; this species is a competent vector of dengue, Zika and chikungunya viruses and its adaptation to new breeding habitats and changing population dynamics may contribute to transmission and circulation of these viruses during outbreaks. This may significantly alter the epidemiology of diseases. Important vectors of arboviruses of public health significance were also covered as well as the challenges associated with their control."},{"index":4,"size":161,"text":"Introduction to RVF virus vectors and vector biology: The global distribution of RVF virus (thought to be present in 32 countries) was discussed. It was also noted that RVF virus has so far been isolated from over 40 mosquito species globally, both known and potential vectors. Primary and secondary vectors of RVF virus were also introduced. It was mentioned that the distribution of vectors influences the distribution of the virus, as has been observed in Kenya. The breeding habitats of RVF virus, primary vectors and the transmission cycle, including species succession in dambos following heavy rains, were covered. Also, the host feeding preference of the primary vectors as determined by blood meal analysis of blood-fed mosquitoes collected during the 2006-07 RVF outbreak in northeastern Kenya was also presented. In that study, a large proportion of blood meals was obtained from sheep and goats. This was expected, given that these animals constituted the largest proportion of livestock species kept in the area."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"Introduction to surveillance and field sampling tools: Timing and approaches for the surveillance of mosquitoes was covered. It was clarified that approaches used were often determined by the life stage of the mosquito being targeted. That is, if the primary interest was to collect larvae, specific tools would be needed as opposed to if the surveillance targeted adults. For the participants to better understand this discussion, the life cycle of mosquitoes was presented."},{"index":6,"size":226,"text":"For sampling adult mosquitoes, participants were informed that there was a range of specific and more general tools that could be used. Traps that were available included Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light traps, Biogents (BG)-Sentinel traps, human landing catch, resting boxes and backpack/Prokopack aspirators. An explanation was given on how each of the trapping tools could be used and the respective mosquito species that each trapping tool could sample more efficiently. Comparative data on mosquito catches between BG sentinel and CDC light traps were provided based on recent studies conducted in coastal Kenya. It was noted that BG traps proved to be more efficient than CDC light traps in collecting a wide range of species in large numbers. Tools for sampling mosquito larvae were presented as well as some of the challenges that were expected during surveillance. Transportation of mosquitoes: In this session, approaches used for transportation of mosquitoes from the field to the site laboratory and the use of triethylamine to knock down live mosquitoes before sorting (separation of mosquitoes from other insects) were discussed. The importance of shipment from the site laboratory to the main laboratory while maintaining a cold chain was emphasized. Entomological sample transportation, acceptance and rejection documents (specimen transport inventory sheet) and specimen tracking forms were presented while explaining the need to maintain accountability for each sample collected."},{"index":7,"size":153,"text":"Mosquito morphology: The trainees were taught how to distinguish mosquitoes from other insects using the mouth parts. It was also explained that mosquitoes have three distinct body parts (head, thorax and abdomen). Distinguishing male from female mosquitoes by looking at the morphology of the antennae (bushy/plumose in males and normal in females) was also discussed. Characteristics of anopheline and culicine mosquitoes (eggs, larvae, pupae and resting behaviour) and distinguishing different mosquito genera using mouthparts (pulps and proboscis of similar or varying length) and tip of the abdomen (pointed in the genus Aedes, rounded in the genus Culex and rounded and upturned in the genus Monsonia) was introduced. This required detailed description of the different parts of a mosquito (head, thorax, abdomen and legs) which are significant in taxonomy. Similarly, the use of wings and wing venation, scaling pattern on the entire mosquito body and presence or absence of hairs or bristles were introduced."},{"index":8,"size":60,"text":"Mosquito identification (taxonomic keys): Definition and explanation of the dichotomous keys in identifying mosquitoes to their species level was discussed. Trainees were also taken through examples of how to use the dichotomous keys, namely, simplified keys to selected mosquito genera of adult mosquitoes and keys for identification of adult female mosquitoes associated with RVF virus, dengue, yellow fever and chikungunya."}]},{"head":"Practical sessions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The trainees were taken to various field sites to identify suitable trapping sites. Some of the preferred places were those that had experienced RVF outbreaks in the past. However, this exercise also aimed to limit distances covered from the training venue given the limited time that was available for the work. The timing of trap deployment and collection was discussed. Hands-on demonstrations were given on how these two activities could be conducted. Training on the use of global positioning system to take coordinates was also done during trap deployment. Catches collected from the traps were used to demonstrate mosquito sorting and identification. For this work, the trainees were distributed into four groups and each group given a mosquito to use for identification using the dichotomous key. They were guided on how to identify the mosquitoes to species level. Tubes were labelled with identified and unidentified mosquitoes (area abbreviation/site number/pool number) and preserved in the dry shipper. "}]},{"head":"Post-training evaluation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"A post-training assessment was done to (i) evaluate the relevance and effectiveness of the training in building capacities in surveillance of RVF vectors, (ii) determine if participants had adequately attained their training expectations in order to inform the post-training action plans, (iii) document any challenges, lessons and best practices at this stage and (iv) comment on any areas that require improvement or adjustment to enhance project performance and realize expected results."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"A questionnaire was administered asking trainees to answer the questions on the assessment areas by indicating by a score of 1 to 5 on the various aspects of the training. The rating of each score was as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"1: very bad, 2: inadequate, 3: sufficient, 4: good and 5: very good. The results from the questionnaire are shown in Table 1. "}]},{"head":"Further training and mentorship","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"The trainees will be engaged in routine mosquito surveillance activities with support from the trainers in the course of the program implementation. This will enable them to hone the acquired skills and knowledge. It is expected that by the end of the program, they will have had adequate exposure to enable them run entomological surveillance with limited supervision. Multiple refresher training courses will also be conducted in the course of the program. Trainees were asked to include any other comments they thought were useful to the training. These are indicated below."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"• The training was generally very useful and created awareness on RVF and other zoonotic diseases among participants. • All participants should get the necessary equipment for use in their respective districts."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• There is need to invite one vector control officer and one entomologist from each district for better decision-making and to strengthen the One Health approach."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"• The next training course should be in districts selected for RVF work."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• The project should support or set up laboratories in districts."},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"• The project should train more entomologists."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"• The project should organize quarterly refresher field and laboratory training sessions for participants."},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"• There is need for further training on mosquito identification using the larvae."},{"index":9,"size":17,"text":"• The training was very educative and provided a very strong foundation for mosquito identification and characterization."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"• Conduct a quick refresher course for the trainees when their memories of what they learned are still fresh. • One topic that was not adequately covered due to time constraints was larval sampling and rearing in the insectary for subsequent identification. This should be covered during the next training. • Mosquito identification was covered using pinned specimens. There is need to take the trainees through the process of sorting and identifying unpinned mosquitoes straight from the petri dishes. • Solar powered weather data loggers would do better in place of a conventional rain gauge and thermometer. This would eliminate the need to hire someone committed to taking daily readings. This is especially so since there is need to factor in weather patterns several weeks to months leading to the sampling period. • More training should be done on mosquito processing for virus isolation as surveillance does not end with vector identification. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Vectorial capacity: A definition of vectorial capacity was presented using examples from work by Agha et al. (2017) 1 using Aedes aegypti from Mombasa, Nairobi and Kisumu in relation to dengue and the work of Turell et al. (1992) 2 with Aedes triseriatus in relation to RVF virus transmission. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Trainees were guided through the processes of pinning freshly collected mosquitoes and subsequently correctly identifying them to species level. Approximately 20 species of mosquitoes were identified during the exercise: Aedes mcintoshi, Culex theileri, Aedes sudanensis, Anopheles ziemani namibiensis, Culex univittatus, Aedes cumminsii, Mansonia africana, Culex vansomereni, Culex annulioris, Culex rubinotus, Aedes aegypti, Aedes simpsoni, Anopheles gambiae, Culex tigripes, Culex antennatus, Culex poicilipes, Coquillettidia fascopenatta and Eretmapodite chrysogaster.  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Results of the post-training assessment Question Score    QuestionScore  Very bad Inadequate Sufficient Good Very good Very badInadequateSufficientGoodVery good Was the length of the course appropriate for the   5% 60% 35% Was the length of the course appropriate for the5%60%35% subjects to be covered?     subjects to be covered? Was the course material adequate?   20% 40% 40% Was the course material adequate?20%40%40% How would you grade the theoretical sessions in    15% 85% How would you grade the theoretical sessions in15%85% terms of educational value?     terms of educational value? How would you grade the practical sessions in terms    20% 80% How would you grade the practical sessions in terms20%80% of educational value?     of educational value? Was the laboratory work useful?    10% 90% Was the laboratory work useful?10%90% How would you grade the field work?    25% 75% How would you grade the field work?25%75% Was the venue of the course adequate?   10% 10% 80% Was the venue of the course adequate?10%10%80% Was there cooperation among trainees?   10% 55% 35% Was there cooperation among trainees?10%55%35% How would you rate the organization and logistics?    55% 45% How would you rate the organization and logistics?55%45% How would you rate the usefulness of the course for    15% 85% How would you rate the usefulness of the course for15%85% your role as an entomologist?     your role as an entomologist?  "},{"text":" • The project should purchase the following items for routine surveillance work in the districts: Equipment Catalogue number Vendor/manufacturer EquipmentCatalogue numberVendor/manufacturer BG-2 Sentinel Trap 2880 Bioquip BG-2 Sentinel Trap2880Bioquip Catch bags 2880C Bioquip Catch bags2880CBioquip Sealed gel electrolyte batteries (12v) 2863 Bioquip Sealed gel electrolyte batteries (12v)2863Bioquip Microscope stage 6188 Bioquip Microscope stage6188Bioquip Olympus dissecting microscope SZ61 Olympus Olympus dissecting microscopeSZ61Olympus Swiss style forceps 4531 Bioquip Swiss style forceps4531Bioquip Swiss style forceps 4532 Bioquip Swiss style forceps4532Bioquip Featherweight Forceps 4750 Bioquip Featherweight Forceps4750Bioquip Larval dippers with wooden handle 1132 Bioquip Larval dippers with wooden handle1132Bioquip Larval trays 1426A Bioquip Larval trays1426ABioquip Larval trays 1426b Bioquip Larval trays1426bBioquip Larval trays 1426C Bioquip Larval trays1426CBioquip CDC miniature light traps 2836BQ Bioquip CDC miniature light traps2836BQBioquip Dry ice dispensers/igloos 2811 Bioquip Dry ice dispensers/igloos2811Bioquip Sealed gel electrolyte batteries (6v)  Bioquip Sealed gel electrolyte batteries (6v)Bioquip Replacement bag and collecting cup 2801B Bioquip Replacement bag and collecting cup2801BBioquip 6v/12v battery chargers 2865 Bioquip 6v/12v battery chargers2865Bioquip HOBO weather data logger   HOBO weather data logger  "}],"sieverID":"94afd7fc-9fe6-40ac-87d6-fa6a9c9898c0","abstract":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used."}

data/part_1/0648b12d281f4e443588c9e1591a2adf.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0648b12d281f4e443588c9e1591a2adf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7d6d6cf1-d7fd-4269-93bb-6c1b95733984/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"This is a combined report on the workshop interaction with framers on probabilistic seasonal forecasting on June 4 th and 5 th , and the follow up workshop on communicating the actual seasonal forecasting on June the 8 th , 2011 both held in Kaffrine (Senegal)."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"The first workshop was designed to expose farmers on probabilistic seasonal forecasting and also to establish dialogue and trust between farmer's organizations and experts working on climate forecasting and farming in general. Emphasis was made to listen the framers first and better understand their decision system. This is a first step toward helping small-scale farmers to make appropriate management decisions for improved agricultural based on probabilistic seasonal climate forecast. The second workshop was to deliver the actual seasonal forecast and to ensure they can interpret it. We also distributed some rain gauges and offer training on their installation and use."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"We chose the site of Kaffrine in Senegal for many reasons. Kaffrine is located in the midst of the transition zone from the Sahelian towards the Sudan Savannah zone with annual rainfall averages of around 500 mm in the northern, 600 mm at Kaffrine, and around 800 mm in the southwestern part of the area. Dominant soils are deep sandy (\"Dior\"). Predominant cropping systems are based on pearl millet, peanut and cowpea, all generally not intensified and cropped without agricultural input. In the south, peanut is intensified using inputs, and maize, sorghum, lowland rice and sesame are also cropped. Main constraints to agricultural production are high rainfall variability, poor soil fertility, no attractive markets and high poverty levels with low access to capital."}]},{"head":"I. Organization of the Workshop","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"A preparatory meeting involving Dr. Jim Hansen, experts on climate, agro-economist and agriculture expert was held on June 2 nd 2011 at the Senegalese national weather Agency to revisit the materials that will be presented to the farmers, discuss the workshop agenda, the structure and methodology for attaining our objective. Mr Seck the local agriculture extension in Kaffrine gave us a brief report on the logistic and selected farmers for the workshop."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"The actual training workshop took two (2) days June 4 th and 5 th 2011. We had 31 farmers amongst them 13 were women as well as 10 experts coming from local NGOs and governmental services working with farmers. There was training discussing session as well field trips where a survey questionnaire was conducted in 6 villages."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"The main objective of this workshop was to know how farmers use currently climate information, what kind of forecast they used, and to present them example of probabilistic seasonal forecasting."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"The workshop began with an official opening by the local administrative authority, the prefet, of the district of Kaffrine. Who welcomed everyone and acknowledged the importance of rainfall forecast on farmer's livelihood as well the climate change. Dr Ousmane Ndiaye and Dr Jim Hansen presented respectively the objective of the workshop as well as CCAFS program."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"After we go around the table and each participant introduced himself in a lively manner. Dr ousmane Ndiaye started by asking farmers how they manage to forecast the trend of the upcoming seasonal forecast, its beginning and its end. What are their indicators?"}]},{"head":"II. Indigenous knowledge on weather and climate :","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"The question asked was to describe the indicators for climate forecast specifically : good or bad season. Farmers were able to open up and express themselves without difficulties. Here are some indicators :"}]},{"head":"Imminent onset of the rainy season :","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"When the wind changes direction to fetch the rainfall Apparition of stars shaped as elephant Birds crying as if it calls men to go to field and woman to stay at home early flouring of many trees species: Néré, dimb, tamarinier, sone butterflies and libellees are numerous Some persons feel heavy in their body"}]},{"head":"Hot night time","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Empirical sign of a major rainy event :","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"When wind is shifting direction"}]},{"head":"When dark clouds become white","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sign for a good rainy season :","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"When snakes and frogs are more numerous than usual The shooting star direction indicates which zone will receive excess rain this year Net appearance of seven stars in the sky"}]},{"head":"Sign of a good cropping season :","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"When the rain is settled in June the 24 th and we start the millet around the 14 th of July we can expect good harvest"}]},{"head":"Sign of the end of the season :","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"When frogs start chanting When the sky is high When we observed dew in the morning Then Dr ousmane Ndiaye started to link some of their signs with known climate phenomena. The idea is to build confidence. Building from some similarities and scientific explanation farmers start getting a glimpse on general circulation in west Africa."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"The facilitator build confidence by emphasizing the proximity of farmers indicators and indicators used to make the forecast that will be presented to them. He said \"we used quite the same indicator but our only difference is we use better tools, better observing system and more systemized reporting\". He mentioned observing through satellites, large and comprehensive network of sharing information around the world, capacity of storing and analyzing data using computers. Farmers were very open to the new forecast and at least could understand why this new way combine both their usual indicator but in a more modern and better way."},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"The facilitator emphasis a lot why the scientific system presented to them today should be considered or at least deserved a trial."},{"index":4,"size":235,"text":"Building on that Dr Ndiaye started explaining the basis forecasting at seasonal time scale months ahead. To set the basis of seasonal forecast the facilitator starts with a dialogue by asking a simple question \"When it is hot, why do people go to the beach?\". All Farmers responded because sea breeze brings fresher air. Then he took it further: \"Is it not the same sun that heats both land and ocean? Why then does the ocean get cooler in summer?\". He then explained that ocean has better memory of the past compare to the continent. The ocean remembers the heat of the past days and weeks. That's why, on a very hot day you go to the beach to benefit from ocean memory of the past weeks. Same thing when it is cold, the ocean still remembers warm days. He mentions some phenomenon that few know like el Niño and la Niña as perfect examples how ocean can stay on one state for months. As ocean has longer memory and occupies larger area at the surface of the earth they constrain the climate in the tropics. This is the basis of seasonal forecasting: using ocean heat memory. He added rain comes from water vapor, most of the water vapor comes from ocean, so the ocean temperature can control rain. Upon hearing this, farmers were less skeptical and actually start asking questions which indicate their understanding."}]},{"head":"III. Basis of probabilistic seasonal forecasting :","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"After he pointing out the difficulty of estimating exactly how much it will rain, the difficulty of having perfect forecast. There are always errors. He challenges farmers whether their traditional indicators are 100% accurate; they all say no. One farmer commented, \"Only God knows what is happening 100% in the future\". They understood the uncertainties. By the end of the first session, trust has been built by connecting common indicators, the basis for seasonal forecasting established, and probabilistic nature of the forecast introduced."}]},{"head":"IV. Practical session with farmers :","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"This exercise objective is to have farmers getting used to rainfall amount, its variability, being able to recognized normal year, wet years and dry years."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"They first asked to take the seasonal rainfall over 6 years (2005 to 2010) in Kaffrine and to draw into bar chat their classification from the highest to the lowest. Some volunteers to come front and to show to their peers how to do such classification. They was asked afterwards to try to compare the classification with their memory did they perceive these years to be dry or wet ?"},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"After such exercise farmers can now understand what is a normal, below normal or dry and above normal or wet year mean. They are now introduced to some language in the probabilistic forecast."},{"index":4,"size":163,"text":"After classifying the years from the driest to the wettest they were asked to indicate what is the amount of rainfall total having a chance to be observed at 1 year out of 4 (25%), 1 out of 2 (50%) and 3 out of 4 (75%). The facilitator explained first what these probabilities mean intuitively 1 out of 4 means if you have in a bag 4 balls 3 are red and one is black what is the chance to pick up the black ball. That is 1 out of 4. Farmers picked up quickly the probability and were able to draw lines at the cumulative graph of 25%, 50% and 75% probability. Then a full climatological probability of exceedance calculated from 30 years  was displayed on the board. Sometimes were spend then by choosing farmers to go front and show some probability of exceedance. When the probability of exceedance was understood, the facilitator shows an hypothetical forecast on top of the climatology."},{"index":5,"size":65,"text":"From that the facilitator indicated how a forecast can be shifted above or below the climatology observed curve. Many discussion of wet and dry forecasted followed and how to associate probability of exceedance to an amount of rainfall and vice versa. Amy ndiaye a farmers from Gniby summarized it quite nicely saying a shift up is la Niña and a shift down is el Niño."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"Exercise of familiarizing with rainfall and seasonal forecast."}]},{"head":"V. Field trip and survey :","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"During the afternoon of the first day (June the 4 th 2011), the experts were divided into 5 multidisciplinary groups to conduct in 5 villages around kaffrine : Santhiou Galgoné (-15.5, 14.0), Katakel (-15.4, 13.9), Ngodiba (-15.5 , 14.0), Tousne Mosquée et Sorokogne (-15.5, 14.2). The target was 30 farmers in total, over 6 per village."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"The objective is first to visit farmer in their own environment and to gather data related to their farming activities : description of the household, surface cultivated, access to and used of climate information."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"One rain gauge was installed in the village of tousne mosquée, training were conducted on how to use the rain gauge and to understand collected rainfall amount. Rainfall amount was shown to the farmers on the ground : 1 mm is distributing 1 litter of water over a square meter surface."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Training farmers on how to read the rain gauge record in tousne mosquée village."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"To fix the ideas and relate the probability of exceedance forecast to concrete decision on farm management, farmers were divided into 4 groups in the next day. Each group was given a map of an hypothetical forecast along with the climatological forecast. Each group was asked to choose a coordinator and a reporter. We affected each group an expert from each institution (ANCAR, World Vision, Agriculture and Climate) as supervisor. They help only if farmers don't understand or they do need guidance. Questions asked were first to interpret the given forecast and then to deduce all decisions and actions they would take from this forecast."}]},{"head":"VI. Discussion and decisions from probability forecast:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Two hypothetical seasonal forecast on rainfall total and number of rainy days were given to them two were dry and two wet."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Each group presented the summary of their discussion by the group reporter."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"• They were able to differentiate between a good forecast in term of rainfall exceeding certain threshold and a good cropping year where the rainfall is well distributed in time to allow the crop to finish its cycle. From their experience even though 2010 is the wettest year, 2008 was better in term of yield."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"• They all interpreted correctly the forecast : dry forecast below the climatology and wet forecast above the climatology. And two of the groups did mention el Niño for dry forecast and la Niña for the wet forecast."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"• They were able to select different strategies according to the forecast. o Plant a crop with shorter growth cycle : water melon, peas, okra, millet variety \"madio\", sesam variety \"Jalgon\", peanuts 55/437 or \"fleur 11\" o Use less fertilizer o Use less paid workers to avoid being in debt o Plant at the first rain to allow the crop to finish its cycle It follows afterwards a long discussion on the number of rainy days and how their distribution in the season can affect the crop."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Farmer's interpretation of wet (right) and dry (left) forecast of probability of exceedance."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Table comparing some empirical signed and scientific facts: When the wind change direction to go to fetch for the rain Before the rainy season blows the dry harmattan wind from the North-East, the rainy season coincide with the monsoon flow which blow from Empirical knowledge Scientific explanation Empirical knowledgeScientific explanation  the South-West the South-West Flouring of many species High temperature and high humidity preceding the Flouring of many speciesHigh temperature and high humidity preceding the  rainy season can explain plant behavior rainy season can explain plant behavior Sense of heavy body in certain people The high humidity and high temperature give a Sense of heavy body in certain peopleThe high humidity and high temperature give a Hot night time bad comfort index Hot night timebad comfort index When dark cloud turns white Rainy clouds are cumulo-nimbus they are When dark cloud turns whiteRainy clouds are cumulo-nimbus they are  announced first by low dark stratocumulus then announced first by low dark stratocumulus then  shows the icy white part shows the icy white part When the sky is high Lack of low cloud with the retreat of the monsoon When the sky is highLack of low cloud with the retreat of the monsoon Dew during dawn End of the rainy season, temperatures become Dew during dawnEnd of the rainy season, temperatures become  lower and allow easy saturation lower and allow easy saturation It also emerged that farmers differentiate clearly a good rainy season from good crop season. It also emerged that farmers differentiate clearly a good rainy season from good crop season.  "},{"text":" Dr Ndiaye in very comprehensible terms explained farmers the reason why seasonal forecasting is possible. He started first by differentiated weather and the climate.Weather: is just what's happening now or during few days, it can be described precisely by what they can see or used to characterize the atmosphere for example just by looking through the window like : clouds, sunshine, wind, hot, cold etc. The facilitator added weather is just what they see on TV or hear to the radio. Farmers are very familiar with the weather bulletin on radio. Climate is the way you describe a long period of \"weathers\" for example what did you relocate from last season 2009. How can you describe last month in general. So the climate is the cumulative effect of weather in a particular area or region over a long period of time.The facilitator pointed out what the subject matter here is not the weather but the climate. We are not predicting what's happening exactly tomorrow or a particular day but the cumulative effect of the climate over a season and precisely the rainy season  "},{"text":" • For a wet forecast : o Select a crop variety with longer growth cycle : peanuts 73/30, sorghum, maize, sesame o Build water dams for water storage to be used later during the dry season or for a second crop o Increase the cultivated surface o Hire more people to help o Use more fertilizer and pesticide o Delay peanuts (cash crop) planting date to avoid damages due to late rain : peanuts regerminated during 2010 as it keeps on raining beyond the rainy season • For a dry forecast :  "}],"sieverID":"46724ae6-4942-45ec-8d6c-42419da7c2d6","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0672d624d8f65d5a194bed221c7f0ac1","source":"gardian_index","url":"http://ciat-library.ciat.cgiar.org/Articulos_Ciat/Digital/SB327.B43_C.3_Bean_improvement_for_low_fertility_soils_in_Africa_Proceedings_of_a_working_group.pdf"},"pageCount":55,"title":"Lis! oC Participants Appendix --Reactions of Entries from the First Cycle of the BnF A (ANSES) lo Soil Fertility Related Disorders","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a major source of protein and calories in Ea~tern and Southern Africa. Productivity of Ihe crop is oflen constrained by problems of low soil fcrtility. Low soíl availability of N and Pare major constrainls, while low K availability and toxicities of Al and Mn are of inlermediale importance, and Na toxicity of 10caHzed importance. Bean production in Africa is primarily by small-scale farmers who use Httle fertilizer or soil amendments. Cultivars Ihal areefficient in uptake and use of available nutrients are nceded 10 give good performance in cases oflow nutrient supplies and lo use applied nutrienls efficiently."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"The Africa Nelwork for Screening for Edaphic Stresses (ANSES, bul later renamed Bean Improvemenl for Low Fertility in Africa, BILF A) is pan-Africa effor! initiated by the Network on Bean Researeh in Africa in 1990 10 screen fortolerance to several soil fertility related constraints. Scientists from severa! national programs have been involved in this effort 10 identify or develop cultivars and parents with tolerance lo one or more edaphic stresses. The fírs! cycle of screening evaluated 280 cnmes identified as agronomically promising by national and regional bean breeders in Africa, and the results are reported in Ihese proceedings."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"The Nctwork on Sean Research in Africa organized Ibis working group meeting 10 compile the results of Ihe gcrmplasm evaluations, lo reconsider the researeh strategy and melhods, and to make recommcndations for fulure activities. The working group consisted of agronomists, brceders, plant numtionists and soil scientists from national bean rcsearch programs and CIAT."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Tbis documenl is compilalion oflhe papers presented during Ihe working group meeting and the rcsults of the discussions."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"TheAfricaNetworkforScreeningforEdaphicStresses(ANSES)emergedfromarecornmendation for a pan-African screening program for tolerance in heans (Phaseo[us vulgaris L.) lo various soil fertility relaled problems (Anon, 1988). The idea was further developed al a working group meeting on issues of soil fertility research (Anon., 1990). Subsequently, De. J. Lynch and 1 visited several of ¡he proposed screening sites, diseussed the work with interested parties and developed a strategy for implementation."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"The strategy had a number of features."}]},{"head":"l.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"It called foc a pan-Afríean effort to ,creen for lolerance lo low soil N and P availability, and Al and Mn loxicily. Screening foc tolerance was to be done independently for each of the four stresses rather than scceening foc tolerance to eomplexes of stresses."}]},{"head":"2.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Entries of good agronomie type and/or known reaction lo soil fertility problems were lO be collected from national and regional programs, and from CIAT."}]},{"head":"3.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Scrcening was 10 he done at primary si tes for Iwo seasons, rejecting 50% of the entries based on the fírs! season results and anolher 35-40% based on the second scason results. The primary Hiles idenlified were: Makcrere (Uganda) University ofMn toxicity."}]},{"head":"4.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Secondary shes were identifíed for multi-Iocation testing of the most promising varieties."}]},{"head":"5.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Screení ng was to be done al moderale stress levels that would allow 40-50% ofthe yield of nonstress conditíons. This was lo allow adequateexpression of yield pOlenlÍal andgood adaptation, as wcll as tolerance."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"6. Thc primary !.Ckction criterion was yicld under stress."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Once tolerant varictics were identified, the physiological and gene¡ic mcchanisms oftolerance woultl bctlctcrmined. N al ional programs would be encouragcd 10 eval uatc the tolerant materials under stress antl non-stress conditions to identify aeceptable cultivars, as well as parents to be used in brccding."},{"index":4,"size":101,"text":"Implementation oC the ANSES activities began in 1990 when 280 entríes were eollected, mu Itíplied in Uganda, and distributed in 1991 lo Ihe primary evaJuation sites. Promising materials were distríbuted ror multi-Iocation testíng in 1992-3. Results from!he secondary testíng sites have not yet been returned. A second cycJe ófthe ANSES consisting of 350 entríes was started in 1993. The first eycJe contaíned many I-gene protecled (buI susceptible to the necrosis inducing strain ofBCMV, ~'L3) varieties, but in the second cycle, I-gene materials were generalIy excluded. Mechanism studies are underway for loleranee to low N, low P, low K and high Mn."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"In addilíon lo Ihe origínally planned activities, 140 en tries oC !he first cyele of!he ANSES are beíng evaluated for K use effieieney in Uganda. NationaJ collections and introductions are beíng evalualed for low P and lhe low Plhigh Al complex in Kenya and Madagascar, respectively. In Sudan, some varieties have becn evaluated for loleranee lO exeess salinity in !he Nile Valley."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"Mueh experienee has becn gained with ¡he implementation oC the ANSES. Several issues have arisen which deserve further eonsideration."}]},{"head":"ISSUF.s","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Issues have arisen eonceming diffieulties in implernentation and possíbilities for improvement of the screening process."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Site identificatlon and management. Stress levels were inadequate foreffeclive screening at sorne sites, and some sites had other stresses associated with Ihem which oCIen prevailedoverthe stress oC inleres!. Often, on-farm siles are used because of inadequale stress on research station. In some cases, earlier screening rnay have becn inefficient while management of the stress of interest and to alIeviation of o!her stresses was improved."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Exchange of germplasm. Quarantine restrietions or difficulties in implernentation of the scrvlces has hindered the exchange oC germplasm as required ror the ANSES in a few countries. A sclf-imposed quarantine lo prevent the introduetion ofthe necrosis-inducing strain ofBCMV (NL3) has prevented Ethiopia from participation in the ANSES."},{"index":4,"size":83,"text":"Single stre.•,¡,es versus complexes ;W stres.'ies. The original approach of the ANSES was to sereen ror tolerance lo single stresses. Complexes of stresses are highly variable, and genotype by environment (stress complex) interaetions are likely lo be problematie in screening for lolerance to a complex. lt appeared likely that screenlng fortoleranee to single stresses would be mostefficient. This has not becn pro ven nor disproven, though an exception may be the high AlIIow Pllow Ca complex as these three stresses are c10sely associated."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"Optimallevel of stres.~ for screening. If our aim is lo identífy poten ti al cultivars lo be released by National Programmes, tolerant varicties should perform well in the absence of stress. The varieties must respond well lo the available nutrient supply, whether it be low or adequate. The screening proecss, thereforc. should allow expression and consideration of good agronomic eharacteristlcs and yicld polcntial. Screcning only al severe ~ss levels does not alJow this expression, and selected genOlypcs muy be those of high tolcrance but liule yield potentiaL There are two options: l."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"lhe matcrials can be evaluatcd undcrscvcrc stress and non-stress conditions, selectíng those that do wel! in both situalions; or, 2."},{"index":7,"size":33,"text":"me malerials can beevaluated under moderately severe stress conditions (where 40-50% of noostress yields are produced) during the primary screening slage, and then at severe stress and nonstress levels al the advanced stage."},{"index":8,"size":27,"text":"If our aim is primarily to identífy parents with high levels oC tolerance per se, it may be most efficient to sereen at severe levels oC stress."},{"index":9,"size":111,"text":"Rapid sereening. The use oC eCCective rapid sereening approaches isexpected to be more costeffective than evaluating large numbers oC entries in the field. Experience with other crops indicates Ihat rapid screening techniques can be useful to eliminate the most susceptible en tries (Gerloff, 1987 andJones el al., 1992). Seedling root growth in soil of high Al saturation relative to growth at low Al saturation appears to relate well to fie1d tolerance to Al toxicity (Lunze, pers. comm.). A method developed forcowpeas oC testíng Cor tolerance to Mn toxicity by floating disks ofleaftissue on a MnSO 4 solution (Wissemeier and Horst, 1991) did not give reliable results for beans in our tests."},{"index":10,"size":171,"text":"ToJerance and adaptation. Tolerance to soil fenility related problems appears to be much affectcd by a variety's adaptation to the environment. It may be that entries rejected al the primary screening site may be tolerant in another environment. If so, the approach oCusing primary screening sites lo identify promising materíals for the rest of Africa may be inefficient. We found that our low P ,ites were notsuitable for screening for tolerance lo high altitude material s identified in Latin America (pers. comm., S. Beehe). Climbing bean varieties, when tested at intermediate altitudes, tend 10 be eliminated, probably partly due to poor adaptation. The results ofthe multí-Iocation Irials are needed lo lest Ihe validity ofthis approach of using one or a few primary sites for the firsl stage of evaluation. In the meantíme, additíonal prímary sítes have been added lo Ihe ANSES to lnelude a high altitude slte al Bembeki (Malawi) for the low P/high Al complex and a high altitude site at Rubona (Rwanda) for low P al moderate soil pH."},{"index":11,"size":28,"text":"Accoontingfor variability withinsites. Often (he screenlng sües are quite variable for intensily of the soil fertilíly relaled stress. Such heterogeneíty might be accounted for in several different ways."}]},{"head":"l.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Use of check varielies is an obvious option, Variabilily across lhe screening site implies thal the ehecks need tooccur frequently, considerably increuslng the sizc of the tria!. Many find diffieulty in Ihe use of checks in adjustmenl of plOI values at the time of dala analysis."}]},{"head":"2.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Adjuslmentoflhe plol values by the mean oflhe nearest neighbors has worked well. Use ofthe mean of the four nearest neighbors (two on each side) a~ a covariate in the anulysis oC variance is geneml1y most effective with single row pIOL~."}]},{"head":"3.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Mupping ofvariation across the si tes might be useful. Two approaches can be used: a) using yield performance data from a trial of single row plots where the main determinant of performance is the stress of interest; or, h) sampling and testíng the soil of the sile on a grid-basis lo determine the stress intensity thmughout the ficld (nutríent availability should be estimated considering its soillest value as well as soil organic carbon and soil pH (Jannsen el al., 1989»)."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Each grid mighl hu ve u value which can be uscd as a covariate to adjust plot values. Such maps can abo be uscd to improve blocking."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"Poor nutrltion and susceptibility lo patbogens. IlIcreased susceptibility to sorne pathogens, especially root rols, and possibly bean stem maggot, is commonly associated with poor lIutrition ot the beall crop. 111 Ihe low K screenillg site, stem rols were a serious probJem. Should the stem rolS be treated as part of the low K complex, or should the pathogells be controlled to screell for low K lolerallce independenlly? Maybe only stem/rool rol resistanl varieties should be screened for low K lolerance? Multi•location testing. While this is probably essential, implementation has nOI gone well. In sorne case.~, Iríais were nOI received because of quarantine problems. In other., the trials were received bUlno! planted, oc maybe planted and not reported. In olher ca~, lbe site is inadequate."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Considerable progress has beenmade in identification of varieties tolerant to various soH fertility related problems. Minor or major changes may be needed in ¡he approach lo make the process more effcctive. Otherpapers lo be presented may elllightened us furtheron the opportunities foc improving this wock."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"Cultivation ofbeans in Eastem and Southem Africa on poor soils is increasing in order to meel demandfor more production, bul thecrop is constrained by inadequateavailability ofkeyelements such as N, P and K, and toxicities of Al and Mn. Development of tolerant varieties requires a good understanding of the problem and the mechanisms of tolerance, presence of genetic variation and adequale heritability, and use of good screening techniques and facilities. Identification of sileS and preliminary screening of germplasm has been initiated in somecountries and the resultsreportedin this workshop are encouraging (Rachier, 1994;Ochwoh and Wortmann, 1994;and Wortmann, 1994). This screening has been Iimíted to field conditions where separation of factors is difficult Information on genetic studies on beans for various edaphic constraints is limited and are reviewed in this papero Possiblc mechanisms of tolerance are described. Implications of this informalion in a breeding program are discussed."}]},{"head":"GENETlC STUDIFil","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":260,"text":"Phospborous Pdeficiency oflen constrains bean yields.Several studies in Africa (Rachier, 1994) andelsewhere (Urrea and Singh, 1989) have demonstrated the existence of sufficient genetic variability in bean germplasm for low P tolerance to further improve toJerance. CIAT started work in the early 1980's bUI made liUle progress unlil 1987 due to lack of adequale selection criteria. Now several morphological (rool and shoot dry weight) and physiological (P acquisition and utilization) cbaracters have been idcntified as important lo low P tolerance (CIAT 1987;Gerloff, 1987;Whitaeker el al. 1976). Lindgren el al. (1977) used excised roots to identify Iines of beans wíth different capacities for P absorplion. They found high variance due toenvironment and the heritability estimatesderived from parcntolTspring regression in famBies of efficientx inefficientlines were about4O%. Dataon P uptake by excised rools, however, could not be used lo predict P uptake and translocation in plants. Fawole el al. (1982b) found rool development, as an indicator of efficiency ofP utilization, lo be controlled by quantitative inheritancc patterns. Dominance variance was more important than additive variance in four oul of six families. Broud sense heritubility estimates were high (0.69-0.89). In another sludy using the same six familics dcrived from crosscs betwcen efficient, modcrately efficient and inefficient Iines, and using total dl'y plant weight as un index of efficiency, Fuwole et al. (l982a) found tha! epistasis, notably additivc x additive and dominance x dominance, played a major role in efficiency of P utilizalion. Additive and dominance gene effects were also significan!. Narrow scnse heritability eslimmcs of 0.45-0.76 indicatcd total plant dry weight to be highly heritablc."}]},{"head":"Aluminium","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The adverse effect of Al on plant growth and development is caused by toxic effects in low pH soils. Varietal differences for Al tolerance have been reported for several crop species, including wheat andbarley (Foyetal.,1965and 1967a),andbeans(Foyetal.,1967band 1972;CIAT,1985CIAT, ,1987;;and CIA T Malawi, 1993). In several of these studies, varieties tolerant to high Al have been reported to produce significantly more top and root growth than the susceptible ones. Foy et al. (1972) reported less Ca uptake in the tops of the Al sensitive variety, Romano, than those of the Al tolerant Dade. Al tolerance appears to be simply inherited."}]},{"head":"Manganese","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Like Al, presence ofhigh Mn concentration in soil can adversely affeet plant growth, especially if reducing conditions occur in the rooting zone. Morris and Pierre (1948) found a widely varying response in five leguminous species i.e. lespedeza, sweetclover, cowpea, peanuts and soybeans for tolerance to Mn. Lespedeza and sweetclover were the most sensitive, cowpeas and soybeans intermediate, and peanuts the most tolerant. Peanuts were able to endure high concentrations of Mn within the plant. Carter et al. (1975) found variation in susceptibility to Mn toxicity in 30 soybean lines. Heenan and Carter( 1976) found differences in tolerance to Mn in four soybean varieties and observed leaf crinkle to be the most prominent visual symptom associated with Mn toxicity. LittIe difference in Mn uptake and distribution in root and shoot wa~ found in the varieties. Field observations at Chitedze Research Station in Malawi during the 1993-94 crop season showed a wide range in tolerance of beans to Mn toxicity."}]},{"head":"Nitrogen","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Genetic diversity exists in beans for response to soil N (CIAT, Malawi, 1993). The tolerance identified elsewhere was confirmed for sorne varieties in Malawi (Aggarwal et al., 1994). The genetic and physiological meehanisms involved in N use efficiency need to be studied."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"In beans, the capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen is relatively low as compared to other grain legumes, particularly cowpeas and soybeans. This low N fixation in beans is attributed 10 difficulty of establishing effeetive symbiosis in the field. Differences in N fixing capacity have been observed where bush types fix less than indeterminate and climbing types (Graham, 1981; Rennie and Kemp,  1983). It will be useful to identify germplasm that can tolerate low N soils, make better use of existing soil N, and efficiently fix atmospheric N."}]},{"head":"Mechanisms of Resistance","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Knowledgc of meehanisms of tolcrance, e.g. whether it is a meehanical barrier, a chemical reaction, etc., can help to identify the main character(s) associated with tolerance, how it is inherited, and how to1erance can be combined with other desirable traits. Physio10gical and morphological plant factors that could be responsib1e for genotypic adaptation lo nutrienl deficiency have been divided into fourcatcgories by Gerloff( 1987). They are (1) nutrientacquisition from theenvironment, (2)nutrient movement across the root to the xylem, (3) nutrient distribution and remobilization in the shoot, and (4) nulrient utilization in metabolism and growth."}]},{"head":"IMPLICATIONS FOR BREEDlNG","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Success in breeding for tolerance 10 soil fertilily related disorders have been achieved for maize (Magnavaca andFilho, 1993), sorghum (Gourley, 1993), rice (De Datta, 1993), wheal (Briggs andTaylor, 1993) and forages (Caradus, 1993). Presence of genetic variability in beans exists fortolerance lO low as well as high levels of nutrienls, indicating that the erop can be improved genetically both fOf thedeficiencies, such as low P and low N, and Al and Mn toxicities. Puse efficiency has been transferred from an exotic germplasm to an adapted variely by Schettini el al. (1987) using a baekcross method, and severaJ tolerant lines were derived from the efficient P donor parent (PI 206002) combined with the desirable recurrent parent 'Sanilac'."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Todevelop a typical breeding programo the important steps involved are (1) identification oflines tolerant 10 different nulrient stresses, (2) determination of characters associated to tolerance forwhich selection in populations is easy, and (3) determination of the mechanisms of inheritance, and (4) development of a suitable brceding scheme. Screening techniques are nceded thal are reliable. simple enough to permlt evaluation ofthousands of plants, and cost effective. Several common culture media procedures are availablc especially for P (Gerloff, 1987). Techniques are nceded to detect morpbological and physiological factors under field conditions."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"A question worth discussing concerns the approach lo screening for tolerance. Should selections be for an individual stress Of combination of stresses? What are the advantages of eaeh? Which will be most effective and efficient? Whatever the approaeh, the ultimare objective is to combine many desired characters in improved genotypes. Since faeilities in Africa are limited, it will be quite desirable, in rny opinion, lo select, if possible, the best tolerant genotypes under poor soíl condilions even if!he tolerant factors are not clearly identified. Sucb genotypes can be further tested for specific toJerances, and studied for mechanisms and Ínheritance of tolerance."}]},{"head":"RKFERENCES","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Aggarwal, V.O.; S.K. Mughogho. R. Chírwa. and A.D. Mbvundula. 1994 "}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"The N requirement ofbeans (Phaseolus vulgaris L) can be met by both mineral N assimilation and symbiotic N 2 fixation. The economic benefits of improving legume N 2 fixation inelude reduced reliance on soil N, leading 10 more sustainable agricultural systems and reduced requirements for fertilizer N input~, enhanced residual benefits to subsequent crops, and increased harvest yields under low soil N conditioos. Presence of an active, efficient symbiosis is necessary ifN 2 fixation is to positively influence yield and crop N, bUI beans do not fix N as a matter oC course. Nodulation requires the presence of sufficient numbees of the appropriale rhizobia in the root zone, and because of the specificity ofthe bean-rhizobia symbiosis, rhizobia are oflen lacking. Even where suitable rhizobia are present, other factors such a~ soil fertility or water availability may interfere with processes of nodulation and N 2 flXation. Research with beans has a1so shown the cultivars vary in their capacity to fix N both under stress-free and stress conditions (Attewell and Bliss, 1985;Piha and Munns, 1987)."},{"index":2,"size":127,"text":"The interaction between genetic yield potential and environment determines the N requirement of a legume. Mineral N availabililY, ¡he availability of effective rhizobia and ¡he bean N requirement willlogelher determine the contributions of symbiotic and mineral N sourees to total plant N. When mineral N uptake is less than the N requirement, N z fixation is promoted. Assuming a weJl-nodulated plant, N 2 fixation potential may therefore be considered 10 be equal 10 the aggregate of per day deficits in mineral N uptake during the bean growth cyc1e. Taken together, plant growth stage, N requirernent, and efficiency of mineral N uptake regulate N 2 fixation of effectively nodulated bean. Understanding (hese characteristics may provide useful diagnostic lools 10 identify genotypes with a high capacity to lix nitrogen."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"Because of the generally low soil N fertility present in most of Africa and the N requirernents of other non-N fixing crops in prevalent farming systems, it is probably wise to select for improved N 2 fixation in beans regardless of the difficulties. There are two possible strategies forimproving bean N, lixation: management ofthecrop to minimize stresses and optimize nodulation, fixation, and yield; and selectionlbreeding bean with enhanced capacity for nodulation and N, fixation. The former is probably impractical under African condilions. JI is more Iikely that, varietal selection for N 2 fixation traits, separately and in combination with tolerance lo low P and other stresses, wiIJ result in improved bean yield with less negative effecl~ on soiJ N availabiJity for subsequent crops."}]},{"head":"Rhizobium effecfs on bean N 2 flxation and productivity","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":138,"text":"The mostobvious benefits ofN, fixation research can be found in inoculation experiments where nodulation by selected strainsresults in increased yieldsof dry matterandN in thecrop, andin increased gnlÍn yields. These results, however. are Iimited to situations where native soil rhizobia are present in low numbers and where a strain selection program has been carefully carried out for the specific conditions presento Significan! improvemenls in fixation often depend on minimizing the effects of \"incompetcnl\" native rhizobia populations. The factors influencing the success of introduced rhizobia in soil, including their ability 10 nodulate in competition wilh indigenous rhizobia, are poorly underslood, Unless a focused interest in microbiology and adequate facilities (clean Jab, greenhouse) are presento strain selection and inoculant developrnent are not recommended. Work in advanced labs to develop competitive effeclive strmns should be relíed upon Cor advances in Ihis area."}]},{"head":"Sereening techniques","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Each oC the four most widely-used methods for measurement ofN 2 fixation has advantages and limitations (Beck et al. 1993). Sorne are more reliable than others."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"N difference. The simplest estimates ofN 2 fixation are obtained by measuring tbe amount oCN in !he legume biomass and are based on the assumption that the legume derives all of its N from N z fixation. In tbe case ofbean, tbe contribution of soíl N to plant growth can be considerable, so fixation will be overestimated. A true measure ofN 2 fixation based on )egurne yield can only be obtained when the contribution oC soH N 10 total biomass N is determined. This is usually achieved by growing a non N, fixing crop concurrently in the same soi!. The difference in total N accumulated by !he legume (N .. )"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"and non-fixing control (N\"\"\",,) is regarded as the amount of N 2 fixed. Thus:"},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"The major assumption of the method is thal lhe legume and non-fixing control take up identicaJ amounls ofN from Ihe soiL Because oC Ihis, the choice ofthe control is of Ulmost importance. ldeally. tbe legume and control should explore the same rootíng volurne. have Ihe ,ame abilily 10 extract and ulilize soil N. and have similar palterns of N uptake. For Ihese reasons tbe non-fixing crop of choice is a non-nodulaling bean isoline. but errors in estímales of fixation are possible even with Ihis \"besl\" control plant where large dífferences in rool morphologies exisL A non-legume such as sorghum can, however, be used as a reference plant with aceuracy in sorne situations."},{"index":5,"size":320,"text":"\"N enrichment method. This method is generally regarded as lhe standard metbod forestimatíng legume N 2 fixation. However. Ihe high cost of instrumentation 10 measure \"N plus the expense oftbe \"N-labeled fertilizer malerials are real eonslr'dÍnls lo the use ofthis method. It~ main advanlage is tha! it provides a tirne-averaged estimate oC Pfix (tbe proportion of legume N derived from N, fixalion), integmtcd for lhe period of plant growth. The major assumption ofboth the \"N enrichment and natural abundance melhods is thatlhe legurne and lhe non N, fixing reference erop util ize soil N wilb tbe sarne isolOpie composition. Beeause the enrichcd I~N is generally applied 10 a small volume oC soil as a COSI saving rneasure, rools from the fixing andlornon-fixing crop may extend oUI oClbe zone of enrichmenl; this is the major weakness of Ihe rnethod. For this effeel to be minimized.legurne and reference planls should have identical patterns of soil N use; in practice this is difficult to accomplish. Together with ¡he cost of ¡he method, il is unlikely 10 be used in a screening programo Nall/ml \"N abU/uJance. Because mos! soil N transformalions resull in isotopic fractionation tbe abundance of \"N in soil is hígher Ihan in the almosphere. The nalural abundance method gives an integrated estimate of Pfix over lime and has the advantage of being able lo be used in already cstablished experirnents (provided non-fixing reference plants are also growing in the experimental plOls) because no appIication of \"N is neeessary. The difCerences in \"N are small and Ihe sensitive instrurnenlation required is very expensive, bulonce available, samplescan be routineJy run atrelatively low costo For soil\" Ihal are regularly cultivated, natural \"N abundance level, are relatively constanl with lime and deplh. and are high enougb so Ihallhe melhod can be used wilh confidence. Therefore, the major limitation of L'N enrichmenl and difference melhods, i.e. choice of a non-fixing reference plan!, is much less critica!."},{"index":6,"size":123,"text":"X ylem solutes (ureides). In recent years, the ureide assay of N 2 fixation has deveIoped into an assay with apphcation over a widc range of species and tieId environments. The principie is Iha! !he composition of N solutes in xylem sap changes from one dominated by nitrate and amino-N in plants utilizing soil N to ureides duríng N 2 tixalíon. Beans export fixed N as ureides during fixation, and ir calibrated for N, fixation withdifferent varieties undervruyingenvironmental condilions, measurement of ureides in bleeding sap would be a simple, non-destructive method to indícated fixation Ievels at critical times during bean deveIopment. A curren! effort betwecn Australian institutes and CIAT to calibrate the rnelhod for bean could make the teehnique usable by Afriean scientists."}]},{"head":"BREEDlNG AND SELECTION STRA TEGIES","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"There is a general consensus !hat enhanced N 2 fixation by beans will result from selection and brecding for N yield, and perhaps from improved nodulation. Following are sorne strategies Ihat aim to develop bean eultivars tha! incorporate one or more charaeterístics for improved BNF."},{"index":2,"size":255,"text":"Beall yield. Agronomie and environrnental factors may limit ¡he yield of a legume erop and therefore!he capacity to fix N. Yield will also be determined genetically. In bean,low N yield is the result of low N, fixalion capacity ratherthan the cause of il (Attewell and BJiss, 1985). However, bean cultivars capable offixing up to 70% oftheir N requirements have becn identified (Wolyn, el al, 1991). In order lo seleet for N, fixation in bean, the primary requirement is a Iow soil N availability. Where soil N is low, !he majority of acquired N mus! come from fixatíon, and N content will relate directly 10 yield if the materíal is well adapted. A secondruy requirement is the presence of sufficient numbers of rhizobia to ensure nodulation for the bean erop. Bean has becn found to be an effective scavenger of soíl N (Georgc and Síngleton, 1992), and resorts lo production of active nodules only when growth is limited by soil N avaílability. If soil N is moderate, which isoften the case where organie matter levels are aboye 2% or following a period of fallow or pasture, bean will obtain the majority of it~ N from !he soil and rely on fixation only in the laterslages of plant growth when N assimilation is low. Seleetion of planls for yield or N conlent under moderate lo high soil N eonditions will therefore foeus on lheir eapability to extracI and utilize soi! N, a charaeteristic which may no! he desírable foc on-farm productíon where soil N is generally Jimited."},{"index":3,"size":303,"text":"In order to exploil and idenlify the eapaeity of the plant to fix N, environmental factors should be optimized as much as possible. The most readily manipulable faetors for minimal stress are other (Ihan N) soil fertility faclors and disea-;e pressure. N, fixing legumes are known lO have a higher P requirernent Ihan mineral-N fed legumes, so P should be available in realistic amounts loensure good erop growlh. Micronutrients such as molybdenum are also speeially required for nodulation and N, fixation, and a blankel micronulrienl applieation may salve nutrilional problems whieh would olherwise obscure results. Soil pH below 5.4 may also limit nodulation and therefore N 2 fixation, and liming soHs below Ibis pH is recommended. The other major limitation to identifieation ofN 2 fixationefficient lincs is adaptatíon. It is importanl lo inelude an optimal fertility treatmen! (including adequate N for optimal erop growth) in order 10 determine the effects of varielal adaptation, which may limit growth due to altilude Of daylength Nodularír!/l and Ilodulefimclio/l. There appears líttle value in selectíng genotypes forenhanced N 1 fixalion oased on specific traits associated wíth nodules or nodulation. Nodules on bean roots indicatcs the prescnce of a viable soil populalion of bean rhízobia; Ihe N fixing effeclíveness of Ihis populalion is unknown and not easily changed. If bean is a newly introduced crop, rhizobia may be lacking or low in numbers. Conlínued cullívalion ofbean will ¡ncrease!be number ofbean-nodulating rhizobía. as rhízobía survive well in the soíl from one crop to another and ¡ncrease wi!h each crop up 10 a sustainable level in the soil (usually about 3000 per g of soil). The alternatíve. where available, is to inoculate with rhizobia selected for efficient N, fixation. The Kenyan Seed Company is currently embarked on a program of rhizobia slraín selection for bean, and will produce commercial inoculants."},{"index":4,"size":145,"text":"Nitrogen fu:ation. Bean seJcction based on direct measurement of N 2 fixation will be difficult unless tools are developed lo allow simple. rapid evalualíon of fixation capacity. N detenninatíons for large numbers of plant samples can be difficult under some circumstances. Considerable potential exists, however, within ¡he CIAT-ANSES Iinkage due 10 activilies al CIAT HQ in Cali. Nonnodulatíng bean isolines (11 Iines) of varying adaptation and phenology are in tbe final stages of deveJopment and lesting. which wíJJ enable direct measUremenl ofN, fixation by the difference method. A projecl with !he Gerrnans and Australians will provide free natural \"N abundance measurements for Iimited numbers of samples; growth of non-fixing crops in fields where low-N lolerance studies are conducted will allow limited analy.i. oflines for N, fixation capability. The ureide technique, if reliably calibrated, also holds promise for a nondeslrucliveassay ofN, fixation capacity usingsimple laboratO!'}' methods."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Sereening bean eultivars fortolerance to low soil P availability is pan of a largereffort involving severa! members of the African bean research networks to screen for toleranee to edaphie stresses, ineluding low P and N, and high Al and Mn. Bean eultivars are being sereened for low P toleranee at the Regional Researeh Centre of Kakarnega, Kenya, Kakamega RRC is loeated al 34° 45' E and O\" 16' N al an altitude of 1585 meters. Rainfall has a bimodal pattern wi!h an annual mean of2024.5mm."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"Mon!hly mean temperatures vary little from the mean annual maximum and rninimum temperalures of 27.0\" and 14.1'C, respeetively. This paper presents results of tbe evaluation of 434 aceessions from ¡he national bean germplasm eolleclion"}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"During 1991 and 1992, the field \",ite was depleted of soil P by intensive cropping witb a maizel bean intercrop, sorghum and soyabeans. During this period, erops were fertilized with N, but not P, and alJ above-ground erop residues were removed from the field (Wortmann, pers. eomm.). Soíl samples were taken for P analysis before and after planting. The 1991 soil P levels ranged from 9-13 and 11-13 ppm in surface and sub-soil, respeetively. A year later, soil P ranged from 6-8 ppm in lhe surface soil and 4-10 ppm in !he sub-soi\\. Four hundred tbirty four germplasm Iines were acquired from the National Horticultul\"dl Research Centre nearThika in 1992. Seeds of!hese materials were multiplied in single row plots of 3 metres each and the entries were evaluated for growtb habit, seed size, reaction 10 common diseases, general adaptation and yield."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"During Ihe long rains of 1993, 300 of the aboye accessions were evaluated under low P stress foryield, general adaplation and disease reaetion. Ofthe 300 aecessions, 156 hadadeterminate grow!h habit. Most had medium seed size (59.9%), 26.2% were c1a~sed as large and 13.9% as small. The entries were reduced lo 30 bush and 20 serni-climbing types and evaluated furtherduring!he short rains of 1993. The entries were further reduced lo 31 and eompared to five loeal check.~ during the long rains of 1994. Screening was done in two row plots of 3 m with two replications in 1993 and !hree replications in 1994. Data was analyzed using the Nearest Neighbor Analysis of MstatC to aecount for variahiJity in stress throughout the field."}]},{"head":"RK\"UL TS AND DlSCUSSIONS","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Yicld performance s for the 1993 ,hort rains season are presented in Table 1 for     "}]},{"head":"ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Financial suppon was given by the East African Bean Research Network. 1 acknowledge Ihe valuable technical advice given by Dr.C.S. Wonmann."}]},{"head":"SCREENING BEANS FOR TOLERANCE TO LOW SOIL POTASSIUM AVAILABILlTY","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Charles S. Wortmann eIAT. Regional Programmc un Beans m Easlcrn Africa, P.O. Bu. 6247, Kampala, Uganda"}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"POlassium defíciency has nol heen a major limilation lo crop produclion in mosl of eastero and soulhern Arríea, but it is increasing in importance due to decline in the soil's capacily lo supply K and duc lO inlcnsifíeation of erap produClion on marginallands. K deficíency was determined lo he the cause of \"Usambara Moule\" in hean in lhe Lushoto area of noMern Tanzania (Smíthson el al., 1993 j, Anderson (1974) observed frequent responses lO applied K in 91 on, farm trials conducted on the lower slopes ofMt.lGlimanjaro in Tanzania, Symploms ofK deficiency areoften seen in U ganda andfrequent responses lo applied K occur on ferralitie soils in Uganda (Foster, 1979), especially on soils thal had heen continuously cropped for several years, Low K availability may reduce hean yield by more Ihan 300 and 100-300 kg ha\" on 110,000 and 1,424,000 heclares. respectively, in Afríea (Wortmann and Allen, 1994). K defieicncy is mosl Iikely 10 oceur on: soih. low in organic matler aner many years of eonlinuous cropping; sandy soils formcd from parenl materiallow in K; and sandy soils from which K has becn leached."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"The funetions 01' K in planto; are well discussed by Marschner (1986). K is highly mobile in plant,."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"h is Ihe most abundanl calion in bean planto; and plays a major role in regulation of osmoHc polential of ce lis and tissucs. K is important to the regulation of pH in ehloroplasls and cyloplasm through Ihe neutralizalinn of maeromolceular anions. Besides ils funcHon in pH stabilization and osmoregulation, K isrequircd forenzyme actívation and membranetransportprocesses. Itisprobable Ihat Kisinvolved in the translation of gcnetie codcs for prolein produetion. K has a role in slomalal movement '-an inerease in K concentration in (he guard cclls rcsulls in water uplake and increased lurgor oflhe guard cclls, followed by stomalal npcning."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"Potassillm moves in lhe soil lhrollgh mass flow and diffusion. Generally, the K coneentration of soil waler is not sufllcient 10 nourish the erop. Diffusion of K lo the rools occurs overshort dislances such Ihal Ihe concentraríon gradientextends lO about 4 mm from Ihe root surface (Barber et al .• 1985). Thcrefore, good rool growlh is nceded for adequate K nulrilion when soil K availability is low."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"K is highly mohile in lhe plant and is readily transferred from nld lO young leaves. K deficiency is manifest in hcan as marginal yellow chlorosison older Icaves with lhe veios rcmaininggreen, Young Icaves remain greco bul may he smaller Ihan normal. K deficient erops lack vigor, malure lale and yield less."},{"index":6,"size":134,"text":"K delicicocy ín hean appears 10 be associated wilh susceptibility to rool and stem rols, and probahly 10 olher discascs (Marschner. 1985). The high susceplibility of K deficient plants lo fungal Jisca\".\" is rcJalCd lO Ihc Illclahnlic funclions of K, In K deficicnl planls, synthesis ofhigh,molceular, weight compounds ís ímpaircd rcsultíng in higher concenlratíons of smallerorganic eompounds. The smaller cOl1lpounds more casily e¡(ude from Ihe eclls lo Ihe hyphac and may be preferred food of the parasilic fungi, WOllnds of K dcl1cícnt plants are slow lO heal giving more opportunily for infectíon by palhogcns. K nutrilÍon is probably importan! to lolerance lo insecI attack. The simple organic compounds which tend 10 accumulale wilh K deficíency are preferred by some piercinglsucking insect~. Healing of the wounds caused by inseets is delayed in K deficient plants."},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"Tolerance 10 low K might be through: improved capacity for nutrienl uptake, probably through a more exlensive rOOI system; and improved K use efficiency, both for bioma~s yield and for seed yield through efficicnt remobilizalion of the vegctative K."},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"The genclics of lolerance was studíed by Shea el al. (1968) who found Iha! a single recessive gene (k,) was important to K use efficicncy in beans. The frequency of this gene in common seIS of bean germplasm is not known."}]},{"head":"SCREENlNG REANS FOR TOLERANCE TO LOW K DEFICIENCY","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"The finding of Shea el al. (1968) thal efficiency of K use in beans is a simply inherited !rail encouraged us lo evaJuale I 40 en tries for low K lolemnce at Kawanda ARI. The purpose is 10 identífy toleran! cultivars, bu! also to determine the mechanisms oflolerance and!he frequency of occurrence of thc k,. gene in !his se! of enlrics. The frequency of occurrence of Ihe k. gene will influence Cuture breedingeflons. Ifilisrare inoceurrenee, ít mightbe incorporatedinlosuperior lines. Ifit iscommonly oceurring, Ihere may he linlc progre ss 10 be made in improving K use efficíeney."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"Thiny two Iines have been identified as being relatively toleranl (Table 1). Confirmation testing is conlinuing. Possible meehanisms of tolerancc are: al cfficicncy in uptake of scaree K; b) K use cffieiency for vegetative growth; el remobilization of K from the vegelative to reproductive organs; or,"}]},{"head":"d) K harvest indexo","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The first IWO mechanisms are expected to be mosl important and the seeond is the mostdesired. We are attempting to determine the mechanisms operating in eaeh oflhe varieties. Total K uptake at the beginning ofR8 is an indieator of efficieney of uptake. K use efficieney is determined al R8 a~!he amount of biomass produced per unit of K in the plant. Remobilization of K from lhe vegetative to the reproductive organs is lo be delermined by comparing the total K in the vegetative partR of!he plant at R8 and al physíologieal maturity. K harvesl index, (he mtioofseed K to K in the whole plant, may be related lo tolerancc."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"~hlc .. ~-=---~Ca!l v~U\"jc:i:!' _¡~I,:~~!!!~_as P!~_~~!_sing für toJ!?ran~~_lo lo~ SOt!J'!ílas~~um ~~~ilabil~ty. ----._---.. _--. ~~------"},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"A major problem encountered in screening for low K tolerance has been susceptibility ofthe lest ¡ines lo roOl and slem fOts. Poor K nutrition is expected 10 reduce lolerance lo damage by these pathogens. RooI rOl resislance may be an importan! aspecl of low K tolerance. Root rol managemenl through crop rotatíon and seed dressing apparentl y is importan! lo effeclive screening for low K lolerance."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Aluminum is the major cation associaled with ,oil acidity. Al toxicity commonly is problematic when soil pH is less Ihan 5.2, whileexchangeableAI is low aboye pH 5.5 (Coleman andThomas, 1967), Legumes, particularly beans (Rowell, 1988), are sensitive lo Al loxicity, While exchangeable Al can be reduced by liming, Ihe practice is often uneconomical and il is difficult lo neutralize Ihe Al below the plow layer. Nutríent, and moisture in the sub-soil are then under-utilized because of restricted root growth. An a1ternative solution is lO grow erop species or varieties which tolerate high Allevels."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Crop genotypes wilh tolerance to high Allevels have becn successfulIy bred. Al tolerant wheat and sorghum varieties have becn released (Foy, 1988), and genetie variability for Al tolerance in bean has becn reported (Foy et al., 1972;Salinas, 1978)."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Al toxicity constrains bean yield once Al saturation exceeds 10% (Lunze, 1992), and rnay be problematic on 75% ofthe soils in ¡he highlands of eastern Zaite, Burundi (Wouters et al., 1986) and Rwanda (Rutunga and Neel, 1980), In this paper, screening techniques are reviewed and lhe results of screening bean for tolerance 10 Al toxicity in Mulungu Rcsearch Station are reported."}]},{"head":"SCREENING METHODS FOR ALUMINUM TOXICITY","index":34,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rapid screening","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Screening lechniques must efficientIy delect differences in genotypes for reactions to applied stresses in the field. Plant traits measured musl be those which reflect response to Ihe applied stress. While several mechanisms of Al toxicity have becn reported, mostnlpid screening techniquesarc based on root growth in medium with high Al concentration. The rclative rool elongation of the seedling tap rool in high Al medium (soil or solution) compared lo low Al medium is a commonly used measure oftolenmce. This measure in the ficld, howevcr, isonly reliable within a few days followinggermination (Hill el al., 1990)."},{"index":2,"size":268,"text":"Prolonged exposure 10 Al toxieity affeets shoot groMh. Salinas (1978) observed less growth at higher Allevels in nutrient solution. Leaf arca of four bean varielies decreased as Al concentrdtion was increased from 25 lo 300 umoles (Lunze, 1991). Al toxicity induces P deficiency (Lee andFoy, 1986: Rowell, 1988) which is expressed in bean as fewer and smaller Icaves, i.e.less leaf arca (Lynch el al., J 990). Therefore, shoot growth and leaf area index are plant parameters which might indicate loleranee lO Al toxicily. By growing plants in high Al solution, Ramalho el al. (1982) found dry plant wcight al f10wering to be a good indicator of tolerance in the field, Recovery oC plants, which were strcsscd with high Al at early stages, when restored lO non-stress conditions is apparently an important mcchanism oC high Al tolerance in barley (Buchholtz and Schusler, 1987), Two rapid screening techniques were evaluated for bean. With the first, at three days after germination, seedlings were rolled in paper soaked with nulrienl solution, either with or without Al (Konzak el al., 1976). With the second rnethod, rool elongation in acid soil was compared to elongation in soil of moderate pH when the plants were grown in conical plastic test tubes oC 20 cm length. Roollength was measured after 3 or 4 days of growth. The second method was most efficient for sereening bean varieties for tolerance to Al toxicity (Lunze, 1991). The resulls of the second technique explained much variation in the field (Spearman's rank correlation coefficient of0.49), and the technique adequately dífferentíates between susceptible and tolerant genotypes lo confidently elimínate the most susceptible."}]},{"head":"Field sereening","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Screening ofbean genolypes has been conducled for three seasons al Kidumbi site of Mulungu Research Station. Entries were evalualed under stress (37% Al saturation and 4.7 pH) andlirned, nonstress (7% Al saturatíon and 5.S pH)conditions. The stress leve! was ¡ntended to besufficientto reduce yields to 50% of non-stress conditions. Fertilizer was applied to supply deficient nutrients. The ratio of stress: non-stress yield was the main selecdon crilerion, butplantvigor and theexpression oftoxicity symptoms were considered. Varieties with a stress: non-stress yield ratio oC greater tban 0.85 were considered tolerant, provided they performed well under non-stress conditions."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"Varying level, of Al throughout Ihe sereening site has been a problem. Much of!be variation ls accounled for by placing a sensitive check variety after every five test genotypes."},{"index":3,"size":151,"text":"The ANSES eva/uations A set of 280 bean genotypes of the first cycle of the Africa Network Cor Screening Cor Edaphic Stresse., (ANSES) wa, evalualed under stress conditions only during the first season of evaluatÍon. The soil pH wa, 4.4, but it was subsequently arnended by applying one ton oC lime 10 4.7. After one sea<¡(}n of testing, 50% of the entries were selected for further evaluadon under both stress and nonstress conditions. Testing during !be first two scasans was done WÍth two replications. After!be second season of testing, SO cotries were selected and tested in multi-location trials for two cropping seasaos. The soil characteristics of the siles are given in Table l. The yield of!be best varieties is presented in Table 2. The performance at Nyamunyunye was very poor and tbe results are not presented. Promísíng varíetíes have been dístribuled to olher nationaI bean research programs lo confirm their tolemnce."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"Mn toxicity is commonly a.~sociated \"'ilb low pH soils (Foy, 1984) which account for 70% of the soils of humid tropical regions (Sanchez, 1976). Soils with a high sesquioxide content often are high in Mn (Kamprath, 1984). Conditions favouring Mn toxicity inelude: parent materials high in Mn such as crush breccias, laterite rocks and volcanic rocks (Le Mare, 1977); low soil pH; low Ca: Mn ratio; poor drainage; and soil compaction (Foy, 1973;1980). Mn toxicity generally occurs in soils wilb a pH of 5.5 or less, but can occur at higber pH and in !he absence of Al toxicity if poor aeration enhanees reduction of Mn\"\" to Mn+ 2 (Foy, 1973, Le Mare, 1977)."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"In Uganda, Mn toxicity ha., been associated with patehy, unproduetive soils called \"lunyu\" in Buganda. On such soils, toxicity problems oceur on well-draíned soils of moderate soil pH and moderate soil organic malter levels. Sueh soils are often foundnearerush breccia(brecciated quartzose rocks) ridges with high Mn and Fe eontents in !he breccia (Chenel) ', 1960;Wayland, 1921). Thus soils derived from a11uvium washed from tbese ridges are likely to i:Ie high in total Mn. An observatíon is thal \"Iunyu\" soils are commonest near swamps."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Species vary in theír tolerance to excess Mn, but legumes generally are more susceptible than non-Iegumes (Foy, 1976). In Uganda, beans, banana, eoUon, símsim and groundnuts have becn observed to be relatively susceptible whíle tea, sweet potatocs, finger núllet and soybeans are relatívely tolerant (Chenel) ', 1954;Jones, 1976;Le Mare, 1977)."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"Symploms of Mn toxicity val)' with species and genotypes. Crinkled leaves are a common symptom. Brown spots surrounded by chlorotic zones due lo concretÍons of precipitated Mn are symptomalic in some legume species (Foy, 1983). Symptoms of deficiencies ofFe, Mg orCainduced by hígh Mn may prevail in sorne cases (Foy el al .• 1981). In bean, symptoms begin aschlorosis ofthe margins uf yuunger lcaves wilh the yellowing progressing to lhe interveinal areas. The margins eurl down and develop a crinkled, puckered appearance, with the eventual appearance of brown specks. The Icaf and peliole blaeken and fall from the plant."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"Mechanísms of tolerance to Mn toxicity are located in the shoots (Heenan et al., 1976). Tolerance to M n toxícíty may be due to restricted translocation or confinement of Ihe excess Mn, Of due lo abilíty of the plan! tissue lo tolerate tbe excess Mn. Critical Mn toxicity levels of leaf lissues differ between and witbin plant specíes (HOfst, 1983). Mn ís uniformly dístributed in mature leaves of tolerant genotypes, but concentrated in concretions in susceptible genotypes. Restricted translocation of Mn to young leaves may be involved in tolerance (Blatt and Diest, 1981), possibly Ihrough tbe formation of stable Mn-oxalale complexes (Menon and Yatagawa, 1984). Tolerance lo excess Mn may be related lo tolerance lo Al toxicity (Foy et al., 1973;Nelson, 1983)."}]},{"head":",","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Rapid screening tecbniques for tolerance lo excess Mn have not becn effective fOf bean. Tolerance under field conditions may differ from that in the lab, and tolerance during the vegetative stage may differ from tolerance during the reproductive stage (Kang and Fox, 1980). A possible rapid screening technique, which involves application ofMn to the petioles ofleaves, has been tried on bean. soybean, cOlton and cowpea (Horsl, 1982). As destruction of indole • 3 • acetic acid (!AA) by indole -acetic acidoxidase (lAAO) is an effect ofMn toxicity in cotton, IAAO assays might be used lo screen foc tolerance lo Mn toxicity (Kennedy and Jones, 1991)."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Mn+ 2 availability is largely dependent on reducing conditions which are largely dependenton soil pH and soil aeration. Mn also interact, with OIher nutrients including Fe, P, Ca and Mg resulting in abnormal rates of uptake. Some P fertilizers can inerease Mn uptake (Page, 1962;Larsen, 1967), possibly due to the acid solution Ihal diffuses Ihrough the soil from a bank of mono-calcium phosphate which carries a high concentralion ofMn (Lindsay el al., 1959). Rhizospheres of sorne crops are more reducing Ihan of othercrops (Bromfield, 1958) and Ihe reducing nature ofthe banana rhizosphere may huve becn the cause of higher Mn levels in leaves oC bean grown under bananas relative lo sote crop Ievels (Wortmann el al., 1992)."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"Mn+ 2 Jevels, or Iheir toxic effects on crops, mighl be managed through raising 50il pH, improving aeralion, applícation of organic manures, and ensuring a proper Ca : P ratio (Jones, 1976; Le Mare,  1977; and Zake, 1986). Genetic variation within species for tolerance to low soil pH complexes has becn observed for several crops (Neenan, 1960;Foy el al., 1967), wilh varying sensitivities to Al toxicity, Mn toxicity, and low soil P availabílíty (Foy et al., 1973). This genetic variability provides the opportunity to better adapt crop species to low pH soils (Brown and Jones, 1977). This paper presents re.~ults from the field screening of 280 bean varíeties for tolerance 10 Mn toxicity."}]},{"head":"MA TERIAL.<i) AND METHODS","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The first cycle ofthe ANSES (Afrícan Network for Screeníng fOf Edaphic Stresses) consisted of 280 entries collected from national bean research programmes ín Africa. These material s were evaluated for tolerancc to M n toxicity under field condítions at Buikwe, and later Sempa, in U ganda. Details of trial designs are presented in Table 1. Al! Irials were conducted undef high Mn stress. Climbing and non-el imbing types were tested separately. Check varieties were G2333 for theclimbers, and Carioca and K20 forthe non-cIimbers. Susceptible varieties were rejected after the first and second scason of testing. Obscrvations were made on emergence, vegetative vigour, symptoms of higb Mn during lhe late vegetative stage, amount ofbrown specks during podelongation, and yield. Seed yield was the primary selection criterion, but tbe olber observations were considered. To aceount for variation in the stress across Ibe field, plot values were adjusted by the mean yield of tbe two or Cour adjacent plots."}]},{"head":"RESUL TS AND DISCUSSION","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":216,"text":"Yield result~ are presented (Table 2) forthe 34 entriesselected from a setof280 aftertwoseasons oC evaluation. The level of the stress is indicated by the poor performance of the well-adapted check varieties. MCM 5001, a recentIy released variety in Uganda, has given tbe best performance under bigh Mn conditions. CAL 96 and aBA 1, two other recentIy released Ugandan varieties oC Calima seed type, have also performed well under tbe high Mn conditions. MCM 2001, a fourtb Ugandan relea.~, gave a fair performance largely because oC consistendy poor emergence under hlgh Mn conditions. Tbe good performance oC KAN 76 is of interest as il has bren Cound by other ANSES collaborators 10 be toleranl lo low availabilities of severa! nutrients and 10 be mnderately toleran! of Al toxicity. Several Rwandan varieties oC !he RWR series have done well under hlgh Mn conditions. Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is important in lbe diet of Malawian people. 11 is widely grown in sole crop and in intercrop, usually wifu malze, al mid (1100 m) to high altitudes (1500 m and above), bul with increasing population pressures and intensive land cultivation, soil fertlity is becoming increasingly important. Low soil fertility constrains production of major crops and most farmers can not afford chemical fertilizers to restore acceptable fertility levels in their fields."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Usually low P and N and Al toxicity associated with low soil pH are the maln soil fertility related constralnts to bean yields in Malawi (Mughogho, 1975). Similarproblems exist in otherparts of Africa (Rachier, 1994;Wortmann, 1994). Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), in clase association with the national bean prograrn in Malawi, has started a bean improvemenl prograrn to develop varieties lhat can tolerale poor soil fertility conditions. The work i5 carried out al the Ministry of Agriculture research sub-station at Bembeke (1650 m, 14• 19'5 and 34• 15'E). The average annual mnfall is approxirnately 900 mm falling in a single growing season (Novemberto April), and themean temperalure is around 19\"C."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"The work was started in Ihe crop season of 1992-93. The site selected has low pH, low P and high exchangeable Al. It is also low in available N, and probably some micro-nutrients. Screening of beans ha,~ been done using different of levels oflime to neutraJise exchangeable Al, different levels of P and N, and addition of zinc and boron. Three experiments were conducted, one in fue 1992-93 and two in the 1993-94 crop sea,wns."}]},{"head":"GERMPLASM EVALUA nON","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":280,"text":"A set of 350 entries ofthe ANSES II (Bush) were tested in fue 1993-94 crop season in a RCBD design with Iwo replications. The plot size wa,~ a single row, 3 m long. The soil analysis, before planting of lhe trial, showed a pH of 4.8 in water and P (Bray) levels of 2.45 to 2.70 ppm. In one replication, 30 kg N, 30 kg p, 0.5 kg B and 5 kg zinc oxide were applied per hectare. No fertilizer was applied in the second replication. In bolh replications, however, neifuer P and lime were applied in order to select for tolerance to low P and Al toxicity. Therefore, varieties were compared under high fertility slress (no fel1ilizer) versus some application ofN and other nutrients, but without any P and lime. Highly significant differences for graln yield were observed among varieties, indicating the presence of genetic variabilily for tolerance lo low soil fertility. The mean grain yield was higher in the replication where fel1i1izer was added (549 kglha) as compared lo Ihe one where no fertilizer was added (328kglha). Grain yield ranged from 67 lo 1491 kglha in Ihe replications with, and l to 1236 kglha without, ferti1 izer. The performance of varieties without fertilizer i5 of interest as varieties which tolerated this complex of slresse~, and produced reasonable grain yield of more than 750 kglha, represented both the Andean and the Mesoa.merican gene pools. Three varieties, Sankana, Ngwangwa and Masai Red, from Zambia, and G 16140 from CIAT. Colombia, appeared to be the most promising (Table 3). Low fertility arcas of northem Zambia were tbe source of the three varieties suggesting tbat more tolerant varieties might be found there."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"The 1993-94 season trial had a split-split plot design, wbere the main plots were P treatments (O and20 kgPlba), tbe sub-plots werelime applications to neutralize O, 50, 75 and 100% exchangeable Al, and the sub-sub-plots were eight bean varieties. The whole experimental sire received a basal dase ofborateat 0.5 kg B, zinc oxide al 5.0kg Zn, muriale ofpotash at 30 kg Kand urea at 30 kgN per bectare. The experiment had three replications."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Data were recorded on nodule number, shoot weight, root weight and grain yield. Application oC P produced significant differences in grain yields and other characters. bul the local variety, Phalombe, was most responsive to P with a yield increase from 444 kglba at OPIOLime to 910 kglba at 20PIOLime. The most tolerant variety appeared to be CAL 143, which produced tbe highest mean grain yields al different fertilty levels (Table 4). "}]},{"head":"INTRODUCI'ION","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Dry beans are very sensitive lo soi! salinity and alkalinily. Soil salinity is a major cons!raint 10 bean produclion in Northern Sudan, and the salinity problem is aggravatOO under bot, arid conditions. The objective of Ihis sludy was to evaluate different dry bean genotypes for tolerance 10 soil salinity."}]},{"head":"ME11IODOLOGY","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Thirty eighl dry bean genolypes, including local material plus introduc!ions, were evaluated foc sal! tolerance by growing them on two soil types: a) a non-saIine 'Karu' soil and b) a high terrare saline soil Properties ofthese soils were: 0.7 and 3.8 mmohs cm'\\ EC; 12.2 and 19.0 meq 1. 1 Na; 3.7 and 2.7 meq 1'\\ Ca + Mg; and 8.0 and 8.5 pH {or the 'Karu' and saline soils, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"On both soil, seeds were sown on both sides ofridges 60 cm apart ata seedrateof20cm between holes and Iwo seeds per holeo Trials were sown during the second week of November 1993 in a randomized complete block with!bree replications. Plot sire consisted of3 ridges (1.8 x 4 m). Forthe non-stress trials on 'Karu' soil yield component analysis was done on 5 randomly selected plants and 3 m of the three ridges were harvested for final yield. For the high terrace saline soil, plant counts al 35 (CI)and90(C2)daysaftersowingwererecordedandconsideredimportantindicatorsoftolerance. Seed yield of surviving plants was also recorded."}]},{"head":"RESUL 1'8 AND DISCUSSION","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Varieties differed for yield on Ihe non-saIine 'Karu' soí1. The differences were associatOO wilh highly significant differences in numberof pods perplant, numberofseeds perpod and seOO size (Table 1). The best yields were obtained wilh genotypes HRS 614 and HRS 534. Tbese were followOO by Beladi (local check), HRS 341 and R/O/2l1(released variety). The poorest yields were obtained wilh genotypes AFR 478, RAO 55 and AND 667."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Emergence was not affected on the saline soil, but emerging seedlings were generally stunted and yellowish in color compared to those of the non-saIine 'Karu' soil. Two weeks afler sowing, sal! injury symptoms (stunted growlh, marginalleafburn foIlowOO by Ihe complete death ofthe seedling) were very clear. Highly significant differences in ¡he number of surviving plants were observed (Table 2). Accordingly genotype PEF 9 was ratOO as mosl tolerant. This was followed by genotypes PEF 14 and G2816. CIA T 23 was ratOO as the most susceptible. Seed yield was very low under the saline soil conditions and differences were non-significant (Table 2). JI is very Iikely Ihat genotypic differences for yield polenlial were masked by the high level of salinity stress."},{"index":3,"size":248,"text":"The lack of relationship between yield under non-saline conditions (Table 1) and stand counts under stress (Table 2) is of interest. The introductions performed poorly compared tothe local varieties under non-saline conditions suggesting poor adaptation of the introductions to high temperature amI! or arid conditions. However, several of these introductions had relatively good plant survival under salineconditions indicaling tolerance tosalinity, while beingapparently suseeptible to high temperatures and arid conditions. HRS 614 and HRS 534 gave !he highest yield under non-saline conditions, but had poor plant survival under saline conditions. The results suggest Ihal tolerance lo heat and arid conditions is not c10sely related to salinity tolerance. The results demonstrate polential for obtaining salinity tolerance in introduced materials.   The stresses Previous)y, screening was done for single ,tre,ses. While soil fertility problems commonly are complexes of two or more stres,es, complexes are highly variable. Screening for tolerance to complexes may have a direct application ir !he primary objective is 10 identify adapted genotypes that can be used by farrners who produce beans under 5uch a complex. Alternatively, if!he objective i8 to identify genotypes which have tolerance genes to specific stresses, then emphasis should be on scrcening under single stresses. Such genotype5 can be utilized as parental Iines in a breeding programrne to generate nurscries for specific stresses and may also have moderate tolerance to a number of other stresses. As complexes are highly variable, it is difficult lo scrcen for tolerance to a complex of stresscs on a pan-African ba~is."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"The two major complexes of soil related stresses of concern are: low N and P al moderate pH; and, low P, low Ca. high Al and Mn at low soil pH."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"The advantage5 of screening fortolerance tocomplexes of stresses are: cultivarsadapted 10 such production conditions are easily identified; and fewer scrcening nurseries are nceded and less resources are required. Disadvantages ¡nclude: !he representativeness of the complex is questionable; and individual genotypes with specific tolerance are overlooked."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"The working group has sel its priorities to focus on:"},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"1) low P at moderate soil pH (>5.0); 2) low N at moderate soil pH (>5.0); and 3) a low soil pH complex which is likely to inelude low Ca, high Al, low K and high Mn."},{"index":8,"size":20,"text":"The first two are single stresses under moderate pH while the last i5 a complex of stresses under low pH."}]},{"head":"Thesites","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Sorne changes wcrc recommended in the sites for both primary and secondary scrcening forthe various stresses. Thc following was recommended. The level oC stress throughoul lheexperimental material at a sítemay be variable. Oflen, effective blockíng for homogeneíty can be achieved. Intensive cropping with an extractive crop may improve homogeneity. A tield might be mapped according to degree of stress enabling estimation of covariale values against whích lo adjust plot-level mea~urements. lnelusion oC a check variety every 5-7 entries will enable sorne adjustment forvariations in stress and in otherfactors affectingyield. Similarly, using the mean of the IWO or four nearest neighbors can be effective in accounting for varialions in stress level."}]},{"head":"Germplasm screening procedures","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"The group recommended thal ¡he screening flow as shown in Table 2. During ¡he firsl stage, varieties of good agronomic type will be identified which might be suitablc a~ cultivars or as breeding parents. In the second stage, promising material, are evalualed al higher stress levels lO ídenlify superior breeding parenls. The tirst slage requires four seasons, while ¡he second stage requires only one additional season, bUI can be done concurrently Wilh the third or fourth season of stage l."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Sources of entries ror the BR.FA For the first two cycles of the BILFA, enmes have becn colIected from CIA T and regional and national breeding programmes in Africa. These entries were generally promising Iines oC good agronomic type. but which had not been previously evaluated for reaction to soil fertility problems. Distrlbution of tolerant varieties II was recommended that varieties be made available in two form.:"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"l. nurseries of proven varieties, for each of the major stresseslcomplexes, be available by Junc. 1995;"},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"2. information and seed on varieties which have been tested should be made available in order that seed of particular varieties can be requested."}]},{"head":"Further research needs","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The group recommended: l. mechanisms of tolerance be identified for the most promising varieties; and 2. the geneties of these mechanisms be determined to facilitate the incorporation ofthese traits into cultivars or varieties of interes!."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"GENERAL ISSUES OF THE BILFA --DlSCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Collaooration within BILFA 1."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"The members of ¡he working group recommended: working group meetings every three years, wilh Ihe next in either Bujumbura or Kigali in May of 1997; 2."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"a monitoring tour ofBILF A activities in Zambia and Malawi in early 1996, and possibly anolher in eastern Africa to correspond Wilh lhe EA Regional Workshop in 1996;"},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"3. leaders of screening for specific stresses should strive 10 achieve recognition for expertise in this atea in order lo serve as resource persons for the bean research networks;"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"4. funding for screening be provided on a regional sub-project basi, by the sleering committees;  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Melkassa (Ethiopia) Research Station for low soil N (this work was shifted to Uganda because of temporarily self-imposed restriclions on importation of bean germplasm lo Ethiopia from other African countries); Lyamungu (Tanzania) and Kawanda (Uganda) Research Stalions for low P; Mulungu (Zaire) Research Station ror Alloxicity; and "},{"text":" the most promising cultivars. Of the comrnon released varictics, c,g. GLP 2, GLP x92, GLP 1004 and GLP 24, only GLP2 performed reJatively wclL The failure of these otherwise well-adapted and high yielding TanJc 1, Mean yicid (kg ha\") 01' the heS! JO bush and 13 Type 111 aceessions grown under low P stress in the "},{"text":" v~!'iclics to pcr!,\"m wdl undc!' low P conditions confirms the importance of screeníng for tolerance lo thís stress, In Ihe long rains season, 1994, the rcleascd variety GLP x92 pcrformcd very well and GLP 585 modcrately well. (Tahlc 2), hut the other check varieties, including GLP 2, GLP 24 and GLP 1004 pcrforlllcd poorly undcr low P ~.Jrcss, GLP 585 was found to have lolerance 10 low soH P and moderale tolcrancc to low MJil N in Uganda, while GLP 2 was found lo he susceptible under such stress condítions (pcrs, COIllI11 , Wortmann).Thc entries ha ve suhscqucntly heen reduced 10 lO, includíng 2 check varícties, GLP x92 and GLP 585. "},{"text":"Tahlc 2 . Mean yiclds (kg ha\") 01' 36 roan varieties cvaluatcd under low soi! P 'trc\" during the long rains of 1994 ._. _ _ ..IlI~ak.amcga, _ Kcn l: lI _-_________ .. ____ _ ----------~ _._.----~~._-~---_.~ .. -----_._-_._----------05) = 244.9 -------... _---.-------------.. --, Wcll-adaptcd check varictic,. "},{"text":"INTRODUCTION' Dean Research Program. P.O. Box 158, Lílongwe, MaJawi and 'Bunda College of Agriculture, P.O. Box 219, Lilongwe, MaJawi "},{"text":" collaborators report on their aClivities al Ihe end of each season, with reports circuJated lo olher collaboralors; 6. tbe coordinator of the BILFA a. prepare and distribute set, of entries for new cycJes ofthe BILFA; b. channeJ communications; and c. organize moniloring tours, meetings and visiK Dr. Wortmann agreed to coordinate ¡he BILFA until the end of 1995 when the responsibility will shifl to MaJawi. ColIaooration with specialized institutions Opportunities for furthereollaboration with specialized instilutions werediscussed. Possibilities discussed incJuded: CIAT for mechanism and genetics sludies and for supervision ofpost-graduate studies; a network for salinity and drought for the Mediterranean Region (INR in France); ICRAF for systems management studies; Penn State University for mechanism sludies, esp. root studies; local universities who have specialized in relevant arcas, e.g. the University ofZimbabwe for N fixation and the University of Nairobi for bean breeding. Training needs and opportunities The group recommended: l. a ,hon course on managemcnt ofBILFA ,ites to be held in southern Afríca in ¡ 996 (al time of monitoring tour?); -~-\"-_ .. ~_.-... _~---_ .. ~ .. _-----. conL Table l. conrinued. Reactions of selected varieties lo various soil fertility related constraints. "},{"text":" . T.M.; W.H. Gabelman and G.C. 1987. Incorporalion of phosphorous efticiency from exotic germplasm inlo agrieulturally adapled gennplasm of eommon bean (Phaseo/us vu/garis L.). Planl and Soil 99: 175-184. UlTea. C. and S.P. Singh. 1989. Heritabilily of yield of eommon bean in soil wilh low phosphorous content. In: Beebe.S. (ed.), International Sean Breeding Workshop, Cali. Colombia, 1988. Currenttopics in breeding of common bean: Proceedings, Cali, Colombia. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical. Working Docurnent No. 47. P 392. Whiteaker. G.; G.C. Gerloff, W.H. Gabelman. and D. Liodgren. 1976. Intraspecific differences in growth of belIOS al stress levels of phosphorous. J. Amer. Soco Hort. Sci. 101(4):472-475. Wortmann, C.S. 1994. Screening of beans for lolerance to low soil potassium availability. Paper presented at the Working Group Meeting on Screening Beans forTolerance lo Soil Fertilily Problems held in Uganda from 23-26 May, 1994. . Results oflow pH complex tesling . Results oflow pH complex tesling in Malawi. Paper presented al the Working Oroup Meeting on Screening Beans for Tolerance to Soil in Malawi. Paper presented al the Working Oroup Meeting on Screening Beans for Tolerance to Soil Pertilily Problems held in Uganda from May 23•26. 1994. Pertilily Problems held in Uganda from May 23•26. 1994. Briggs. K.O. and OJ. Taylor. 1993. Succe:., in wheat improvementforpoorsoils;experiencewiththealuminum Briggs. K.O. and OJ. Taylor. 1993. Succe:., in wheat improvementforpoorsoils;experiencewiththealuminum tolerance system in NW Canada. In: Proceeding of Workshop on Adaptatíon of Plants in Soil Stress, tolerance system in NW Canada. In: Proceeding of Workshop on Adaptatíon of Plants in Soil Stress, Augus! 1-4. 1993. University ofNebraska. Lineoln. Nebraska.INTSORMIL Publication No. 94•2. pp. Augus! 1-4. 1993. University ofNebraska. Lineoln. Nebraska.INTSORMIL Publication No. 94•2. pp. 209-233. 209-233. Caradus. J.R. 1993. Achievement in improving the adaptation of forages to acid. low phosphorous soils. In: Caradus. J.R. 1993. Achievement in improving the adaptation of forages to acid. low phosphorous soils. In: Proceedings of Workshop on Adaptation of Plants in Soil Stress, August 1-4, 1993. University of Proceedings of Workshop on Adaptation of Plants in Soil Stress, August 1-4, 1993. University of Nebraska. Lineoln, Nebr ... ska. INTSORMIL Publication No. 94-2. pp. 295-327. Nebraska. Lineoln, Nebr ... ska. INTSORMIL Publication No. 94-2. pp. 295-327. Cartero 0.0.; LA. Rose. and P.F. Reading. 1975. Variation in susceplibility to manganesetoxicity in 3Osoybean Cartero 0.0.; LA. Rose. and P.F. Reading. 1975. Variation in susceplibility to manganesetoxicity in 3Osoybean genolypes. Crop Sci. 15:730-732. genolypes. Crop Sci. 15:730-732. CIA T. 1985. Tolerance to acíd soils. Sean Program Annual Report 1984, Cali, Colombia. Working Document CIA T. 1985. Tolerance to acíd soils. Sean Program Annual Report 1984, Cali, Colombia. Working Document No. 7. p.IOS. No. 7. p.IOS. CIAT. 1987. Character improvement: developing solutions lO major problems. l. Soil/nutritional constraint,. CIAT. 1987. Character improvement: developing solutions lO major problems. l. Soil/nutritional constraint,. b.low soil phosphorous and acid -oíl,. In: Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical. Bean Programo b.low soil phosphorous and acid -oíl,. In: Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical. Bean Programo Annual Report 1987. Cali, Colombia, Working Document No. 39. pp 72-76. Annual Report 1987. Cali, Colombia, Working Document No. 39. pp 72-76.  "},{"text":", A wcll ¡¡dapled check var;cly,  Type 111 cmr;cs  Type 111 cmr;cs Yidd Acccss:ion no. Yicid YiddAcccss:ion no.Yicid 757 GLP 1150 574 757GLP 1150574 715 GLP 66 529 715GLP 66529 290 GLP 329 634 290GLP 329634 764 GLP 14 1005 764GLP141005 379 GLP 233 325 379GLP 233325 442 GLP 4 455 442GLP4455 666 GLP 409  666GLP 409 942 GLP 802  942GLP 802 575 GLP 236  575GLP 236 612 GLP 131  612GLP 131 585 GLP 719  585GLP 719 547 GLP 1155  547GLP 1155 590 GLP 433  590GLP 433 787    787 I(KXI Ovcrallrncan  I(KXIOvcrallrncan 676 LSD (0.05)  676LSD (0.05) 727    727 399    399 .'162    .'162 634    634 715    715 768    768 XI8    XI8 391    391 439    439 971    971 838    838 664    664 (,75    (,75  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Tahlc l. Soil properü,,:' foc four high Allest ,ites in Zain::. Yield (kg ha\") under~igh Al stress of the beSI 21 of 50 bean varieties in multi-Iocadon trials. Propertics Propertics  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Detaíls of trial designs. Season Number Number I\"lot Trial design SeasonNumberNumberI\"lotTrial design  of entries ofreps sire  of entriesofrepssire 1991B 280 2 2,4 m' RCBD 1991B28022,4 m'RCBD 1992A 124 4 3.9 RCBD 1992A12443.9RCBD 19928 36 4 5.4 6 J< 6 lattiee 199283645.46 J< 6 lattiee 1993A 36 4 6,9 6 x 61attice 1993A3646,96 x 61attice  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Yields of 34 varieties seleeted from a set of 280 for toleranee 10 Mn Variely Variely  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Mean values of five characters in a soil fertility trial alBernbeke. 1992-93.     Umelevel Seed yieid Noduleslplant Nodule weight ROO! weight Shoot weight UmelevelSeed yieidNoduleslplantNodule weightROO! weightShoot weight 10 neutralize (kglha)  (rng/plant) (g/plan!) (g/plant) 10 neutralize(kglha)(rng/plant)(g/plan!)(g/plant) (%) exch. Al      (%) exch. Al O 147 0.85 7.59 0.41 1.59 O1470.857.590.411.59 25 161 1.52 13.98 0.42 1.63 251611.5213.980.421.63 50 153 2.43 19.11 0.40 1.41 501532.4319.110.401.41 75 266 5.01 37.29 0.43 1.78 752665.0137.290.431.78 100 235 3.95 32.46 0.43 1.64 1002353.9532.460.431.64 lOO+P 253 4.84 44.93 0.44 1.71 lOO+P2534.8444.930.441.71 SE 194.2 0.920 6.883 0.039 0.159 SE194.20.9206.8830.0390.159  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Mean performance of 15 varieties rO' yield aod othet characters in !he low fertility tria! at Bernbeke, Table4. Varicty rncans of foor characters studied in the soíl fertilíty trial alBemhelte, Malawi, 1993/94.    Liming effects were not significant. Nevertheless, seed yield, nodule numher, shoot weight and root weight increased with Iimimg up to the 25% Al neutralization level at zero P. At other P and lime levels no specific trend was observed. The results were somewhat similarto the previous experiment, where a linear response was also observed, but up to 75% Al neutralization. This difference could he attributed 10 various soíl nutrients (N, K. B. Zn) applied as a basal dose in this experimento whereas no such nutrienls were applied in the previous experiment.SCREENING BEAN GENOTYPES FOR SALT TOLERANCESir Elkhatim H. AhmedHudeiba Research Station. Ed-Dammer. P.O. Box 31. Sudan Malawi, 1992193.     Malawi, 1992193. Varieties Nodules/planl Nodule weíghl ROO! weighl Shoot weight Seedyield VarietiesNodules/planl Nodule weíghlROO! weighlShoot weight Seedyield  (mg/plant) (g/planl) (g/plan!) (kglha)  (mg/plant)(g/planl)(g/plan!)(kglha) Calima 2.99 20.13 0.48 1.57 212 Calima2.9920.130.481.57212 Pinlado 1.81 17.26 0.36 1.78 180 Pinlado1.8117.260.361.78180 G 5059 2.38 12.88 0.43 1.56 86 G 50592.3812.880.431.5686 BAT 477 1.54 14.74 0.37 1.29 215 BAT 4771.5414.740.371.29215 Carioca 2.17 20.07 0.33 1.42 243 Carioca2.1720.070.331.42243 A 283 2.07 10.10 0.35 1.08 97 A 2832.0710.100.351.0897 G 16140 7.64 69.80 0.59 1.85 215 G 161407.6469.800.591.85215 Kahulangeti 4.26 41.45 0.40 2.03 146 Kahulangeti4.2641.450.402.03146 Sankana 4.88 44.69 0.45 1.99 336 Sankana4.8844.690.451.99336 Ngwangwa 4.58 30.56 0.49 1.95 307 Ngwangwa4.5830.560.491.95307 Masai Red 2.49 28.21 0.44 1.67 299 Masai Red2.4928.210.441.67299 C. Mukulu 3.74 29.27 0.44 1.82 236 C. Mukulu3.7429.270.441.82236 G 19428 3.69 17.57 0.45 1.36 162 G 194283.6917.570.451.36162 2•10 RioTif>agi 1.54 0.72 19.22 5.87 0.40 0.32 1.79 1.27 178 127 2•10 RioTif>agi1.54 0.7219.22 5.870.40 0.321.79 1.27178 127 SE 0.871 6.361 0.031 0.136 99.1 SE0.8716.3610.0310.13699.1  "},{"text":" Tahle 1. Yield and yield componenls of dry hean genolypes growll.on non-saline 'Karu' soH. Genotype Yield   No.podsI No.seedsI TSW GenotypeYieldNo.podsINo.seedsITSW   kg/ha   plant pod (g) kg/haplantpod(g) HR614 968 A   9.7 2.6 HR614968 A9.72.6 HRS534 961 A   7.3 3.2 HRS534961 A7.33.2 Beladi 898AB   6.7 4.2 Beladi898AB6.74.2 HRS341 896AB   7.7 3.7 HRS341896AB7.73.7 RIOI2I S75AB   8.0 3.8 RIOI2IS75AB8.03.8 RedMexican 851 ABC  7.3 3.2 241 RedMexican851 ABC7.33.2241 Gia SISABC  7.0 3.8 GiaSISABC7.03.8 HRS545 770ABCD  5.3 3.5 243 HRS545770ABCD5.33.5243 HRSS37 770ABCD  9.7 2.7 HRSS37770ABCD9.72.7 SR  732 BCD  7.3 3.6 SR732BCD7.33.6 Berher Large 719 BCD  5.3 3.5 Berher Large719BCD5.33.5 HRS514 708 BCD  6.3 3.3 HRS514708BCD6.33.3 Salwahrown 799 BCDE  7.3 3.9 Salwahrown799BCDE7.33.9 PEF9 682 BCDEF  8.0 4.0 PEF9682BCDEF8.04.0 ClAT69 ClAT8S 638 636 CDEFG CDEFG  7.3 6.7 2.8 5.5 ClAT69 ClAT8S638 636CDEFG CDEFG7.3 6.72.8 5.5 PI  624 CDEFG  8.3 3.2 PI624CDEFG8.33.2 Basaheir 622 CDEFG  5.7 4.3 Basaheir622CDEFG5.74.3 G2816 583 DEFGH  7.3 3.0 G2816583DEFGH7.33.0 PEF14 575 DEFGH  6.7 2.8 PEF14575DEFGH6.72.8 SUOSO 478 EFGHI  3.7 2.6 SUOSO478EFGHI3.72.6 PEF7 460 FOHIJ 4.7 3.6 PEF7460FOHIJ4.73.6 CIAT37 460 FGHIJ 7.0 3.0 CIAT37460FGHIJ7.03.0 GLP92 458 FGHIJ 5.3 2.9 GLP92458FGHIJ5.32.9 ClAT23 440 GHIJ 6.0 3.1 ClAT23440GHIJ6.03.1 GLP2 420 GHIJ 4.7 2.2 GLP2420GHIJ4.72.2 PEF2 302 HIl K 5.0 3.1 PEF2302HIl K5.03.1 K20  324 IJ KL 3.3 3.4 K20324IJ KL3.33.4 ANO 661 264 IJ KLM 6.7 2.7 ANO 661264IJ KLM6.72.7 AND618 253 IJ KLM N 4.7 2.9 AND618253IJ KLM N4.72.9 IRZ 111 PANMEKO 249 IR3 • J KLM N KLM NO 5.3 6.0 3.4 2.0 IRZ 111 PANMEKO249 IR3•J KLM N KLM NO5.3 6.03.4 2.0 RWK3 124  LM NO 6.0 2.8 RWK3124LM NO6.02.8 MARENGUE 117  LM NO 7.7 3.4 MARENGUE117LM NO7.73.4 NIC 145 106  LM NO 4.7 2.2 NIC 145106LM NO4.72.2 AFR47X 65  M NO 2.0 2.7 AFR47X65M NO2.02.7 RA055 39  NO 3.7 4.3 RA05539NO3.74.3 ANO 667 24  O 2.0 1.7 151 ANO 66724O2.01.7151 S.E. Lcvcl 6R •••   0.9 004 13.2 S.E.Lcvcl6R •••0.900413.2  "},{"text":" Figures followed hy Ihe same IcHer are nol ,ignil1canlly diffcrcnl (P=O.05), ,,~umber of plarlls and seed yield 08 a high lerrace saline soil. Genotype Plant Count Seedyield  GenotypePlantCountSeedyield  CI ... _---- C2 (g4.8 m')  CI ... _----C2(g4.8 m') PEF9 A 177 21.7  PEF9A17721.7 PEF14 AB 142 11.8  PEF14AB14211.8 G2816 AB 170 5.9  G2816AB1705.9 Rerber large ABC 150 15.0  Rerber largeABC15015.0 HRS537 ABe 144 14.8  HRS537ABe14414.8 R/O/21 ABC 167 40.2  R/O/21ABC16740.2 PEF7 ABC 153 8.1  PEF7ABC1538.1 AND661 ABC 114 1.9 ;¡¡¡ AND661ABC1141.9;¡¡¡ AND618 Sa1wa brown ClAT85 HRS 514 Giza3 PEF2 Red Mcxican ABC ABC ABC ABC ABC ABCO ABCO 110 104 119 143 123 129 103 6.5 3.5 15.7 42.3 23.7 0.2 9.9 ~ = ;¡¡¡ -= = -= !.'.!!! AND618 Sa1wa brown ClAT85 HRS 514 Giza3 PEF2 Red McxicanABC ABC ABC ABC ABC ABCO ABCO110 104 119 143 123 129 1036.5 3.5 15.7 42.3 23.7 0.2 9.9~ = ;¡¡¡ -= = -= !.'.!!! GLP92 ABCO 109 9.9  GLP92ABCO1099.9 HRS545 ABCO 116 28.8  HRS545ABCO11628.8 NlC 145 ABCO 104 2.0  NlC 145ABCO1042.0 Basabcir ABCD 122 18.4  BasabcirABCD12218.4 HRS341 ABCD 127 25.3  HRS341ABCD12725.3 Beladi ABCDE 130 18.9  BeladiABCDE13018.9 IRZ 11 I ABCDEF 91 0.8  IRZ 11 IABCDEF910.8 CIAT69 ABCOEF 87 3.8  CIAT69ABCOEF873.8 SUG50 ABCDEF 99 12.7  SUG50ABCDEF9912.7 HRS 614 BCDEFO 43 0.7  HRS 614BCDEFO430.7 MARENGUE BCDEFG 121 14.6  MARENGUEBCDEFG12114.6 AND667 BCDEFG 95 0.1  AND667BCDEFG950.1 K20 BCDEFG 47 0.6  K20BCDEFG470.6 GLP2 BCOEFG 80 0.4  GLP2BCOEFG800.4 SR BCOEFG 110 6.8  SRBCOEFG1106.8 PI BCDEFY lOS 46.2  PIBCDEFYlOS46.2 RWK3 COEFG 96 1.0  RWK3COEFG961.0 PANMEKO CDEFO 88 3.1  PANMEKOCDEFO883.1 HRS534 COEFG 76 21.4  HRS534COEFG7621.4 CIAT37 OEFG 75 2.6  CIAT37OEFG752.6 RA055 EFG 49 0.03  RA055EFG490.03 AFR478 FG 77 1.7  AFR478FG771.7 C1AT23 G 88 4.8  C1AT23G884.8 S.E. 18 26 10.2  S.E.182610.2 level     level  "},{"text":" ns ns •• and ••• indicale not signineant. and signif1cant al P = 0.05 and O.()()I. respective1y.ISSUES OF SITE MANAGEMENT AND SCREENING METHODS --DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONSThename lt was agreed that the Africa Network for Screening for Edapbic Stresses (ANSES) as a name for this research effort has sorne inadequacies. ANSES does not inelude mention ofbeans. The word \"network\" i5 commonly used witb ano!her meaning by tbe same audience. The work excludes screening for many other edaphic stresses. The working group agreed the ANSES should hencefortb be called Bean Improvement for I..ow Fertility in Africa (BILFA). ••• • ••••  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Reeommcnded procedurc for screeníng bean germplasm for tolerance to soU fertílity related stresses.   Stage I  Stage I Sea\",n Detaíls Plot size/number Stress level Sea\",n DetaílsPlot size/numberStress level A 360 entries, Singlerows Moderate A360 entries,SinglerowsModerate  Primary ,ites only, 2 rcplications stress Primary ,ites only,2 rcplicationsstress  Criteria: yicld under stress,   Criteria: yicld under stress,  Seleet besl 50%   Seleet besl 50% B 180 enlríes, 2 rowplots Maderate B180 enlríes,2 rowplotsMaderate  Primary si tes, 2 replications stress Primary si tes,2 replicationsstress  Criteri.: yield under stress,   Criteri.: yield under stress,  Scleet 40-50 lines   Scleet 40-50 lines C 50 lines, 2-4 row plots Moderate C50 lines,2-4 row plotsModerate  Primary and secondary sites, 3 replieations stress and Primary and secondary sites,3 replieationsstress and  Críteria: yield  no stress Críteria: yieldno stress D 2O-351ines 4 row plots Mnderate D2O-351ines4 row plotsMnderate  Primary and secondary sites 3 replications stress and Primary and secondary sites3 replicationsstress and  Criteria: yield,  no stress Criteria: yield,no stress  rootlshool ralio,   rootlshool ralio,  lotal nutríenl uptal<e   lotal nutríenl uptal<e   Stage 11  Stage 11 C2 SOlines, 2-4 row plots  C2SOlines,2-4 row plots  Primary and secondary sites, 3 replícatíons  Primary and secondary sites,3 replícatíons  Crileri.: yield.   Crileri.: yield.  biomass, rootl   biomass, rootl  ,haot ratio   ,haot ratio  Managing variatinns in stress   Managing variatinns in stress  "},{"text":" The working group recommended: l.nationa) programs should conmbute a greater share of the entries in the fUlure;2. ¡he enmes Cor the third cyele should be submitted (200 seeds of each entry) lo Malawi by April.)996 (a request wíll be made before then); should províde fund.~ to the BILFA coordinator to reimburse national programs for the cost of providing seed. 3. entries should not have the \"I\" gene, hut shou)d inelude al) promising material.; 3.entries should not have the \"I\" gene, hut shou)d inelude al) promising material.; 4. Andean types are preferred; 4.Andean types are preferred; 5. the steering committees 5.the steering committees  "},{"text":"Table 1 , conlinued, R\"a<:líons of sclecled vanetics 10 various soíl fel1i1íty relaled conslraiots,  T S S S S TSSSS MUHINGA S T S VT S MUHINGASTSVTS MUS 18 S S S MT S MUS 18SSSMTS MUS 97 VT S T S S MUS 97VTSTSS NAKAJA S S S MT S NAKAJASSSMTS NANGURUBWA S S S T S NANGURUBWASSSTS NEPA29 S S S S T NEPA29SSSST NEPA 38 S S S S T NEPA 38SSSST NIC 116 MT S S S S NIC 116MTSSSS NTEKERABSILlMU S S S VT S NTEKERABSILlMUSSSVTS OBA 1 T T S S T OBA 1TTSST PAD 114 S T S MT S PAD 114STSMTS PAD 126 S S S S T PAD 126SSSST PAII12 T T S S S PAII12TTSSS PEF 14 MT MT S S S PEF 14MTMTSSS PEF2 T S S S S PEF2TSSSS PINTADO T S S S S PINTADOTSSSS PORRILLO SIN. T S T S S PORRILLO SIN.TSTSS PVA 774 S S S S T PVA 774SSSST RAS 445 S T S S S RAS 445STSSS RAB471 S S T S S RAB471SSTSS  "}],"sieverID":"d6a5190d-31b9-4eb8-b815-a5cc166085c0","abstract":"Manganese toxicity is oflen a major constrainl 10 bean production on low pH soils. In Uganda, it has been associated with crush breccia ridges in Buganda and Andosols in the southwestem highlands. Two hundred and eighty varieties were evaluated for tolerance lo Mn toxicity over three seasons. Varieties with small seed tended to be more tolerant than those with large seed. Black seed types were generally more tolerant than types with other seed colours. However, severa! medium to large seeded Calima types showed good tolerance. MCM 5001, with a small tan seed type, performed best under the high Mn conditions. Several Rwandan varieties, ineluding RWR 382, RWR 982 and RWR 980, were relatively toleran!. XAN 76, which has proven to be tolerant to scarcities for severa! nutrients, was relatively tolerant to Mn toxicity."}

data/part_1/06e500beb1b3b760f475bc9e0a6b3654.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"06e500beb1b3b760f475bc9e0a6b3654","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H040608.pdf"},"pageCount":25,"title":"9 The Energy-Irrigation Nexus in South Asia: Groundwater Conservation and Power Sector Viability","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Back in the 1950s, when energy use was considered synonymous with economic progress, state power utilities in India aggressively persuaded unwilling farmers to install electric tube wells. The chief ministers set ambitious connection targets and all manner of loans and concessions were made available to popularize tube well irrigation. The World Bank supported huge investments in rural electrification to promote groundwater use and agricultural growth, policies that appeared to be vindicated when the Green Revolution was found to follow the tube well revolution with a lag of 3-5 years. Repetto (1994) even asserted that 'the Green Revolution is more a tube well revolution than a wheat revolution'."},{"index":2,"size":253,"text":"By the 1970s, the energy-irrigation nexus was a prominent feature of South Asia's agrarian boom, and groundwater irrigation had spread rapidly even within canal commands. The enthusiasm of the State Electricity Boards (SEBs) towards their agricultural customers however soon began to wane. The SEBs invariably charged their fees based on metered consumption but -as tube well numbers increased -metering and billing became an increasing burden. The costs of provision and maintenance of meters were perhaps the least of the SEB's worries. Farm power supply required an army of meter readers, and led to rampant meter tampering and power pilferage, underbilling and pervasive corruption. These high and rising transaction costs proved insupportable and, during the 1970s/1980s, state after state adopted a flat tariff linked to the horsepower (hp) rating. This eliminated the hassle and cost of metering in one go and, though still affording scope for malpractices such as under-reporting of the hp rating, this was much easier to control than pilferage under a metered tariff regime. In turn, however, as farm power emerged as a major driver of irrigated agriculture, chief ministers found electricity pricing to be a powerful vote-winner. Flat tariffs became 'sticky' and, unable to raise flat tariffs for years on end, yet still pressured to supply abundant farm power, the SEBs found their balance sheets turning red. The argument has thus turned full circle and the industry and its protagonists (e.g. the multilateral donors) have returned to the view that metering is a precondition for restoring the SEB's financial viability."},{"index":3,"size":176,"text":"Support for metering is based essentially on the neoclassical economic theory that typically focuses on the 'transformation costs' of generating and distributing power, and the efficiency gains to be derived from economic pricing, while overlooking the 'transactions costs' incurred. In this chapter, our objective is to re-evaluate this debate from the perspective of the New Institutional Economics (North, 1997). We begin by assessing the scale of the energy-irrigation nexus in South Asia. The estimates quoted matter less than the broad conclusion thatby any measure -the nexus is far more important in South Asia than elsewhere in the world with the exception perhaps of North China. This is followed by a section describing what it would take to make a metered tariff regime work, the main comparison being with North China where such a regime does seem to work. Concluding that South Asia differs in too many ways to duplicate China's success, the rest of the chapter explores the potential for indirect management of the groundwater economy through the specific mechanism of electricity pricing and supply policies."},{"index":4,"size":223,"text":"The central premise is that electricity pricing and supply in South Asia are closely linked with the policy goals of managing groundwater irrigation for efficiency, equity and sustainability. The chapter makes no claim that the solutions proposed would resolve all problems of aquifer management though it does suggest that they would complement measures in other subject areas. Nor does the chapter address broader environmental issues associated with sustainability. It takes as given the generally accepted view that rapidly falling groundwater tables can have deleterious effects on the rural economy and on the environment, and that pragmatic measures that moderate such declines are generally beneficial. A further premise is that the financial viability of the power utilities has been undermined by their farm power operations and that this can be attributed at least in part to the failure of the power and irrigation sectors to interact in an intelligent manner. Again, the problems of the utilities and their operations go well beyond the issues addressed in the chapter. But even if the solutions proposed are, in some sense, partial and second best, the chapter concludes that analysing the energy and groundwater economies as a nexus can help evolve joint strategies that would contribute significantly to the preservation of South Asia's groundwater resources while at the same time improving the viability of its power industry."}]},{"head":"The Scale of the Energy-Irrigation Nexus in South Asia","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"South Asia in a world context"},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"The energy-irrigation nexus focuses attention on a class of issues that is largely confined to South Asia and, to a lesser extent, North China (see below). Many other countries -e.g. the USA, Iran, Mexico -make intensive use of groundwater in agriculture (Fig. 9.1). However, in these countries this involves only a small proportion of their people; energy use by agriculture is a small proportion of total energy use; and the cost of energy use is only a small proportion of the total value added in farming. The opposite is the case over much of South Asia and North China (Table 9.1)."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"According to a World Bank estimate, groundwater irrigation contributes about 10% of India's GDP (World Bank and GOI, 1998) using 15-20% of the electricity generated. In contrast, in Mexico's Guanajuato province, heartland of its intensive groundwater-irrigated agriculture, a typical tube well is run by a 100-150 hp pump and operates for over 4000 h/year (Scott et al., 2002). In India, Bangladesh and Nepal, the modal pump size is 6.5 hp and average hours of operation are around 400-500 h/ year (Shah, 1993). In Iran, 365,000 tube wells lift 45 km 3 of groundwater/year (Hekmat, 2002); India uses 60 times more wells than Iran to extract three times as much groundwater."},{"index":4,"size":190,"text":"Despite these differences, other countries can still find it difficult to enforce groundwater controls. In Mexico, the Commission National de Aqua (CNA) has struggled to establish and enforce a system of water rights. While this has helped to register most of its 90,000 tube well owners, Mexico still finds it impossible to limit pumping to assigned quotas. Mexico has similarly been politically unable to remove substantial energy subsidies to agriculture or rein in groundwater depletion (Scott et al., 2002). In Iran, when groundwater overdraft in the hinterland threatened water supply to cities, the government enforced a ban on many new groundwater structures, yet it is struggling to eliminate its annual groundwater overdraft of 5 km 3 (Hekmat, 2002). Even the USA has only found it possible to slow rather than stop the mining of the great Ogallala aquifer. If richer countries where groundwater irrigation is far less important cannot manage irrigators even in the face of serious environmental anomalies, how much less can it be expected of countries in South Asia where groundwater is relatively far more important and where it supports the livelihoods of millions of poor rural households?"}]},{"head":"Groundwater in South Asia","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":274,"text":"South Asia constitutes the largest user of groundwater in the world. Between them, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal pump around 210 km 3 /year, using some 21-23 million pump sets (13-14 million electric pumps and 8-9 million diesel pumps) (NSSO, 1999). If an average electric tube well (with pumping efficiency of, say, 25%)  (From Llamas et al., 1992, p. 4.) Table 9.1. Dependence on groundwater in different countries. (From Hekmat, 2002, Iran;Mukherji and Shah, 2002, India;Scott et al., 2002, Mexico;Shah et al., 2003, China and  Growth in groundwater irrigation is relatively recent (Fig. 9.2). In India, gravity systems dominated until the 1970s but by the early 1990s groundwater had far surpassed surface irrigation in terms of area served and proportion of agricultural output (Debroy and Shah, 2003;Shah et al., 2003). According to estimates of the Government of India (GOI), 60% of India's irrigated lands are now served by groundwater wells (GOI, 2001). Independent surveys suggest that the proportion may be as much as 75% if conjunctive use in command areas is included (Shah et al., 2004b;NSSO 54th round). By now, pump irrigation in India accounts for 70-80% of the value of irrigated farm output; and rapid groundwater development is at the heart of the agrarian dynamism found in areas in Eastern India that had been stagnant for a long time. Furthermore, groundwater irrigation has helped make famines a matter of history: during 1963-1966, a small rainfall deficit left reservoirs empty and food production plummeted by 19%; during the 1987-1988 drought, the rainfall deficit was 19% but food production fell by only 2% thanks in large part to widespread groundwater irrigation (Sharma and Mehta, 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":404,"text":"In contrast to other countries, pump irrigation in South Asia also involves vast numbers of low-income households and a large proportion of the population. In 1999-2000, India's 81 million landowning families (http://labourbureau.nic.in/) had more than 20 million tube wells and pump sets among them, on average roughly one for every fourth landowning household. Moreover, a large proportion of non-owners are supplied through local fragmented groundwater markets (Shah, 1993). It is often argued that with 60 million tonnes of food stocks, India can now take a tough posture on groundwater abuse but this misses an important point. Quite apart from the practical difficulties of implementing such a policy, the contribution of groundwater to farm incomes and rural livelihoods is far more crucial than its contribution to food security, especially outside canal commands. 3 At the turn of the millennium, perhaps three-quarters of the rural population and over half of the total population of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal depended for their livelihoods, directly or indirectly, on groundwater irrigation, many times larger than in Iran and Mexico. It is not surprising therefore that the energy-irrigation nexus has been at the centre of vote-bank politics in the region. The Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy estimates that electricity use in Indian agriculture in 2000-2001 was 84.7 billion kWh, much greater than our combined estimate of 69.6 billion kWh equivalent of the total energy use in agriculture for the four countries. However, these estimates for India include transmission and distribution (T&D) losses in nonfarm sectors that are passed off as agricultural consumption (CMIE, 2003). Dhawan puts the value of the marginal product of power in agriculture at Rs 9.00/kWh ($0.20/kWh) in net terms and Rs 14/ kWh ($0.30/kWh) in gross terms (Dhawan, 1999). We assume an average South Asian tube well uses 4 kWh/h, implying 17.5 billion h of pumping/year. At an average price of Rs 30/h (USc65/h), the market value of pump irrigation is Rs 522 billion ($11.34 billion). Those selling pump services typically claim a third of the crop. Based on this, we estimate the contribution to farm output as three times the market value of pump irrigation. An alternative approach assumes that a South Asian tube well produces Rs 25,000 ($543.48) worth of irrigation water/year contributing to Rs 75,000 ($1630) worth of crops. The World Bank asserts that groundwater contributes 10% of Indian GDP (World Bank and GOI, 1998). If so, our estimates are greatly understated."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"3 Dhawan (cited in Samra 2002), for instance, has asserted that in low rainfall regions of India, '[A] wholly [groundwater] irrigated acre of land becomes equivalent to 8 to 10 acres of dryland in terms of production and income.' (italics added)."}]},{"head":"Subregional patterns","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":228,"text":"Though groundwater is critical over much of South Asia, policy makers face conflicting challenges in different subregions. Particularly since 1970, agrarian growth has been sustained primarily by private pump investments. However, this has been highly uneven. In the groundwater-abundant Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin -home to 400 million of the world's rural poor -groundwater can have major livelihood and ecological benefits (Shah, 2001) but it is precisely here that economic development has been slow and halting. Eastern India is a classic example. After the eastern Indian states switched to a flat power tariff, the utilities found it difficult to maintain viability in the face of organized opposition to the raising of the flat tariff. As a result, the power utilities began to neglect the maintenance and repair of power infrastructure resulting, in turn, in a feeble rural power supply. Unable to irrigate their crops, farmers began en masse to replace their electric pumps by diesel pumps. Over a decade, the groundwater economy became more or less completely dieselized in large areas, including Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and north Bengal. Figure 9.3 shows the electrical and diesel halves of India; in the western parts, groundwater irrigation is dominated by electric pumps but as we move east, diesel pumps become preponderant. The saving grace was that in these groundwater-abundant regions, small diesel pumps, though dirtier and costlier to operate, kept the economy going."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"The issues in regions like north Gujarat, where groundwater is lifted from 200 to 300 m, are very different since such deelectrification could completely destroy the agricultural economy. In much of Pakistan, in the Indian Punjab, Haryana and neighbouring states, and in peninsular India, groundwater is being seriously overdeveloped to a stage that agriculture faces serious threats from resource depletion and degradation. The priority in these areas is to promote a constructive re-engagement of the power sector with agriculture and to find ways of managing groundwater use so as to make it socially and environmentally sustainable. It is in regard to these areas that this chapter is largely concerned."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"In regulating groundwater use, the tools available to resource managers are few and inadequate, though the protection of the resource is proving far more complex and difficult than stimulating its initial development. The alternatives fall into two broad categories: (i) direct management through a system of metered tariffs and/or quotas; and (ii) indirect management, e.g. through the operations of the power market. These options are now considered in turn. Surface (major/medium) 19501955196019651970Year 19751980198519901995 Fig. 9.2. India, irrigated area by source. (From Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, 1999.)"}]},{"head":"Making a Metered Tariff Regime Work Introduction","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"In India and elsewhere in South Asia there is a growing movement to revert to metered power supply. Despite widespread farmer opposition, the power industry believes that its fortunes will not change until agriculture is put back on a metered electricity tariff."},{"index":2,"size":223,"text":"Strong additional support is lent by those working in the groundwater sector where it is widely -and rightly -held that zero and flat power tariff produce strong perverse incentives for farmers to indulge in profligate and wasteful use of water and power because it reduces the marginal cost of water extraction to nearly zero. Annual losses to electricity boards on account of power subsidies to agriculture have been estimated at Rs 260 billion ($5.65 billion) in India, grow-ing at an annual rate of 26%/year (Lim, 2001;Gulati, 2002). These estimates have, however, been widely contested, for instance it has been shown that SEBs have been classifying rising Transmission and Distribution (T&D) losses in domestic and industrial sectors as agricultural consumption since it is unmetered and so unverifiable.  4 Shah (2001) has analysed this aspect for Uttar Pradesh State Electricity Board and found agricultural power use to be 35% lower than claimed. Similarly, based on a World Bank study in Haryana, Kishore and Sharma (2002) report that actual agricultural power consumption was 27% less than reported, and the overall T&D losses were 47% while offi cial claims made it 36.8%, making the SEB more effi cient than it actually was. Power subsidy ostensibly meant for the agriculture sector but actually accruing to other sectors was estimated at Rs 5.50 billion/year ($0.12 billion/year) for Haryana alone."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"remains that agricultural power supply under the existing regime is the prime cause of bankruptcy of SEBs in India."},{"index":4,"size":160,"text":"Reflecting pressure from the power industry, GOI has prescribed that: (i) power on demand will be provided by 2012; (ii) all consumers will be metered in two phases, with phase I to cover metering of all 11 kVA feeders and High Tension consumers, and phase II to cover all consumers; and (iii) regular energy audits will be undertaken to assess T&D losses and eliminate power thefts within 2 years (Godbole, 2002). This is an ambitious agenda. Consistent with these policies, Central and State Electricity Regulatory Commissions have set deadlines for SEBs and state governments to make the transition to universal metering, and all new tube well connections now come with the option of a metered tariff with most states offering inducements to opt for metered connections. Support has also come from international agencies -notably the World Bank, USAID and ADB -which have begun to insist on metered power supply to agriculture as a key condition for financing new power projects."},{"index":5,"size":181,"text":"Arguments for a metered tariff regime are several. First, metering is considered essential for SEBs to manage their commercial losses; you cannot manage what you do not monitor and you cannot monitor what you do not measure. Second, once farm power is metered, SEBs cannot use agricultural consumption as a carpet under which they can sweep their T&D losses in other markets. Third, metering provides farmers with the correct signals concerning the real cost of power and water, and encourages them to economize on their use. Fourth, for reasons that are not entirely clear, it is often suggested that a metered tariff would be less amenable to political manipulation than a flat tariff regime and easier to raise as the cost of supplying power rises. Finally, it is widely argued that a flat tariff is inequitable towards small landowners and to irrigators in regions with limited availability of groundwater. The logic in support of a metered tariff is thus obvious and unexceptionable. The problem is to make a metered tariff regime work as broadly envisaged. For this, three things seem essential:"}]},{"head":"•","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The metering and collection agent must have the requisite authority to deal with deviant behaviour among users."}]},{"head":"•","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The agent should be subject to a tight control system so that he can neither behave arbitrarily with consumers nor form an unholy collusion with them."}]},{"head":"•","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The agent must have proper incentives to enforce a metered tariff regime."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"Under agrarian conditions that in many ways are comparable with those in South Asia, these three conditions appear to obtain in North China where a metered tariff regime works reasonably well (Shah, 2003;Shah et al., 2004a). How is this possible? And if it works in North China why not in South Asia?"}]},{"head":"Why is metering effective in North China?","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":281,"text":"The Chinese electricity supply industry operates on two principles: (i) total cost recovery in generation, transmission and distribution at each level with some minor cross-subsidization across user groups and areas; and (ii) each user pays in proportion to his use. In contrast to much of India, tariffs thus reflect relative costs and agricultural use, which often attract the highest charge per unit, followed by household users and then industries. The operation and maintenance (O&M) of local power infrastructure is the responsibility of local units -the Village Committee at village level, the Township Electricity Bureau at township level and the County Electricity Bureau at county level. Responsibilities for collecting electricity charges are assigned to ensure that the power used at each level is paid in full at that level. At village level, the sum of power use for any given period recorded at individual meters has to tally with the power supply recorded at the transformer. The unit or person charged with fee collection pays the Township Electricity Bureau for power use at the transformer after allowing for 10% to account for normal losses. If the power supply infrastructure is old and worn out, line losses below the transformer make this difficult. With this supposition turning out to be true, an Electricity Network Reform program was undertaken by the National Government to modernize and rehabilitate rural power infrastructure. Where this was done, line losses fell sharply 5 and among the nine villages Shah visited in three counties of Henan and Hebei in early 2002, none of the Village Electricians interviewed had a problem tallying transformer records with the sum of the consumption recorded by individual users given the line-loss allowance of 10%."},{"index":2,"size":208,"text":"An important reason why this institutional arrangement works is the strong local authority structures: the electrician is feared because he is backed by the Village Committee and powerful Party Leader; and the new service orientation is designed partly to project the electrician as the friend of the people. The Committee and Leader can also keep flagrantly arbitrary behaviour in check. The hypothesis that with better quality power and support service, farmers will be willing to pay a high price for power is exemplified in Henan where farmers pay a higher electricity rate compared not only to most categories of users in India and Pakistan (Yuan 0.7/kWh or US$0.0875/kWh, Rs 4.03/kWh) but also to the diesel price at Yuan 2.1/l. The village electrician in Henan and Hebei receives a fairly modest reward of Yuan 200/month, equivalent to half the value of wheat produced on a mu (or 1/30th of the value of output on 1 ha of land). For this modest wage, he undertakes to make good to the Township Electricity Bureau line and commercial losses in excess of 10% of the power consumption recorded on the transformers. If he can manage to keep losses to less than 10%, he can keep 40% of the value of power saved."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"All in all, the Chinese have a working solution to a problem that has befuddled South Asia for nearly two decades. Following Deng Xiaoping who famously asserted that 'it does not matter whether the cat is black or white, as long as it catches mice', the Chinese have built an incentive-compatible system that delivers quickly rather than wasting time on rural electricity cooperatives and Village Vidyut Sanghas (Electricity Associations) being tried in India and Bangladesh (see below). Given the Chinese method of collecting metered electricity charges, it is well-nigh impossible for the power industry to lose money in distribution since losses are firmly passed on downstream from one level to the level below."}]},{"head":"Why cannot a metering regime work in South Asia?","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"If South Asia is to revert to a metered tariff, the Chinese offer a good model. But there are two initial problems. First, agricultural productivity in China is much higher than in most of South Asia and even with power charged at full cost, pumping constitutes a relatively small proportion of the gross value of output. In South Asia, irrigation costs of this order (Rs 2100-8600/ha or $46-197) would make groundwater irrigation unviable except in parts of Punjab and Haryana. Second, while the South Asian power industry can perhaps approximate to the Chinese incentive system, it cannot repli-"},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"The village electrician's reward system encourages him to exert pressures to cut line losses. In the Dong Wang Nu village in the Ci county, the village committee's single large transformer which served both domestic and agricultural connections caused heavy line losses at 22-25%. Once the Network Reform Program began, he pressurized the Village Committee to sell the old transformer to the Township Electricity Bureau and raise Y10,000 (partly by collecting a levy of Y25 per family and partly by a contribution from the Village Development Fund) to get two new transformers, one for domestic connections and the other for pumps. Since then, power losses have fallen to a permissible level of 12% here (Shah et al., 2004a)."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"cate the Chinese authority system at village level. The absence of an effective local authority that can guard the farmers from arbitrary behaviour of the metering agent or protect the latter from noncompliance by users may create unforeseen complications in adapting the Chinese model by South Asia. These costs soar in a 'soft state' in which an average user expects to get away even if caught. 6,7 An important reason why metering works reasonably well in China is that it is a 'hard state': an average user fears the village electrician whose informal power and authority border on the absolute in his domain. Two issues in South Asia are thus critical:"},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"•"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"The relentless opposition from farmers to metering;"},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"• The problems that forced the SEBs to switch to a flat tariff during the 1970s in the first place."},{"index":7,"size":115,"text":"Moves towards metered power consumption have met with unprecedented farmer opposition and there are few takers for metered connections; instead, the demand for free power has gathered momentum. 8  Opposition to a metered tariff is in part due to an assumed threat to the subsidy contained in the existing flat tariff. In addition, farmers find the flat tariff transparent and simple to understand; it spares them the tyranny of the meter readers; they fear that, once metered, all manner of new charges will be added under different names; and they raise the issue of equityif canal irrigators receive irrigation at subsidized flat rates in public schemes, why not provide the same terms to groundwater irrigators?"},{"index":8,"size":453,"text":"The extent of farmer resistance is evident in the repeated failure of SEBs to entice farmers to accept metering even at subsidized rates ranging from Rs 0.20/kWh to Rs 0.70/kWh (US$0.004-0.013/kWh) compared to an actual cost from Rs 2.50/ kWh to Rs 3.80/kWh (US$0.05-0.08/kWh). In 2002, Batra and Singh (2003) interviewed well owners in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh. They noted that an average well owner would spend Rs 2530 ($55) and Rs 6805/year ($148/ year) less on their total power bill in Punjab and Haryana, respectively if they accepted metering at prevailing rates of Rs 0.50/kWh (US$0.011/kWh) and Rs 0.65/ kWh (US$0.014/kWh). Even so, they would not accept metering. In effect, this 8 And farmers are getting away with it in many states. Electricity supply to agriculture became a major issue in India's 2004 parliamentary and state elections. Chief Ministers like Chandrababu Naidu of Andhra Pradesh, Narendra Modi of Gujarat and Jayalalitha of Tamilnadu suffered major electoral reverses arguably on account of farmer opposition to their stand on electricity supply to agriculture. The new Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh announced free power to farmers the day after he assumed offi ce; and Jayalalitha, who had abolished free power in Tamilnadu, restored it soon after the results of election. Gujarat's Narendra Modi softened his hard stand on farm power supply; and in Maharashtra, Shiv Sena chief Bal Thakre announced his promise to provide free power to farmers should his party come to power. 6 Transaction costs of charge collection will be high even under a fl at tariff regime if farmers think they can get away with non-payment. Throughout India and Pakistan, replacing nameplates of electric motors on tube wells has emerged as a growth industry under the fl at tariff. In Haryana, a World Bank study has recently estimated that the actual connected agricultural load was 74% higher than that shown by the offi cial utility records (Kishore and Sharma, 2002). 7 There are exceptions in South Asia, notably in the urban sector. Private electricity companies that supply power in cities like Ahmedabad and Surat also instill the fear of God in users by regularly meting out exemplary penalties, often in an arbitrary manner. The Ahmedabad Electricity Company's inspection squads, for example, are set steep targets for penalty collection for pilferage. To meet these targets, they have to catch real or imagined power thieves; their victims pay the fi ne because going to courts would take years to redress their grievances while they stay without power. Although these stories paint a sordid picture, the company would fi nd it diffi cult to keep its commercial losses to acceptable levels if its customers were not repeatedly reminded of their obligation to pay."},{"index":9,"size":225,"text":"is the price they are willing to pay to avoid the hassle and costs of metering. 9  India has a long history of electricity cooperatives in an attempt to improve accountability and improve performance in the sector, originally under a metered regime (Gulati and Narayanan, 2003, p. 129). However, despite 50 years of effort to make these work, including with donor support, they have not succeeded. 10 The 50year-old Pravara electricity cooperative in Maharashtra survives but only by owing the SEB several billions of rupees in unpaid past dues (Godbole, 2002). Recent experiments with new metering solutions include that of Indian Grameen Services, an NGO which organized Transformer User Associations in Hoshangabad district of Madhya Pradesh; the idea was that the SEB would set up a dedicated plant if farmers paid unpaid dues and agreed to a metered tariff. However, before the 2004 elections, the chief minister 'waived' past dues and the Hoshangabad association disintegrated, its members disillusioned. Orissa organized similar Village Vidyut Sangha's (Electricity User Associations); while these are now defunct, Orissa has achieved modest success in improving metered charge collection by using local entrepreneurs as billing and collection agents. However, less than 5% of rural load in Orissa is agricultural, and this approach may be much more difficult in, for instance, Gujarat where agriculture may account for 50-80% of the total rural load."},{"index":10,"size":433,"text":"It is too early to learn lessons from these experiments though there is a prima facie case that a direct approach to incentives on the Chinese model might be preferable. What is clear is that the old system of metering and billing -under which the SEBs employed an army of unionized meter readers -just will not work. 11 If the logistical difficulty and transaction costs of metering prior to 1975 were so high that a flat tariff seemed the only way of containing them, how much more so is this now that there are ten times as many electric tube wells? Even with far fewer connections, a 1985 study in Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra by the Rural Electrification Corporation estimated that the cost of metering rural power was 26% and 16%, respectively, of the total revenue of the SEB from the farm sector (Shah, 1993). And this estimate included only direct costs, e.g. the cost of the meter and maintaining it, of the power consumed by the meter, of reading the meter, and of billing and collecting. These costs are not insignificant 12 ; but of much greater relevance is the cost of contain-9 According to Batra and Singh (2003), farmers resist metering 'because of the prevalence of irregularities in the SEBs.' Complaints of frequent meter burning (which costs the farmer Rs 1000 per meter burnt or $22), false billing, uncertainty in the bill amount etc. were quoted. They suggest farmers also resist metering because of the two part tariff (energy charge and rental for meter) system offered as an alternative to fl at tariff. They are reluctant to pay the minimum bill (rental charge), which they have to pay even if they do not use the pump in a given month. In Gujarat which had metered tariff until 1987, an important source of opposition to metering is the arbitrariness of meter readers and the power they had come to wield over them; in many villages, farmers had organized for the sole purpose of resisting the tyranny of the meter reader. In some areas, this became so serious that meter readers were declared persona non grata; even today, electricity board fi eld staff seldom go to the villages except in fairly large groups, and often with police escort. 10 Thus, Madhav Godbole notes, 'But if co-operatives are to be a serious and viable option [for power distribution], our present thinking on the subject will have to be seriously reassessed. As compared to the success stories of electricity co-operatives [in USA, Thailand and Bangladesh], ours have been dismal failures' (Godbole, 2002(Godbole, , p. 2197))."}]},{"head":"11","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"A 1997 consumer survey revealed that 53% of power consumers had to bribe electricity staff for services supposed to be free; 68% said that grievance redressal was poor or worse than poor; 76% found staff attitudes poor or worse; 53% found repair and fault services poor or worse; 42% said they had to make 6-12 calls just to register a complaint; 57% knew of power thefts in their neighbourhoods; 35% complained of excess billing; 76% complained of inconvenience in paying their bills (Rao, 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"12 A recent World Bank Study estimated that the cost of metering all farm power connections in the small State of Haryana would amount to $30 million (Rs 1380 million) in capital investment and $2.2 million/year (Rs 101.2/ year) in operating costs (Kishore and Sharma, 2002). The Maharashtra Electricity Tariff Commission estimated the capital cost of metering the state's farm connections at Rs 11.50 ($0.25) billion (Godbole, 2002)."},{"index":3,"size":163,"text":"ing pilferage, of tampering with meters, of under-reading and underbilling by meter readers in cohort with farmers over vast areas. 13  Most SEBs find it difficult to manage a metered power supply even in the industrial and domestic sectors. In Uttar Pradesh, 40% of low tension (LT) consumers are metered but only 11% are billed on metered use; the rest are billed based on a minimum charge or an average of past months of metered use (Kishore and Sharma, 2002). In Orissa, under far-reaching power sector reforms, private distribution companies have brought all users under a metered tariff regime. However, 100% collection of amounts billed has worked only for industry; in the domestic and farm sectors collection as a proportion of billing declined from 90.5% in 1995/1996 to 74.6% in 1999/2000 (Panda, 2002). All in all, the power sector's aggressive advocacy of a metered tariff regime in agriculture is based, in our view, on an excessively low estimation of the transaction costs involved."}]},{"head":"From a Degenerate Flat Tariff to a","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Rational Flat Tariff Regime"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"The preoccupation of water and power sector professionals in aggressively advocating reversion to a metered tariff regime -and of farmers to frustrate their design -is, in our view, detracting from the discussion of pragmatic approaches that have the potential for promoting a better-managed, groundwaterbased agrarian economy in coexistence with a viable electricity sector. In other words, if direct management is impractical in South Asia what are the options for indirect management? One option is indirect management based on carefully designed electricity supply and pricing policies and the adoption of an 'intelligent' flat tariff regime."},{"index":2,"size":188,"text":"The major advantage of the rational flat tariff would be in putting a brake on groundwater depletion in western and peninsular India. Growing evidence suggests that water demand in agriculture is inelastic to pumping costs within a large range. While a metered charge without subsidy can make power utilities viable, it may not help much to cut water use and encourage water-saving agriculture. If anything, the evidence suggests that farmers respond more strongly to scarcity of these resources than to their price. Pockets of India where drip irrigation is spreading rapidly -such as Aurangabad in Maharashtra, Maikaal in Madhya Pradesh, Kolar in Karnataka and Coimbatore in Tamilnadu -are all regions where water and/or power is scarce rather than costly. A rational flat tariff with intelligent power supply rationing to the farm sector holds the promise of minimizing wasteful use of both resources and of encouraging technical change towards water and power saving. Such a strategy might reduce annual groundwater extraction in western and peninsular India by as much as 12-21 km 3 /year and reduce power use by 4-6 billion kWh, valued at Rs 10-15 billion/year ($0.22-0.33 billion/year)."},{"index":3,"size":157,"text":"A flat tariff is often written-off as inefficient, wasteful, irrational and distortionary besides being inequitable. In South Asia, this has indeed proved to be the case. It was the change to a flat tariff that encouraged political leaders to indulge in populist whims such as doing away with the farm power tariff altogether (as in Punjab and Tamil Nadu) or pegging it at low levels regardless of the true cost of power supply. Such examples have led to the general perception that flat tariffs have been responsible for ruining the electricity industry and for causing groundwater depletion in many parts of South Asia. But, in our view, the flat tariff regime has been wrongly maligned since, as applied in South Asia, it is a degenerate version of what 13 Rao and Govindarajan (2003)  might otherwise be a rational pricing regime. A zero tariff is not rational; nor is a flat tariff without proactive rationing and supply management."}]},{"head":"Marginal cost pricing is far from universal in other sectors","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":370,"text":"To most analysts, a flat tariff violates the marginal cost principle that advocates p arity between the price charged and the marginal cost of supply. Yet, businesses commonly price their products or services in ways that violate the marginal cost principle but make overall business sense. For instance, flat rates may be charged to stimulate use so as to justify the incremental cost of providing a service. In the early days of rural electrification, SEBs charged a flatcum-pro-rata tariff to achieve two ends: to ensure that each tube well used at least the power to justify its investment in laying cable and poles; and the flat component of the tariff encouraged users to achieve this level. India's telephone department still provides the first 250 calls for a flat charge even though all calls are metered, the idea being to encourage telephone use to a level that justifies the incremental cost of providing the service. But the most important justification for a flat tariff regime is to save on the transaction costs of doing business. Organizations hire employees on a piece rate when their work is easy to measure; but flat rate compensation is prevalent worldwide since it is not easy to measure the marginal value of an employee's output on a daily basis. Urban public transport systems offer passes to commuters at attractive flat rates in part because commuters offer a stable business and equally because it reduces queues at ticket windows, and the cost of ticketing and collecting fares daily. Cable operators in India still charge a flat tariff for a bunch of television channels rather than charging for each channel separately because the latter would substantially increase their transaction costs. A few years ago, the Indian Income Tax Department offered businesses in the informal sector to pay a flat income tax of Rs 1400/year ($30.4/year) rather than launching a nationwide campaign to bring millions of small businesses within its tax net because the transaction costs of doing that would have been far higher than the revenue realized. A major reason municipal taxes are levied on a flat rate is the transaction cost of charging citizens based on the value they place at the margin on the municipal services."},{"index":2,"size":230,"text":"Are all these businesses that charge for their products or services on a flat rate destined to make losses? No. They often make money because they charge a flat rate. Many private goods share this one feature with public goods like municipal services and defence: the high transaction cost of charging a differential price to different customers based on their use as well as the value they place on the product or service. So they recover their costs through a flat rate and remain viable through deft supply management. Canal irrigation is a classic example. Volumetric supply has long been advocated but nowhere in South Asia is volumetric water pricing practised in canal irrigation given the prohibitive costs of collecting volumetric charges (Perry, 1996(Perry, , 2001)). This is due to such factors as: (i) the large number of potential small farmers; (ii) the difficulty of excluding defaulting farmers; and (iii) the propensity for farmers to frustrate sellers' effort. While volumetric pricing of canal irrigation may be possible in, say, South African irrigation systems where a branch canal serving some 5000 ha might have 10-50 white commercial farmers, an Indian system serving the same area might contain 6000-8000 farmers (Shah et al., 2002). The only way of making canal irrigation systems viable in the Indian situation is to raise the flat rate per hectare to a level that ensures overall viability."},{"index":3,"size":208,"text":"Supply restriction is inherent to rational flat rate pricing; by the same token, flat rate pricing and on-demand service are incompatible in most situations. In that sense, consumption-linked pricing and flat rate pricing represent two different busi-ness philosophies; in the first, the supplier will strive to 'delight the customer' as it were, by providing on-demand service without quantity or quality restrictions of any kind 14 ; in the latter, the customer has to adapt to the supplier's constraints in terms of the overall quantum available and the manner in which it is supplied. In the case of buffet meals, restaurants give customers a good deal but save on waiting costs, which are a substantial element in the economics of a restaurant. In the Indian thali system, where one gets a buffet-type meal served on one's table, the downside is that one cannot have a leisurely meal since the restaurant aims to maximize the number of customers served during a fixed working period and in a limited space. Thus, there is always a price for the value businesses offer their customers through products and services offered on a flat tariff; but that does not mean that the seller or the buyer is any the worse for flat rate pricing."}]},{"head":"The flat tariff in irrigation","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":297,"text":"The reason that the flat rate tariff, as currently practised for pump irrigation in South Asia, is degenerate -and the power industry is in the red -is that the power utilities have failed to manage a rationed power supply. Under the flat tariff system as practised, most SEBs try to maintain farm power supply at 8-15 h/day throughout the year. This is comparable to maintaining a surface canal at full supply every day of the year. Raising a flat tariff to a level that covers the cost of this service is politically untenable. 15 A domestic consumer may assess a good quality service as power of uniform voltage and frequency supplied 24 h a day, 365 days a year. But the irrigators' idea of good quality service is power of uniform voltage and frequency when their crops face critical moisture stress. Ideally, the business objective of a power utility should be to supply the best-quality service consistent with the flat tariff pegged at a given level. With intelligent management of power supply, it should be possible to satisfy irrigation power demand by ensuring a supply of 18-20 h a day for 40-50 key moisture-stress days, with some power available at other times. 16 The pattern of farming demand differs in significant ways from that of domestic and industrial customers. It is this that provides the main opportunities for 'value improvement,' that is, 'meeting or 14 On-demand power supply is the norm in most developed electricity systems and on-demand irrigation also typifi es most groundwater systems worldwide. In contrast, fully on-demand surface irrigation is only found in a very few fully reticulated systems backed by adequate water supplies. Under the vast majority of conditions, balancing water supply and demand in surface irrigation requires quota limitations of some sort."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"15"},{"index":3,"size":173,"text":"In Madhya Pradesh, the latest state to announce power pricing reforms, the Chief Minister announced a sixfold hike in fl at tariff. No sooner was the announcement made than there was a realignment within the ruling party, and cabinet ministers began clamouring for a leadership change. Subhash Yadav, the Deputy Chief Minister, lamented in an interview with India Today: 'A farmer who produces 10 t of wheat earns Rs 60,000 ($1304.35) and he is expected to pay Rs 55,000 ($1195.65) to the electricity board. What will he feed his children with and why should he vote for the Congress?' (India Today, 2002, p. 32). The farmers stopped paying even the revised fl at charges and just before the May 2004 assembly elections, the Chief Minister waived all past electricity dues. Even so, he could not save his seat. His Congress government, until now eulogized for a progressive development-oriented stance, was trounced at the polls. Analysts attributed his defeat to the government's failure on three fronts: Bijli, Pani and Sadak (electricity, irrigation and roads)."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"16"},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"No doubt there will always be a few farmers who might demand a very different schedule to that of the predominant farming pattern in a specifi c area. These will typically be entrepreneurial farmers growing high-return, specialized crops. Options for these farmers include on-farm storage, duplicate diesel pumps, market solutions, etc. Even so, some activities at the margin may be precluded. But in a country as vast as India, conditions somewhere will be suitable for meeting such specialized demands and, given the other advantages associated with the proposed 'rational fl at tariff' system, this is likely to be a minor issue."},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"exceeding customer expectations while removing unnecessary cost' (Berk and Berk, 1995)."},{"index":7,"size":263,"text":"Groundwater irrigators are envious of farmers in canal irrigation projects since they pay so little for their water. But a typical canal irrigator may get surface water no more than 10-15 times in a year and often he would be happy to get water six times in a year. In the new Sardar Sarovar project in Gujarat, the policy is to provide farmers a total of 53 cm depth of water in 5-6 instalments. For an irrigation well with a modest output of 25 m 3 /h, this would mean the ability to pump for 212 h/ ha. In terms of water availability, an electric pump owner with 3 ha of irrigable land would be at par with a farmer with 3 ha in the Narmada command if he gets 636 h of power in a year and would be considerably better off if the 636 h of power comes when he needs the water most. When Gujarat commits to year-round supply of 8 h/day of farm power, in effect it offers tube well owners water entitlements that are, in theory, 14 times larger than the water entitlements that the Sardar Sarovar project offers to farmers in its command area. 17 Under a metered tariff, this may not matter since tube well owners would use power only when the value generated exceeds the marginal cost of pumping. But under a flat tariff, they would have a strong incentive to use some of these 'excess water entitlements' for low marginal value uses just because it costs them nothing on the margin to pump groundwater."},{"index":8,"size":292,"text":"A rational flat tariff, if well managed, can confer two main benefits. First, it may curtail wasteful use of groundwater. If farm power supply outside the main irrigation seasons is restricted to 2-3 h/day, it will encourage farmers to build small on-farm storage tanks for meeting multiple uses of water. Using a progressive flat tariff -by charging higher rates per connected hp as the pump size increases -would provide an additional incentive to purchase and use smaller-capacity pumps to irrigate smaller areas, e.g. in regions where resource depletion is rampant. Above all, a restricted but predictable water supply would encourage water-saving irrigation techniques more effectively than raising the marginal cost of irrigation. Second, given the quality of power T&D infrastructure in rural India, restricting the period of time when the farm power system is 'ON' may by itself result in significant reduction in technical and commercial losses of power. The parallel with water supply systems is clear. In a 1999 paper, for example, Briscoe (1999) wrote that throughout the Indian subcontinent, unaccounted-for-water as a proportion of supply is so high 'that losses are \"controlled\" by having water in the distribution system only a couple of hours a day, and by keeping pressures low. In Madras, for example, if the supply was to increase from current levels (about 2 h of supply a day at 2 m of pressure) to a reasonable level (say, 12 h a day at 10 m of pressure) leaks would account for about 900 million litres per day, which is about three times the current supply in the city!' Much the same logic works in farm power, with the additional caveat that the T&D system for farm connections is far more extensive than the urban water supply system."}]},{"head":"Making 'Rational Flat Tariff and Intelligent Power Supply Management' Work","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"The preconditions for successful rationing"},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"We believe that transforming the present degenerate flat power tariff into a rational tariff regime will be easier and more beneficial in the short run in many parts of South Asia than trying to overcome farmer resistance to metering. We also believe that doing so can significantly cut the losses of power utilities from their agricultural operations."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"At a rate of 25 m 3 /h, a tube well can pump 73,000 m 3 of water if it is operated whenever power supply is on. At the water entitlement of 5300 m 3 /ha prescribed in the Narmada project, this amount of water can irrigate 13.77 ha of land."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"Four preconditions seem both important and feasible:"},{"index":5,"size":270,"text":"• Separating agricultural and nonagricultural power supply. The first precondition for successful rationing is to separate agricultural from nonagricultural power supply to rural settlements. The most common way this is done now is to keep 2-phase power on for 24 h so that domestic and (most) non-agricultural uses are not affected and ration the 3-phase power necessary to run irrigation pump sets. This is working but only partially. Farmer response in states like Gujarat is rampant use of phase-splitting capacitors with which they can run pumps even on 2-phase power. There are technological ways to avoid this. For instance, the 11 kV line could be adapted to shut off as soon as the load increases beyond a predetermined level. The costs of such infrastructural modifications could be significant and their feasibility varies. A pragmatic approach is therefore essential. Nevertheless, many SEBs have already begun separating the feeders supplying farm and non-farm rural consumers. For instance, Gujarat has embarked on an ambitious program (Jyotirgram Yojana) to lay parallel power supply lines for agricultural users in 16,000 villages at an estimated cost of Rs 9 billion ($196 million). In Andhra Pradesh, the separation of domestic and agricultural feeders is 70% complete (Raghu, 2004). This would ensure that industrial users in the rural areas who need uninterrupted 3-phase power supply and domestic users remain unaffected from rationing of power supplies for agricultural consumers. Another complementary infrastructural investment is to install meters to monitor power use so that power budgeting can be implemented effectively. For this, meters at transformer and feeder levels will be required. Many states have already installed meters at feeder level."},{"index":6,"size":101,"text":"• Gradual and regular increase in flat power tariff. Flat tariffs have tended to remain 'sticky'; in most states, they have not been changed for 10-15 years while the cost of generating and distributing power has soared. We surmise that raising the flat tariff at one go to close this gap between revenue and cost per kWh would be too drastic an increase. However, as has been proposed by the Electricity Regulatory Commission in Gujarat, farmers would be able to cope with a regular 10-15% annual increase in the flat tariff far more easily than a 350% increase at one go."},{"index":7,"size":200,"text":"• Explicit subsidy. If we are to judge the value of a subsidy to a large mass of people by the scale of popular opposition to curtailing it, there is little doubt that, among the plethora of subsidies that governments in India provide, the power subsidy is one of the most valued. Indeed, a decision by a ruling party to curtail the power subsidy is the biggest weapon that opposition parties use to bring down a government. So it is unlikely that political leaders will want to do away with power subsidies completely no matter what the power industry and donors would like. However, the problem with the power subsidy in the current degenerate flat tariff is its indeterminacy. Chief ministers issue diktats to SEBs about the number of hours of power per day to be supplied to farmers; that done, the actual subsidy availed of by the farmers is in effect left to them to usurp. Instead, governments should tell the power utility the amount of power subsidy it can make available at the start of each year; and the power utility should then decide the amount of farm power the flat tariff and the government subsidy can buy."},{"index":8,"size":205,"text":"• Off-peak power. In estimating losses from farm power supply, protagonists of power sector reform systematically overestimate the real opportunity cost of power supplied to the farmers. For instance, the cost of supplying power to the domestic sector -including generation, transmission and distribution -is often taken as the opportunity cost of power to agriculture, which is clearly wrong since a large part of the high transaction costs of distributing power to the domestic sector is saved in power supply to agriculture under a flat tariff. Moreover, under current conditions, a large part of the power supplied to the farm sector is off-peak load power. Indeed, but for agriculture, the power utilities would be hard-pressed to dispose of this power. 18 It is true that irrigation demands are also seasonal, and that this will become more transparent under an 'intelligent' tariff regime. However, more than half of the power supplied to the farm sector is at night and -despite probable farmer reluctance to accept -this proportion could increase further. The important point here is that, in computing the power the prevailing flat tariff and prespecified subsidy can buy, the utilities should use a lower opportunity cost of the off-peak supply to the extent it is applicable."},{"index":9,"size":323,"text":"In summary, there is substantial scope for cutting costs and improving service. The existing policy in many states of maintaining power supply to the farm sector at a constant rate during pre-specified hours is irrational and the prime reason for wasteful use of power and water. 19 Figure 9.4 provides a notional indication of the extent of this waste. Ideally, power supply to the farm sector should be so scheduled as to reflect the pumping behaviour of a modal group of farmers in a given region when subject to a metered power tariff at full cost. While this might not meet the needs of all farmers, it would be good enough. Of course, it may be difficult to simulate behaviour for farmers subject to a flat tariff. In many states there are a few new tube wells whose owners pay for power on a metered basis but they are charged so low a rate that they behave much like farmers who pay a flat tariff. Another method would be to compare electricity use before and after a flat tariff to gauge the extent of overutilization of 18 The cost of power supply has three components: Energy Costs, Fixed Generation Costs and T&D Costs. The fi rst two account for about 60-80% of the total cost to serve. The energy cost, which is variable, depends on the length of time of power consumption but fi xed generation costs depend on how much a farmer consumes at peak load. T&D costs depend on where the consumer is connected in the system. Since the contribution of agricultural power consumption to peak load is often very little, the opportunity cost of power supply to agriculture is lower than the overall average cost of supply. Moreover, agricultural consumption, most of it off-peak helps smoothen the load curve for the whole system and saves the back-up cost which is high for coal-based plants and insignifi cant for hydropower plants."}]},{"head":"19","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"In Tamilnadu, where farm power supply is free, 14 h of 3-phase power -6 h during day and 8 h during night -is supplied throughout the year. In Andhra Pradesh, 9 h of 3-phase power supply is guaranteed, 6 h during the day and 3 h during the night (Palanisami and Kumar, 2002); this was recently reduced to 7 h when the new government announced free power. This implies that, in theory, a tube well in Tamilnadu can run for over 5000 h/year and in Andhra Pradesh for 3200 h. If the real cost of power is taken to be Rs 2.5/kWh (USc5.4/kWh), depending on how conscientious he is, a Tamilnadu farmer operating a 10 hp tube well can avail of a power subsidy ranging from Rs 0-93,750/($0-2038)/year; and an Andhra Pradesh farmer, Rs 0-60,000)/year ($0-1304/year)."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"The stories one hears of farmers installing automatic switches that turn on the tube wells whenever power supply starts suggest that a large proportion of farmers are overusing in using power and water. Palanisami and Kumar (2002) mention that many borewell owners lift water during the night to fi ll an open well using an automatic switch and then lift water during the day from the open well to irrigate their fi elds! True, they would not indulge in such waste if they had to pay a metered rate at Rs 2.5 (USc5.4)/kWh; but they would also not do this if they got only 3-4 h of good quality power at convenient hours on a pre-announced schedule."},{"index":3,"size":272,"text":"power and water attributable to a flat tariff. 20 However, it is the pumping behaviour of diesel pump owners, subject to the full marginal cost of energy, that might provide the best indicator. Several studies have shown that diesel tube wells are operated for half or less the time of electric tube wells that pay a flat tariff (Mukherji and Shah, 2002). 21  Batra and Singh (2003) interviewed 188 farmers in Punjab, Haryana and central Uttar Pradesh to explore if pumping behaviour of diesel and electric owners of water extraction mechanisms (WEM) differed significantly. They found no significant differences in Punjab and Haryana 22 but their results for Central UP suggested that diesel pumps are used when irrigation is needed and electric pumps when electricity is available. Very likely, a good deal of the excess water pumped by farmers owning both electric and diesel pumps is wasted in the sense that its marginal value product falls short of the scarcity value of water and power together. Figures 9.5 and 9.6 present the central premise: the excess of pumping by electric over diesel tube wells is indicative of the waste of water and power encouraged by the zero marginal cost of pumping under the present degenerate flat tariff regime. Mukherji and Shah (2002)  We recognize that comparing hours of operation is not the same as comparing the quantity of water extracted. But, in understanding the economic behaviour of tube well owners, comparing hours is more meaningful than comparing water produced. In any case, ceteris paribus for the same hours of pumping, an electric pump produces more water due to its higher effi ciency."}]},{"head":"22","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":423,"text":"Punjab and Haryana have much more productive agriculture compared to other parts of India with the cost of irrigation being just 8-10% of the gross value of produce. This might explain why the pumping pattern is inelastic to the energy cost. However, this is just a hypothesis and needs to be further confi rmed.  .5 shows that electric tube well owners subject to a flat tariff invariably operate their pumps for much longer time compared to diesel pump owners who face a steep marginal energy cost. Since it can be argued that diesel pumps, on average, have a larger capacity than electric pumps we also compare pumping hours weighted by hp ratings. Figure 9.6 shows that hp-hours pumped by flat-tariff paying electric pumps are also significantly higher than those pumped by diesel pumps everywhere. The survey suggests that the difference in annual pumpage is some 40-150%; some of this excess pumping no doubt results in additional output but much of it very likely does not and, to this extent, is a social waste that needs to be eliminated. 23  If, based on an analysis of the level and pattern of pumping by diesel pump owners, a power utility can shave off potential excess pumping by fine-tuning power supply schedule around the year, a flat tariff can become both viable and help eliminate 'waste.' The average number of hours for which diesel pumps operate is 500-600/ year. At 600 h of annual operation, an electric tube well would use 450 kWh of power/ hp; if all the power used is off-peak load commanding, say, 25% discount on a generation cost of Rs 2.5/kWh (US$0.05/kWh), then farm power supply by the power utility would break-even at a flat tariff at Rs 844/hp/year ($18.3/hp/year) as against Rs 500/hp/year ($10.9/hp/year) in force in Gujarat since 1989. Gujarat is committed to raising the flat tariff eventually to Rs 2100/ hp/year ($45.65/hp/year) at the instance of the Gujarat Electricity Regulatory Commission. If it does so, farmers might well topple the government. A more viable and practical course would be to raise the flat tariff in steps to, say, Rs 900 ($19.6) at first and then to Rs 1200 ($26.09), and to restrict annual supply of farm power to 1000-1200 h com-pared to 3000-3500 h/year as at present. A 5 hp pump lifting 25 m 3 of water/h over a head of 15 m can produce 30,000 m 3 of water/year in 1200 h of tube well operation, sufficient to meet the needs of most small farmers in the region."}]},{"head":"Alternative Approaches to Rationing","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"The strongest evidence in support of our argument for intelligent rationing of farm power is that, for more than a decade, most SEBs in India have already rationed power to farmers in some way. For instance, Andhra Pradesh, where the new government announced free power, also announced that farm power supply would henceforth be restricted to 7 h daily. Nobody -farmers included -considers 24 h uninterrupted power supply to agriculture to be feasible or defensible under the flat tariff regime in force. Negotiations between farmer groups and governments almost everywhere in India are carried out in terms of the minimum hours of daily power supply the government can guarantee; and this can be termed the current default."},{"index":2,"size":209,"text":"The current default is perhaps the least intelligent way of rationing power supply to agriculture because it fails to achieve a good 'fit' between the schedule of power supply and farmers' desired irrigation schedules. It leaves farmers frustrated on days when their crops need to be watered most and leads to wasteful use of power and groundwater when the need is least. From where the SEBs' present power rationing practices stand today, they only have to gain by achieving a better fit between power supply schedules and farmers' irrigation schedules. Farmers keep demanding that the 'constant hours/day' be raised because the default system does not provide enough power when they need it most. There are a number of ways of rationing that would raise farmer satisfaction and control power subsidies so that (i) it reduces farmers' uncertainty about the timing of power; (ii) it achieves a better fit between power supply schedules and irrigation schedules; or (iii) both. We suggest below a few 23 It is probable that the real savings in power are proportionately greater than the real savings in water since a part of the excess water pumped returns to the aquifer. This can be a signifi cant factor, especially where irrigation depends on shallow groundwater circulation."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"illustrative alternative approaches that need to be considered and tried out with a view to increasing farmer acceptance and containing the subsidies provided as well as the wastage of power and water (Fig. 9.7)."},{"index":4,"size":134,"text":"• Agronomic scheduling. Ideally, SEBs should aim to achieve the 'best fit' by matching power supply schedules with irrigation needs of farmers to the extent this is feasible within the context of their overall operations. Under this approach, the power utility would constantly study: (i) irrigation behaviour of farmers in regions and subregions by monitoring cropping patterns, cropping cycles and rainfall events; (ii) matches power supply schedules to meet irrigation needs; and (iii) minimizes supply in off-peak irrigation periods. The advantages of such a system are that farmers would be happier, the total power supply to agriculture can be reduced, power and water waste would be minimized, and the level of subsidy availed is within SEB control. The key disadvantage of this approach is that it is highly management-intensive and, therefore, difficult to operationalize."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"• Demand-based scheduling. In this approach, feeder-level farmer committees or other representational bodies of farmers assume the responsibility of ascertaining members' requirements of power, and provide a power supply schedule to the utility for a fixed number of allowable hours for each season. This is a modified version of agronomic scheduling in which the power utility's research and monitoring task is assumed by feeder committees. This may make it easier to generate demand schedules but more difficult to serve it. Moreover, the organizational challenge this approach poses is also formidable."},{"index":6,"size":43,"text":"• Canal-based scheduling. Tube well irrigators outside canal commands justify demands for power subsidies by comparing their lot with canal irrigators who get cheap canal irrigation without Mismatch between power supply and irrigation needs; existing system in which the farmer is frustrated B:"},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"A win-win scenario: power supply is good and reliable, when the irrigation needs are high (satisfied farmer), and low power supply when irrigation needs are low (volume of subsidy is controlled)"}]},{"head":"High","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Satisfied farmer","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Volume of subsidy controlled","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"any capital investment of their own. However, under the present degenerate flat tariff, tube well irrigators often have the best of both the worlds. At 10 h of power supply/day, an Andhra Pradesh tube well irrigator could in theory use 300-500 m 3 of water every day of the year. In contrast, under some of the best canal commands, farmers get irrigation for 10-15 times in an entire year. Under this approach, power rationing aims to remove the inequity between tube well and canal irrigators by scheduling power supply to mimic the irrigation schedule of a bench-marked public irrigation system. And although this will impose constraints on tube well irrigators, it can drastically reduce power subsidies from current levels. For that very same reason, it will face stiff resistance from tube well irrigating farmers."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"• Zonal roster. An approach to rationing that is simpler to administer is to divide the state into say seven zones, each zone assigned a fixed day of the week when it gets 20 h of uninterrupted, quality power throughout the year; on the rest of the days, it gets 2 h. This is somewhat like a weekly turn in the warabandi system in canal irrigation systems in Indian and Pakistan Punjab. The advantages of this approach are that: (i) it is easy to administer; (ii) the agricultural load for the state as a whole remains constant, so it becomes easy to manage for SEB; also (iii) level of subsidies is controlled; and (iv) power supply to each zone is predictable so that farmers can plan their irrigation easily. Disadvantages are that: (i) farmers in deep water table areas or areas with poor aquifers (as Saurashtra in Gujarat) would be unhappy since they must pump for longer to obtain the same supply; and (ii) zonal rostering would not mimic seasonal fluctuations in irrigation demand as well as in agronomic rationing."},{"index":3,"size":146,"text":"• Adjusted zonal roaster. The zonal roaster can help farmers plan their cropping pattern and irrigation schedules by reducing uncertainty in power supply but it does not do much to improve the 'fit' between irrigation need and power supply across seasons. In most of India, for instance, following the same zonal roaster in different seasons makes little sense. Modifying the zonal roaster system so that power supply offered is higher in winter and summer than in the monsoon season would improve the seasonal fit as well as reduce uncertainty. Any approach must necessarily be consistent with the characteristics of the power operations in the particular subregion concerned. Systems analysis of power operations will thus be a critical step in evaluating feasible alternatives. The issues concerned go beyond the scope of this chapter but, clearly, choices will need to be flexible in the light of ongoing experience."},{"index":4,"size":158,"text":"It will not always be possible to meet the precise needs of all farmers and a period of adjustment and experimentation may be necessary before the final arrangements are implemented. Power utilities in South Asia have never had the necessary understanding of irrigation requirements that this implies, which is a major reason for the constant hiatus between them and the agriculture sector. One reason is that SEBs employ only engineers (Rao, 2002). This important aspect has been overlooked in the power sector reforms under way in many Indian states, which focus on the institutional architecture of unbundling power operations. Distributing power to agriculture in South Asia is a very different activity to supplying urban and industrial demands and there is a real danger that private distribution companies will exclude agriculture as being 'too difficult and costly to serve,' as Orissa's experience is already showing. 24  Perhaps, the most appropriate course would be to promote a separate distribution com-"}]},{"head":"24","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The Orissa Electricity Regulatory Commission has already opened the gate for the power utility to ask agriculture to fend for itself, when it decided that 'any expansion of the grid which is not commercially viable, would not be taken into account in calculating the capital base of the company. In future, unless government gives grants for rural electrifi cation, the projects will not be taken up through tariff route' (Panda 2002)."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"pany for serving the agriculture sector with specialized competence and skill base; and predetermined government subsidies to the farming sector should be directed to the agricultural distribution companies. 25"}]},{"head":"Supporting intelligent management","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Which of the above approaches should be adopted is thus a pragmatic decision in the light of local conditions. Farmers will no doubt resist rationing of power supply and any reforms will need to be introduced sensitively in association with farmer and political representatives and flexibly in response to ongoing experience and results. Moreover, farmer resistance can be reduced if reforms are accompanied by such measures as:"},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"• Enhancing predictability and certainty. More than the total quantum of power delivered, in our assessment, power suppliers can help the farmers by announcing an annual schedule of power supply adapted broadly to match the demand pattern of the majority of farmers. Once announced, the utility must then stick to the schedule so that farmers can be certain about power availability."},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"• Improving supply quality. Whenever power is supplied, it should be at full voltage and frequency, minimizing the damage to motors and downtime of transformers due to voltage fluctuations."}]},{"head":"•","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Better matching of supply with peak periods of moisture stress. Most canal irrigators in South Asia manage with only 3-4 canal water releases in a season. There are probably 2 weeks during the monsoonal season in a normal year and perhaps 5-6 weeks during winter when the average farmer experiences great nervousness about moisture stress to his crops. If the power utility can take care of these periods, 80-90% of farmers' power and water needs would be met. This might not, for instance, help sugarcane growers in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamilnadu; but then they are the large part of the power utilities' problems."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"• Better upkeep of farm power supply infrastructure. Intelligent power supply management to agriculture will inevitably be a tricky business. If rationing is done by an arbitrary increase in power cuts and the neglect of rural power infrastructure, it might result in disastrous consequences as it did in East India. As described above, the saving grace was that in these ground waterabundant regions, small diesel pumps, though dirtier and costlier to operate, kept the economy going. Where groundwater is lifted from 200 to 300 m, such de-electrification could destroy the agricultural economy."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":209,"text":"We have argued in this report that neither a switch to a metered tariff regime at this juncture nor the raising of the flat tariff fourfold as, for instance proposed in Gujarat, is likely to be successful in South Asia and would in all probability backfire. Metering is highly unlikely to improve the fortunes of power utilities that have found no smarter ways than in the 1970s of dealing with the high transaction costs of metered farm power supply, which led to a flat tariff regime in the first place. However, if agriculturally dynamic states like Punjab and Haryana -where nonfarm uses of 3-phase power supply are extensive and growing in the villages and where productive farmers can afford higher costs of better quality power supply -want to experiment with metered power supply, they would be well advised to create microentrepreneurs to retail power, to meter individual power consumption and collect revenue as in China rather than experiment with electricity cooperatives. It should, however, be borne in mind 25 T.L. Sankar argues for the need to set up separate supply companies for farmers and rural poor that will access cheap power from hydroelectric and depreciated thermal plants and be subsidized as necessary directly by governments (Rao, 2002, p. 3435)."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"that the largest and most difficult problem lies in containing user efforts to frustrate the metered tariff regime, by pilfering power, illegal connections, tampering with meters and so on. While abuse remains possible in respect of a flat rate tariff, the opportunities are quite fewer. The ongoing experiments on privatization of electricity retailing in Orissa may produce useful lessons on whether metering-cum-billing agents can drastically and sustainably reduce the cost of metered power supply in a situation where tube well owners account for a significant proportion of electricity use."},{"index":3,"size":335,"text":"Contrary to popular understanding, a rational flat tariff can be an elegant and efficient regime, which requires a complex set of skills and an understanding of agriculture and irrigation in different regions. A rational flat tariff and intelligent power supply management in fact could achieve much that a metered tariff regime is designed to achieve at much lower real cost and a much greater likelihood of success. The flat tariff will undoubtedly have to be raised, but the schema we have set out could cut power utility losses from farm power supply substantially. Total hours of power supplied to farmers during a year will have to be reduced but the aim would be to provide farmers with good quality power at times of moisture stress when they need irrigation most. Power supply to agriculture will need to be metered at feeder and transformer levels as a basis for power scheduling and 'intelligent' management but the transaction costs of a metered charge at farm level would be saved. If concurrently the utilities begin treating farmers as customers, the adversarial relationship between them could in time turn benign. Moreover, a rational flat tariff would tend to maintain water markets as buyers' markets albeit less than under the present degenerate flat tariffs (for detailed arguments see Shah, 1993). A rational flat tariff -under which power rationing is more defensible than under a metered tariff -would allow an effective check on total use of power and water. Restricting the total hours of operation supply would curtail technical and commercial losses by SEBs and reduce power subsidies while a rational flat tariff has the potential for significantly curtailing groundwater depletion by minimizing wasteful resource use. In most instances, proportionately more power is likely to be saved than water due to the prevalence of return flows, but which of these two benefits is more valuable will depend critically on the context. Together, however, they have the potential for making a very substantial contribution to improving economic performance and strengthening resource sustainability."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Fig.9.1. Groundwater use in selected countries in the 1980s (MCM).(From Llamas et al., 1992, p. 4.)     "},{"text":"1 Most groundwater irrigation in South Asia is based on open dug wells and shallow tube wells. Deep tube wells are less than 1% of all groundwater structures.2 "},{"text":" Fig. 9.3. Percentage of electricity operated groundwater structures to total mechanized groundwater structures. "},{"text":"P Fig. 9.5. Flat electricity tariff induce farmers to pump more. "},{"text":"Figure 9 Figure9.5 shows that electric tube well owners subject to a flat tariff invariably operate their pumps for much longer time compared to diesel pump owners who face a steep marginal energy cost. Since it can be argued that diesel pumps, on average, have a larger capacity than electric pumps we also compare pumping hours weighted by hp ratings. Figure9.6 shows that hp-hours pumped by flat-tariff paying electric pumps are also significantly higher than those pumped by diesel pumps everywhere. The survey suggests that the difference in annual pumpage is some 40-150%; some of this excess pumping no doubt results in additional output but much of it very likely does not and, to this extent, is a social waste that needs to be eliminated.23  If, based on an analysis of the level and pattern of pumping by diesel pump owners, a power utility can shave off potential excess pumping by fine-tuning power supply schedule around the year, a flat tariff can become both viable and help eliminate 'waste.' The average number of hours for which diesel pumps operate is 500-600/ year. At 600 h of annual operation, an electric tube well would use 450 kWh of power/ hp; if all the power used is off-peak load commanding, say, 25% discount on a generation cost of Rs 2.5/kWh (US$0.05/kWh), then farm power supply by the power utility would break-even at a flat tariff at Rs 844/hp/year ($18.3/hp/year) as against Rs 500/hp/year ($10.9/hp/year) in force in Gujarat since 1989. Gujarat is committed to raising the flat tariff eventually to Rs 2100/ hp/year ($45.65/hp/year) at the instance of the Gujarat Electricity Regulatory Commission. If it does so, farmers might well topple the government. A more viable and practical course would be to raise the flat tariff in steps to, say, Rs 900 ($19.6) at first and then to Rs 1200 ($26.09), and to restrict annual supply of farm power to 1000-1200 h com- "},{"text":"Fig. 9 . 7 . Fig. 9.7. Improving farmer satisfaction and controlling electricity subsidies through intelligent management of farm power supply. "},{"text":" 4 But the fact Figures for Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu are based on Minor Irrigation Census, 1986 as they have not been included in 1993-1994 MI Census. For the other states, data relate to1993-1994 based on MI Census, 1993-1994.    S S   % Electric pumps % Electric pumps   Below 15 Below 15   15-30 15-30   30-50 30-50   50-80 50-80   Above 80 Above 80   Date not available Date not available 1000 0 1000 100001000  "},{"text":" present results from a survey of 2234 tube well irrigators across India and Bangladesh in late 2002. Minimizing waste of power and water through supply management. Note: This is a schematic diagram. The numbers are indicative and not based on actual field data.  14 14  12 12  10 10 Time (h) 6 8 Time (h)6 8  4 4  2 2  0 0  Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May JuneJuly Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.  Months Months  Hours of power supplied/day Hours of power supplied/day  Average hours of daily operation by electric tube well paying a flat tariff Average hours of daily operation by electric tube well paying a flat tariff  Average hours of daily operation by diesel pump Average hours of daily operation by diesel pump Fig. 9.4. 20 An extreme case is Tamilnadu where electricity con- Fig. 9.4. 20 An extreme case is Tamilnadu where electricity con- sumption per tube well shot up from 2583 kWh/year sumption per tube well shot up from 2583 kWh/year under metered tariff in the early 1980s to 4546 kWh under metered tariff in the early 1980s to 4546 kWh in 1997-1998. However, this jump would represent in 1997-1998. However, this jump would represent three components: (i) increased consumption due to three components: (i) increased consumption due to degenerate fl at tariff; (ii) increased consumption be- degenerate fl at tariff; (ii) increased consumption be- cause of the increased average lift caused by resource cause of the increased average lift caused by resource depletion; and (iii) T&D losses in other segments that depletion; and (iii) T&D losses in other segments that are wrongly assigned to agriculture. Palanisami are wrongly assigned to agriculture. Palanisami (2001) estimated that 32% of the increased power (2001) estimated that 32% of the increased power use was explained by additional pumping and 68% use was explained by additional pumping and 68% by increased lift. However, he made no effort to by increased lift. However, he made no effort to estimate the (iii), which we suspect is quite large. estimate the (iii), which we suspect is quite large. 21  21  "}],"sieverID":"7a2e272a-9936-436b-bc10-eb6b226d8585","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0759b0fda72328daaeb466115074e0e3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/455e1a33-fb5a-4228-a6c6-e46245de6014/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"L es carences en micro-nutriments sont actuellement reconnues comme étant l'un des plus graves problèmes de santé auquel se trouvent confrontés d'importants secteurs de la population africaine, en particulier les femmes et les enfants pauvres. Les principales carences sont celles en fer, en zinc et en vitamines, ainsi que les carences en protéines dues à une alimentation riche sur le plan énergétique mais pauvre en apports protéiques, minéraux et vitaminiques. De plus, la pauvreté largement répandue empêche une grande partie de la population d'avoir accès aux produits animaux plus chers, riches en vitamines et minéraux. La connaissance limitée de la valeur nutritionnelle des aliments disponibles localement aggrave cette situation. Les aliments préférés, comprenant des produits à base de céréales, des pommes de terre et du manioc, présentent dans l'ensemble une faible concentration de micro-nutriments."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"La fréquence de l'anémie due à la carence en fer qui est de 8 % en Éthiopie, atteint 67 % en Tanzanie et 69 % au Burundi. La gravité des carences en zinc pour la santé n'a été reconnue que récemment. Le zinc, indispensable à une croissance normale, à l'appétit et aux fonctions immunitaires, est de plus en plus considéré comme essentiel dans les régimes alimentaires des personnes porteuses du VIH et du SIDA."}]},{"head":"Stratégies de réduction des déficiences en micro-nutriments","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":263,"text":"L'approche de la réduction du problème des carences en micro-nutriments en Afrique s'articule autour de trois axes : supplémentation en micro-nutriments visant les groupes vulnérables, enrichissement des aliments courants et amélioration de l'alimentation. La supplémentation minérale est efficace dans le cas de groupes vulnérables ayant accès à des services médicaux, ce qui, en Afrique de l'Est et du Centre, représente un groupe très restreint. Cette approche implique également un important apport de capital, un réseau de distribution élaboré et coûteux et l'acquiescement du patient. Elle exclut les populations à risque difficiles à atteindre, ainsi que tous ceux qui ne sont pas directement ciblés pour recevoir des suppléments. L'enrichissement des aliments courants n'a eu qu'un succès limité en Afrique qui ne possède ni une industrie alimentaire très développée, ni une législation très efficace. À l'heure actuelle, les programmes d'enrichissement des aliments ne fonctionnent que dans deux pays membres de l'ASARECA en Afrique de l'Est et du Centre : le Kenya et l'Ouganda. Cette approche est uniquement efficace pour les petites communautés riches, essentiellement dans les zones urbaines, excluant une fois encore la majorité des communautés pauvres urbaines et rurales. L'amélioration de l'alimentation est probablement la stratégie la plus efficace et la plus durable pour réduire les carences en micro-nutriments en Afrique. Elle a pour objectif d'augmenter la disponibilité alimentaire et l'accès régulier à des aliments riches en minéraux pour les groupes vulnérables et ceux présentant des carences en micronutriments. Cette approche implique le développement acceptable sur le plan cultural de céréales, légumes et plantes racines riches en minéraux, et la stimulation de leur consommation."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Le haricot commun (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) offre des possibilités exceptionnelles de s'attaquer à la dégradation de la situation alimentaire en Afrique de l'Est et du Centre. Il représente la légumineuse la plus abondamment cultivée et consommée de cette région. Le haricot représente une source principale de protéines tout comme de micronutriments (notamment fer et zinc) pour plus de 100 millions de personnes habitant dans les régions rurales ou les zones urbaines défavorisées. Il procure également une source importante de revenus aux familles rurales.  "}]},{"head":"Les concentrations de fer et de zinc dans le matériel génétique africain du haricot","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Teneur en zinc","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Les concentrations de zinc variaient de 12 à 62 parties par millions (ppm). Parmi les cinq meilleures variétés sur le plan du zinc, quatre étaient originaires de la RDC (VNB 81010, MLB-49-98A, LIB 1 et Kiangara) et une avait été sélectionnée par le CIAT (AND 620)."}]},{"head":"Teneur en fer","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Les concentrations de fer étaient plus élevées que celles rapportées pour l'échantillon du CIAT pris sur sa collection d'ensemble, qui allaient de 55 à 102 ppm. Ces différences sont surtout à mettre sur le compte de l'influence exercée par le type de sol et l'emplacement. Des variétés originaires de RDC prédominaient à nouveau (MLB-49-98A, VCB 87013, G59/ 1-2, Naindeky et Kiangara) ; une variété provenait du CIAT (AND 620) et une du Kenya et Ouganda (GLP 2)."}]},{"head":"Cultivars riches en micronutriments","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Trois variétés représentant trois types de graines consommées dans la région conjuguent de hautes concentrations de zinc et de fer, à savoir : une variété sélectionnée par le CIAT (AND 620), un cultivar à graines noires aux racines résistantes développé en RDC et actuellement populaire dans l'Ouest du Kenya (MLB-49-98A) et une variété locale originaire de RDC (Kiangara)."}]},{"head":"Cultivars riches en protéines","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"La concentration en protéines varie de 13 % à 26,4 %. Une variété locale de RDC (VCB 81012) et trois variétés ayant un lien avec le CIAT, sélectionnées soit en Éthiopie (Awash-1 et Awash Melka) soit en Ouganda (K131), présentaient une haute concentration protéique."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Les résultats ont révélé l'existence d'un potentiel considérable sur le plan de l'amélioration des apports en micronutriments et en protéines en encourageant la consommation de variétés de haricots riches en ces nutriments. Les autres cultivars de haricots abondamment consommés mais pauvres en micronutriments peuvent être améliorés grâce à la sélection. La première pépinière de la région consacrée aux haricots riches en nutriments, comprenant 38 variétés, a été mise en place en 2004. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Plus de 70 cultivars et variétés de pays ont été collectés en République Démocratique du Congo (RDC), en Éthiopie, au Kenya, en Ouganda, au Rwanda et au Soudan afin de déterminer les variables des teneurs en fer, zinc et protéines. Il s'agissait de génotypes jugés assez bien adaptés et convenant aux consommateurs qui pourraient donc être introduits très rapidement pour la production en champ et sur les marchés locaux (probablement sans trop de problèmes d'acceptation) s'ils s'avéraient riches en micro-nutriments. Des analyses ont été menées par l'Université de Nairobi, le CIAT (Colombie), l'Université de Cornell (États-Unis) et l'Université de Copenhague (Danemark). Les résultats d'un certain nombre de variétés sélectionnées sont présentés au Tableau 1. "},{"text":"Pour plus d'informations, s'adresser à : Paul Kimani kimanipm@nbnet.co.ke CIAT Africa Coordination Kawanda Agricul- tural Research Institute P.O. Box 6247 Kampala, Ouganda Téléphone : +256(41)567670 Fax : +256(41)567635 Courriel : ciat- uganda@cgiar.org Site web : www.ciat.cgiar.org  En 1995, le Groupe consultatif pour la En 1995, le Groupe consultatif pour la recherche agricole internationale (GCRAI) a recherche agricole internationale (GCRAI) a lancé un projet d'amélioration des lancé un projet d'amélioration des nutriments dans le but d'élaborer les outils nutriments dans le but d'élaborer les outils nécessaires aux sélectionneurs afin de nécessaires aux sélectionneurs afin de produire des cultivars de différents produire des cultivars de différents végétaux à forte concentration de minéraux végétaux à forte concentration de minéraux et de vitamines, ciblant particulièrement le et de vitamines, ciblant particulièrement le fer, le zinc et la vitamine A. fer, le zinc et la vitamine A. L'amélioration de L'amélioration de l'alimentation est l'alimentation est probablement la probablement la stratégie la plus efficace stratégie la plus efficace et la plus durable pour et la plus durable pour réduire en Afrique les réduire en Afrique les carences en micro- carences en micro- nutriments. nutriments.  "},{"text":" Tableau 1. Concentrations en fer, en zinc et en protéines des cultivars de haricots cultivés en Afrique orientale, centrale et australe. Cultivars riches Pays Port Couleur de Taille de  Zinc Fer Prot Cultivars richesPaysPortCouleur deTaille deZincFerProt en micro- d'origine  la graine la graine (ppm) (ppm) (%) en micro-d'originela grainela graine(ppm) (ppm)(%) nutriments/proteines       nutriments/proteines AND 620 RDC nain tachetée de rouge grande  38 147 20.4 AND 620RDCnaintachetée de rouge grande38 147 20.4 GLP 2 Kenya nain tachetée de rouge grande  28 124 16.2 GLP 2Kenyanaintachetée de rouge grande28 124 16.2 G59/1-2 RDC volubile brune grande  24 106 - G59/1-2RDCvolubile brunegrande24 106- Kiangara RDC volubile brune petite  44 104 20.1 KiangaraRDCvolubile brunepetite44 104 20.1 LIB 1 RDC volubile jaune moyenne 52 94 20.8 LIB 1RDCvolubile jaunemoyenne5294 20.8 MLB-49-98A RDC nain noire petite  55 124 - MLB-49-98ARDCnainnoirepetite55 124- Naindeky RDC nain blanche petite  30 106 21.4 NaindekyRDCnainblanchepetite30 106 21.4 VCB 87013 RDC volubile blanche petite  25 122 19.4 VCB 87013RDCvolubile blanchepetite25 122 19.4 VNB 81010 RDC volubile noire petite  62 77 - VNB 81010RDCvolubile noirepetite6277- Awash-1 Éthiopie nain crème petite  24 -23.0 Awash-1Éthiopienaincrèmepetite24-23.0 Awash Melka Éthiopie nain blanche petite  28 -25.3 Awash MelkaÉthiopienainblanchepetite28-25.3 K 131 Ouganda nain « carioca » petite  31 -25.0 K 131Ouganda nain« carioca »petite31-25.0 VCB 81012 RDC volubile brune moyenne 32 86 26.4 VCB 81012RDCvolubile brunemoyenne3286 26.4         Nous remercions vivement Nous remercions vivement         l'ACDI, la DDC et l'USAID l'ACDI, la DDC et l'USAID         pour leur appui financier pour leur appui financier         par l'intermédiaire du par l'intermédiaire du         PABRA. PABRA.         UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI  "}],"sieverID":"8bc2e2d7-e74d-4f2d-866b-f78eaf75529c","abstract":""}

data/part_1/07e6ec3b7f3a4d292e594590ee8af9a2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07e6ec3b7f3a4d292e594590ee8af9a2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/de924f18-0c65-42b2-94e9-8ef1bfd5f392/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"CRP: Livestock Flagship: FP3 -Feeds and Forages Cluster: 3.4 -Facilitating the delivery and uptake of feed and forage technologies","keywords":["P655 -Activity 3","4","3","-Private sector producer linkages"],"chapters":[{"head":"Detailed report:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"CIAT continued its strong involvement in the Colombian Roundtable for Sustainable Cattle Production (Mesa de Ganadería Sostenible, MGS; http://mgscolombia.com/) during 2018. Through our scientific staff, we participated in all 6 regular roundtable meetings in 2018 in Bogotá and in several extraordinary meetings and workshops either face-to-face or virtually."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"One of the major activities was to establish further regional roundtables in the principal cattle regions of Colombia and to strengthen the ones already established in 2017. A total of 7 regional roundtables existed by the end of 2018, covering a large part of the country's cattle regions and departments (Antioquia, Orinoquía, Guajira, Caquetá, Sucre, Eje Cafetero and Norte del Valle, Magdalena Medio; http://mgscolombia.com/mesas-regionales/). On the one hand, these roundtables work as independent innovation platforms in the respective regions, organizing capacity building events, knowledge transfer and fostering discussion among the various value chain actors. On the other hand, they report back to the national roundtable and define action plans and concrete activities together with the core actors of the roundtable."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"Another activity was to re-organize the roundtable's online representation which resulted in redesigning the website and re-structuring the information available on it. The website now counts with precise information on the MGS, the regional roundtables, the activities/workshops and action plans for each year, an inventory of research and development projects in several Latin American countries, a news feed, useful links and a blog. We aim at reaching more people more easily through the new website. In addition, the roundtable is now also on Twitter, where important developments, news and information on research and development projects are being shared."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"We further enhanced the participation of the MGS in the Global Roundtable for Sustainable Beef (GRSB), and are now an official member. A MGS representative participated in the 2018 GRSB meeting in Ireland with a presentation on the advances made so far in Colombia (http://mgscolombia.com/wp-content/uploads/talleres/2018/Presentaci%C3%B3n%20MGS-Col%202018%20GRSB.pdf). In addition, Josefina Eisele, the regional director for Latin America of the GRSB came to Bogotá to present the principles of the GRSB to the members of the MGS in order to align future activities (http://mgscolombia.com/wp-content/uploads/talleres/2018/ GRSBS,%20Josefina%20Eisele%20.pdf)."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Other workshops and information events the MGS organized were e.g.:"},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"-Presentation of the policy guidelines and action plan for the development and consolidation of the forest plantation value chain for commercial purposes (http://mgscolombia. (http://mgscolombia.com/proyecto-mejoramiento-de-los-sistemas-de-produccion-animalcon-enfasis-en-la-ganaderia-de-leche-en-la-region-andina-dentro-del-contexto-de-cambioclimatico) -Sustainable Cattle project in the Sucre Department (http://mgscolombia.com/desde-sucreun-compromiso-con-la-ganaderia-sostenible/)"},{"index":7,"size":100,"text":"Another major activity in 2018 was drafting technical guidelines for a national level policy on sustainable cattle in Colombia. During several workshops, core members of the MGS (including CIAT) worked on defining the most important components of the technical document and enriching them with information. The advances were presented during various meetings of the MGS (e.g. http://mgscolombia.com/desde-sucre-un-compromiso-con-la-ganaderia-sostenible/) and discussed among the members. At the end of 2018, a very advanced draft is available and will be further enriched and discussed during 2019 and the guidelines will be submitted for revision by relevant decision makers by the end of the year."}]},{"head":"Major drawbacks in 2018:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"The major drawback in 2018 was the end of the financial support to the MGS by IICA (Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación para la Agricultura). To mitigate this, CIAT engaged with the other members in the search for alternative funding streams and put in the MGS as strategic partner in various research proposals for Colombia so that activities can be continued in 2019."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Additionally, Solidaridad Network and other partners allocated resources to the MGS."}]},{"head":"Communication and dissemination activities:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Apart from the national level and regional information sharing and capacity building events described above, the MGS published and forwarded several important notifications around the developments of the cattle sector in Colombia, technological advances in cattle feeding and production, among others (http://mgscolombia.com/noticias/)."}]},{"head":"Members of the MGS:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"At the end of 2018, the MGS had more than 40 members, representing institutions at national and international level from both the private and the public sector. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" These members include: ClimateFocus, Región Central, CATIE, Asociación de Fundaciones Petroleras, World Bank, Asodoble, Aprovet, Asocarnicas, CIAT, CIPAV, Consejo Nacional Lácteo, Consejo Nacional de la cadena Cárnica Bovina, Corpogansa, Corpoica/AGROSAVIA, Dow Agrosciences, Estrategia Colombiana de Desarrollo Bajo en Carbono (ECDBC), Elanco, FEDEGAN, FINAGRO, Fondo Acción, Fondo Nacional del Ganado, GIZ, IICA, Instituto Humboldt, MinAgricultura (Agricultural Ministry), MinAmbiente (Ministry of the Environment), NES Naturaleza, SENA, Universidad La Salle, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, UPRA, WWF, Cuenta Nacional de Carne y Leche (CNCL), GGGI, ICA, MINTIC (Ministry of Communication and Technology), Eco-Social, ANALAC, Asocriollo, National Wildlife Federation, NFG, The Nature Conservancy (TNC), Minerva Foods.  "}],"sieverID":"e8546aea-8f87-42ef-813c-13f26939b77e","abstract":""}

data/part_1/080c725a5e5aa43aedc801596ad4372c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"080c725a5e5aa43aedc801596ad4372c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/be86b3eb-3ef3-47a5-b1d4-453f0690ed72/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Scaling up Sustainable Agriculture Land Management in Bungoma County, Kenya","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":254,"text":"Bungoma County covers an area of 3,032 Km 2 in the Lake Victoria Basin in western Kenya. In 2013 it had a population of approximately 1,553,000 people, which is projected to grow to over 1,751,000 people by 2017. The County has about 2,880 Km 2 or arable land, 70% (201,654.6 ha) of which is under food crop production and about 29.9% (86,423.4 ha) of which is under cash crop production (The County Government of Bungoma 2013). The main subsistence crops produced include: maize, beans, finger millet, sweet potatoes, bananas, Irish potatoes and assorted vegetable, while sugar cane, cotton, palm oil, coffee, sun flower and tobacco are the main cash crops. The land is very important to the lives of Bungoma County's citizens, and, if properly managed, the agriculture sector is projected to provide up to 70% of jobs in Bungoma County (The County Government of Bungoma 2013). The County's economy is predominately based on agriculture, especially centering on the sugarcane and maize industries. In addition to growing crops, farmers also raise livestock, including cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, pigs, poultry and bees, as an integrated part of their land use, and most households meet their needs for tree products and services (i.e. firewood and charcoal) from trees in the local communities. Bungoma County also contains the Mt. Elgon forest reserve (618.2 Km 2 ) and part of the Mt. Elgon National Park (50.683 Km 2 ), which both face challenges due to encroachment, overgrazing, charcoal burning, logging and poaching (The County Government of Bungoma 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"However, the development of agriculture in Bungoma County faces many challenges. Increasing population and land fragmentation has resulted in a decrease in the average size of land holdings to uneconomical units; small-scale farms average only 0.4 hectares while large-scale farms average only 4 hectares (The County Government of Bungoma 2013). Additionally, unsustainable farming practices, soil erosion, pollution and climate change have resulted in land degradation, which along with the high costs of farm inputs, poor market infrastructure and storage facilities, and poorly managed cooperative societies has resulted in low agricultural productivity. Livestock production is also low due to poor breeds, the prevalence of diseases, limited extension services, and poor husbandry, among other factors. Furthermore, due to County budget shortfalls, the agriculture and forestry extension services are often not able to reach many farmers."},{"index":3,"size":200,"text":"Climate change has already begun to impact agriculture and ecosystems in the county, with erratic and unpredictable weather patterns and declines in indigenous flora and fauna already observed (The County Government of Bungoma 2013). Multiple severe impacts are also likely to result from climate change in the future, including higher temperatures, water scarcity, changes in rainfall patterns, environmental stresses like the El Nino phenomenon, and an increase in extreme weather events, like storms, droughts and floods. Agriculture is highly sensitive to climate change and variability, and rain-fed agriculture systems in particular, are especially susceptible to unpredictable weather. High rates of land degradation only increase the sensitivity of farmers to climate variability and change. Furthermore, unsustainable agriculture practices contribute significantly to climate change, through the emission of gases (carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide) that contribute to global warming. The climate change-related risks affecting agriculture are likely to intensify in the future, resulting in an increase in poverty and food insecurity. As the population continues to grow, the County needs to invest more in developing resilient agricultural systems that are able to maintain, or even increase, agricultural productivity and food security in the face of the adverse effects of climate change."}]},{"head":"Sustainable Agriculture Land Management (SALM) in Bungoma County","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"Sustainable Agriculture Land Management (SALM) refers to a set of land management practices implemented by both smallholder farmers and agribusinesses that can increase agricultural productivity, and therefore food security and incomes. SALM practices can also improve farmers' resilience to climate change while mitigating the release of greenhouse gases (Figure 1). SALM practices are currently being implemented by farmers in Bungoma County with the support of Vi Agroforestry and the Kenya Agriculture Carbon Project since 2009. This project takes advantage of the climate mitigation benefits of SALM and the international voluntary carbon market to finance training for farmers as well as a small 'carbon bonus' to participating farmers. The project relies on an innovative farmer-to-farmer extension model, where skilled community resource people teach farmers how to implement SALM using training manuals, posters, and field-based learning sites. The practices that are being implemented within this program include: soil and water conservation measures; soil nutrient management practices; improved agronomic practices; agroforestry practices; improved livestock management practices; sustainable energy technologies; and the restoration of degraded lands (Table 1)."},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"By building the capacities of community resource persons and embedding the training resources in the community, the project has been able to reach about 30,000 farmers who may not have had access to traditional extension services, while helping to ensure that the knowledge remains in the community even after the project leaves (Vi Agroforestry 2014). In addition to providing the aforementioned production and resilience benefits of SALMs, this model also improves livelihoods by emphasizing enterprise development and the utilization of Village Savings and Loan Associations. In Bungoma County, about 15,000 farmers are already implementing SALM practices over about 12,000 hectares across the 6 focal areas (Vi Agroforestry 2014). While there has been substantial success in this project, scaling up the number of farmers who are using SALM practices in the county will require more active engagement and commitment of the county government, as well as Water Resource Management Authority (WRMA), Kenya Forest Service (KFS) , National Environment "}]},{"head":"Resilience","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Current Policy Situation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":189,"text":"Bungoma County's development priorities, as outlined in its County Integrated Development Plan (CIDP) for 2013-2017, include, among other objectives, supporting investments to ensure food security, promoting local economic development and job creation, supporting environmental protection and conservation, and increasing agriculture value addition and agri-business. The CIDP also highlights the need to promote the adoption of sustainable farming practices, sustainable land use technologies, and a low carbon economic growth (The County Government of Bungoma 2013). Furthermore, these goals are aligned with many national policies and strategies, including Kenya's Vision 2030, the National Farm Forestry Program target of having 10% of each farmer's total acreage reserved for agro-forestry, and the National Climate Change Action Plan, as well as regional programs, such as the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAADP) (The Republic of Kenya 2013a; The Republic of Kenya 2013b; The County Government of Bungoma 2013). However, currently there is no policy or strategy at the County level that specifically addresses the adoption of sustainable agriculture and land management practices, and such a policy or strategy is needed for the County to achieve these interlinked goals in the face of climate change."}]},{"head":"Recommended policy priorities for the adoption of SALM in Bungoma County","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"In order for SALM practices to most effectively improve the livelihoods of Bungoma's people they need to be implemented throughout the County, including on farmlands, along riverbanks, in schools and on urban and peri-urban land. To support this objective, the County Government could build on the work of Vi Agroforestry and other government efforts to promote the adoption of SALM practices among small-scale farmers and on large-scale farms. This model emphasizes farmer-to-farmer extension, a strong system for monitoring the benefits of SALM, as well as an emphasis on the development of farm enterprises and Village Savings and Loan Associations (VSLA). To achieve this, we make the following recommendations:"}]},{"head":"Build the capacity of Bungoma County's technical officers to train on SALMs.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"Officers from Bungoma County agencies including the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Fisheries; Ministry of Forestry and Tourism; KFS; and NEMA will need additional capacity in implementing and training on SALM practices."}]},{"head":"Promote a farmer-to-farmer extension system as a cost-effective way to scale-up extension services for SALM.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"This system relies on the training and support of community resource people who serve as community-based trainers, and requires the development of community-based learning sites. These learning sites, through regular trainings and field days, can showcase SALM practices and technologies to farmers and agribusiness in every subcounty. Tree planting campaigns can also raise awareness about SALM in each ward. Investing in community-based extension will help to ensure that a larger number of farmers receive trainings, as well as helping to target marginalized farmers, who are normally not able to access extension services. Technical officers based in Bungoma County can help to identify community resource persons in each ward and build their capacities in SALM by conducting trainings "}]},{"head":"Develop and implement a farmer-centered, costeffective system of monitoring and evaluation of SALM implementation and benefits in the County.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"A SALM monitoring and evaluation system that enables tracking of the adoption levels of SALM practices and their impacts on local community livelihoods, food security as well as climate adaptation and mitigation will allow SALM investors which may include government, themselves, encouraging them to train other farmers in their communities and by organizing exchange visits."}]},{"head":"Support the development of farm enterprises and Village Savings and Loan Associations (VSLA) along with SALM training.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"By using SALM trainings as entry points to business and finance development programs (or vice versa) it is possible to capitalize on the livelihood benefits of adopting SALM practices and ensure their long-term sustainability. This is especially important for small scale farmers who, in addition to requiring a sustainable source of funding"},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"This woodlot also provides fodder for livestock. Photo credit: John Recha, ERMCSD. donors or buyers of carbon credits to keep track of their return on investment. The staff at the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries and the KFS will need to manage the technical components of a SALM monitoring and evaluation system which require high-levels of technical skill and knowledge. However, this should be integrated with a farmer-based monitoring system, in which farmers self-monitor and record data at the level of their individual farms. Five farmers per ward could be selected to form a permanent monitoring unit, and they could assist with the aggregation of data from individual farmers. Vi Agroforestry can support the county government in developing the SALM monitoring and evaluation framework."}]},{"head":"Build on the implementation of SALM practices in the County to promote integrated landscape management.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"For SALM to reach its maximum effectiveness, it should be implemented within a wider effort to balance agricultural, livelihood and ecosystem needs throughout a landscape. Relevant stakeholders, including the local government, research and development organizations, and farmer groups throughout the County should be involved in these landscape planning and management processes."}]},{"head":"Stakeholder roles and partnership development for SALM","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"The scaling up of SALM in Bungoma County will require a wide variety of stakeholders in addition to the county government. There are already a number of organizations operating in Bungoma which can help support the county's efforts to scale up SALM. In addition to Vi Agroforestry, these include CREADIS and ADS, as well as a variety of other community-based organizations. These groups can play a strong role in supporting community-based capacity building and monitoring and evaluation systems. Additionally, the county government can play a role in linking the Department of Meteorological Services and agro-advisory agencies to farmers to provide them with relevant climate information. They can also help link crop insurance service providers to farmers. Greenhouse Gas (GHG): Any gas that absorbs infrared radiation in the atmosphere including carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride."}]},{"head":"Glossary","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Mitigation: A human intervention to reduce the human impact on the climate system; it includes strategies to reduce greenhouse gas sources and emissions and enhance greenhouse gas sinks."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Resilience: A capability to anticipate, prepare for, respond to, and recover from significant multi-hazard threats with minimum damage to social well-being, the economy, and the environment."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Sustainable Agriculture: In simplest terms, sustainable agriculture is the production of food, fiber, or other plant or animal products using farming techniques that protect the environment, public health, human communities, and animal welfare. This form of agriculture enables production of healthful food without compromising future generations' ability to do the same."}]},{"head":"Sustainable Agriculture Land Management (SALM) practices:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"A set of land management practices implemented by both smallholder farmers and agribusinesses that can increase agricultural productivity, and therefore food security and incomes. SALM practices can also improve farmers' resilience to climate change while mitigating the release of greenhouse gases."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Weather: Atmospheric condition at any given time or place."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Measured by things such as wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, and precipitation."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"Beekeeping is an income source from forest resources, while providing important pollination services to crops. Photo credit: John Recha, ERMCSD."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"Relevant county government agencies should seek out these potential partners and consider the most effective means of working with them. The members of the County Executive Committee in charge of agriculture and the environment should be responsible for coordinating these efforts. A suggested list of the various roles and responsibilities of each of the partner organizations can be found in Table 2."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Scaling up SALM practices throughout Bungoma County would help to support small and large scale farmers improve their farming practices, ensure the long-term productivity of the land resource base, improve their resilience to climate change, as well as contribute to a low carbon, green economy. By utilizing a model that emphasizes farmer-to-farmer extension and monitoring of SALM practices, as well as the development of farm enterprises and VSLA, the county government would be making significant strides towards achieving several of Bungoma County's development priorities related to food security, environmental protection, and livelihoods improvement, as outlined in the CIDP 2013-2017, in a cost-effective and sustainable way."}]},{"head":"Ecoagriculture Policy Focus Series","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The Policy Focus series, produced by EcoAgriculture Partners, highlights issues relevant to policy experts and decision makers in the fields of agriculture, conservation and rural development to promote integrative solutions. All or portions of this report may be used, reprinted or distributed, provided the source is acknowledged. No use of this publication may be made for resale or other commercial purposes."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Visit www.ecoagriculture.org for more."}]},{"head":"Cq e bnd","index":16,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. SALM practices seek to enhance the productivity, resilience and mitigation of climate change in agricultural systems. "},{"text":" Average weather described in terms of mean and variability over a period of time ranging from months to millions of years Climate change: Any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time. In other words, climate change includes major changes in temperature, precipitation, or wind patterns, among others, that occur over several decades or longer. "},{"text":"© 2015 EcoAgriculture Partners 1100 17th St. NW, Suite 600, Washington, DC 20036, USA This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : SALM practices in Bungoma County  Types of SALM Practice Examples of SALM Practices Types of SALM PracticeExamples of SALM Practices Soil and water conservation measures Building terraces, road catchments, diversion ditches, infiltration ditches, planting Soil and water conservation measuresBuilding terraces, road catchments, diversion ditches, infiltration ditches, planting  pits, micro catchments pits, micro catchments Soil nutrient management practices Mulching, composting, using improved fallows, more efficient use of fertilizers Soil nutrient management practicesMulching, composting, using improved fallows, more efficient use of fertilizers Improved agronomic practices Contour strip cropping, use of improved germplasm, crop rotation, intercropping, Improved agronomic practicesContour strip cropping, use of improved germplasm, crop rotation, intercropping,  relay cropping, cover crops, alley cropping, constructing woodlots, boundary relay cropping, cover crops, alley cropping, constructing woodlots, boundary  planting, riparian tree planting, apiculture, constructing fodder lots, planting trees planting, riparian tree planting, apiculture, constructing fodder lots, planting trees  for shade, windbreaks, soil conservation, fruit orchards for shade, windbreaks, soil conservation, fruit orchards Improved livestock management practices Improved breeds, improved housing, improved feed, investing in health control Improved livestock management practicesImproved breeds, improved housing, improved feed, investing in health control  programs, feed conservation programs, feed conservation Sustainable energy technologies Efficient cooking stoves, solar energy, biogas Sustainable energy technologiesEfficient cooking stoves, solar energy, biogas Restoration of degraded lands Riverbanks, deforested areas, gullies, unproductive areas, areas with low species Restoration of degraded landsRiverbanks, deforested areas, gullies, unproductive areas, areas with low species  diversity diversity  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Roles and Responsibilities of all partners in SALM policy implementation  Partner Responsibility PartnerResponsibility Farmer/ farmer organizations Implement SALM technologies, VSLA and agribusinesses Farmer/ farmer organizationsImplement SALM technologies, VSLA and agribusinesses Community resource persons Train farmers on SALM, agribusiness, contract farming, as well as VSLA Community resource personsTrain farmers on SALM, agribusiness, contract farming, as well as VSLA Bungoma County Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Train community resource persons on SALM practices, agribusiness, farm Bungoma County Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock,Train community resource persons on SALM practices, agribusiness, farm Fisheries and Co-operatives produce marketing, and contract farming; backstop farmer trainings; establish Fisheries and Co-operativesproduce marketing, and contract farming; backstop farmer trainings; establish  learning sites to demonstrate SALM technologies; support the development of learning sites to demonstrate SALM technologies; support the development of  VSLAs; organize exchange visits and study tours; link local universities and crop VSLAs; organize exchange visits and study tours; link local universities and crop  insurance providers to farmers insurance providers to farmers Bungoma County Ministry of Environment, Natural Support individual and group nursery establishment, agroforestry and tree Bungoma County Ministry of Environment, NaturalSupport individual and group nursery establishment, agroforestry and tree resources, Water and Tourism planting campaigns resources, Water and Tourismplanting campaigns Vi Agroforestry Train Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, Kenya Forest Service, Vi AgroforestryTrain Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, Kenya Forest Service,  National Environmental Management Authority on SALM practices, agribusi- National Environmental Management Authority on SALM practices, agribusi-  ness establishment, VSLA, and contract farming ness establishment, VSLA, and contract farming Community Based Organizations and Non-Govern- Support training of farmers and monitoring of SALM practices; help identify Community Based Organizations and Non-Govern-Support training of farmers and monitoring of SALM practices; help identify mental organization community resource persons mental organizationcommunity resource persons County Executive Committee Coordinate partners and activities County Executive CommitteeCoordinate partners and activities  "}],"sieverID":"a3783f5e-6aea-428d-85fd-fec0fc7c79dd","abstract":"Agricultural landscapes must provide food, fiber and energy to a growing population in a changing climate, while potentially serving as instruments for climate change mitigation. Agriculture is the backbone of the Kenyan economy, contributing approximately 25% of the GDP annually and employing more than 75% of the population (The Government of Kenya 2010). The development of agriculture is also important for poverty reduction since most of the vulnerable groups, like pastoralists, the landless, and subsistence farmers, depend on agriculture as their main source of livelihoods. Growth in the sector is therefore expected to have a greater impact on a larger section of the population than any other sector. This is especially true in Bungoma County in western Kenya, where the agriculture sector is projected to provide up to 70 percent of jobs between 2013 and 2017 (The County Government of Bungoma 2013).However, climate change presents many challenges, as well as new opportunities, for the development of agriculture, and Bungoma County needs to promote and support sustainable agricultural practices that will improve agricultural productivity, as well as help farmers adapt to and mitigate climate change, at both small and large scale, as outlined in the Bungoma County Integrated Development Plan (CIDP) 2013-2017. This brief provides a review of the potential benefits of Sustainable Agriculture Land Management (SALM) practices, the relevant policy context for implementing them in Bungoma County and suggests policy steps that could be taken by the County government to scale them up.No. 12"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"089efd7c8cb7a8c6cb079196277f5d12","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e7047b8a-43de-43d8-90c5-631d2c828f44/retrieve"},"pageCount":36,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"The Babati District R4D Platform Background","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"The research program Africa RISING is established to create opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition, and income security, particularly for women and children, and conserve or enhance the natural resource base (Africa RISING Program Framework, p. 2). Africa RISING is organized as a network of partners, who carry out the jointly planned project activities. Thus, coordination of partners and activities in the project sites is an essential part of the program."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"The focus for Africa RISING must be on efficient ways to reach impact, i e better livelihoods and health for rural people, strengthened market integration and sustainable use of natural resources. This will include a focus on appropriate technological innovations (new crop and livestock varieties, crop arrangements, fertility management, pest management, etc) as well as institutional innovations, involving rural credits, tenure system, market conditions and socio-cultural organization."},{"index":3,"size":174,"text":"In terms of research paradigms, a greater awareness amongst research and development professionals of the importance of the contexts that are required for successful innovation at the household level is likely to lead to higher adoption rates and more widespread development outcomes. Successful implementation of these approaches can be facilitated by a stronger focus on input supply systems, export markets and multi-stakeholder partnerships (Africa RISING Program Framework, p. 4). This report is a first step in our ambition to provide long-term positive impact by systematic interventions through a demand-driven approach, in this case represented by the outcomes of the inaugural workshop of the Babati District Research-for-Development (R4D) Platform, held in April, 2014. As the platform itself could be seen as a local institution following an open-ended process, this document should be read as part of the documentation of this process, and not necessarily as an updated report on Africa RISING's ongoing research activities in Babati District. The report also serves as a background and a starting point for the newly appointed Platform management committee."}]},{"head":"An R4D platform in Babati","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"One of the main challenges to agricultural development in Africa is to recognize heterogeneity, both in terms of socio-cultural variation and dynamics -which is apparent even at the local level in many countries and societies -and bio-physical diversity, providing drastically different growing conditions even at farm level. Babati District is unique in its agro-ecological and socio-cultural diversity, represented by the six Africa RISING project villages -Long, Sabilo, Seloto, Matufa, Hallu and Shaurimoyo."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"The research-for-development (R4D) platform is an initiative to address these challenges of diversity and heterogeneity, while at the same time focus on smallholders' demands and the program's opportunity to have positive impact. The ultimate goal is to stimulate learning and innovation to improve livelihoods in terms of productivity, income generation and nutrition in Babati District. The platform also serves as a vehicle for prioritizing and scaling of sustainable intensification through integrated farm practices."},{"index":3,"size":151,"text":"The tools and methodologies employed in this report can all be seen as part of an area-based approach to sustainable intensification, guided by principles of nearness -i e how different objects and processes interact spatially, in a landscape -compared to a more traditional scientific (discipline-As shown above, the rationale for employing R4D platforms is to link a range of organizational actors in R4D platforms that can promote the simultaneous technological, social and institutional change needed for sustainable intensification. This may include a range of activities, but from a research point of view, the R4D platform responds to the establishment of three different communicative strategies: network building, social learning and conflict management (Leeuwis and Aarts 2011:31). Each of these are important to stress, but the role of 'social learning' -rather than disseminationshould be emphasized, as well as 'conflict management', which is needed anywhere where common resources, different perspectives and policy come together."},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"There are some recent research results and experiences from the use of multi-stakeholder platforms in relation to agricultural innovation. Adekunle et al (2010) provide a detailed framework for setting up so-called innovation platforms, and they distinguish between a strategic and an operational level (innovation clusters), where the latter would roughly correspond to the district level. In contrast, R4D platforms have a different focus as they emphasize better understanding of social dynamics and the institutional environment, and can put the adoption of particular technologies into a wider context. R4D platforms differ from innovation platforms as they may take a wider perspective through collaborative learning and research on farming systems rather than a focus on a particular commodity and its value chain."}]},{"head":"The formation of effective R4D platforms involves a number of challenges:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":" A clear methodology to include actors outside the research -extension -farmer sphere; especially private sector from the value chain, and policy makers. Validation of stakeholders in relation to contribution and benefits is however an important step before a formal establishment of the platform.  Methodology for making actors and critical resources visible. This is particularly crucial for making the most of contributions from local knowledge. All stakeholders are there because they make valuable contributions!  Experience and readiness to facilitate negotiations and conflict resolution. An R4D platform for sustainable intensification will address issues where current norms, rules and policies need to be questioned. Leadership from actors with diverging interests is a key to success.  Consistent methodology for creating an inclusive environment, allowing new ideas to be tested and grow. This includes collaboration in trying and evaluating different technologies, potential for scaling, the role of experimentation, failures, etc.  Identification of training and capacity building needs of actors throughout the process  Monitoring and evaluation of progress of the platform  Establishment of links to national and regional policy through participation of relevant stakeholders at strategic levels"}]},{"head":"Potential outputs and benefits from the R4D platform","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The primary beneficiaries are the small-scale farmers and other stakeholders in rural areas who, through the platform, will have better access to information, technologies, expertise, credits, markets, etc., supporting agricultural intensification for improved and sustainable livelihoods. Depending on the methodology used for involving farmers and other stakeholders in research, they will increase their understanding of the dynamics of these networks and the conditions/requirements of their success. For the researchers, the platform is an important source of feedback on -and further development of -on-going research activities."},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"An important aim of the platform is that research outputs as well as outcomes of platform discussions/negotiations will inform decision makers, public and private players in agricultural development and educators about how the R4D platform can work to promote technological, social and institutional change, in order to put sustainable intensification to scale."}]},{"head":"The multi-stakeholder approach","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"There is a range of reasons why an R4D platform is applying a multi-stakeholder approach, related to the basic functions of research for development: First of all, research institutions need a demanddriven approach as a complement to more traditional \"science-driven\" approaches. The platform may help in making research more relevant, as well as raising opportunities to adapt and disseminate research results. Previous research has shown that we must go beyond the \"research -extensionfarmer continuum\" to be successful in this, as the facilitation of adoption of innovations also depend on market linkages and an enabling policy environment. The second dimension of research for development is the targeting and effectiveness of development interventions. While research is normally a relatively small-scale activity (in terms of beneficiaries), development initiatives supporting good governance and market access must play the role of promotion of new ideas to a wider audience. This calls for a wide range of stakeholders like NGOs, financial institutions, market agents and policy makers in addition to solid representation of farmers, extension agents and research institutions. "}]},{"head":"Preparing for the Babati R4D platform","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Identifying potential stakeholders","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":194,"text":"The initiative to establish an R4D Platform in Babati District came from Africa RISING. The research program has operated in the area for two years and has realized that issues need to be tackled at a broader scale. As a starting point, a preliminary list of stakeholders in sustainable intensification for Babati was prepared by the Africa RISING consultant (Hillbur 2013a(Hillbur , 2013b) ) with some help and feedback by key informants from local research and extension staff. Stakeholders seen as relevant to sustainable intensification at the district level were categorized according to their main occupation, or potential contribution. This first step is to get an orientation about how to continue the setting up of the platform. Are these stakeholders relevant to a focus on sustainable intensification? Which stakeholders are not included? What contributions can they make? Who are the beneficiaries? How do we form a platform to get a high level of creativity? How do we secure impact? Another starting point is to define focus for the platform, in this case \"sustainable intensification of farming in Babati District\", and a validation of partners in relation to their contributions and benefits from different interventions."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"As a preparation for the platform, all stakeholder groups were contacted well in advance and invited to discussions with the facilitators on each part's potential benefits and contributions to a platform. The first discussions took place in October 2013 during an Africa RISING research team meeting in Babati, attended by national and international researchers, government extension staff and farmers from all of the project villages. The preparations of the stakeholders were followed up by the facilitators through visits, interviews and discussions with potential stakeholders from December 2013 to February 2014. The ambition of this approach was to find out whether there was any interest at all in such a platform, and if so, to inform and discuss the aim of the platform with all stakeholders before the first stakeholder meeting. In this way, we wanted to give all stakeholders (organizations and individuals) an opportunity to be well prepared for the workshop. Formal invitations to all stakeholders and their organization were sent well in advance (minimum six weeks) before the workshop."}]},{"head":"Inaugural workshop -Results","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Response to the call by stakeholders","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Very fortunately, the response to the invitations was overwhelming. Almost all stakeholder organizations and individuals contacted responded positively to the call, and thus the set format for the inauguration workshop to include about 60 participants was fulfilled. Expenses for travel and, if needed, accommodation for stakeholders outside Babati was covered by Africa RISING for this inaugural meeting."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"In addition, the organizing committee got a number of inquiries from other individuals and institutions to participate, of which some will be included in the next phase. All identified stakeholder organizations signed up for the workshop, while a couple of participants cancelled their final participation on the last day. Towards the end of the workshop, the stakeholder groups were asked to identify potential future participants/members of the platform, and this list is now taken into consideration for the next upcoming activities. The full program of the inaugural workshop can be found in Annex 1, which also included detailed presentations of ongoing Africa RISING research activities. These activities are reported elsewhere, and the research presentations can be found at http://africa-rising.wikispaces.com . We will now turn to present the major outputs of the workshop itself."}]},{"head":"Trends and challenges related to sustainable intensification","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"During the first day of the workshop, the participants carried out a first group task (in mixed spontaneously formed groups) about identifying the current trends in Babati District and the kind of challenges that need to be faced in the near future. The results from each of the six groups (6-8 members/group) were documented and orally presented in a plenary session. The complete presentations are available in Annex 2."}]},{"head":"Scoping","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":230,"text":"The announced topic of the workshop was sustainable intensification, which was further stressed by the invitation of existing Africa RISING partners and stakeholders. After a first round of identifying trends and challenges, an opportunity was given to further narrow down (or opening up) the main topic in order to reach a better understanding of what is meant by sustainable intensification. This is called \"scoping\" and is a process that appears at different stages of platform initiation and management. It helps in identifying the key issues around which the platform will be organized and the potential responsibilities of the platform before it gets operational. After the presentations from the groups on trends and challenges, the facilitators made a summary of recurring themes in the presentations, and opened the floor for discussion of the themes as well as opportunities to add, rephrase or remove items from the list of key issues. The following broad themes were singled out as essential aspects of sustainable intensification in Babati District: Apart from these themes, broader issues like climate change and population increase/family planning were mentioned. For the complete discussion, please see Annex 2. An essential outcome of the scoping was that there was a unanimously expressed need for a forum, where these challenges can be discussed in the future. From this point onwards, the Babati District R4D platform is to be seen as that forum."}]},{"head":"Suggested future activities","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"As the main challenges were identified, the turn had come to discuss what role an R4D platform can have in meeting some of these challenges, and to what extent a platform can help improving conditions on the ground. A second group activity focused on suggested future activities and responsibilities for the platform. This discussions were held in groups representing the different stakeholder categories. Due to time constraints on the second day, no presentations were made in plenary, but all individuals handed in a list of priority activities for the future platform, which as part of this report is handed over to the newly formed platform management committee (Annex 3). A quantitative analysis of the written documentation -in terms of how often different terms/concepts occur -the platform should involve in at least three major activities/areas: livestock, land use and capacity building. The word \"farmers/wakulima\" is the most common, followed by \"livestock/mifugo\", further stressing the importance of involving the farmers in platform activities. This is a very simplified picture of the discussions, and it may also reflect the broad participation of farmers and livestock-oriented stakeholders in the workshop. It is however advisable to go through the documentation carefully to see in what context these aspects are mentioned. Nevertheless, it is an outcome of the discussions during the workshop, and it is from here new activities can be planned."}]},{"head":"The way forward","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"The new platform management committee"},{"index":2,"size":312,"text":"Towards the end of the workshop, more focus was put on the future organization of the platform, and the participants resumed in groups representing their stakeholder category, i e farmers were in one group, NGOs in another, private sector in yet another, etc. While discussing future priorities and activities of the platform, the groups were also asked to nominate a candidate from each group to represent in a platform management committee. The workshop meeting had by then agreed that a committee should be made responsible for planning for future activities, and that all stakeholder groups should be represented. After nomination from the groups and a following plenary discussion about criteria such as gender balance and representatives from livestock and crops-oriented activities, the new management committee should have the following composition (10 representatives): After the inaugural workshop was closed, the newly formed platform management committee was summoned for its first meeting. The facilitators of the inaugural workshop and an Africa RISING representative opened the meeting with a short presentation of the road ahead for the coming six months, including the continued involvement and support from Africa RISING. The management committee selected a chairperson, and from this point the management committee has taken responsibility for future functioning of the platform. It was decided that the next committee meeting will be held in Babati on June 17, 2014. Among the discussion points for that meeting is preparations for the Annual Planning Meeting for Africa RISING, East and Southern Africa, to be held in Arusha in September 2014. The Babati R4D Platform is invited to this meeting as a stakeholder. The platform is also expected to have a stakeholder meeting every six months, the next meeting suggested to be held in October, 2014. Africa RISING will be supporting the platform with management advice, research, monitoring and evaluation throughout the life-span of the program (end of 2016). "}]},{"head":"Summary and Conclusions","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Based on an initiative from Africa RISING, and within a planning period of about six months, Babati District has managed to establish a Research-for-Development (R4D) Platform with a main focus on \"sustainable intensification\". The inaugural workshop for the Babati District R4D Platform was held April 10-11, 2014, and this report is a summary of the conceptualization of R4D platforms, the preparations and the results of the workshop itself."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"Due to careful preparations and great commitment of the stakeholder organizations, the workshop succeeded in completing its first phase, initiation and establishment of the platform. The future scope of the platform was widely discussed, and some major themes emerged out of these discussions. It seems there is some consensus among stakeholders that linkages between farmers and other market agents must be strengthened, and this refers to markets for inputs as well as for selling crop and livestock products. A major concern for the platform will also be capacity building activities for different stakeholders, particularly within crop pests/animal diseases, pasture management and to train farmers in farming-as-a-business and further stimulate the long-term adoption of technologies and practices introduced by research institutions. Another suitable task for the Babati District R4D Platform will be to involve in land use policy, as there are many challenges to sustainable intensification in the district related to improper land use practices, which induce land conflicts and unsustainable land management."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"As the establishment of an R4D platform is an open-ended process, there are still measures to be taken to make sure that the initial investments and the established networking between stakeholders will be sustained. The initial phases of an R4D platform is laid out in Figure 2, and this figure was discussed during the workshop and may serve as an inspiration for the future planning of platform activities."},{"index":4,"size":200,"text":"http://africa-rising.wikispaces.com : This is the official website for downloading documents from Africa RISING program activities. All documentation from the Babati District R4D platform, including this report, will be available here. 1. Babati kuna uzalishaji mkubwa sana wa mahindi na hata National Food Reserve Agents huwa wanashindwa kumaliza lakini utakuta kwamba wananchi wanakuwa na upungufu wa chakula, kwa nini? -Manyara wanazalisha aina moja ya zao kwa chakula na kipato (cash + food) kwa hiyo ada, ujenzi, matibabu na kadhalika lazima vitoke kwenye kuuza mahindi. -Hakuna soko zuri la mazao mengine kama mtama hivyo mahindi yanabakia kuwa na soko. -Wakulima wanashauriwa kuchanganya kilimo (diversification) ili kutumia vizuri mvua za vuli na masika. Yaani kilimo mara mbili kwa msimu. 2. Babati kuna uhaba na ubora wa malisho ya mifugo 3. Manyara eneo kubwa la wafugaji limezungukua na hifadhi ya taifa kwa hiyo kuna urahisi wa kutokea magonjwa ya mifugo yanayotokana na hifadhi -Hii imesababishwa na matumizi mabaya ya ardhi. R4D watoe ushauri livestock vs. farming -Hakuna sera nzuri ya kulinda wakulima na wafugaji katika matumizi ya ardhi -Wananchi hawajui kilimo cha malisho ya mifugo -Ongezeka la wanyama = uharibifu wa ardhi 4. Kuna mashamba darasa wengi sana lakini si wakulima wote wanapelekwa kujifunza."},{"index":5,"size":126,"text":"Wachache huwa wanajifunza. Kuwe na siku ya wakulima kila mwezi ili wajifunze. 5. Bashnet -Babati kuna ugonjwa wa kunyauka kwa majani ya viazi (Bacterial wilt) -IITA wameshachukua sampuli kujua sababu na baadaye kuona suluhu ni nini! 6. Wakulima waunganishwe na taasisi za kifedha ili kuwa na kilimo cha biashara (commercialization) -Wanashauriwa kuwa na Warehouse Receipt System (Ghalani) -Kufungua SACCOs 7. Sera ya soko la mazao haipo, kama ipo hasaidi mfano -Hakuna kuuza mazao nje ya nchi -Serikali haitoi fidia bei ziki poromoka 8. Ongezeko la thamani (value addition) -Watu/wakulima wajengewe uwezo ili mazao yaongezwe thamani kabla ya kuuzwa au kutumiwa 9. Upatikanaji na ardhi (access to land) -Ardhi Manyara ni hafifu ndiyo maana kuwa migogoro mingi -Mahali pa kuchunga na kulima hapatoshi lakini pia hapajatengwa vizuri."}]},{"head":"LAKE GROUP:","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Zahoro Madongo, Alhaji Saidi, Ritha Dawite, Lucian Qamara, Dr H N Lyimo, Tomas Mbula, Judith Fulgence, Beanson Charles, Rashidi Mohamedi Changamoto:"},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"1. Ongezeko la watu:"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"-Ardhi ni ileile -haitosherezi -Uharibifu wa mazingira -Chakula haitosherezi (food security) 2. Kilimo:"},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"-Upatikanaji wa pembejeo na vifaa -Gharama za kununua pembejeo na vifaa -Visumbufu vya mimea na mazao -Mbegu zisizokizi viwango -Bageti ndogo inayotengwa kuwasaidie wakulima na wafugaji -Miundombinu -ya hifadhi na usafirishaji -Soko la uhakika -hakuna -Mabadiliko ya tabia ya nchi -Mind set -kutokutaka kubadiliko kwa wakulima kwa haraka -Utayari wa vijana kuwa wakulima 3. Mifugo:"},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"-Maeneo ya malisho hayatoshi -Malisho duni -Magonjwa ya mifugo -Upatikanaji wa ngombe bora -Wizi wa mifugo -Miundombinu ya masoko -Utayari wa vijana kuwa mfugaji -Mila na desturi za ufugaji -Pembejeo/madawa zilizopitwa na muda/zisizo na ubora"}]},{"head":"Kundi namba\"KIBOKO\"","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Washiriki: Eliminata Paskali, Judith Manzi, Anna Roman, Shabani Mruma, Mwajabu Sadiki, Leonard Marwa, Emmanuel Koyano, Issa A Zava Changamoto:"},{"index":2,"size":168,"text":"1. Magonjwa a. MLN, Mnayuko fusarium (Mbaazi) b. Magonjwa ya mlipuko e g Rabies, Anthrax, Ndorobo 2. Soko/ukosekanaji wa soko la uhakika a. Uzalishaji mkubwa hasa kipindi cha mavuno/masika ila gharama za kuuza mazao zinakuwa chini e g maziwa b. Kuzuiwa kuuza bidhaa/mazao nje ya nchi c. Wakulima hawana elimu ya mnyororo wa thamani wa mazao yao kama mahindi 3. Elimu ya utunzaji wa kumbukumbu itolewe 4. Uwazi uwepo kabla ya zoezi kuanza kwa wakulima husika na pia afisa ugani awe makini kuchagua wa kulima 5. Watu wafuge mifugo kutokana na wa ukubwa wa eneo na malisho yaliyopo -elimu ya usindikaji vyakula kwa asili ya baadaye 6. Kufuata kanuni bora za kilimo -matumizi sahini ya viuatilifu 7. Elimu itolewe ya uendelezaji shughuli baada ya utafiti 8. Wafugaji na wakulima watafutiwe/waunganishwe na masoko wa uhakika 9. Uwezeshwaji upatikanaji wa vitendea kazi 10. Kuwa na ziara za mafunzo za ndani na nje/ kubadilishana uzoefu 11. Majaribio ya mbolea yaendelee kufanyika na kuwa na siku za wakulima kuonyesha matokeo ya mavuno"}]},{"head":"Kikundi SHOKA","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":295,"text":"Changamoto zilizopo 1. Upatikanaji wa pembejeo bora za kilimo hasa mbegu bora za mazao ya chakula ni tatizo 2. Wakulima na wafugaji bado hawana elimu bora ya kuzalisha mazao ya kilimo kibiashara, wanazalizo kwa mazoea tu yasiyo na tija 3. Gharama kubwa za pembejeo zipo juu, hali inayosababisha wakulima wasimudu kununua pembejeo bora 4. Mabadiliko ya hali ya hewa (tabia nchi) yamesabibisha kutokuwepo na maji mengi ya umwagiliaji haki inayofanya wakulima kutegemea kilimo cha mvua za msimu tu 5. Elimu duni juu ya utambuzi wa magonjwa na wadudu wanaoshambulia mazao, pia elimu duni juu ya matumizi sahihi ya viuatilifu na muda gani wa matumizi. Na hili nitatizo pia kwa maafisa ugani wengi. 6. Kukosekana kwa majosho yake 7. kutokutambua \"mbari\" au ukoo husika wa mifugo yao 8. kutokwepo kwa mbegu bora za malisho kulingana na mabadiliko ya hali ya hewa 9. Upotevu wa mazao mengi nyakati za mavuno 10. Kutokwepo na ufahamu wa kutosha juu ya kuhifadhi samadi kwa matumizi ya shambani, baadae HALI YA SASA 1. Taasisi za utafiti wa mbegu ziandae mpango thabiti wa ukaguu wa mara kwa mara ili kudhibiti ubora wa mbegu (pembejeo) 2. Elimu zaidi itolewe kwa vitendo kwa wakulima juu ya kilimo bora chenye tija, kwa kushirikisha wadau wote 3. Wakulima wajiunge katika vikundi ili waweze kukopeshwa fedha na taasisi za fedha lengo wamudu kupata pembejeo bora kwa wakati 4. Wakulima waelimishwe juu ya kilimo hifadhi na utumiaji wa mbegu bora za muda mfupi 5. Elimu ya viuatilifu itiliwe mkazo kwa kuwashiriuisha wadau wahusika (mfano: TPRI na wasambaji wa viuatilifu) 6. Ibuniwe mipango ya ujenzi wa majosho ya mifugo Ahsante, imeratibiwa na katibu wa kikundi Chonya Wema Shoka group: Inviolate Dominick, Kheri Kitenge, Gilbert Mbesere, Tumaini Elibariki, Mary Siay, Chonya Wema, Paulina Dawite, Simon G Laway, Dr. Mary Mashingo"}]},{"head":"Kikundi \"ENGLISH\"","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Dr Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon, Dr. Asamoah Larbi, Dr Ivan Rwomushana, Dr Julius Bwire, Dr Libére Nkurunziza A: Hali ya sasa na changamoto Babati:"},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"1. Hali ya sasa: Ongezeko la watu na mifugo  Changamoto: hakuna ardhi ya kutosha, malisho, uharibifu wa mazingira, upatikanaji wa malisho kwa wakati na siyo bora, nyumba zasizo bora wa mifugo 2. Hali ya sasa: Ongezeko la bidhaa/mazao (Mfano: mahindi, mayai)"},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"o Changamoto: Ukosefu wa taarifa za masoko 3. Hali ya sasa: Magonjwa mapya na wadudu kwa mazao na mifugo + sumkuvu kuongezeka katika nyororo wa thamani o Changamoto: inachukua muda mrefu kupata ufumbuzi; (sumkuvu): kwenye malisho na ubora wa maziwa yanahadhirika kwa mifugo na binadamu 4. Hali ya sasa: Wakulima wanatambua umuhimu wa pembejeo (mbolea, mbegu bora, etc)  Changamoto: Soko la pamoja; nafasi ya Jukwaa kutambua mahitaji ya pembejeo. 5. Hali ya sasa: Uwelewa wa kuhisisha kilimo cha mbogamboga katika shughuli za kilimo (kuongeza lishe na kipato)  Changamoto: ukosefu wa maji ya umwagiliaji kipindi cha kiangazi B: Kilimo endelevu kinahitajika? NDIYO! Tunaona nivyema kuongeza uzalishaji pamoja na matumizi sahihi ya rasilimaji uendelevu wa mfumo wa uzalishaji."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"C: Wajibu wa Jukwaa katika kutekeleza -Ni sehemu ya kujifunza na kupata mabadiliko -Kubadilishana uzoefu ambao utatusaidia kubaini matatizo yanayo itokeza -Kuwaunganisha wadau pamoja na kujenga uimara wa taasisi -Jukwaa litasaidie kuweka vipao mbele vya matatizo katika wilaya TARANGIRE GROUP: S. Lyimo, F. Ngulu, N. Ndili, C. Shayo, I. Shavini, J. Kihara, H. Lugendo, W. Baynit, J. Kyekaka Challenges:"},{"index":5,"size":158,"text":"1. Babati has a very high production of maize, but the NFRA cannot manage to buy all of the harvest available for sale. Meanwhile, the farmers suffer from shortage of food, why? -Manyara produce mainly one kind of food crop, namely maize, and therefore money for school fees, construction, health care, etc., depend on incomes from selling maize. -There is no proper market for other cereal crops than maize, like e g sorghum. That is why maize remains at the market. -Farmers should be involved in diversification of farming, in order to make the most of the long rains. There is an opportunity to take two crops per year in this area. 2. There is not enough feed for livestock in Babati, and the quality is generally low. 3. A large part of Manyara is surrounded by national parks, and therefore there is a great risk for the livestock populations to be attacked by different diseases from wildlife."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"-This is the result of improper land use. The R4D platform should advise for proper practices of farming and livestock keeping -There is no good policy that supports farmers and livestock keepers on land use issues."},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"-The farmers do not have enough knowledge in pasture management."},{"index":8,"size":57,"text":"-Increase of the livestock population = land degradation 4. There are a lot of demo plots, but the farmers do not go there to learn. Only a few of them go there to learn. There should be at least one field day per month. 5. There is a new disease (bacterial wilt) on potatoes in Bashnet area."},{"index":9,"size":133,"text":"-IITA has already taken samples to analyze in order to look for solutions to this problem. 6. The farmers should be linked to the financial institutions to stimulate farming as a business (commercialization) -There should be an emphasis on the Warehouse Receipt System -To open SACCO groups 7. There is no market policy for crops, and if present, it does not support farmers -You cannot export crops outside the country -The government does not provide crop insurance when the price is low 8. Value addition -The people/farmers should be trained in adding value to the crops before selling, e g through processing 9. Access to land -There is not enough land in Manyara, which leads to many conflicts -The area for grazing and crop production is not enough because of improper land use "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Farmers  "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: The changing roles of different stakeholders through different stages/phases of a platform process (revised and adapted from Devaux et al 2005 in Makini et al 2013) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Stakeholders and their potential contributions to an R4D platform in the agricultural sector (structure based on Tenywa et al 2011) Category of stakeholders Potential contribution Category of stakeholdersPotential contribution 1. Farmers (men, women and youth) -identify and map challenges 1. Farmers (men, women and youth)-identify and map challenges  -make local knowledge visible -make local knowledge visible  -test, develop and evaluate candidate -test, develop and evaluate candidate  interventions interventions  -communicate results -communicate results 2. Input suppliers -timely delivery of quality and affordable 2. Input suppliers-timely delivery of quality and affordable -stockists (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, inputs/information -stockists (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides,inputs/information herbicides, veterinary drugs) -commercialize the supply of inputs/tools that herbicides, veterinary drugs)-commercialize the supply of inputs/tools that -manufacturers and dealers (farm support agricultural risk management -manufacturers and dealers (farmsupport agricultural risk management implements) -package hardware and software (e g after- implements)-package hardware and software (e g after- -crop/livestock boards sale service) -crop/livestock boardssale service) -cooperative societies -knowledge sharing and promotion of -cooperative societies-knowledge sharing and promotion of -other agri-business enterprises appropriate inputs -other agri-business enterprisesappropriate inputs 3. Output handling and market support -provide strategic market/system linkages to 3. Output handling and market support-provide strategic market/system linkages to agents support producers agentssupport producers -crop and livestock traders -guarantee systems/contract farming systems -crop and livestock traders-guarantee systems/contract farming systems -agro-processors -develop strategies that improve quality and -agro-processors-develop strategies that improve quality and -transporters shelf-life of agricultural products -transportersshelf-life of agricultural products -other agri-business players -knowledge sharing and flexibility in scaling -other agri-business players-knowledge sharing and flexibility in scaling 4. Financial institutions (especially those -develop financial products/services that 4. Financial institutions (especially those-develop financial products/services that providing savings, credit and insurance support interventions providing savings, credit and insurancesupport interventions services)  services) 5. Extension agents (from local and national -knowledge sharing on identification, 5. Extension agents (from local and national-knowledge sharing on identification, governments, NGOs and other farmers' development and implementation of projects governments, NGOs and other farmers'development and implementation of projects support organizations) -support communication and promotion of support organizations)-support communication and promotion of  end products end products 6. Agricultural research institutions -critical situation analysis 6. Agricultural research institutions-critical situation analysis  -leadership in designing interventions -leadership in designing interventions  -conduct new research where necessary -conduct new research where necessary  -communication of results -communication of results 7. Policy makers -mobilize the farmers 7. Policy makers-mobilize the farmers  -support formulation of appropriate policies -support formulation of appropriate policies  "},{"text":"Results from group task: Trends and Challenges  Friday, April 11 Annex 2: Hali ya sasa na changamoto katika maendeleo ya kilimo Babati Friday, April 11 Annex 2: Hali ya sasa na changamoto katika maendeleo ya kilimo Babati Annex 1: Program for the workshop 8.30 -9.30 Reporting from the groups; summing up of day 1, cont. Trends and challenges in agricultural development in Babati Annex 1: Program for the workshop 8.30 -9.30 Reporting from the groups; summing up of day 1, cont. Trends and challenges in agricultural development in Babati PROGRAM 9.30 -10.15 TARANGIRE GROUP: Plenary discussion on challenges PROGRAM 9.30 -10.15 TARANGIRE GROUP:Plenary discussion on challenges Thursday, April 10 10.15 -10.45 S. Lyimo, F. Ngulu, N. Ndili, C. Shayo, I. Shavini, J. Kihara, H. Lugendo, W. Baynit, J. Kyekaka Tea Thursday, April 10 10.15 -10.45 S. Lyimo, F. Ngulu, N. Ndili, C. Shayo, I. Shavini, J. Kihara, H. Lugendo, W. Baynit, J. Kyekaka Tea Venue: Main Hall, White Rose Hotel 10.45 -11.00 Sharing experiences: platforms in Africa RISING West Africa (Dr. Asamoah Larbi) Changamoto: Venue: Main Hall, White Rose Hotel 10.45 -11.00 Sharing experiences: platforms in Africa RISING West Africa (Dr. Asamoah Larbi) Changamoto: 10.00 -10.30 11.00 -12.00 Welcoming Address Group work 2: The way forward 10.00 -10.30 11.00 -12.00Welcoming Address Group work 2: The way forward  10.00 Africa RISING Management, 10.00 Africa RISING Management, 12.00 -13.00 Dr. Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon Reporting from groups; discussion on activities/management 12.00 -13.00Dr. Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon Reporting from groups; discussion on activities/management 13.00 -14.00 10.10 Babati District Council, District Executive Director, Mr. Dominic Kweka The future of the platform. Ownership of process. 13.00 -14.0010.10 Babati District Council, District Executive Director, Mr. Dominic Kweka The future of the platform. Ownership of process. 14.00 - 10.20 Official opening of the Babati District R4D Platform Lunch; departure 14.00 -10.20 Official opening of the Babati District R4D Platform Lunch; departure  Guest of Honour: Regional Commissioner, Manyara Region, Mr. Guest of Honour: Regional Commissioner, Manyara Region, Mr.  Eraston Mbwilo Eraston Mbwilo 10.30 -10.40 (15.00 -17.00 GROUP PHOTO Platform management committee meeting) 10.30 -10.40 (15.00 -17.00GROUP PHOTO Platform management committee meeting) 10.40 -11.00 Voices of stakeholders: Four introductions 10.40 -11.00Voices of stakeholders: Four introductions 11.00 -13.00 Stakeholder introductions (all stakeholders) 11.00 -13.00Stakeholder introductions (all stakeholders) 13.00 -14.30 Lunch 13.00 -14.30Lunch 14.30 -15.00 Babati District R4D Platform -Background (Per Hillbur); 14.30 -15.00Babati District R4D Platform -Background (Per Hillbur);  Powerpoint presentation available at http://africa-rising.wikispaces.com Powerpoint presentation available at http://africa-rising.wikispaces.com 15.00 -16.00 Scientists' presentations 15.00 -16.00Scientists' presentations  Powerpoint presentation available at http://africa-rising.wikispaces.com Powerpoint presentation available at http://africa-rising.wikispaces.com 16.00 -16.30 Comments to presentations; discussion 16.00 -16.30Comments to presentations; discussion 16.30 -17.00 Coffee, tea, refreshments 16.30 -17.00Coffee, tea, refreshments 17.00 -18.00 Group work 1: Trends and Challenges 17.00 -18.00Group work 1: Trends and Challenges 18.00 -18.30 Reporting from the groups; summing up of day 1 18.00 -18.30Reporting from the groups; summing up of day 1 19.30 - Dinner 19.30 -Dinner  "},{"text":"Annex 3: Results from group task: Activities and Responsibilities of the future platform Shughuli za kufanywa na Jukwaa la Utafiti na Maendeleo Wilaya ya Babati LAKE GROUP: Zahoro Madongo, Alhaji Saidi, Ritha Dawite, Lucian Qamara, Dr H N Lyimo, Tomas Mbula, Judith Fulgence, Beanson Charles, Rashidi Mohamedi There is a lack of important equipment for the village extension agents 10. Many farmers look for good agronomic and livestock keeping practices from experts.11. Many farmers do not want to use industrial fertilizer because of destruction of the soil. Transparency of planning of research activities before start, particularly in selection of farmers by extension agents 5. The livestock keepers should adapt the number of livestock to the area available -and to learn about processing of traditional foods for the future 6. To look for good agricultural practices -and proper use of insecticides 7. Training/preparation for involvement in research activities 8. Farmers and livestock keepers should be linked to proper markets 9. Access to and knowledge about farm equipment 10. Field days within and outside the village for knowledge sharing 11. Trials for use of industrial fertilizer and farmer field days should be continued to be conducted so that farmers can see the yield results. The lack of agricultural inputs like improved seeds for food crops is a problem 2. Farmers and livestock keepers have not yet got good training in farming as a business, so they still mainly produce for home consumption. 3. High prices in farm inputs prevent farmers from buying these inputs. 4. Changes in weather conditions (climate change) prevent farmers from practicing irrigation, so they need to rely on rainfed farming only. 5. Lack of knowledge of identifying pests and diseases that attack crops, also a lack of knowledge of proper use of insecticides and time of application. This is also a problem for Dr Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon, Dr. Asamoah Larbi, Dr Ivan Rwomushana, Dr Julius Bwire, DR Libére Nkurunziza A: Current trends and challenges from Babati: 1. Trend: Increase of human and livestock populations o Challenge: low land availability, feed availability, land degradation, seasonality of feed availability and quality, poor housing for livestock 2. Trend: Increased production of some commodities (e g maize, eggs) o Challenge: lack of market information 3. Trend: new diseases and pests for crops and livestock + mycotoxins increase in the value chain o Challenge: It takes time to find solutions; (mycotoxins): feeds and milk quality are affected, thus livestock and human beings 4. Trend: Farmers are recognizing the importance of inputs (fertilizers, new varieties, etc) o Challenge: requires an organized market; Opportunity for the platform to improve the demand-supply of inputs 5. Trend: there is an awareness to integrate vegetables in the farming systems (improved diets and incomes) o Challenge: the lack of water for irrigation during off-season needs to be addressed B: Is sustainable intensification needed? YES! We see a need of increasing productivity but also a proper management of natural resources to make a lasting production system. C: The role that the platform can play -It is a place for learning and triggers changes -Knowledge sharing that can help with guidelines on how to go about arising problems -Put together actors strengthen the institutions -The platform helps prioritize local challenges at the district level Individual suggestions from platform members April 11, 2014 Task: Suggest three activities or responsibilities (majukumo) for the JUMBA (for Swahili, see below) b. Middlemen who provide low costs in products b. Middlemen who provide low costs in products Challenges: 1. Population increase: -Land area is the same -it is not enough -Environmental destruction -Food security is threatened 2. Agriculture. -There is a lack of equipment and inputs -The price for inputs and equipment is high -Plants and crops are infested by insect pests -The quality of available seeds is not proper -The budget to support farmers and livestock keepers is too low -Poor infrastructure for transport of crops -The is no proper market -Climate change -There is a need for immediate change in mind set of farmers -The youth should be engaged to become farmers 3. Livestock: -The grazing areas are not enough -The quality of pasture is poor -Livestock diseases -Lack of improved breed of cattle -Theft of livestock -Infrastructure and markets -The youth should be engaged to learn livestock keeping -Cultural practices of livestock keeping -Inputs/agrochemicals available may already have expired or are of poor quality Group \"KIBOKO\" : Eliminata Paskali, Judith Manzi, Anna Roman, Shabani Mruma, Mwajabu Sadiki, Leonard Marwa, Emmanuel Koyano, Issa A Zava Challenges: 1. Diseases a. MLN, Fusarium wilt (pigeon peas) Endemic diseases: Rabies, anthrax, East Coast Fever 2. Market/ lack of proper market a. When large amounts of products are available in the harvest season, the prices are low, for crops as well as for milk. b. There are restrictions to export of commodities/crops c. Farmers lack knowledge about value addition in their crops such as maize Mr. Gilbert Mbesere BDC, MLFD, Babati Mr. Leonard Marwa TALIRI, West Kilimanjaro 4. Vaccination a. Lack of proper drugs/vaccine (e g for poultry) b. Lack of proper handling/storage of vaccine 5. Population increase 6. Environmental degradation a. Large populations of people and livestock b. Improper land use practices c. Livestock numbers exceed the carrying capacity d. Farm encroachment into grazing lands How can the R4D platform assist? 1. To link farmers and policy-makers to come up with sustainable environmental policies 2. To create awareness/ learn about family planning 3. To identify markets and to learn to access markets 4. To train farmers in value addition of crops GROUP MOUNT HANANG: Bernard Sambali, Patric Kisamo, Daniel Manyangu, Aloyce Kasindei, Jackson Mbwambo, Pascal Martin, Daniel Domu, Andrea Mayi, Christopher Lyamuya Challenges: 1. Farm inputs are sometimes delayed to reach the farm. 2. Weather conditions -unreliable rainfall in terms of amount and distribution 3. Poor record keeping 4. The farmers demand money for land preparation of demo plots for research 5. The grazing lands are small compared to the livestock population 6. There is a lot of insect infestations on plants (pests and diseases) 7. The farmers leave the project after its completion 8. There is no proper market for crop and livestock products 9. Solutions: 1. The input suppliers should deliver on time and provide knowledge of its uses 2. Training on conservation agriculture -Time of planting -Rainwater harvesting 3. Training in record keeping Chonya Wema, Paulina Dawite, Simon G Laway, Dr. Mary Mashingo Challenges faced: TRENDS 1. Research institutions should be involved to check regularly the seeds introduced in order to ensure the quality. 2. Farmers should be provided with practical training in farming-as-a-business, involving all stakeholders. 3. Farmers should organize in groups to connect to financial institutions in order to get loans easier and to get inputs on time. 4. Farmers should be aware of conservation agriculture in order to use short-term varieties 5. Knowledge of insecticides should be emphasized in collaboration with different stakeholders (e g TPRI and agro-dealers) 6. Involvement of selected stakeholders for construction of cattle dips Ms. Jetrida Kyekaka DAICO, MAFC, BDC, Babati Mr. Hassan Lugendo DLFO, MLFD, BDC, Babati Mr. Danny Manyangu MVIWATA Manyara Mr. Aloyce Kasindei TOBRA Dairy Goats Association Dr. Per Hillbur (Facilitator) Malmö University, Sweden Mr. Festo Ngulu IITA, Arusha Dr. Asamoah Larbi IITA, Accra, Ghana Ms. Catherine Njuguna IITA, Dar es Salaam \"ENGLISH\" Group: Activities which are needed: 1. Capacity building on postharvest handling practices/technologies 2. Awareness creation on importance of nutrition and proper feeding for the household members 3. Strategies regarding facilitation of adoption of research innovating technologies to farmers (research-extension strengthening) 1. Kuboresha mifugo ya asili (uhamilishaji) ili kuwa na mifugo michache kuendana na eneo la malisho 2. Maafisa kilimo/mifugo wajengewe uwezo na zana za kazi ili mradi uwe endelevu 3. Mbegu za mazao mbalimbali ziwe za uhakikana bei ya mbegu na mbolea ziwe na nafuu kwa mkulima wa chini kufanya -Vijiji kuwa na mpango wa matumizi ardhi -Vijiji kuungana na kuwa na mpango wa matumizi bora wa ardhi kwa ajiji ya matumizi mazuri na kupunguza migogoro Mr. Chonya Wema SATEC, SubaAgro Ms. Judith Fulgence Minjingu Mines Mr. Shaban Mruma PANNAR, Arusha Dr. Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria Prof. Mateete Bekunda IITA, Arusha Mr. Isaac CIAT, Kenya Dr. Job Kihara CIAT, Kenya Mr. Emmanuel Koyano IITA, Dar es Salaam Dr. Victor Afari-Sefa AVRDC, Arusha Ms. Inviolate Dominick AVRDC, Arusha Mr. Edgar Lyakurwa (Facilitator) BDC, MAFC, Babati Dr. Libére Nkurunziza SLU, Sweden Dr. Ivan Rwomushana ASARECA 4. SHOKA group: Inviolate Dominick, Kheri Kitenge, Gilbert Mbesere, Tumaini Elibariki, Mary Siay, 1. Improved maize seeds 2. Another type o findustrial fertilizer 3. We need improved breed of dairy cow 1. Kuwasaidia wakulima kuingia katika kilimo cha biashara -badala ya kilimo cha kujikimu, walime maeneo waliyo wa uwezo nayo kwa mavuno makubwa Mr. Stephen Lyimo Selian ARI, Arusha Mr. Kheri Kitenge Selian ARI, Arusha Dr. Maria Mashingo Director, TALIRI, West Kilimanjaro Dr. Julius Mbwire Director, TALIRI, Tanga Representative FarmAfrica, Babati Dr. Victor Manyong IITA, Dar es Salaam Dr. Ainsley Charles IFPRI, Arusha Ms. Coletta Shayo Regional Agricultural Adviser, Manyara Region Representative Regional Livestock Advisor, Manyara Region Dr. Hurbert N. Lyimo MLFD, Dar es Salaam 1. extension agents. 6. Lack of cattle dips 7. There is a lack of record keeping in cattle breeding 8. There is a lack of seeds for pasture grasses for different weather conditions 9. Crop losses are considerable during harvest 10. There is a need for widespread knowledge about handling and use of farmyard manure in the fields, for future needs. 2. Kuunganisha wa kulima/wafugaji soko na pia kupata elimu ya kusindika 3. Elimu ya kuwa na matumizi sahihi ya 2. Matumizi bora ya ardhi: Shughuli ya kilimo, mifugo, uvuvi na uzalishaji Dr. Bright Macdonald Jumbo CIMMYT, Nairobi ardhi ili kuboresha maisha yao mfano; i. Usindikaji na masoko Representative Tuboreshe Chakula, Dar es Salaam ya: mazao yao ili kuongeza ubora a. Kuongeza thamani kwa njia Mr. N. Ndili Tuboreshe/Technoserve, Babati 1. Uzalishaji wa mazao: kuwa na kilimo ambacho kina angalia Representative FIDE, Babati Ms. Irene Mwasaga IITA, Arusha Challenges: 1. Population increase: -Land area is the same -it is not enough -Environmental destruction -Food security is threatened 2. Agriculture. -There is a lack of equipment and inputs -The price for inputs and equipment is high -Plants and crops are infested by insect pests -The quality of available seeds is not proper -The budget to support farmers and livestock keepers is too low -Poor infrastructure for transport of crops -The is no proper market -Climate change -There is a need for immediate change in mind set of farmers -The youth should be engaged to become farmers 3. Livestock: -The grazing areas are not enough -The quality of pasture is poor -Livestock diseases -Lack of improved breed of cattle -Theft of livestock -Infrastructure and markets -The youth should be engaged to learn livestock keeping -Cultural practices of livestock keeping -Inputs/agrochemicals available may already have expired or are of poor quality Group \"KIBOKO\" : Eliminata Paskali, Judith Manzi, Anna Roman, Shabani Mruma, Mwajabu Sadiki, Leonard Marwa, Emmanuel Koyano, Issa A Zava Challenges: 1. Diseases a. MLN, Fusarium wilt (pigeon peas) Endemic diseases: Rabies, anthrax, East Coast Fever 2. Market/ lack of proper market a. When large amounts of products are available in the harvest season, the prices are low, for crops as well as for milk. b. There are restrictions to export of commodities/crops c. Farmers lack knowledge about value addition in their crops such as maize Mr. Gilbert Mbesere BDC, MLFD, Babati Mr. Leonard Marwa TALIRI, West Kilimanjaro 4. Vaccination a. Lack of proper drugs/vaccine (e g for poultry) b. Lack of proper handling/storage of vaccine 5. Population increase 6. Environmental degradation a. Large populations of people and livestock b. Improper land use practices c. Livestock numbers exceed the carrying capacity d. Farm encroachment into grazing lands How can the R4D platform assist? 1. To link farmers and policy-makers to come up with sustainable environmental policies 2. To create awareness/ learn about family planning 3. To identify markets and to learn to access markets 4. To train farmers in value addition of crops GROUP MOUNT HANANG: Bernard Sambali, Patric Kisamo, Daniel Manyangu, Aloyce Kasindei, Jackson Mbwambo, Pascal Martin, Daniel Domu, Andrea Mayi, Christopher Lyamuya Challenges: 1. Farm inputs are sometimes delayed to reach the farm. 2. Weather conditions -unreliable rainfall in terms of amount and distribution 3. Poor record keeping 4. The farmers demand money for land preparation of demo plots for research 5. The grazing lands are small compared to the livestock population 6. There is a lot of insect infestations on plants (pests and diseases) 7. The farmers leave the project after its completion 8. There is no proper market for crop and livestock products 9. Solutions: 1. The input suppliers should deliver on time and provide knowledge of its uses 2. Training on conservation agriculture -Time of planting -Rainwater harvesting 3. Training in record keeping Chonya Wema, Paulina Dawite, Simon G Laway, Dr. Mary Mashingo Challenges faced: TRENDS 1. Research institutions should be involved to check regularly the seeds introduced in order to ensure the quality. 2. Farmers should be provided with practical training in farming-as-a-business, involving all stakeholders. 3. Farmers should organize in groups to connect to financial institutions in order to get loans easier and to get inputs on time. 4. Farmers should be aware of conservation agriculture in order to use short-term varieties 5. Knowledge of insecticides should be emphasized in collaboration with different stakeholders (e g TPRI and agro-dealers) 6. Involvement of selected stakeholders for construction of cattle dips Ms. Jetrida Kyekaka DAICO, MAFC, BDC, Babati Mr. Hassan Lugendo DLFO, MLFD, BDC, Babati Mr. Danny Manyangu MVIWATA Manyara Mr. Aloyce Kasindei TOBRA Dairy Goats Association Dr. Per Hillbur (Facilitator) Malmö University, Sweden Mr. Festo Ngulu IITA, Arusha Dr. Asamoah Larbi IITA, Accra, Ghana Ms. Catherine Njuguna IITA, Dar es Salaam \"ENGLISH\" Group: Activities which are needed: 1. Capacity building on postharvest handling practices/technologies 2. Awareness creation on importance of nutrition and proper feeding for the household members 3. Strategies regarding facilitation of adoption of research innovating technologies to farmers (research-extension strengthening) 1. Kuboresha mifugo ya asili (uhamilishaji) ili kuwa na mifugo michache kuendana na eneo la malisho 2. Maafisa kilimo/mifugo wajengewe uwezo na zana za kazi ili mradi uwe endelevu 3. Mbegu za mazao mbalimbali ziwe za uhakikana bei ya mbegu na mbolea ziwe na nafuu kwa mkulima wa chini kufanya -Vijiji kuwa na mpango wa matumizi ardhi -Vijiji kuungana na kuwa na mpango wa matumizi bora wa ardhi kwa ajiji ya matumizi mazuri na kupunguza migogoro Mr. Chonya Wema SATEC, SubaAgro Ms. Judith Fulgence Minjingu Mines Mr. Shaban Mruma PANNAR, Arusha Dr. Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria Prof. Mateete Bekunda IITA, Arusha Mr. Isaac CIAT, Kenya Dr. Job Kihara CIAT, Kenya Mr. Emmanuel Koyano IITA, Dar es Salaam Dr. Victor Afari-Sefa AVRDC, Arusha Ms. Inviolate Dominick AVRDC, Arusha Mr. Edgar Lyakurwa (Facilitator) BDC, MAFC, Babati Dr. Libére Nkurunziza SLU, Sweden Dr. Ivan Rwomushana ASARECA 4. SHOKA group: Inviolate Dominick, Kheri Kitenge, Gilbert Mbesere, Tumaini Elibariki, Mary Siay, 1. Improved maize seeds 2. Another type o findustrial fertilizer 3. We need improved breed of dairy cow 1. Kuwasaidia wakulima kuingia katika kilimo cha biashara -badala ya kilimo cha kujikimu, walime maeneo waliyo wa uwezo nayo kwa mavuno makubwa Mr. Stephen Lyimo Selian ARI, Arusha Mr. Kheri Kitenge Selian ARI, Arusha Dr. Maria Mashingo Director, TALIRI, West Kilimanjaro Dr. Julius Mbwire Director, TALIRI, Tanga Representative FarmAfrica, Babati Dr. Victor Manyong IITA, Dar es Salaam Dr. Ainsley Charles IFPRI, Arusha Ms. Coletta Shayo Regional Agricultural Adviser, Manyara Region Representative Regional Livestock Advisor, Manyara Region Dr. Hurbert N. Lyimo MLFD, Dar es Salaam 1. extension agents. 6. Lack of cattle dips 7. There is a lack of record keeping in cattle breeding 8. There is a lack of seeds for pasture grasses for different weather conditions 9. Crop losses are considerable during harvest 10. There is a need for widespread knowledge about handling and use of farmyard manure in the fields, for future needs. 2. Kuunganisha wa kulima/wafugaji soko na pia kupata elimu ya kusindika 3. Elimu ya kuwa na matumizi sahihi ya 2. Matumizi bora ya ardhi: Shughuli ya kilimo, mifugo, uvuvi na uzalishaji Dr. Bright Macdonald Jumbo CIMMYT, Nairobi ardhi ili kuboresha maisha yao mfano; i. Usindikaji na masoko Representative Tuboreshe Chakula, Dar es Salaam ya: mazao yao ili kuongeza ubora a. Kuongeza thamani kwa njia Mr. N. Ndili Tuboreshe/Technoserve, Babati 1. Uzalishaji wa mazao: kuwa na kilimo ambacho kina angalia Representative FIDE, Babati Ms. Irene Mwasaga IITA, Arusha 3. Poor infrastructure 3. Poor infrastructure a. The roads are not in a good condition for lorries transporting crops a. The roads are not in a good condition for lorries transporting crops  "}],"sieverID":"e3fdf78c-db6d-437e-b1d7-e6f4ef6df57f","abstract":"oriented) approach guided by principles of similarity. This emphasis of spatial interactions, as e g in an agricultural landscape, is called the arena perspective (Hillbur 1998). The value added here by the arena perspective is that it makes visible the reality of farmers and other local actors, and thus includes local knowledge systems in strategies and decision-making about interventions.A powerful technique in applying an area-based approach is the establishment of R4D platforms. These platforms may well operate at different levels, and hypothetically virtual platforms are possible for certain kinds of interaction. In this report, however, an R4D platform has a distinct geographical focus, in order to address a wide range of stakeholders operating in the same district. The principle of nearness is important to keep together the trans-disciplinary, multi-sector focus."}

data/part_1/09a61261891b6ceb9a010a73c157285e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09a61261891b6ceb9a010a73c157285e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e4380506-a6d9-458c-87ad-c2041c321624/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Community animators training on agroforestry for improved livelihood and animal welfare in Dugda and Humbo districts, Ethiopia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background of the training","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":250,"text":"The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), VSF-Suisse and World Agroforestry (ICRAF) are implementing the 'Scaling agroforestry to benefit the welfare of animals and their owners in Ethiopia (SAWA-Ethiopia)' project in Humbo and Dugda districts in highland mixed crop-livestock production systems, and in Moyale and Miyo districts in lowland pastoral production systems. Financed by Biovison Foundation, SAWA-Ethiopia is integrating crop, rangeland health, livestock, and multi-purpose trees to improve farm diversification, animal welfare and environmental well-being. The communities, local authorities, and researchers co-develop and plan actions to enhance farm enterprise through the integration and development of new tree-linked value chains to improve the livelihood of the farmers. During co-development and action planning exercises, capacity building to the farmers, extension agents and districts' agricultural experts on implementation of agroforestry, animal welfare and agricultural business skills were identified as potential interventions to improve welfare (family well-being, animal welfare and biodiversity). In this regard, the project is working with the national research system (NRS) to build climate-adaptive and sustainable livestock farming through farm diversification and technology transfer. Accordingly, agroforestry for improved livelihood and animal welfare training of trainers (TOT) were conducted in November 2022 and June 2023 in Meki and Humbo Tabala towns for two cohort of farmers selected from eight villages, agricultural development agents, and experts in local government offices. The trained farmers will be used as community animators to initiate and sustain community activities on food system transformation through agroecology. The training was delivered using both interactive participatory lectures and practical on-farm demonstration."}]},{"head":"Location and modality","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"An interactive, face-to-face participatory format was adopted to actively engage participants in a learning process. The training sessions had both theoretical (five) and practical (one) sessions. The theoretical training sessions were organized in Meki and Humbo Tabala tows. Practical demonstration and field visits were conducted on the final date of the training. For the Meki training, practical demonstrations and an agroforestry site visit were organized by the Adami Tulu Agricultural Research Centre at Welda Mekdela village. For the Humbo training, the practical demonstrations and agroforestry site visit was conducted at the Sodo Agricultural College. "}]},{"head":"Who conducted the training?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"A multidisciplinary team from the project consortium (ILRI, ICRAF and VSF-Suisse), government agricultural offices, National research centres and Sodo Agricultural Collage provided the training in both districts. Three trainers from ILRI, one from ICRAF, two from Adami Tulu Agricultural Research Centre (ATARC), two from the Areka Agricultural Research Centre (AARC) provided the training. The sessions were facilitated by local agricultural experts in respective districts (Annex 1)."}]},{"head":"Objectives of the training","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The training was designed to provide and build competency in the following key areas:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• To introduce the importance, principles, and practice of agroforestry systems to community animators selected from smallholder farming communities."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Strengthen and build the capacity of extension agents and smallholder farmers on tree-pasture integration for better animal welfare."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• Introduce the concept of farm business enterprise and the importance of value addition for sustainable livelihood transformation."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• Help rural communities to implement integrated farm systems and be community animators (change agents) in promoting sustainable agriculture through livestock-agroforestry integration."}]},{"head":"Training agenda","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Before the training course, participants were asked to define their learning goals and how they will apply the knowledge and skills obtained from the course for effective agricultural practice integration. Then, all the participants were asked to fill pre-training assessment forms. During the training, this personal learning goal was compared with the training course objectives. All the training sessions were officially opened by the agricultural office head in each district. The four-day training agenda is shown in Annex 1. Daily reflections at the end of each day were obtained from participants to monitor learning activities and the selected participants presented a recap of each day's learning at start of the next day. On the last day of training, the participants visited agroforestry sites for practical demonstration on the planting process of forage, fruit, and multipurpose trees. Then they filled post-training survey forms to evaluate the overall training and provide feedback on the overall training process. This information will be used to guide future training sessions."}]},{"head":"Training participants","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"The participants included model farmers, agricultural development agents and experts from local government offices. The model farmers were selected from four villages of the two districts (Dugda and Humbo) based on their potential to be community animators. The farmers were provided with agroforestry packages that included forage, fruit, and multipurpose trees to plant in their farms. Their farmland will be used as co-learning sites to build the capacity of smallholder farmers in villages. A total of 16 agricultural developments agents, two from each village also joined the first training sessions in each district. They will follow up and s support the farmers after the training. Additionally, 16 experts in natural resource management, horticulture, forage development, forestry, animal production and gender were also included in the training. They will oversee the overall implementation of agroforestry interventions. A total of 128 participants, 32 female and 96 males participated in the 3 training sessions (Table 1). "}]},{"head":"Comments or next steps","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"On the final date of the training, the participants were asked to provide their comments, whether the training met their expectation or not, the relevance of the training topics, the capability of the trainers, training time management, practical session arrangement, things to be improved and overall training delivery."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"The following comments were provided by training participants:"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• The training was useful and they liked all training topics and explanations by the trainers were wonderful."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• The practical demonstration was very insightful and timely."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• The organizers should consider reaching the wider community in future training."},{"index":6,"size":29,"text":"• Some other important training topics such as animal feed production and processing, apiary, feedlots, plant diseases management and improved tree management such as avocado could also be included."}]},{"head":"Next steps","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"• Farmers will be selected as project beneficiaries to prepare land for improved seedling plantation."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"• ILRI (SAWA Ethiopia project) will distribute improved varieties of forage, fruit, and multipurpose trees."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• District development agent in collaboration with SAWA project will carry out continuous monitoring and follow up of the training outcome and survival rate of planted trees."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"• Each trained farmer is expected to train 10 farmer/producer followers."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"• The project will facilitate farmers co-learning platforms to build the capacity of the farming community."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• Animal welfare and care training will be organized for similar farmers by the project."}]},{"head":"Photos","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Group discussion of community animators in Humbo town (photo credit: ILRI/Tsega Berhe)."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Group discussion of community animators in Meki town (photo credit: ILRI/Eyob Gelan)."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"welfare in Dugda and Humbo districts, Ethiopia Farm Visit at Sodo Agricultural College (photo credit: ILRI/Gezahegn Alemayehu)."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"A farmer demonstrating improved animal feed for peers at Sodo Agricultural College (photo credit: ILRI/Gezahegn Alemayehu)."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"welfare in Dugda and Humbo districts, Ethiopia Expert orientation on animal feed preservation at Sodo Agricultural College (photo credit: ILRI/Eyob Gelan)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" welfare in Dugda and Humbo districts, Ethiopia Dates The training was conducted for two cohorts of project beneficiaries. The first cohort received training from 15-19 November 2022 in Meki town for Dugda District beneficiaries. The training for Humbo District beneficiaries was held at Tabala town 21-24 November 2022. The second cohort was organized only for Humbo District beneficiaries between 11-14 June 2023. Due to security problem around Meki town, the Dugda district farmers were not included in the training. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1  A summary of training participant list   A summary of training participant list Location Participants' role Male Female Total LocationParticipants' roleMaleFemaleTotal Meki Experts 6 1 7 MekiExperts617  Extension agents 8 0 8 Extension agents808  Farmers 13 9 22 Farmers13922 Humbo Experts 9 0 9 HumboExperts909  Extension agents 7 1 8 Extension agents718  Farmers 53 21 74 Farmers532174  Total 96 32 128 Total9632128  "}],"sieverID":"8936ce8c-427f-4270-80e7-a4ec409ea1c3","abstract":"Fair dealing and other rights are in no way affected by the above. The parts used must not misrepresent the meaning of the publication. ILRI would appreciate being sent a copy of any materials in which text, photos etc. have been used.Editing, design and layout-"}

data/part_1/09a8f9e81c61d2d091dee7f0bfa8eff4.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09a8f9e81c61d2d091dee7f0bfa8eff4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3c4bc072-a367-4c20-bcf2-0dd1d09416d0/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"The agronomy and use of Lablab purpureus in smallholder farming systems of southern Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Lablab purpureus, commonly known as lablab bean, is a twining legume native to tropical and sub-tropical areas of Africa. It is a deep-rooted, drought tolerant, summer-growing annual to short-lived perennial. In southern Africa, common cultivars are Highworth, which produces purple flowers and black seeds, and Rongai, which produces white flowers and brown seeds. Rongai has a longer growing season and higher forage yields than Highworth."}]},{"head":"Why grow lablab?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"In East and Central Africa, as well as parts of Asia, lablab is mostly used as a pulse crop and both the green pods and mature seeds can be consumed by humans. It produces large quantities of forage biomass, with high crude protein content ranging from 10-13 g/kg of dry matter and dry matter digestibility ranging from 55-75 g/kg. It can be grown as a single green manure crop or intercropped with maize or sorghum to improve soil fertility. It can also be grown as a cover crop to suppress weeds or provide nitrogen-rich mulch in conservation agriculture (CA)."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"When used in crop rotations with cereals, the cereal crop will utilize residual nitrogen fixed by lablab in the preceding season. Both early and late maturing culivars can be used to provide fresh fodder, or conserved as hay or silage to provide supplementary feed during the dry season. Late flowering varieties/cultivars, such as Rongai, can also provide grazing during the early part of the dry season. Lablab hay or silage improves digestibility of poor quality roughages normally fed to animals in the dry season (e.g. maize stover)."}]},{"head":"Rongai Highworth","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Soils","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"The crop establishes in a wide range of soils, from sands to heavy clay, having a pH of 5.0-7.5. Heavy soils are preferred, especially for seed production, to realize maximum yields from the crop."}]},{"head":"Cultivation practices","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Land preparation for Lablab purpureus farming","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Land should be ploughed during the early dry season to reduce weed encroachment and conserve moisture. In CA systems, planting stations can be marked by holingout with a hoe or using ripper tines to disturb the soil."}]},{"head":"Fertilizer and lime requirements","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Soil analysis is recommended to obtain accurate fertilizer recommendations. General recommendations prescribe the annual application of 500 kg/ha dolomitic lime [CaMg(CO3)2] on sandy soils and 750 kg/ ha on heavy soils until pH is 5.5-7.5. This should be accompanied with 200-250 kg/ha single superphosphate (18.5% P2O5) on reverted lands. On depleted soils and sandy soils, application of 250-300 kg/ha Compound D (7N; 14P: 7K) is recommended, in place of single superphosphate."}]},{"head":"Sowing","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Seed of the Lablab purpureus must be inoculated with an appropriate strain of Rhizobium bacteria on the day of planting. This will enable its roots to nodulate effectively and fix high levels of soil N through biological nitrogen fixation. However, inoculation is not usually necessary in fields where Lablab purpureus has been grown and inoculated before."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Lablab purpureus yields best when planted early, preferably with the first rains. Late planting will reduce seed and herbage yield potential. It is normally sown at 25-30 kg seed/ha, in rows 0.9m apart and with in-row spacing of 0.25-0.30m. Farmers are advised to place two pips per planting station to ensure good establishment, then thin when seedlings are 2-3 weeks old."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"When intercropping with maize (or sorghum), the legume is planted 2-4 weeks after the cereal, depending on predicted seasonal rainfall and legume variety."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Highworth is usually preferred when intercropping because it is a less vigorous climber than Rongai. Planting Lablab purpureus in the same row with the cereal facilitates weeding and spraying."}]},{"head":"Crop management","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The field should be maintained weed-free since Lablab purpureus easily succumbs to heavy weed infestations."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Weedy conditions also increase disease infestations."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Even though Lablab purpureus is drought tolerant, young plants are prone to aphids if exposed to extended droughts."},{"index":4,"size":41,"text":"Common pests are cutworms, leaf eaters, sap-suckers and pod borers, most of which can be treated with simple pesticides (such as Carbaryl 85% WP). Seed production can be drastically reduced by flower eaters (e.g. Blister beetles-Mylabris spp.) and pod-borers (e.g. bollworm)."}]},{"head":"Harvesting and yields a) Hay","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Lablab purpureus is normally harvested for fodder at 30-50% bloom. Local research has shown that when grown alone (single crop), Lablab purpureus can yield 4.5-7 tonnes dry matter/ha, in natural regions II and III. Average herbage yields are lower (1-2.5 tonnes dry matter/ha) in the semi-arid regions (NR IV and V). Lablab purpureus hay has high crude protein content (10-13%) and dry matter digestibility (55-75) making it a good source of protein supplement for ruminant livestock."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Hay-making is difficult with mature plants that are over 3-4 months old because the thick stalks take long time (4-6 weeks) to dry. It is, therefore, recommended to make hay from young and more nutritious pastures."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Young herbage material can be dried in the sun for 3-4 days, before baling at about 20-25% moisture. It is recommended to bale the hay as it is easier to handle, store and feed. It is important to ensure that leaves do not shatter before baling, as these tend to dry-off more quickly than the stems. During its curing, the hay must be turned at least once a day to reduce swath resistance, since thick stems take longer to dry. Bales must be kept in a dry airy environment."}]},{"head":"b) Silage","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Fresh lablab can also be used to make mixed-crop silages with either maize or sorghum. The resultant silage will have improved crude protein content (depending on proportion of legume added)."}]},{"head":"Seed production","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Dry pods should be handpicked continuously, before they shatter. Thereafter, the harvested pods can be sundried on wide tent/plastic material to prevent seed getting lost when pods shatter. Highworth is a prolific seeder and yields vary between 0.5 and 1 tonnes/ha. It is difficult to obtain seed from Rongai in its first year of establishment because it starts to flower in mid-May and most pods abort due to lake of moisture. All seeds must be treated with grain protectant and stored in a cool and dry place to avoid damage from weevils. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Photo credits: Pages 1, 2, 3 and 4 ILRI "}],"sieverID":"0a2fe32c-e172-4e8f-9470-1f1d8aded99e","abstract":"Lablab purpureus grows better in warm conditions but it can withstand moderately cold conditions (>50C), though frost will kill the shoots and stop growth. Once established, it can be very drought resistance, growing well in areas receiving between 450-1200mm of rainfall per annum, due to its deep rootedness and ability to shift its leaf inclinations, to reduce exposure to direct sunrays."}

data/part_1/09cfd25d5563e6be92b4735d99dba684.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09cfd25d5563e6be92b4735d99dba684","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8fcd55c8-f315-470a-b63b-4bcefeb52d95/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"Training Workshop report Implementation of the CSA Monitoring to assess adoption of Climate Smart Agricultural options and related outcomes in Doyogena Climate-Smart landscape (Ethiopia)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"The projects' overall goal will be achieved through supporting large-scale adoption of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) technologies and practices and fulfilling two main objectives:"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"to derive new knowledge on scalable CSA technologies and institutional options with demonstrable benefits to women and men farmers, youth employment, climate resilience and low emissions development; and (ii)"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"to engage in on-going development and private sector initiatives to assist in prioritization of best bet options and in policy development."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"The primary project outcome is to provide incentives (financial, technical and policy) to support 0.4 million farmers to adopt climate-smart practices and technologies, which explicitly contribute to increased resilience to climate shocks across a range of time-scales."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"To address the challenge of how to transit to CSA at scale, CCAFS Flagship 2 (FP2) will produce and appropriately disseminate field-based evidence and information to support these investments. The best-bet CSA options for target geographies will be determined through collaborative work with partners aiming to test, evaluate, promote and scale up CSA technologies and practices that met the needs of farmers -including women and marginalized groups."},{"index":6,"size":114,"text":"This first training workshop held in Ethiopia on the CSA Monitoring framework is contributing to the projects' Activity 1.2: the assessment of CSA options in the climate-smart villages (CSV) and to the Output 1: \"Five technological or institutional CSA options that can be scaled up with smallholder farmers in Ethiopia\". As a result, crop production was declining due to loss of soil fertility and some farmers were forced to abandon part of their unproductive plots. In addition, land degradation caused shortage of fodder forcing farmers to buy fodder from their limited resources, put pressure on Enset to feeding their cattle and a burden on women and children mainly responsible for feeding and fodder harvesting."},{"index":7,"size":19,"text":"Lack of forage was also one of the constraining factors for breeding improved livestock varieties, which have better productivity. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Contents Background .............................................................................................................................................. Objectives ................................................................................................................................................ Expected outputs..................................................................................................................................... The Doyogena Climate-Smart Landscape ................................................................................................ Site specific tailoring of the Monitoring framework ............................................................................... Targeted CSA resilience-building options ............................................................................................ CSA Monitoring Training ......................................................................................................................... Participants ........................................................................................................................................... List of funded trainers .......................................................................................................................... Flickr Photo album ................................................................................................................................ Implementation of the CSA Monitoring framework in Doyogena .......................................................... Contact persons.................................................................................................................................... Annex 1. Site Specific tailoring information for Doyogena 2019 ...................................................... Annex 2. Glossary of CSA promising practices ................................................................................... Annex 3: Training Workshop Agenda ................................................................................................. Annex 4. Participants list .................................................................................................................... Annex 5. Terms of Reference Trainers ............................................................................................... Annex 6. Terms of Reference Training Workshop ............................................................................. Background Led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), the Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) Program is a collaboration among all 15 CGIAR Research Centers. It brings together some of the world's best researchers in agricultural science, climate science, environmental and social sciences to identify and address the most important interactions, synergies and trade-offs between climate change and agriculture. CCAFS aims to define and implement a uniquely innovative and transformative research program to help vulnerable rural communities adjust to global changes in climate and overcome the threats posed to agriculture and food security. Fully aligned with this global effort, CIAT together with ICRAF, ICRISAT and ILRI started implementing the EU-IFAD funded project \"Building livelihoods and resilience to climate change in East & West Africa\". "},{"text":"1 . 2 . 3 . The training workshop aimed to build local capacities to implement the CSA Monitoring Framework order to assess i) the adoption of promising Climate Smart Agricultural options promoted in the Ethiopia study site and ii) their related outcomes on household's livelihoods, food security and resilience. TheMonitoring framework consists of a set of robust indicators allowing tracking expected outcomes in the Productivity/Food Security and Adaptation pillars. The key research questions addressed include:  Who in the Dogoyena CSV is adopting which CSA technologies and practices and which are their motivations or constraining factors? and  Which are the gender-disaggregated perceived effects of CSA options on farmers' livelihood (agricultural production, income, food security, food diversity and adaptive capacity) and on key gender dimensions (participation in decision-making, participation in CSA implementation and dis-adoption, control and access over resources and labor). Objectives Main objective To carry out a technical training workshop to build the capacities of the local team and key partners involved in the fieldwork in the Doyogena Climate-Smart Landscape to implement the annual CSA monitoring framework in 2019 and onwards over the project timeline. Specific objectives To tailor the CSA Monitoring framework and ICT-based data collection tool (Geofarmer) developed by CCAFS FP2 to the Doyogena context-specific conditions and identify the key CSA options promoted in the site to support the rehabilitation of degraded landscapes and ecosystems, and the enhancement of farmer resilience, and which shall be tracked with the Monitoring. Specifically build the capacity of a Supervisor (future trainer of trainers) to technically be able to annually manage/adjust the monitoring App and lead the local implementation of the Monitoring framweork. Support the local team (enumerators and supervisors) in the first days of field data collection in Doyogena and ensuring a smooth transition to full implementation. Expected outputs Glossary of key CSA options to support the rehabilitation of degraded landscapes and ecosystems  CSA monitoring App and questionnaire tailored to Doyogena CSV site (Ethiopia) and ready for implementation (available upon request)  CSA monitoring training delivered in Doyogena (ppt presentation and Photos)  Workshop participants list: CCAFS EA, local partners and enumerators trained and ready to start implementation (to be led by CCAFS EA/ILRI team) The Doyogena Climate-Smart Landscape The Doyogena Climate Smart Landscape is located in Kembata Tembaro zone, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and People's Region (SNNPR) of Ethiopia. The CSV is in a highland with altitude ranging from 2420 -2740 meters above sea level (SNNPR Bureau of Finance and Economic Development, 2017). The district where is situated has a mean annual minimum and maximum temperature of 12.6°C and 20°C, respectively and a mean annual rainfall ranging from 1,000 -1,400 mm. There are two rainfall seasons in the area; Belg (the short rainy season) from January to March and Meher (main rainy season) from June to October. The main economic activity in the area involves mixed farming system with Enset-cereal -livestock production. The main types of cereal crops grown in the area are wheat, barley, legumes and vegetable like beans and potato. Enset (Ensete ventricosum) which is an important source of food is grown in the area by almost all households. Livestock production includes cattle, sheep and poultry. Agriculture is the main means of livelihood for the community. The majority are subsistent farmers with an average land size of 0.5 ha. The main source of income for the Kembata Tembaro zone is sale of wheat, beans, potatoes, livestock & livestock products, and rural/urban labouring. Rainfed, small-scale, subsistence farming is increasingly threaten by climate related changes such as greater variability in the expected onset and cessation of rainfall but also as heavy rains, storms/strong winds, low temperatures, frost and droughts. This area of steep topography also suffers from land degradation and a decline in soil fertility. These extreme changes are likely to lead to increased crop failures, pest and disease outbreaks, and water scarcity.Previous farming practices were aggravating the soil erosion problem. "},{"text":"4 . 5 . 9 . Photo: O.Bonilla-Findji "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"4b24e434-02db-4937-b7fb-3a3e2e897ee2","abstract":"The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and carried out with support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements. For more information, please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a167d9e63cc89262794020f187e1f4b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/00e7bb8d-0710-48ad-ae17-f3a7358d7508/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction Phaseolus germplasm Cassava tissue culture Publicatíons","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Genetic Resources Unit","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"During 1978 the Genetic Resources U nit has become established in its remodeled building, so that at the end of the year the three cold rooms, the five laboratories, the herbarium and the two threshing areas were all fully utilized by staff of the U nito A year ago no germplasm was actually housed in the U nit; by the end of 1978 over 26,000 accessions of Phaseolus bean (four species), tropical forage legumes and grasses (some 23 genera), and cassava were being stored in the U nito During the year the Genetic Resources U nit changed from being a collector of other Phaseolus collections to become an active collector of unique Phaseolus germplasm in central Mexico, one of its centers of diversity. A one-month study of herbarium specimens in Mexico was followed by a three-month field collection trip done in cooperation with the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas (INIA). To mid-November, 120 , eed samples covering 14 Phaseolus species, plus 165 plant samples, mostly weedy (silvestris) types were collected in eight Mexican states (from Durango south to Michoacan). Materials were also collected under contract in Pero, Spain and Portugal."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Tbe CIA T Phaseolus bean germplasm has increased from some I~,OOO aecessions _tic Reoourcea Unlt in 1977 to over 21,000 at presento More importantly, this germplasm is nowactive-Iy being evaluated for gene tic and agronomic characters and those materials contaminated with bacterial and I or viral diseases are being multiplied under careful control, and in close cooperation with the Bean Program, to produce seeds free of such contamination. Computerized data file systems have been developed to facilita te the entry, updating and retrieval of information gained in field and laboratory evaluations of germplasm."},{"index":3,"size":194,"text":"Responsibility for the tropical forages germplasm held at CIAT (some 4500 accessions) has reeently been transferred to the Genetic Resourees U nit, where certain stages of evaluation and multiplication and all storage will talce place. Some aetivities will be shared with the Beef Program, especially field evaluation at CIA T-Quiliehao and Carimagua. A flexible data management system able to aceommodate all evaluation inputs is being developed eooperatively with the Beef Programo Since April the plant physiologist has been able to test and set up methods that permit the rapid development of eassava plantlets from meristem tissue cultures. The time required between the talcing of the small tissue sample and its development into a small plant ready for transfer F-' into the field is o nly eight weeks. In contrast, other techniq ues are being tested that wiU permit storing the cassava meristem planllets in test tubes for a t least a yea r free of disease and other field problems. T owards the end of 1978 action was taken to organize selected natianal centers into a smaU network that wiU aUow distribution of cassava germplasm as tissue cultures thro ugh natio nal quarantine inspection."}]},{"head":"Phaseolus Germplasm Acquisition and Seed Increase","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"Nearly 7500 Phaseolus accessio ns were acquired from other SOllrces since J anuary 1978 so that the size of the present CIAT coUection is more than 21 ,000 entries (Table 1 for sorne of the 32 taxonometric and agronomic characters considered most important for this genus (Table 2). However, since not all of these accessions have been evaluated for al! 32 characters, efforts were made in 1978 to colleet more ¡nformation. As in previous years, this was done by growing an accession in a 6-m row at CIA T -Palmira at the onset of the rainy sea son. More than 500 accessions were evaluated between April and June and another 230 are being evaluated at the end of the year. An important development in 1978 was the identification of 200 lines of P. luna/us which are uniform ror leed characters. These rnateriaIs are now boing evaluated at CIA T -Palmira. "}]},{"head":"Seed Storage","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"During early 1978, standard methods recommended by the International Seed Tesling Association (1ST A) were sel up for lhe U ni!. Seed germination and vigor as measures of seed viability are now determined routinely for Phaseolus bean accessions using rolled papers maintained at 100% relative humidily for seven days al 20 o -30°e. Over 1750 accessions now have been lesled for germinability; of 1113 general accessions lesled, 69.0% had 90% or higher germination rateo In contrast, when 461 lots of clean seed were tesled 90.5% showed a germinabilily level lhal high. While percent germination and percenl vigor (eslimaled as number of significanlly larger seedlings in eaeh germinalion lesl) are only weakly eorrelaled in lhe general aeeessions, lhis positive correlation was increased for the clean seeds to r = 0.597. This implies lhal when environmental factors, espeeially diseases, are removed, plant vigor may indeed be shown to be a genetic character."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"A simple melhod for seed drying based 00 desiccation al room temperature was developed . Numerous small lols of seed (typically less lhan I kg for Phaseolus bean) are placed in desiccalor cabinels over silica gel for seven days. During lhis period seed moislure conlenl drops lo below 7%. Such dried seeds, when paeked inlo moisture-proof laminated packs, maintain lhis low moislure conlenl regardless of ambienl relalive humidily. It is eSlimaled lhal Phaseolus bean germplasm kept al -10°C and 7% eonlent will relain 90% of its inilial viabilily for a period of 300 years."}]},{"head":"F-4","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Germplasm Distribution","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"A tOlal of 14,800 samples of Phaseolus germplasm (mostly P. vulgaris) were distribuled in 1978. The distribution of malerials oUlside CIAT was as follows: South Ameriea (391 samples), North Ameriea (190), Central Ameriea (6000), Asia (200), Africa (856), Europe (376) and Far Easl (346). Within CIAT nearly 6500 accessions have been distributed to the Bean Program, especially lo the breeders."}]},{"head":"Data Management and Cataloging","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Management of germplasm dala is an inlegral funetion of the Genelie Resourees U ni!. Sourees of germplasm dala inelude those from colleetion or introduetion, maintenance, evaluation and distribution."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"For Phaseolus germplasm, a number of compuler files lo manage such dala have been developed in conjunction with lhe Biometrics Seclion. Similar work has been initialed for lhe tropical forages germplasm with lhe eollaboration of the Beef Programo Sorne of lhe germplasm information generated should be made available lO users at large by publishing a catalog. A revised version of the \"promising\" malerials (803 seleclions of P. vulgaris) eatalog has been compleled, with revisions on seed characters and growth habit and updating of all field evalualion dala. Similar work on lhe tropical forages germplasm in CIAT has been completed, lO make available a calalog wilh ca mputerized informatior. on accession numbers. genus, species. saurce, and origin or collection site."}]},{"head":"Multivariate Analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"M ultivariate analysis has been explored","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"as an objective method to study genetie diversily in Phaseolus germplasm and al so to investigate the interrelationships of variables currently under evaluation. To test this method, a new set of data has been generated to provide reliable information having wider genetic and environmental bases. Replicated evaluation trials were done at CIAT -Palmira, CIA T -Quilichao, and Popayan using both wide spacing (30 cm) and narrow spacing (8 cm) between plants. Ten aecessions were randomly selected from P. vulgaris, P. luna/us and Phaseolus acutifolius, with sorne seleetion made for habit groups within each species. The characters recorded inelude the first 27 agronomic traits listed in Table 2. Means for the relatively more stable eharacters were calculated across locations, spacings and replications, and these were used for multivariate analysis."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Cluster analysis showed that genetic diversity could be easily demonstrated by the groupings of similar materials (e.g., species and growth ha bits) based on the above variables. Sorne overlapping of habit groups within eaeh species oecurred, but this was overcome by normalizing all variables, i.e. putting them on a scale of 0-9. The results of this study could be extended into two areas where sorne indication of genetic diversity is now needed. The first involves identifying the genetic diversity of the advanced progenies coming from the bean breeders and the second is in the study of similarities and differences in the germplasm bank accessions of P. vulgaris."},{"index":3,"size":193,"text":"Using P. vulgaris germplasm data from the Promising Materials Catalog, last year 75% of the total genetic variability could be accounted for by four principal components. U sing the new data, only three components or factors are needed to represent 83% of the total variability. Factor I carried 40% ofthe total variability; it ineluded the characters growth habit, Genetic RelOurce8 Unit plant heighl, nodes at Dowering, racemes per planl, nodes al maturity, seeds per pod and IOO-seed weight. Factor 2 accounted for 29% of total variability and ineluded leaDet length, leaDet widlh, stem thickness, dry malter yield and grain yield . Factor 3, describing only 14% of total variability, involved characters like length of hypocolyl. days lo Dower, pods per plant, racemes with pods and duration of Dowering. Sueh resuIts imply thal seleclion of a few key characlers, with one or more from each factor, would provide a basis for fulure evaluation over a wide range of environmenls. At present, growlh habit, yield, and days to Dower have been selected as the minimum charaClers for evaluating more than 6000 accessions of P. vulgaris grown out between Ihe La Selva, Obonuco and Popayan loealions."}]},{"head":"Cassava Tissue Culture","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Potentilil of the Method","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"The exchange of cassava germplasm with other counlries is basic to CIA T's role in the improvement of Ihis tropical crop. However, many counlries have created strict quarantine barriers that prevent the dislribution of vegetative materials because of the hazards of disseminating pesls and diseases. Similarly, conventional vegetative field cultivation afIen exposes these valuable materials to pests and diseases. Tissue culture methods can be used for the vegetalive propagation of cassava and such risks significantly reduced or e1iminaled. The pOlenliaUy high propagation rates Ihal can be achieved with tissue cultures, coupled with their freedom from microorganisms, small space requirements and relalively simple handling procedures, mue it feasible to utilize these tissue culture syslems for the maintenance and inleroational exchange of cassava germplasm."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Research was initiated this year in the Genelic Resources U nil, in cooperalion wilh Ihe Cassava Program, aimed al developing cassava meristem culture methods foro (1) conservalion of cassava genetic resources in c10nal form for long periods of lime and free of diseases; (2) inlernational tronsfer of valuable cassava germplasm in disease-free condilions; and, (3) rapid mulliplication of materials. The cycle from merislem lO plants in the field, passing Ihrough the lest lu be and greenhouse stages, has been compleled during Ihe year."}]},{"head":"Oevelopment of Meristem Culture Methodologiea","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":208,"text":"In various experiments, meristem and shool tips of 10 cassava varielies were subjecled lo an array of concentralions of cylokinins, gibberellins and auxins as supplements, either singly or in combinations, to Ihe mineral sall and vilamin medium of Murashing-Skoog (wilh 2% sucrose). The differentialion of a 0.4.{).6 mm meristem tissue into a complete plant (Fig. 1, A-C) was highly dependenl upon Ihe appropriale regime of growlh regulators and, to a certain extenl, upon Ihe cassava variely. Low levels of benzyl aminopurine (BAP) combined with low gibberellic acid (GA) concenlratións were suitable for the differentiation of shools in 90% of the varieties, but rooling was generally inhibited. Addition of 0.1 mg/liter naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) lO Ihe culture medium favored shool and rool differenliation in Ihree of the varielies when aCling together wilh GA and in 80% of Ihe malerial when combined wilh BAP and GA. Slight increases in the concenlralion of BAP favored shoOI growth, bul reduced rooting; however, Ihe exposure of cultures to low lemperature (20•C) lended to overcome the inhibilion of rooling due to BAP. On the other hand, transfer of F•8 roolless shools lo 0.1 mg/ liler of bolh GA and NAA, wilh 3%sucrose and at 28-30•C, slrongly promoted rooting in 90% of the malerial."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Thus, Ihe reponse of different cassava varielies to merislem culturing seems to be mainly related lo Ibeir rooting capability. Based on Ihe Iypes of responses observed al Ihis slage, two differenl media have been designed: one conlains the Ihree hormones al Ihe lowesl concenlrations and the second contains only GA (0.05 mg/liler) and BAP (0.02 mg/liler). For a11 praclical purposes, Ihe latter should induce shools in mosl malerials, while the former was designed lo prom ole bolh shools and rools simultaneously."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"In separale experimenls nodal segments, which comprised an axillary bud and its subtending little leaf, were CUI from Ihe shools Ihal developed in vi/ro and were cullured lo form \"nodal cullures\". A medium Ihal conlained 0.0 I mg/liler BAP, 0.1 mg/liler NAA and 0.2 mg/liler GA plus 3% sucrose supported rapid developmenl of Ihe nodal cultures inlo complete plants in 90% of Ihe varielies. Depending upon Ihe number of well-<leveloped ax-iIIary buds, Ihree to six planls could be grown from each shool wilhin a monlh. Three varieties were used lO obtain higher multiplication rates in meristem cultures. U nder the influence of high levels of BAP (0.0~. 2 mgfliter), multiple shoot cultures developed from a single isolated shoot apex in two ofthe varieties. Up to 20 shoots could be produced due to higher rates of branching when the cultures were rotated in liquid media. Chemical and physical means •\"ill be sought which could enhance the formation of multiple axillary and / or adventitious shoots in meristem cultures."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"Ouring the incubation of the cultures, the temperature was controlled at 28°-30°C during the day and at 24°-25°C during the night. Illumination was kept at about 1000 lux at the beginning of the incubation, then raised to about 2000 lux for the next three to five weeks of culture; photoperiod was controlled at 14 hours."},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"The survival of plants during potting was raised from 50 to 90% by a hardening treatment which consists of increasing the illumination to 5000 lux and loosening test tube caps one week prior to potting. A potting substrate of vermiculite, fine sand and grave! (1: 1: I v I v) was used. After one week in the laboratory, the pots were transferred to the greenhouse for further growth (Fig. 1,0) and gradual exposure to ambient conditions before field transplanting."}]},{"head":"Diseese Eradication","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"The use as planting material of cassava stem cuttings infected with the frog skin disease results in highly significant yie!d losses (CIAT Annual Report, 1977). The use of meristem culture in combination with thermotherapy for the eradication of the frog sldn disease from infected varieties has becn initiated. Temperatures may exist at which pathogen host combinations should be grown to obtain maximum inactivation of the pathogen. Hence, both F-8 !he intensity and the duration of the thermotherapy applied prior to or during merlstem culture are beill8 investigated. Abo, the efrect oC the .ize oC the meristem tissue on !he eradication oC the disease i. under study. The objective oC this work i. to develop improved teehniq ues to routine-Iy clcan up valuable material. (Fig. 2)."}]},{"head":"Conservation of Genetic Resourcea","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Meristem cultures could be very valuable for the long-term conservation of germplasm since large colleetions could be stored in small spaces, with the risks of disease contamination practically eliminated and maintenance costs greaUy reduced. Two systems oC the storage oC cassava germplasm as meristem cultures are being studied."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Freeze-'torage. A projeet has becn initiated, in cooperation with CIAT, in the Prairie Regional Laboratory, Saskatoon, Canada to investigate the Ceasibility oC preserving cassava shoot apices at the temperature of liquid N (-196°C). Rates of freezing and thawing, as well as the use of cryoproteetive and hardening trcatments, will be evaluated for their effeets on the survival of the meristematic cells."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"Minimum growlh 'torage. Work is under way at C IA T to develop methods for the maintenance of cassava meristem cultures at a minimum growth rate for protracted periods of time. Nodal cultures of two cassava varieties were used as starting explants for storage. Results after four months of storage indicate: (1) the rate of growth of the shoots in cultures maintained at 20°C can be reduced from 5.5 cm/ month (at JOoC day and 25°C night) to 0. 5 cm / month (Fig. 1, E and F);"},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"(2) growth could be further reduced, with 100% survival ofthe cultures, to the rate of 0.2 cm/ month if the sucrose level oC the  culture medium is increased to 5%, but higher sucrose levels tend to reduce the survival of the cultures; (3) the addition of low concentrations of BAP to the culture medium slows down the growth even further without reductions in survival; (4) cultures maintained at 15°C beca me gradually chlorotic and senescent after one month of storage."}]},{"head":"Oenetic RnourcM Unit I","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Further research should provide definite information on optimal temperatures, kind and size of explants for storage, propagation rates and genotype stability of the materials recovered from storage."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Intarnational T.ansfa. of Ga.mplasm Tissue cultures initiated from 0.4-<l.6 mm shoot apices should be free of insects, nematodes, and most fungi and bacteria. Obligate parasites, such as viruses, should be eradicated by thermotherapy and meristem culture prior to shipment in vitro."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Simple methods will be developed to distribute cassava germplasm as aseptic meristem cultures from CIAT to other countries. Similarly, these procedures would allow introduction of new germplasm to CIA T without disease risks (Fig. Training of personnel from rec.p.ent countries in the appropriate techniques for recovery and multiplication of stocks will be a very important aspect ofthe programo PUBLICATIONS"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"I Photoperiod sensitivity "},{"text":"Figure Figure 1. Sequential developmenl of cassava plants from meristem culture: (A) A dissected shoot apex showing the dome-shaped apica) meristem fianked by two primordial lcaves (X40). (8) Differentiation of shoot and rool from a meristem after three weeks of culture (X 1.2). (e) A fivc-week-old plant derive<! from meristern culture (X 1.0). (O) A plant derived frorn meristem tinuc, after poning at eight weeks (XO.S). Effect of temperature on lhe 'growth of cassava shoot tips after four months in culture. (E) Incubated al 30°C day and 25°C night temperatures (CO.8). (F) Incubated al 20°C (XO.8).1878 ClAT Annua' Repon "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Outline of the various steps in the application oC meristem tissue culture lO cassava. "},{"text":"Phaseo lus samples on hand, ilccessions increased Ind accessions e~' aJuated in Ihe Genetic Resources Unit. as oi No \\'ember 1978. ). Most of these new materia ls are Phaseolus vulgaris sent here from the USDA Regi o nal Plant Introductio n Statio n at PuUma, Washingto n to complete our coUection of aU 8554 Phaseolus materials with P . 1. numbers. Also ineluded in the new materials are the Norvel coUection from Mexico, the co Uection from the Institute of Horticultural Plant Breeding at Wageningen, the Netherl a nds, uniformity. Efforts in 1978 were concen-trated on cleaning up a major part of the colleetion for major seed-bome diseases, and that of Tecnolo gía Guatemala. the Instituto Agrícola de Ciencias y (ICTA) in uniformity. Efforts in 1978 were concen-trated on cleaning up a major part of the colleetion for major seed-bome diseases,and that of Tecnolo gía Guatemala.the Instituto Agrícolade Ciencias y (ICTA) in such as bacterial blight, common bean mosaic virus and anthracnose. This aspeet has been so important that materials harvested in the field have been stored as distinct seed lots labelled as to presence or absence of disease. More than 3500 accessions have been grown at CIA T-Palmira, Popayán and CIA T -Quilichao in April and May 1978. Another 5300 were planted in October and N ovember at CIAT-Palmira and at Popayán. In addition to obtaining materials from various germplasm banks, CIAT has been invo lved with collecting Phaseolus material in Peru(233 samples of P. vulgaris and 39 of Phaseolus lunatus) as weU as in Spain and Po rtugal (411 samples of P. vulgaris and 13 Phaseolus coccineus). C oUection for more Phaseolus germplasm in Mexico has also been initiated this year in conjunction with the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agricolas (INIA), such as bacterial blight, common bean mosaic virus and anthracnose. This aspeet has been so important that materials harvested in the field have been stored as distinct seed lots labelled as to presence or absence of disease. More than 3500 accessions have been grown at CIA T-Palmira, Popayán and CIA T -Quilichao in April and May 1978. Another 5300 were planted in October and N ovember at CIAT-Palmira and at Popayán.In addition to obtaining materials from various germplasm banks, CIAT has been invo lved with collecting Phaseolus material in Peru(233 samples of P. vulgaris and 39 of Phaseolus lunatus) as weU as in Spain and Po rtugal (411 samples of P. vulgaris and 13 Phaseolus coccineus). C oUection for more Phaseolus germplasm in Mexico has also been initiated this year in conjunction with the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agricolas (INIA), Agronomic Evaluation of Collection ut ilizing an F AO associate expert and pa rtial funding by the International Board Agronomic Evaluation of Collectionut ilizing an F AO associate expert and pa rtial funding by the International Board Since 1970 more tl\\an 9500 accessions of P. vulgaris have been evaluated at CIAT for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR). In this field coUection, attemion is being given to wild Phaseolus species, since these may Since 1970 more tl\\an 9500 accessions of P. vulgaris have been evaluated at CIATfor Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR). In this field coUection, attemion is being given to wild Phaseolus species, since these may   be useful in the interspecific crossing be useful in the interspecific crossing   program done in cooperation with the program done in cooperation with the   Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques, Faculté des Sciences Agronomiques,   Gembloux, Belgium. Gembloux, Belgium.    Of the 21 ,000 Phaseolus samples rece iv- Of the 21 ,000 Phaseolus samples rece iv-   ed, mo re than 13,000 have been seed ed, mo re than 13,000 have been seed   increased. This represents a major effoft increased. This represents a major effoft   which started in 1970, as each accession has which started in 1970, as each accession has   to be checked for disease and genetic to be checked for disease and genetic Tab le l.    Tab le l.  No. of  l O . sced No. No. ofl O . scedNo. Species accessions increascd eva luated Speciesaccessionsincreascdeva luated P. ~'lifga, is 19,910  12, 600 9500 P. ~'lifga, is19,91012, 6009500 P. Itm alUs 1010   3 10 P. Itm alUs10103 10 P. coccinells 4JO  150 P. coccinells4JO150 P. oculiJo/ills 70   60 60 P. oculiJo/ills706060 O ther Phaseo/us l 100   50 O ther Phaseo/us l10050 1 Includcs samplcs or 8 \"\"ild spccics.    1 Includcs samplcs or 8 \"\"ild spccics. f • 2    f • 2  "},{"text":"Table 2 .   "}],"sieverID":"f792b9dc-d184-4406-bd50-ffb1cb690420","abstract":"COlECCJON HISTORICA"}

data/part_1/0a65770120a44a1c450fc54f52318658.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a65770120a44a1c450fc54f52318658","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/35b72c82-d2c2-4969-8acc-aadc9119aacc/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"IIRR","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"• Julian Gonsalves Reminders:"}]},{"head":"CCAFS S East Asia Region","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• Community innovation development funds can encourage farmer experimentation, thereby building capacities to innovate/adapt."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• CBA is a bottom up approach that is driven by community needs and priorities. The process is context specific but lessons can be drawn for scaling out efforts."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Identifying options for adaptation at the community level can help build adaptive capacities."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• It is important to understand the differential impacts of climate change on men and women."},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"• Communities with more assets and diverse income sources can better adapt to climate change."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Build social capital by investing in capacity strengthening Resilient Small-scale Farms IIRR is also grateful to the Department of Agriculture Bureau of Agricultural Research and the Systems Wide Climate Change Office for its support to field action research activities in its two learning sites through the project: \"Building community-based models for climate resilient agriculture and fisheries across landscape within municipalities.\" • Leo Sebastian • Bernadette Joven UPLB FI • Rowena Baconguis • Caress Tolentino Climate change is expected to adversely affect lives, livelihoods, nutrition and food security in the future. However, if we start NOW, we can: -do a lot to reduce the impacts of climate change; -build resilience in our food systems; and -reduce risks and vulnerabilities of farming communities. The impacts of climate change on agriculture include the loss of agro-biodiversity, soil degradation, reduction in crop, fish and livestock productivity, water shortages and possible increases in destructive pests and diseases. With a large population reliant on farming, it is important to already discover ways to build resilience to climate change. Adapting to climate change requires adjusting agricultural practices to meet changing and more difficult environmental conditions. Traditional and newly introduced practices can help farmers cope with both current climate variability and future climate scenarios. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) / Climate Resilient Agriculture (CRA) can help farmers prepare for the future. CSA/CRA refers to environment friendly and sustainable agricultural practices that takes climate change and variability into consideration. Key objectives of CSA/CRA: • Increase agriculture productivity and income in a sustainable, environmentally sound manner. • Build the capacity of households and food systems to adapt to climate change. • Reduce GHG emissions and increase carbon sequestration. CSA/CRA is usually best undertaken across landscapes because ecosystems are interconnected. By conserving and improving forest and water resources, nutrient flows to farms on lower slopes are likewise enhanced. Landscapes are useful organizing frameworks for operationalizing climate smart/resilient agriculture on the ground. Landscape approaches help us better understand the multi-functionality of agriculture and links to forests, water and other natural resources. To help ensure lasting results, it is not enough to limit our work to addressing the impact of climate change on agriculture. We also need to address the problems of poverty and reduce climate vulnerabilities through the use of multiple benefit approaches (e.g. diversified farms, alternative livelihoods, and micro enterprises). Climate Change affects different communities in different ways. Adaptation efforts must therefore be localized and context specific. Various studies have however already shown that small holder farmers are most vulnerable to adverse impacts of climate change. Interventions to support them in building their resilience is not only necessary but also urgent. Building the resilience of smallholder farming and fishing communities require interventions to provide them greater access to portfolio of technologies, information, support services, market linkage and finance/credit that would enable them to adjust, modify or change their current production systems and practices. This is done in an environmentally friendly way. This process is community-based adaptation. To design effective Community-based Adaptation (CBA) efforts, we have to first understand and assess local risks and vulnerabilities of communities. Focus group discussions, key informant panels, surveys and the study of secondary data are important methods. Vulnerability assessments are done to better understand location and context specific climate change impacts, which enables stakeholders to properly identify options for addressing it. CBA is a process of resilience building that is grounded on location and context specific vulnerabilities. The goal of community-based adaptation is to build resilience bottom up. This is why community-based participatory action research is essential for deriving effective solutions. Finding solutions that work locally involve a process of participatory technology development (action research and learning). Farming and fishing communities identify, plan, design, field test, and learn about the effectiveness and scalability of portfolio of options for addressing specific risks and vulnerabilities. Market linkages and livelihood enhancement Group building for institutional strengthening Intensification Nutrition-sensitive Diversification Building resilient small holder farms and communities entails understanding the complexities that contribute to vulnerabilities and risks; and developing multiple scales and levels of strategies that all contribute to addressing the multi-dimensional insecurities. nutrition and livelihood challenges of food, Certain geographic areas are designated as impact sites where wide scale adoption can be demonstrated. These centers evolve as centers of discovery, adaptation, learning and sharing. They serve as basis for documentation and field level advocacy. Scaling out CSA/CRA involves building adaptive models that provide practical guidance and serve as focal points for communities, organizations, and governments in the local level. CSA/CRA considerations should be included in the local governments are to take notice. uptake at scale if local must demonstrate impact and government plans. Projects Let us look at climate change and the new interest and investments as our best opportunity to deliver on our promises to end hunger, reduce poverty and achieve the sustainable development goals. Value addition Farmer-to-farmer extension Climate-smart Low carbon footprint/ reduce inputs • Leo Sebastian • Bernadette Joven UPLB FI • Rowena Baconguis • Caress Tolentino Climate change is expected to adversely affect lives, livelihoods, nutrition and food security in the future. However, if we start NOW, we can: -do a lot to reduce the impacts of climate change; -build resilience in our food systems; and -reduce risks and vulnerabilities of farming communities. The impacts of climate change on agriculture include the loss of agro-biodiversity, soil degradation, reduction in crop, fish and livestock productivity, water shortages and possible increases in destructive pests and diseases. With a large population reliant on farming, it is important to already discover ways to build resilience to climate change. Adapting to climate change requires adjusting agricultural practices to meet changing and more difficult environmental conditions. Traditional and newly introduced practices can help farmers cope with both current climate variability and future climate scenarios. Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) / Climate Resilient Agriculture (CRA) can help farmers prepare for the future. CSA/CRA refers to environment friendly and sustainable agricultural practices that takes climate change and variability into consideration. Key objectives of CSA/CRA: • Increase agriculture productivity and income in a sustainable, environmentally sound manner. • Build the capacity of households and food systems to adapt to climate change. • Reduce GHG emissions and increase carbon sequestration. CSA/CRA is usually best undertaken across landscapes because ecosystems are interconnected. By conserving and improving forest and water resources, nutrient flows to farms on lower slopes are likewise enhanced. Landscapes are useful organizing frameworks for operationalizing climate smart/resilient agriculture on the ground. Landscape approaches help us better understand the multi-functionality of agriculture and links to forests, water and other natural resources. To help ensure lasting results, it is not enough to limit our work to addressing the impact of climate change on agriculture. We also need to address the problems of poverty and reduce climate vulnerabilities through the use of multiple benefit approaches (e.g. diversified farms, alternative livelihoods, and micro enterprises). Climate Change affects different communities in different ways. Adaptation efforts must therefore be localized and context specific. Various studies have however already shown that small holder farmers are most vulnerable to adverse impacts of climate change. Interventions to support them in building their resilience is not only necessary but also urgent. Building the resilience of smallholder farming and fishing communities require interventions to provide them greater access to portfolio of technologies, information, support services, market linkage and finance/credit that would enable them to adjust, modify or change their current production systems and practices. This is done in an environmentally friendly way. This process is community-based adaptation. To design effective Community-based Adaptation (CBA) efforts, we have to first understand and assess local risks and vulnerabilities of communities. Focus group discussions, key informant panels, surveys and the study of secondary data are important methods. Vulnerability assessments are done to better understand location and context specific climate change impacts, which enables stakeholders to properly identify options for addressing it. CBA is a process of resilience building that is grounded on location and context specific vulnerabilities. The goal of community-based adaptation is to build resilience bottom up. This is why community-based participatory action research is essential for deriving effective solutions. Finding solutions that work locally involve a process of participatory technology development (action research and learning). Farming and fishing communities identify, plan, design, field test, and learn about the effectiveness and scalability of portfolio of options for addressing specific risks and vulnerabilities. Market linkages and livelihood enhancement Group building for institutional strengthening Intensification Nutrition-sensitive Diversification Building resilient small holder farms and communities entails understanding the complexities that contribute to vulnerabilities and risks; and developing multiple scales and levels of strategies that all contribute to addressing the multi-dimensional insecurities. nutrition and livelihood challenges of food, Certain geographic areas are designated as impact sites where wide scale adoption can be demonstrated. These centers evolve as centers of discovery, adaptation, learning and sharing. They serve as basis for documentation and field level advocacy. Scaling out CSA/CRA involves building adaptive models that provide practical guidance and serve as focal points for communities, organizations, and governments in the local level. CSA/CRA considerations should be included in the local governments are to take notice. uptake at scale if local must demonstrate impact and government plans. Projects Let us look at climate change and the new interest and investments as our best opportunity to deliver on our promises to end hunger, reduce poverty and achieve the sustainable development goals.Value addition Farmer-to-farmer extension Climate-smart Low carbon footprint/ reduce inputs  "}],"sieverID":"a33a16ff-65a0-431b-9b84-b694d731ad54","abstract":"The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), brings together the world's best researchers in agricultural science, development research, climate science and Earth System Science, to identify and address the most important interactions, synergies and tradeoffs between climate change, agriculture and food security. www.ccafs.cgiar.org."}

data/part_1/0adfbcd888226c7828014cf0a6df01b8.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"0adfbcd888226c7828014cf0a6df01b8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cb1c2bd3-a438-404d-97cd-f7c934082967/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Herramientas interactivas de conservación in situ. Este producto desarrolla y evalúa modelos para la conservación in situ, incluyendo la caracterización y cuantificación de los beneficios de la conservación para la resiliencia, como el suministro de nutrientes durante todo el año, la estabilidad de los rendimientos y la evolución continua como un mecanismo de adaptación. La investigación se concentra en:"},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"• La interacción entre la diversidad de papa cultivada y silvestre; • El papel de la diversidad en las dietas de los pequeños propietarios; • Monitoreo de los ciclos cronológicos de la diversidad de las variedades locales y cultivares; • El papel de las instituciones en el suministro y repatriación de los materiales de siembra."},{"index":3,"size":167,"text":"Herramientas para la conservación y uso de parientes silvestres de los cultivos. Este producto busca mejorar la comprensión de la genética de los parientes silvestres de los cultivos. Al haber evolucionado como respuesta a una multitud de tensiones y restricciones, los parientes silvestres contienen los componentes genéticos y las combinaciones de genes para ayudar a los cultivos a superar muchos desafíos que enfrenta la agricultura. El conocimiento y la conservación de los parientes silvestres y su disponibilidad para los mejoradores constituyen la base para el mejoramiento futuro de los cultivos. El CIP es una organización de investigación para el desarrollo dedicada a la papa, el camote y las raíces y tubérculos andinos. Ofrece soluciones científicas innovadoras para mejorar el acceso a alimentos nutritivos asequibles, fomentar el crecimiento sostenible e inclusivo de empresas y empleos, e impulsar la resiliencia climática de los sistemas agroalimentarios de raíces y tubérculos. Con sede en Lima, Perú, el CIP realiza investigación en más de 20 países en África, Asia y América Latina."}]},{"head":"www.cipotato.org","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"El CIP es un centro de investigación del CGIAR. El CGIAR es una asociación mundial de investigación para un futuro con seguridad alimentaria. Su ciencia es llevada a la práctica por 15 centros de investigación en estrecha colaboración con cientos de socios en todo el mundo. www.cgiar.org Para más información, por favor contactar la sede principal del CIP. Av. La Molina 1895, La Molina. Apartado 1558, Lima 12, Perú."}]},{"head":"5-11-3496017","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"cip-cpad@cgiar.org www.cipotato.org @cipotato @Cipotato @cip_cipotato Sede principal y oficina regional Perú Oficina regional Kenia"}]},{"head":"Oficina regional Vietnam","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"El banco de germoplasma es el impulsor de los esfuerzos del Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) para conservar la diversidad genética mundial -cultivada, silvestre y material mejorado-de la papa y el camote para su uso en el futuro. Cumple un papel esencial en facilitar la liberación de las innovaciones y productos de gran impacto del CIP, especialmente de variedades adecuadas para agricultores y consumidores. La conservación in situ y ex situ de la diversidad genética es fundamental para preservar y monitorear los cambios en los recursos fitogenéticos de la alimentación y la agricultura mundial. La pérdida de la diversidad genética -especialmente de los parientes silvestres de los cultivos-limitaría la capacidad de los fitomejoradores e investigadores para mejorar la recuperación de los agricultores y su aptitud de producir suficientes alimentos nutritivos para el mundo."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"El banco de germoplasma del CIP conserva -in vitro y en semillas-las colecciones más grandes del mundo de papa, camote y sus parientes silvestres, así como una colección única de raíces y tubérculos andinos, cuyos atributos genéticos, fisiológicos y bioquímicos la comunidad científica recién ha comenzado a explorar. El CIP mantiene esa biodiversidad en custodia para la humanidad para garantizar su disponibilidad para el mejoramiento y otros usos ahora y en el futuro. El CIP emplea criopreservación para el material vegetal vivo a -196°C y guarda un respaldo de su colección de semillas en la Bóveda Mundial de Semillas de Svalbard en Noruega, además de mantener una vasta colección de herbarios para respaldar su investigación científica. También trabajamos estrechamente con las comunidades andinas para la conservación in situ de la diversidad de la papa, habiendo repatriado miles de accesiones que se daban por perdidas debido a disturbios civiles, enfermedades o cambio climático."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"El banco de germoplasma sirve como modelo a través de su investigación avanzada, su base de datos pública y el uso interactivo de sus colecciones. El CIP trabaja con otros bancos genéticos para asegurar que el material limpio de sus colecciones tenga un respaldo, lo que evita la pérdida de diversidad de lo que ya está en conservación. La protección de la biodiversidad de los cultivos y la mejora de la eficiencia de la conservación de los recursos genéticos juega un papel esencial para facilitar el desarrollo y la liberación de nuevas variedades para los agricultores y consumidores de todo el mundo."}]},{"head":"MUESTRAS DE GERMOPLASMA REPARTIDAS","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"+5,000 +2,700 "}]},{"head":"ACCESIONES DE PAPAS NATIVAS REPATRIADAS","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Productos de investigación para el desarrollo","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Gestión del banco de germoplasma y métodos de manejo de la información. Estos enfoques ayudan a construir estrategias de administración de las colecciones orientadas al usuario, más fuertes y con mayor capacidad de respuesta. Abordan la conservación y disponibilidad de la diversidad a través de la recolección, adquisición y optimización de la limpieza fitosanitaria, ayudando a los mejoradores y pequeños agricultores de los países en desarrollo a obtener rápidamente germoplasma valioso."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"El personal trabaja para agrupar las accesiones en subgrupos, facilitando su uso por parte de los investigadores y capturando en forma eficiente la información del usuario. La interfaz de solicitudes en línea garantiza que los datos del CIP estén disponibles para el acceso desde sistemas globales de manejo de información de los recursos fitogenéticos de fácil uso, como GRIN-global y Genesys. Otras aplicaciones del CIP ofrecen un sistema de pedidos en línea con tecnologías avanzadas de solicitudes en un click."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"El CIP está incorporando el catálogo completo de huellas de ADN y rasgos asociados específicos de cada accesión en un solo sistema en línea, respaldando los esfuerzos para construir herramientas que unan todas las colecciones de papa y camote del mundo. Brindaremos acceso a la tecnología y 'know-how' y facilitaremos el acceso interactivo a las huellas de ADN para mejorar la gestión del banco de germoplasma y compartir información globalmente."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"Herramientas que aumentan el uso de la biodiversidad en el mejoramiento. El conocimiento mejorado de la genómica de los rasgos de las accesiones se apoya en el uso del big data para optimizar el uso de la biodiversidad en el mejoramiento. El CIP se esfuerza por incorporar estos avances en nuestros intercambios de doble vía con los centros regionales de mejoramiento en África, China y el sudeste de Asia, facilitando los esfuerzos de premejoramiento, la conservación y el uso de los materiales genéticos y el intercambio de información y conocimientos sobre accesiones específicas."},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":"Desarrollo de capacidades de los marcos legales. De gran importancia para el desarrollo de las colecciones mundiales, el CIP monitorea los cambios en la legislación regional e internacional relacionada con el Tratado Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos para la Alimentación y la Agricultura y las colecciones de los bancos de germoplasma. Esta mejor comprensión de los marcos legales facilita la recolección de germoplasma, la conservación, el intercambio, uso y distribución de beneficios. También apoya la racionalización de las colecciones nacionales en una red mundial de colecciones al:"},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"• Identificar las colecciones principales y trabajar con ellas, una por una, mediante las huellas del ADN para facilitar la identificación de la singularidad de cada colección;"},{"index":7,"size":32,"text":"• Trabajar con otros bancos de germoplasma para asegurar que exista un respaldo del material fitosanitario limpio con el fin de prevenir pérdida de la diversidad que ya está en conservación; y"},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"• Regresar este material a la colección original, asegurando que las colecciones nacionales tengan material limpio para su distribución."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Contact: Noelle Anglin, CIP, Peru • n.anglin@cgiar.org Genebank Platform CENTRO INTERNACIONAL PAPA DE LA Este material del Centro Internacional de la Papa es compartido bajo Licencia Creative Commons Atribución 4.0 Internacional (CC-BY 4.0). Para ver una copia de esta licencia visite: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0. Los permisos fuera del alcance de esta licencia pueden consultarse en: http://www.cipotato.org/contact/ El CIP agradece a todos los donantes y organizaciones que apoyan globalmente su trabajo a través de sus contribuciones al Fondo Fiduciario del CGIAR. https://www.cgiar.org/funders/ © 2019. Centro Internacional de la Papa. Todos los derechos reservados. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"92e13156-d572-4876-9195-7c0752282bdd","abstract":"El rápido crecimiento demográfico y el aumento de la urbanización especialmente en los países en desarrollo están limitando la capacidad del mundo de alimentar a la población. Las tierras agrícolas productivas, los hábitats naturales y la diversidad de plantas -esenciales para duplicar la producción de alimentos nutritivos-se están degradando. Los impactos impredecibles de los desastres naturales, las amenazas ambientales y un clima cambiante amenazan aún más la seguridad alimentaria mundial. Las tierras tradicionalmente aptas para el cultivo de papa y camote son cada vez menos predominantes debido a la presión de los insectos y las enfermedades por causa del calentamiento de los climas que fuerza a desplazar a los cultivos a alturas donde las variedades centenarias y las prácticas agrícolas ya no pueden ser sostenibles. A medida que la calidad de los suelos se empobrece, la productividad y los rendimientos sufren. La conservación y el uso de la diversidad genética de los cultivos ofrecen soluciones para enfrentar esos desafíos."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b38b419db4960f54436029a7bd77591","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27d49f95-0794-40e3-9538-8323feb570fd/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Modern Biotechnology for Food and Agriculture: Risks and Opportunities for the Poor","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"T","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"he current debate about the potential utility of modern biotechnology for food and agriculture, and the associated potential risks and opportunities, is focused on the initial applications of such biotechnology in industrial country agriculture. The debate is also intertwined with other concerns such as food safety, animal welfare, industrialized agriculture, and the role of private-sector corporations. At present, there is very little commercial utilization of results from modern biotechnology research in developing countries. As a result, the potential contributions of biotechnology to poverty alleviation and enhanced food security and nutrition in developing countries has received little attention, beyond blanket statements of support or opposition."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"A debate based on the best available empirical evidence relevant for poor people in developing countries is urgently needed, to identify the most appropriate ways that molecular biology-based research might contribute to the solution of poor people's problems. These problems and the socioeconomic context in which they occur are so different from the problems and context of the countries where most of the biotechnology debate currently takes place that the positions and conclusions from the current debate are largely irrelevant for poor farmers and poor consumers in developing countries. Despite this, many of the arguments in the current debate are extrapolated to conclusions about the potential utility for poor countries and poor people. We will attempt to provide input into a more focused debate on the role of modern agricultural biotechnology in developing countries, a debate that should and will be led by people from developing countries themselves."}]},{"head":"The Problem","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Small-scale farmers in developing countries are faced with many problems and constraints. Preand postharvest crop losses due to insects, diseases, weeds, and droughts result in low and fluctuating yields, as well as risks and fluctuations in incomes and food availability. Low soil fertility and lack of access to reasonably priced plant nutrients, along with acid, salinated, and waterlogged soils and other abiotic factors, contribute to low yields, production risks, and degradation of natural resources as poor farmers try to eke out a living. They are often forced to clear forest or farm ever more marginal land to cultivate crops. Poor infrastructure and poorly functioning markets for inputs and outputs together with lack of access to credit and technical assistance add to the impediments facing these farmers."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"These farmers and other rural and urban poor people suffer from food insecurity and poor nutrition, caused in large measure by poverty and lack of nutritional balance in the diet they can afford. About 1.2 billion people, or one of every five humans, live in a state of absolute poverty, on the equivalent of US$1/day or less (World Bank 1999). About 800 million people are food insecure (FAO 1999a), and 160 million preschool children suffer from energy-protein malnutrition, which results in the death of over 5 million children under the age of five each year (ACC/ SCN and IFPRI 1999). A much larger number of people suffer from deficiencies of micronutrients such as iron and vitamin A. For example, 2 billion people (one of every three) are anemic, usually as a result of iron deficiency. Food insecurity and malnutrition result in serious public health problems and lost human potential in developing countries."},{"index":3,"size":56,"text":"Around 70 percent of poor and food-insecure people reside in rural areas, although poverty and food insecurity appear to be growing in urban areas as urbanization proceeds apace in developing countries. The World Bank forecasts that poverty's center of gravity will remain rural in the early decades of the 21 st century (McCalla and Ayers 1997)."},{"index":4,"size":164,"text":"Most rural poor people depend directly or indirectly on agriculture for their livelihood. Poor people in rural or urban areas spend as much as 50-70 percent of their incomes on food (Deaton 1997). Low productivity in agriculture is a major cause of poverty, food insecurity, and poor nutrition in low-income developing countries. This is true for urban and rural poor people alike. Low productivity means low incomes for farmers and farm workers, little demand for goods and services produced by poor nonagricultural households in the rural areas, and unemployment and underemployment in urban areas. It also means high unit costs for food, which translate into reduced consumer purchasing power. High food prices are a serious matter for households that spend a large share of their budget on food. In low-income developing countries, agriculture is the driving force for broad-based economic growth and poverty alleviation. A healthy agricultural economy offers farmers incentives for sound management of the natural resource base upon which their livelihood depends."},{"index":5,"size":95,"text":"These relationships are borne out not only by research but also by history in both developing and industrial nations. Productivity increases in European and U.S. agriculture were extremely important to broad-based economic growth during earlier periods of development. More recently, productivity increases in agriculture, led by agricultural research -the Green Revolutionformed the locomotive of rapid broad-based eco-nomic growth and poverty reduction in many Asian countries, including China, Indonesia, South Korea, and India. Recent IFPRI research in four African countries found similar strong linkages between agricultural productivity growth and general economic growth (Delgado and others 1998)."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"Productivity gains are essential not only for economic growth and poverty alleviation, but to assure that food supplies remain adequate for a growing world population. According to United Nations projections, world population will increase by 25 percent to 7.5 billion in 2020. On average, 73 million people will be added annually. Over 97 percent of the projected growth will take place in developing countries (United Nations Population Division 1998)."}]},{"head":"Public Investment Critical to Food Security","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"Agriculture must figure prominently in poverty alleviation strategies of developing countries. Accelerated public investments are needed to facilitate agricultural and rural growth through: • Yield-increasing crop varieties, including those that are drought and salt tolerant and pest resistant, and improved livestock • Yield-increasing and environmentally friendly production technology • Reliable, timely, and reasonably priced access to appropriate inputs such as tools, fertilizer, and, when needed, pesticides, as well as the credit often needed to purchase them • Strong extension services and technical assistance to communicate timely information and developments in technology and sustainable resource management to farmers and to relay farmer concerns to researchers • Improved rural infrastructure and effective markets • Particular attention to the needs of women farmers, who grow much of the locally produced food in many developing countries • Primary education and health care, clean water, safe sanitation, and good nutrition for all. These investments need to be supported by good governance and an enabling policy environment, including trade, macroeconomic, and sectoral policies that do not discriminate against agriculture, and policies that provide appropri-ate incentives for the sustainable management of natural resources, such as secure property rights for small farmers. Development efforts must engage poor farmers and other low-income people as active participants, not passive recipients; unless the affected people have a sense of ownership, development schemes have little likelihood of success."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"Developing countries must reverse present declining levels of public investment in agriculture. On average, they devote 7.5 percent of government spending to agriculture (and just 7 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa) (FAO 1996). For their part, donor countries must redress the precipitous decline in aid to agriculture and rural development, which plunged by nearly 50 percent in real terms between 1986and 1996(FAO 1998)). Overall development aid has also fallen in recent years (Michel 1999). Ironically, our research has found that aid to developing country agriculture not only is effective in promoting sustainable development and poverty alleviation, but it leads to increased export opportunities for industrial countries as well, including, paradoxically, increased agricultural exports (Pinstrup-Andersen, Lundberg, and Garrett 1995; Pinstrup-Andersen and Cohen 1998). Donors must also rethink their rather inflexible emphasis of the past two decades on less government and a smaller public sector, which has contributed to public disinvestment in agriculture in the developing countries (FAO 1996)."}]},{"head":"Agricultural Research is Essential","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Public investment in agricultural research is of particular importance for achieving food security in developing countries. The private sector is unlikely to undertake much of the research needed by small farmers because it cannot expect sufficient returns to cover costs. IFPRI research has shown that the annual rates of return to agricultural research and development are, on average, 73 percent (Alston and others 1998). Benefits to society from agricultural research can be extremely large but will not be obtained without public investments. We have also found that even minor increases in aid to agricultural research for developing countries can significantly accelerate food supplies, while relatively small cuts could have serious negative effects (Rosegrant, Agcaoili-Sombilla, and Perez 1995)."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Despite this evidence, low-income developing countries grossly underinvest in agricultural research: less than 0.5 percent of the value of their agricultural production, compared to 2 percent in higher-income countries. Sub-Saharan Africa, which desperately needs productivity increases in agriculture, has only 42 agricultural researchers per million economically active persons in agriculture, compared with 2,458 in industrial countries (Pardey and Alston 1996)."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"Efforts to improve longer-term productivity on small-scale farms, with an emphasis on staple food crops, must be accelerated. Research and policies are also needed to help farmers, communities, and governments better cope with risks resulting from such factors as poor market integration, poorly functioning markets, and climatic fluctuations. More research must be directed to the development of appropriate technology for sustainable intensification of agriculture in resource-poor areas, where a high percentage of poor people live, and where environmental risks are severe. The needed research must join all appropriate scientific tools together, with better use of the insights of traditional indigenous knowledge."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"Research and technology alone will not drive agricultural growth. The full and beneficial effects of agricultural research and technological change will materialize only if government policies are conducive to and supportive of poverty alleviation and sustainable management of natural resources."}]},{"head":"Agricultural Biotechnology and Food Security","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Can molecular biology-based research contribute to the solution of the problems outlined earlier? Are the potential social and economic benefits likely to exceed potential risks or costs? If these questions are answered in the affirmative, issues related to the design of the technology and the needed policies and institutions must be tackled."},{"index":2,"size":130,"text":"Although conventional applications of biotechnology, such as tissue culture and fermentation amongst others, is under way in several developing countries, little genetically improved (transgenic) seed material has been grown in the poorer developing countries to date so ex post assessment is virtually impossible. A great deal is known, however, about the social and economic risks and benefits associated with traditional Mendelian plant breeding as exemplified by the Green Revolution. The analysis, therefore, begins with the identification of similarities and differences between the Green Revolution and modern biotechnology, and an attempt is made to draw lessons from the Green Revolution and to look at the difference between that technology package and modern biotechnology to try to assess the likely social and economic risks and benefits of modern agricultural biotechnology ex ante."}]},{"head":"Comparing the Green Revolution and Modern Biotechnology","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"Shift to private sector research. There are three differences of particular importance for an assessment of social and economic risks and benefits. The research leading to the Green Revolution was undertaken by the public sector and the improved seed was usually freely available for seed multiplication and distribution. Although breeders' rights may permit an initial charge for the improved materials, the intellectual property rights (IPR) did not extend beyond the initial release. Having acquired the seed, farmers could reuse it without further payment, although reuse of hybrid seed would drastically reduce the yield advantage. This is in keeping with the principle of \"farmers' rights\" included in the 1983 International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources (Wright 1996;FAO 1999b)."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"In contrast, the bulk of modern agricultural biotechnology research is undertaken by private sector firms, which protect IPRs through patents that extend beyond the first release. Farmers, therefore, cannot legally plant or sell for planting the crop produced with the patented seed without the permission of the patent holder. Patent holders, currently seeking ways to enforce their rights, are considering approaches such as legal agreements and technologies that will activate and deactivate specific genes. However, monitoring and enforcing contracts that prohibit large numbers of small farmers from using the crops they produce as seed would be expensive and difficult."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"The so-called terminator gene is the first patented technology aimed at biological IPR protection. It is not appropriate for small farmers in developing countries because existing infrastructure and production processes may not be able to keep fertile and infertile seeds apart. Small farmers could face severe consequences if they planted infertile seeds by mistake. Commercialization of the terminator gene now seems unlikely in the short term."},{"index":4,"size":114,"text":"Research is under way on other biological approaches to IPR protection that would not impose such risk on small farmers. These include, for example, genetically engineered seeds that contain desired traits, such as pest resistance or drought tolerance, but in which these are activated only through chemical treatment. Otherwise, the seed would maintain its normal characteristics. Thus, if a farmer planted an improved seed, the offspring would not be sterile; rather they would revert to normal seeds, without the improved traits. The farmer would have the choice of planting the seed and doing no more, or activating the improved traits by applying the chemical. This approach complies with the principle of doing no harm."},{"index":5,"size":127,"text":"It is important to note that even when patents permit a private company to enjoy monopoly or near-monopoly rights over a product it has developed, the firm is unlikely to capture 100 percent of the economic benefits. A recent study of the distribution of the economic benefits generated by the use of herbicide-tolerant soybean seed in the United States in 1997 found that the company, Monsanto, received 22 percent, while seed companies gained 9 percent. Consumers of soybean and soybean products in the United States and other countries reaped a 21 percent share, whereas farmers worldwide obtained 48 percent (Figure 1). The share of U.S. farmers was actually 51 percent of the benefits, but farmers elsewhere experienced net losses of 3 percent (Falck-Zepeda, Traxler, and Nelson 1999)."}]},{"head":"Rise of proprietary research processes and technologies.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"A second, and related, difference between the Green and Gene revolutions involves the patenting of processes as well as products. The main process behind the Green Revolution was conventional plant breeding technology, which lies in the public domain, carried out by public institutions. Today, the processes used in modern agricultural biotechnology are increasingly subjected to IPR protection, along with the products that result."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"This means that public sector research institutions may not be able to gain access to basic but proprietary knowledge and processes needed in research, including research on the so-called orphan crops such as cassava and millet. These are critical staples in the diets of many poor people, but they do not offer promising economic returns to private sector R&D efforts, so efforts to develop disease-resistant cassava or drought-tolerant millet, whether through genetic modification or conventional breeding, must come from the public sector. Some firms have agreed to transfer proprietary technologies, without charging royalties, to developing countries where there are few potential commercial prospects. Monsanto, for example, has entered into agreements with Kenyan and Mexican government agricultural research institutes to develop virus-resistant crops (see Lewis, this volume). Arrangements such as these are few and generally involve the philanthropic arms of the private firms (Serageldin 1999)."}]},{"head":"Enlightened adaptation vs. direct transfer.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"A third difference involves the adaptation of industrial country agricultural research to developing country conditions. Although based on earlier research in industrial countries, the Green Revolution was focused on solving specific problems in developing countries. Current application of modern biotechnology is focused on industrial country agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Industrial country research institutions had begun working on development of higher yielding crop varieties in the late 19 th century. For example, in Japan, rice breeding under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture and public universities led to large yield gains in the early part of the 20 th century, with a second wave of major gains after 1945."},{"index":3,"size":131,"text":"During the early decades of Soviet history, under the leadership of geneticist Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov, the government carried out extensive crop improvement programs and established one of the world's largest germplasm collections. In the United States, hybrid maize research began in the 1920s. Much of the basic research was done by public institutions, such as land grant universities, state experiment stations, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Applications to particular farming conditions and the mass marketing of the new varieties were, in turn, handled by private seed firms such as Pioneer Hi-Bred and DeKalb. The research focused not only on developing higher yielding seeds to bolster food supplies for domestic consumption (which was a critical U.S. concern up to the 1940s), but also on animal feed and production for export."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"This research could not simply be transferred to poorer developing countries, where the need was for improved varieties of locally-consumed staples. The research that led to the Green Revolution involved further adaptation to the agroecological conditions of tropical and semitropical areas. It also focused on rice, wheat, maize, root and tuber crops, and tropical fruits and vegetables. The public sector role was, if anything, even more prominent, with international agricultural research centers (IARCs) and national agricultural research systems (NARS),particularly in Asia and Latin America, playing a prominent role. Financial support came from donors of official "}]},{"head":"All farmers 48%","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"U.S. consumers 8%"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Other consumers 13%"}]},{"head":"Monsanto 22%","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Seed companies 9%"},{"index":2,"size":213,"text":"development assistance and large private foundations, such as Ford, Rockefeller, and Kellogg. In contrast, modern agricultural biotechnology is still in an early phase, and the focus is overwhelmingly on production on industrial country farms and for industrial country markets. In 1998, 85 percent of the land planted to genetically improved (GI) crops was in just five developed countries (Australia, Canada, France, Spain, and the United States), with the United States alone accounting for about 75 percent of the area. Argentina, China, Mexico, and South Africa cultivated the remaining 15 percent, and the countries other than China include a substantial number of large-scale, capital-intensive farms that produce primarily for industrial country markets. Among the crops produced in these four developing countries are insect-resistant cotton and maize, herbicide-resistant soybean, and tomatoes with a long shelf life. Globally, herbicide-resistant soybean, insect-resistant maize, and genetically improved cotton (containing insect resistance and/or herbicide tolerance genes) account for 85 percent of all plantings. Both the area planted to genetically improved crops and the value of the harvests grew dramatically between 1995 and 1999: from less than 1 million hectares to 28 million in 1998 and approximately 40 million in 1999, and from US$75 million in 1995 to US$1.64 billion in 1998 (James 1999;James and Krattiger 1999;Juma and Gupta 1999)."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Private industry has dominated research (there are a few exceptions: for example, Rockefeller Foundation support for research on rice, USDA's role in developing the terminator technology, and modest programs at IARCs). Consolidation of the industry has proceeded rapidly since 1996, with more than 25 major acquisitions and alliances worth US$15 billion."},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"Little private-sector agricultural biotechnology research so far has focused on developing country food crops other than maize. Moreover, little adaptation of the research to developing country crops and conditions has occurred through the \"enlightened\" (that is, not for profit, public goods oriented) public and philanthropic channels prominent in the Green Revolution of the developing countries. Some of the exciting international and regional programs are described by Cohen (1999). A program directed at public/private sector linkages is that of the International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA), which transfers and delivers appropriate biotechnology applications to developing countries and builds partnerships amongst institutions."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"Relatively little biotechnology research currently focuses on the productivity and nutrition of poor people. The Rockefeller Foundation's agriculture program is one example; in 1998, it provided about US$7.4 million for biotechnology research relevant to developing countries, mainly through IARCs and NARS in developing countries, with a major emphasis on rice. This sum pales by comparison with Monsanto's 1998 R&D budget of US$1.3 billion, much of which funded agricultural biotechnology research (Rockefeller 1999;Monsanto 1999)."},{"index":6,"size":119,"text":"As with the Green Revolution, the challenge is to move from the scientific foundation established by industrial country-oriented research efforts to research focused on the needs of poor farmers and consumers in developing countries. Direct transfers of the fruits of agricultural biotechnology research to the developing countries will not work, in most cases. More appropriate research for the developing world might focus on biotechnology and conventional breeding to develop alternative forms of weed resistance, such as leafier rice that denies weeds sunlight rather than incorporating herbicide tolerance into rice. The West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA), a public IARC in Côte d'Ivoire, has used a combination of conventional plant breeding and tissue culture to develop such rice (WARDA 1999)."},{"index":7,"size":144,"text":"Insect-resistant crops would have great potential value for poor farmers. So far, however, the development of crops containing genes from the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt ) bacterium, which produces a natural pesticide, has focused largely on the crops and cropping environments of North America. The new crop varieties containing the Bt gene require extremely knowledge-intensive cultivation. They might well be transferable to larger scale operations in some developing countries such as Argentina. The potential usefulness of this application in crops grown by small farmers is open to question. There is considerable debate about risks of the development of resistance in pests, harm to beneficial insects, and crosspollination of wild and weedy plants with the novel gene. The evidence on these issues is still inconclusive and warrants careful monitoring before the application of Bt is tried on a large scale in crops grown by subsistence farmers."},{"index":8,"size":53,"text":"Research on crops and problems of relevance to small farmers in developing countries will require the allocation of additional public resources to agricultural research, including biotechnology research, that promises large social benefits. There is no reason to believe that this research will offer lower rates of return than other agricultural research and development."},{"index":9,"size":93,"text":"Private-sector agricultural research currently accounts for a small share of agricultural research in most developing countries. The public sector can expand private-sector research for poor people by converting some of the social benefits to private gains, for example, by offering to buy exclusive rights to newly developed technology and make it available either for free or for a nominal charge to small farmers. The private research agency would bear the risks, as it does when developing technology for the market. IARCs have an important role to play as intermediaries in facilitating such arrangements."},{"index":10,"size":78,"text":"Without more enlightened adaptation, continued expansion of genetically improved crop production in the industrial countries may well have a negative impact on small farmers in developing countries. Some developing country consumers would benefit, but those consumers who also farm could experience net losses. In addition, the development of industrial substitutes for developing country export crops, such as cocoa (which in many developing countries is produced by small farmers) could have a devastating impact on developing country farmers' livelihoods."},{"index":11,"size":101,"text":"In sum, the biggest risk of modern biotechnology for developing countries is that technological development will bypass poor farmers and poor consumers because of a lack of enlightened adaptation. It is not that biotechnology is irrelevant, but that research needs to focus on the problems of small farmers and poor consumers in developing countries. Private sector research is unlikely to take on such a focus, given the lack of future profits. Without a stronger public sector role, a form of \"scientific apartheid\" may well develop, in which cutting edge science becomes oriented exclusively toward industrial countries and large-scale farming (Serageldin 1999)."},{"index":12,"size":224,"text":"Lessons from the Green Revolution. The outcomes of the Green Revolution offer some guideposts for assessing the likely risks and benefits of agricultural biotechnology for developing countries. Risks and benefits may be inherent in a given technology, or they may transcend the technology (Leisinger 1999). The policy environment into which a technology is introduced is critical. For example, IFPRI research has found that in Tamil Nadu State in India, the adoption of high-yielding grain varieties meant not only increased yields and cheaper, more abundant food for consumers, but income gains for small and largerscale farmers alike, as well as for nonfarm poor rural households. Increased rural incomes contributed to nutrition gains for these households (Hazell and Ramasamy 1991). Because the Tamil Nadu state government has pursued active poverty alleviation strategies, including extensive social safety net programs and investment in agriculture, rural development, and a fair measure of equity in access to resources such as land and credit, the benefits were widely shared. Where increased inequality followed the adoption of Green Revolution technology, it was not because of factors inherent to the technology, but rather a result of policies that did not promote equitable access to resources. And even in these areas, rural landless laborers usually found new job opportunities as a consequence of increased agricultural productivity, particularly where appropriate physical infrastructure and markets developed."},{"index":13,"size":85,"text":"Successful adoption of Green Revolution technology, however, depended on access to water, fertilizer, and pesticides. Thus, inequality between well-endowed and resource-poor areas increased because of the properties of the technology itself. Likewise, excessive or improper use of chemical inputs led to adverse environmental impacts in some instances. This problem was offset, to some extent, by characteristics that were also inherent in the technology: by allowing yield gains without expanding cultivated area, the technology kept cultivators from clearing forests and moving onto wild and marginal lands."},{"index":14,"size":94,"text":"Overall, the Green Revolution was extremely successful in enhancing productivity in rice, wheat and maize; in increasing incomes and reducing poverty; and in preserving forests and marginal lands by improving yields within existing cultivated areas. By reducing unit costs and prices for food, it greatly benefited poor consumers, and by boosting farmers' incomes, it contributed to gains in nutrition. Would agricultural biotechnology produce similar results in developing countries? The answer depends on whether the research is relevant to poor people and on its ownership, that is, the nature of the intellectual property rights arrangements."}]},{"head":"Weighing Risks and Benefits of Biotechnology","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"Modern biotechnology is not a silver bullet for achieving food security, but, used in conjunction with traditional or conventional agricultural research methods, it may be a powerful tool in the fight against poverty that should be made available to poor farmers and consumers. It has the potential to help enhance agricultural productivity in developing countries in a way that further reduces poverty, improves food security and nutrition, and promotes sustainable use of natural resources. Solutions to the problems facing small farmers in developing countries will benefit both farmers and consumers."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"The benefits of new genetically improved food to consumers are likely to vary according to how they earn their income and how much of their income they spend on food. Consumers outnumber farmers by a factor of more than 20 in the European Union, and Europeans spend only a tiny fraction of their incomes on food. Similarly, in the United States, farms account for less than 2 percent of all households, and the average consumer spends less than 12 percent of income on food (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 1999; U.S. Census Bureau 1998; U.S. National Agricultural Statistics Service 1998). In the industrial countries, consumers can afford to pay more for food, increase subsidies to agriculture, and give up opportunities for better-tasting and better-looking food. In developing countries, poor consumers depend heavily on agriculture for their livelihoods and spend the bulk of their income on food."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Strong opposition to GI foods in the European Union has resulted in restrictions on modern agricultural biotechnology in some countries. The opposition is driven in part by perceived lack of consumer benefits, uncertainty about possible negative health and environmental effects, widespread perception that a few large corporations will be the primary beneficiaries, and ethical concerns."},{"index":4,"size":157,"text":"Potential benefits. There are many potential benefits for poor people in developing countries. Biotechnology may help achieve the productivity gains needed to feed a growing global population, introduce resistance to pests and diseases without costly purchased inputs, heighten crops' tolerance to adverse weather and soil conditions, improve the nutritional value of some foods, and enhance the durability of products during harvesting or shipping. New crop varieties and biocontrol agents may reduce reliance on pesticides, thereby reducing farmers' crop protection costs and benefiting both the environment and public health. Biotechnology research could aid the development of drought-tolerant maize and insect-resistant cassava, to the benefit of small farmers and poor consumers. Research on genetic modification to achieve appropriate weed control can increase farm incomes and reduce the time women farmers spend weeding, allowing more time for the child care that is essential for good nutrition. Biotechnology may offer cost-effective solutions to micronutrient malnutrition, such as vitamin A-and iron-rich crops."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"Research focused on how to reduce the need for inputs and increase the efficiency of input use could lead to the development of crops that use water more efficiently and extract phosphate from the soil more effectively. The development of cereal plants capable of capturing nitrogen from the air could contribute greatly to plant nutrition, helping poor farmers who often cannot afford fertilizers."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"By raising productivity in food production, agricultural biotechnology could help further reduce the need to cultivate new lands and help conserve biodiversity and protect fragile ecosystems. Productivity gains could have the same poverty-reducing impact as those of the Green Revolution if the appropriate policies are in place."},{"index":7,"size":47,"text":"Policies must expand and guide research and technology development to solve problems of importance to poor people. Research should focus on crops relevant to small farmers and poor consumers in developing countries, such as ba-nana, cassava, yam, sweet potato, rice, maize, wheat, and millet, along with livestock."},{"index":8,"size":162,"text":"Health and environmental risks. Genetically improved (GI) foods are not intrinsically good or bad for human health. Their health effect depends on their specific content. GI foods with a higher iron content are likely to benefit iron-deficient consumers. But the transfer of genes from one species to another may also transfer characteristics that cause allergic reactions. Thus, GI foods need to be tested for allergy transfers before they are commercialized. Such testing avoided the possible commercialization of soybeans with a Brazil nut gene. GI foods with possible allergy risks should be fully labeled. Labeling may also be needed to identify content for cultural and religious reasons or simply because consumers want to know what their food contains and how it was produced. While the public sector must design and enforce safety standards as well as any labeling required to protect the public from health risks, other labeling might best be left to the private sector in accordance with consumer demands for knowledge."},{"index":9,"size":41,"text":"Failure to remove antibiotic-resistant marker genes used in research before a GI food is commercialized presents a potential although unproven health risk. Recent legislation in the European Union requires that these genes be removed before a GI food is deemed safe."},{"index":10,"size":102,"text":"Risks and opportunities associated with GI foods should be integrated into the general food safety regulations of a country. International agencies and donors may need to assist some developing countries build the capacity to develop appropriate regulatory arrangements. These regulatory systems are needed to govern food safety and assess any environmental risks, monitor compliance, and enforce such regulations. The regulatory arrangements should be country-specific and reflect relevant risk factors. Progress on achieving a global agreement on biosafety standards is urgently needed (Juma and Gupta 1999). The development of a public global regulatory capacity has lagged far behind the pace of economic globalization."},{"index":11,"size":76,"text":"The ecological risks policymakers and regulators need to assess include the potential for spread of traits such as herbicide resistance from geneti-cally improved plants to unmodified plants (including weeds), the buildup of resistance in insect populations, and the potential threat to biodiversity posed by widespread monoculture of genetically improved crops. Seeds that allow farmers the option of \"turning off\" genetic characteristics, mentioned earlier, offer great promise for assuring that new traits do not spread through cross-pollination."},{"index":12,"size":59,"text":"Both food safety and biosafety regulations should reflect international agreements and a given society's acceptable risk levels, including the risks associated with not using biotechnology to achieve desired goals. Poor people should be included directly in the debate and decisionmaking about technological change, the risks of that change, and the consequences of no change or alternative kinds of change."},{"index":13,"size":73,"text":"Socioeconomic risks. Unless developing countries have policies in place to ensure that small farmers have access to delivery systems, extension services, productive resources, markets, and infrastructure, there is considerable risk that the introduction of agricultural biotechnology could lead to increased inequality of income and wealth. In such a case, larger farmers are likely to capture most of the benefits through early adoption of the technology, expanded production, and reduced unit costs (Leisinger 1999)."},{"index":14,"size":174,"text":"Growing concentration among companies engaged in agricultural biotechnology research may lead to reduced competition, monopoly or oligopoly profits, exploitation of small farmers and consumers, and extraction of special favors from governments. Effective antitrust legislation and enforcement institutions are needed, particularly in small developing countries where one or only a few seed companies operate. Global standards regarding industrial concentration must also be developed; international public policies in this area have not kept pace with economic globalization. Effective legislation is also required to enforce IPRs, including those of farmers to germplasm, along the lines agreed to within the WTO and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Ethical questions. A major ethical concern is that genetic engineering and \"life patents\" accelerate the reduction of plants, animals, and microorgan-isms to mere commercial commodities, bereft of any sacred character. This is far from a trivial consideration. However, all agricultural activities constitute human intervention into natural systems and processes, and all efforts to improve crops and livestock involve a degree of genetic manipulation. Continued human survival depends on precisely such interventions."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Expanded enlightened adaptive research on agricultural biotechnology can contribute to food security in developing countries, provided that it focuses on the needs of poor farmers and consumers in those countries, identified in consultation with poor people themselves. It is also critical that biotechnology be viewed as one part of a comprehensive sustainable poverty alleviation strategy, not a technological quick-fix for world hunger. Biotechnology needs to go hand in hand with investment in broad-based agricultural growth. There is considerable potential for biotechnology to contribute to improved yields and reduced risks for poor farmers, as well as more plentiful, affordable, and nutritious food for poor consumers. It is not, as some critics have charged, \"a solution looking for a problem.\" The problems are genuine and momentous. Public sector research, particularly through IARCs and NARS, is essential for ensuring that molecular biology-based science serves the needs of poor people. It is also urgent that internationally accepted biosafety standards and local regulatory capacity be strengthened within developing countries."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Evaluation of genetically improved crops needs to increase in developing countries; at present, about 90 percent of the field testing occurs in industrial countries. Without field testing, it is virtually impossible to assess potential environmental and health risks. Hence, destruction of test plots by anti-GI activists should cease. Open debate about the issues involved is essential, but physical attacks on research and testing efforts contribute little to the free exchange of ideas or the formulation of policies that will advance food security."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"If the appropriate steps, including those outlined above, are not taken, modern biotechnol-ogy could bypass poor people. Opportunities for reducing poverty, food insecurity, child malnutrition, and natural resource degradation will be missed, and the productivity gap between developing and industrial country agriculture will widen. Such an outcome would be unethical indeed."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 Distribution of 1997 economic surplus from U.S. use of Roundup Ready™ soybean seed (total US$360 million) "}],"sieverID":"2ec0dc8d-238c-4dba-a353-6c0915252374","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b68d2f20e724a173acc991c815229cb","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/61f602f9-e2b6-4715-8bd8-a848dc5e0c1a/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"An annual work plan is one of the ways of ensuring accountability and transparency, which are pillars of fair governance. It also contributes to effective governance by helping avoid the problem of decisions being made without any follow up action."}]},{"head":"Steps","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The following steps will usually be undertaken after wide ranging consultations among the rangeland management institution and the community at large about challenges, objectives, grazing plans, etc. Those discussions will identify actions that need to be carried out. The process of creating the annual work plan focuses attention on moving from these discussions of opportunities and challenges to tangible, practical actions and responsibilities."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Step 1: Review the existing work plan Establish whether the rangeland management institution has an existing work plan. If it does, review it based on the guidelines to achieve a more effective work plan. You will then work with the rangeland management institution to either revise the existing plan or develop a new one."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Step 2: Review and establish major goals and objectives"},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"In a meeting of the rangeland management institution and members of its sub-committees, discuss the overarching objectives for the year. If the institution has developed a vision for itself and for the rangeland unit, participants should refer back to this. Facilitate a discussion to develop consensus on a small number of overarching objectives."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Step 3: Develop a first draft of an action-oriented plan"},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"• Divide the participants into breakout groups. Typically, this would be done according to any sub-committee that the rangeland management institution may have; e.g. the grazing committee will form one group, the finance committee another group, the executive committee another, etc."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"• Each committee or group should identify the challenges and needs that it will help to address, its main areas of action and how it will contribute to the overarching objectives."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"An annual workplan can help a community to hold its rangeland management institution accountable."},{"index":9,"size":39,"text":"• Each committee or group identifies an action plan answering the question of what actions need to be taken and the who, when, how and why for that action. See Worksheet 1-2-1 for a template that can be used."},{"index":10,"size":73,"text":"• The 'Who?' question is very important. The annual work plan is a plan of action for the rangeland management institution, not a list of what other stakeholders should do. Where a task or action is identified for some external stakeholder-for instance, an action that the community members would like the county government to take-then the question 'what will the rangeland management institution do to ensure that stakeholders takes action?' should be asked."},{"index":11,"size":16,"text":"• Plans should consider the resources required, and possible constraints and strategies to address these constraints."},{"index":12,"size":17,"text":"• Plans for working collaboratively with other organizations such as government, nongovernment organiza¬tions, etc., can be included."},{"index":13,"size":18,"text":"• Capture the plan on flip chart paper (see Worksheet 1-2-1 for a template that can be followed)."},{"index":14,"size":8,"text":"Step 4: Share and revise the draft plans"},{"index":15,"size":10,"text":"• Each breakout group shares the content of its discussion."},{"index":16,"size":10,"text":"• The whole group reviews and edits any unsatisfactory areas."},{"index":17,"size":10,"text":"• Create a final document summarizing the agreed work plan."},{"index":18,"size":6,"text":"Step 5: Share with community members "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":" The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) works to improve food security and reduce poverty in developing countries through research for better and more sustainable use of livestock. ILRI is a CGIAR research centre. It works through a network of regional and country offices and projects in East, South and Southeast Asia, and Central, East, Southern and West Africa.ilri.org The main goal of the Kenya Accelerated Value Chain Development (AVCD) program under the Feed the Future initiative is to sustainably reduce poverty and hunger in the Feed the Future zones of influence in Kenya. CGIAR is a global agricultural research partnership for a food-secure future. Its research is carried out by 15 research centres in collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations. cgiar.org This document is part of the Participatory rangeland management toolkit for Kenya, an initiative led by the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). This tool was developed by ILRI, with financial assistance from the United States Agency for International Development's Feed the Future Kenya Accelerated Value Chain Development (AVCD) program. This publication is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. To view this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0. Annual work planning for the rangeland management Annual work planning for the rangeland management institution   Each element of an annual work plan answers these questions: what is the institutionEach element of an annual work plan answers these questions: what is the    action that will be taken? Who will do it? action that will be taken? Who will do it? Worksheet 1-2-1 Photo credit: International Land Coalition Rangelands Initiative. When will they do it? How will they do it being done? and what resources are needed? Why it is Worksheet 1-2-1 Photo credit: International Land Coalition Rangelands Initiative.When will they do it? How will they do it being done? and what resources are needed? Why it is Work plan template    Work plan template Name of the rangeland unit: ________________________   Name of the rangeland unit: ________________________ Date: _________________________    Date: _________________________ What? Who? When? How? Why? What?Who?When?How?Why? Action/key activity Responsibility Timeline Resources Expected outcome Action/key activityResponsibilityTimelineResourcesExpected outcome What is the action, Which person, group, When will the action How will the action What is the expected What is the action,Which person, group,When will the actionHow will the actionWhat is the expected task or activity? sub-committee, etc. take place? When be carried out and result of the action? task or activity?sub-committee, etc.take place? Whenbe carried out andresult of the action?  will do it? should it be finished? what resources will be  will do it?should it be finished?what resources will be    needed?  needed? Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email ilri-kenya@cgiar.org  ilri.org better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centre Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email ilri-ethiopia@cgiar.org Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Email ilri-kenya@cgiar.orgilri.org better lives through livestock ILRI is a CGIAR research centreBox 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone +251 11 617 2000 Fax +251 11 667 6923 Email ilri-ethiopia@cgiar.org  "}],"sieverID":"ce208371-9d37-452d-965b-304bfc691a2f","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b8b40b8cd684db6c6dcf5c92fe7dc87","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/006018de-adf5-4d6b-b991-0cb91a8e59cb/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Bihar is blessed with fertile, alluvial soil and abundant water resources, sealing its reputation as an agricultural haven. However, conditions are changing. Studies show that changes in rainfall and temperature are affecting rain-fed and irrigated cropping systems, posing major climate risks for crop production. Millions of farmers like Singh are facing uncertainty, which can wreak havoc in traditional farming systems, not just in terms of incomes and livelihoods but also food security."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"However, there is hope in the shape of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA), whose objectives are to provide solutions to transform and reorient agricultural systems to support food security on a changing planet. CSA, in short, aims to bolster agricultural productivity in a sustainable manner (which in turn increases farm incomes, food security and development) while assisting farmers in adapting and building resilience to climate change (from the farm to national levels) and reducing or removing green house gases (GHG) whereever possible."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Today Rajapakar is a Climate-Smart Village (CSV), a part of a project led by the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Built on the principles of CSA, this program provides technological, organizational and systemic support to farmers in association with institutions to help them cope with climate change, in 36 sites across 20 countries."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Uma Kant Singh, another farmer from Rajapakar, says, \"Today we receive news through agro-advisory services. We farmed with the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) method for paddy and zero till for wheat, with much higher yields. \""},{"index":5,"size":56,"text":"Be it index-based insurance which safeguards farmers from losses due to floods and drought or crop damage owing to weather unpredictability, to agro-advisory and weather services, along with technological interventions at various levels, these villages are using diverse ways to adapt to climate change from every angle, and building microcosms that represent farming for the future."}]},{"head":"The global conTexT","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Even though, at present, we are living in a time of maximum agricultural yield in human history, we, as a race are still grappling with severe food insecurity."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"In South and Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, and Sub-Saharan Africa, almost 800 million people still have insufficient food. Global food production must double by 2050 to keep up with population growth and food demand. Things get worse when you throw climate change into this volatile mix."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"\"The magnitude and speed of climate change efforts in agriculture will be critical to the future of large segments of the world's population, particularly in the developing countries in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, \" says Arun Khatri-Chhetri, Associate Scientist and Science Officer with the CCAFS program in South Asia."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"Climate change is expected to impact food production through increased temperatures, erratic rainfall patterns, and more frequent and intense floods and droughts. This can lead to yield losses up to 60%. Recent studies have shown that almost one-third of yield variability is related to climatic variability."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"\"In Latin America, climate variability wreaks havoc on agriculture-from drought and fires, water issues, flooding, excess rain to increase in pests and diseases. It is like a perfect storm,\" says Andy Jarvis, Flagship Leader for Climate-Smart Agriculture, with the CCAFS program."}]},{"head":"Of The","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"With contributions from: P.K.Aggarwal (Regional Program Leader, CCAFS/BISA-CIMMYT South Asia), Andy Jarvis (Flagship Leader, CCAFS/ CIAT), Bruce Campbell (Program Director, CCAFS), Arun Khatri-Chhetri (Science Officer, CCAFS South Asia), Shehnab Sahin (Communications Specialist, CCAFS South Asia) and others from the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"And that is not all. Agricultural food systems are also contributing to this problem themselves by contributing around a quarter of GHG emissions, creating a vicious cycle of agriculture both driving climate change and suffering from its consequences."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"There is a vision of a sustainable, resilient and robust agricultural food system that reduces GHG emissions, which in turn has the potential to reduce the severity of the problem-but does such a panacea exist?"},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"\"It has to. Otherwise we are in deep trouble. If we are serious about our Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), we have to reach 500 million small holder farmers by 2030. We have to reduce 1 giga ton of CO2 from agriculture compared to business as usual. At the moment, we are only likely to get to 20-40% of that unless we look towards very transformative actions, \" says Bruce Campbell, Program Director for CCAFS."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"Several CSVs are showing that its possible. Early results from CSVs in Asia, Africa, and Latin America are illustrating various ways of coping with these issues in diverse agro-ecological settings. Results also show that this approach has high potential for scaling out promising climate-smart agricultural technologies, practices, and services."},{"index":6,"size":47,"text":"\"Through CSA and these villages, we are looking at how we can help farmers adapt to all this, so that they are thinking on their feet, capable of dealing with this right now and in so doing setting themselves up for the long term, \" says Jarvis."}]},{"head":"climaTe-SmarT VillageS aS claSSroomS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"In a way, Rajapakar village is a classroom, it is a site of learning for agricultural research. The CCAFS program hopes that it will be a beacon of hope for a more resilient and sustainable future."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Around the world, there are several successful examples of CSA programs and studies, however, the problem is lack of adoption of innovative practices. For example, in Betul district in Madhya Pradesh, farmers were seen to continue using very old seeds that were handed down to them by their ancestors."},{"index":3,"size":103,"text":"\"Despite such seeds being low-yield, conviction in indigenous traditions, together with lack of access to credit and knowledge, compelled the farmers to continue its use,\" says Pramod Aggarwal, Regional Program Leader for CCAFS in South Asia. As part of CGIAR's interventions, the Since 2012, CCAFS started piloting the CSV approach in Africa (Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Tanzania and Uganda), and South Asia (Bangladesh, India and Nepal) and then extended in 2014 to Latin America (Colombia, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua), and Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Philippines and Vietnam). CCAFS and its partners currently facilitate AR4D in about 36 CSV sites."}]},{"head":"beneficiary farmers have now been provided with resilient and high yielding varieties of seeds.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"\"There is a big demand for such improved seeds now with other tribal farmers, \" says Aggarwal."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Lack of practical evidence of their effectiveness in real world situations contributes to low adoption of new technologies. Climate change often complicates this situation because its impact varies across sites. Therefore, to effectively implement such innovations, there needs to be integration between science, technology and decision-making, that takes into account local socioeconomic conditions. It has to be a platform for a socially inclusive and multi-stakeholder collaborative work."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"The concept of CSVs was founded on the principle of scaling up CSA, and most importantly, to provide the evidence that this works. Keeping future scaling in mind, these villages were selected as climate change hotspots across a wide range of agro-ecological zones with different types of farming, climate risks and vulnerabilities which would allow comparison, learning, and analysis."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"One common feature that runs through the concept of CSVs is that there is no \"magic bullet\" of a solution. Issues, variabilities, vulnerabilities, capacities are widely divergent, and therefore, solutions also need to be diverse."}]},{"head":"how can a Village become climaTe-SmarT?","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"The process of implementing the CSV approach is simple."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"First is a \"baseline assessment\", which is understanding the problem. This is done in a participatory manner, taking in the concerns and local knowledge of all the actors in the cycle. Historical climate data is analyzed to assess the risks and long-term suitability of the main cropping and livestock systems."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"The next step is all about constructing the right basket of solutions-a portfolio of practices and technologies that will address food security, adaptation, and mitigation that need to be tested in the CSVs. \"Typically this includes interventions which are water-smart, weather-smart, seed/breed-smart, carbon/nutrient-smart and/or market/institutionsmart. All of these interventions are site-specific and are chosen after extensive discussion with women and men farmers, local governments and researchers, \" says Aggarwal."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"Once the plan is in place, the ground is set for creating evidence for other areas with similar conditions, problems and constraints. This is the real test of theory and on-the-field realities, and bringing all farmers on board is critical."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"For instance, solar powered community irrigation systems in Gujarat, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh has led to multiple benefits: supplementary income through surplus power sale, clean and regular source of electricity for farm irrigation, changed land use management, and reduction of GHG emissions. Therefore the system is being scaled up by the government of India."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"In the CSVs in Betul, Madhya Pradesh, hundreds of farmers have directly benefitted from a wide range of weather resilient agricultural technologies from crop insurance, weather and agro-advisory services, improved seeds, and solar pumps."},{"index":7,"size":44,"text":"The problem of climate change is fine grained. Just like the Bihar example where climate variability is different from one location to another, globally too these can oscillate widely. This is why scientists working on CSA do not apply one solution to every site."},{"index":8,"size":56,"text":"\"Agriculture is highly context specific. For example, take alternate wetting and drying in rice paddies. This reduces water consumption by 50% and reduces GHG emissions by 30-50%. But it cannot be applied blindly everywhere. Priorities shift from one area to the next,\" says Campbell. And this is why field testing in varied regions is so important."},{"index":9,"size":27,"text":"And finally, we come to scaling up and out. Once intervention portfolios are successfully tried and tested, the evidence is used to contribute to scaling promising innovations."}]},{"head":"Empowering tribal women through CSVs:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"In the CSVs of the tribal district of Betul in Madhya Pradesh, set up with support from the United States Agency for International Development and BAIF, \"Super-Champion\" farmers have been identified based on land ownership and influence. Mostly women, these farmers are providing training on CSA technologies and practices, knowledge distribution on insurance and ICT based agroadvisories among fellow farmer beneficiaries."}]},{"head":"KUNAL PANDEY (CCAFS)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Increasing efficacy and efficiency of crop insurance schemes: Millions of Indian farmers lose some part of their crop every year due to excess rainfall, drought or flood. CSVs are also providing evidence to develop improved insurance products and increasing farmers' access to and satisfaction with agriculture insurance. \"Crop loss assessment is getting a fillip with the deployment of satellites, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, computer models and artificial intelligence,\" states Pramod Aggarwal, of CCAFS, BISA-CIMMYT.  Innovation in approach for climate-smart water use: International Water Management Institute (IWMI) is evaluating technologies for \"Underground Taming of Floods for Irrigation\" in the state of Uttar Pradesh, which can accelerate recharge of the underground water table by floodwater. In Gujarat and Bihar, an innovative community model of solar pumps has led to higher crop yields and income, and reduced GHG emissions in the CSVs. \"Farmers of such villages can earn additional income by selling surplus energy to the state electricity grids, says Tushar Shah of IWMI."}]},{"head":"PRASHANT VISHWANATHAN (IWMI)","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"CSVs show pathways to control air pollution and increase farmers' income: Rice residue burning in north-western states of India is a major source of air pollution affecting millions in Delhi and its neighbourhood. Farmers resort to this practice to quickly clear their fields for timely wheat planting. In the CSVs of Punjab and Haryana, CIMMYT-BISA has demostrated that a Happy Seeder Machine provides an alternative residue management option which also helps sow wheat in the standing rice stubbles."}]},{"head":"NEIL PALMER (CIAT)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Digitization of knowledge transfer empowering agricultural communities: In the CSVs, digital technology is being tested and evaluated to rapidly provide farmers access to weather information and scientific agro-advisories to utilize this knowledge in real time."}]},{"head":"PRASHANTH VISHWANATHAN (IWMI)","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"This is done in two ways: 1. Farmer-to-farmer learning through self-help groups or associations. Messaging from a trusted source is the most effective way to spur farmers to adopt new technologies and practices. 2. Sharing CSV research and lessons to influence large-scale CSA investment plans, promote mainstreaming of institutional changes, and inform policy instruments."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"Ultimately, CSA is about illustrating which solutions are best for certain sets of problems. Devender Singh from Rajapakar village explains, \"These villages will serve as benchmarks and show farmers how to use new technologies in a changing climate, so that they can cope with the changes. \""},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"no Time beTTer Than now Farmers across the globe are bearing the brunt of climate change. The Paris Climate Agreement aims to restrict global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and it is critical to start acting now."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"\"Climatic risks associated with food and livelihood insecurities are also causing a lot of crosscountry migration leading to global unrest and social tensions. Addressing these challenges in vulnerable regions of South Asia and Africa is very urgent, \" says Aggarwal."},{"index":5,"size":58,"text":"For CGIAR, this is a long game, just like climate change. These are long-term investment sites, for long-term learning. Jarvis terms this as a kind of a \"lighthouse approach\". \"Like beacons that are visible from far away and attracts interest and curiosity and become demonstration sites. And we hope that they will take it to other regions. \""},{"index":6,"size":62,"text":"The Climate-Smart Village approach in Bangladesh: World Fish is promoting a range of climate-smart technologies in a coastal agriculture production system in Bangladesh. Farmers in the CSVs of coastal Bangladesh are getting benefits from scaling out of a fish ring micro habitat (left) to conserve species during drought, vegetable cultivation in ditches during floods (middle) and shrimp cultivation in paddy fields (right)."}]},{"head":"HARUN-OR RASHID (WORLD FISH)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The Climate-Smart Village approach in Nepal: With the support of the government and local partners, the CSVs of Nepal have become efficacious learning sites for a range of agricultural technologies and practices. Since men here migrate to urban areas, gender and social inclusion interventions are of prime focus in the CSV approach. Balaram Thapa of LI-BIRD states, \"Increasing access to water resources and improved, climate-resilient seeds helps farmers to minimize impact of climatic risks in agriculture.\""},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"NEIL PALMER (CIAT)"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Rice terrace farming as a conservation practice:"},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"The CSVs in Vietnam serve as platforms to evaluate the CSA benefits of farmers' indigenous practices and new technologies. Rice terrace farming is one such practice that conserves water and increases productivity."}]},{"head":"LEO SEBASTIAN (CCAFS)","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Stress tolerant rice varieties: Seasonal flooding in many areas of South East Asia forces farmers to grow either crops that are floodtolerant but low-yielding or those that can escape flood periods. Recently developed submergence tolerant varieties have come to the rescue."}]},{"head":"ISAGANI SERRANO (IRRI)","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Capacity strengthening programs: In the CSVs in the drought prone lowlands of Savannakhet, Laos, on-site trainings are helping in dissemination of knowledge on stress tolerant crops, water conservation and climate information services from trainers to farmers and scaled to neighbourhoods through field visits. Land restoration for climate-smart benefits: CSVs provide evidence to develop social safety net programs that include the restoration of degraded land and agroecosystems. While increasing food and nutrition security, it also contributes to mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions."}]},{"head":"GEORGINA SMITH (CIAT)","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Community Seed Banks for farm resilience: Climate-risk resistant seeds grown in CSVs are stored in seed banks. These banks help enhance diversity and resilience building by ensuring rapid availability of seeds of stress-tolerant varieties to a large number of farmers. Farmer managed natural tree regeneration: This practice is helping farmers in the CSVs to protect crops from strong winds and improve soil fertility, which doubles yields of sorghum and millet produced under trees. Additional timber and nontimber products from trees further enhances their income."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"TONY RINAUDO (WORLDVISION)"},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Weather advisory services: \"Developed in CSVs, real-time weather monitoring and agro-advisory services go a long way in improving farmer's practices that minimize risks, reduce losses and improve production,\" says Robert zougmore of CCAFS/ International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics."}]},{"head":"JAMES HANSEN (IRI)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Bio-fortifiedand drought-tolerant crop varieties:"},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"In the CSVs, such varieties of millet and sorghum are helping in increasing staple food crop production, improving food and nutrition security of farmers and triggering income-generating activities around seed production."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"ROBERT "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"PHOTO 1 : PHOTO 1: NIRMAL SIGTIA (IWMI); PHOTO 2: PRAMOD AGGARWAL (CCAFS) "},{"text":" JEROME VILLANUEVA (CUSO INTERNATIONAL) Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) technique: Climate change induced uncertainties worsen the productivity of rainfed rice. CSVs are promoting AWD technique, developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). \"AWD reduces water use by 30% and methane emissions by 48% without impacting yield,\" states Leocadio Sebastian of CCAFS/IRRI. ISAGANI SERRANO (IRRI) THE CLIMATE-SMART VILLAGE APPROACH IN SOUTH EAST ASIA Breeds of Red Maasai sheep and Galla goats, crossed with the local breeds, have been introduced in the CSVs. Dawit Solomon of CCAFS/International Livestock Research Institute says, \"Their small body size, flexible feeding habits and short generation intervals helps climate risk management. SOLOMON KILUNGU (CCAFS) "},{"text":" zOUGMORE (CCAFS) Participatory Varietal Evaluation: To address climate-related risks in Lushoto district, Tanzania, CCAFS, in partnership with local government and research organizations, is promoting the process of Participatory Varietal Evaluation to guide the development and selection of farmer'water conservation technique: CSV farmers' innovation is outstanding. This practice is fuel-free and helps avoid wastage. It has been a great solution for low-income rural families for meeting water demand for homes and vegetable gardens. ALExANDRA POPESCU (CCAFS) Agro-diversity for resilience: Agro-diversity is key for rural families' food and nutrition security. Improved bean trials are being implemented in La Prensa community in the Olopa CSV. NEIL PALMER (CIAT) Agroforestry improves coffee quality: Coffee quality and yield improves under tree shadows because berries develop balanced sugars. \"Such a CSA practice can be easily implemented by small-scale farmers using tree species such as banana and cocoa,\" says Ana Maria L. Rodriguez of CCAFS/International Center for Tropical Research. NEIL PALMER (CIAT) Climate-resilient crop varieties in CSVs: Due to climate variability, rural families face a hard time achieving food and nutrition security. Climateresilient varieties of crops alongside efficient water harvesting practices have been introduced to enhance food security, income and resilience. CRIS SOTO (CATIE) THE CLIMATE-SMART VILLAGE APPROACH IN LATIN AMERICA THE CLIMATE-SMART VILLAGE APPROACH AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL South-South Learning: CSVs are also learning platforms for south-south exchange of knowledge, technologies and practices among the developing countries. J.L URREA (CCAFS) Advanced technology for research: CSVs also provide guidance on developing new technologies to meet future challenges. Here, latest remote sensing technologies are deployed by CIMMYT to develop new crop varieties (left); and a CIAT researcher evaluates genetic resources for building drought and heat tolerance (right). NEIL PALMER (CIAT),CIMMYT AND INSTITUTO DE AGRICULTURA SOSTENIBLE (IAS) CSVs provide evidence for science-led policy: Bruce Campbell of CCAFS presenting his vision of transforming agriculture by adapting to climate change to policy makers during a side event at COP 23, 2017. MICHAEL MAJOR (CROP TRUST) Communication for development: Various communication mediums and platforms are engaged to spread awareness about research in the CSVs globally. Through programs such as 'Shamba Shape Up' TV series in Kenya, 9 million viewers are made aware of such activities monthly. SARA QUINN (CIP) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" THE CLIMATE-SMART VILLAGE APPROACH IN INDIA Private sector Private sector involvement for climate involvement for climate change adaptation in change adaptation in agriculture: agriculture: Private sector Private sector partnerships are partnerships are critical in ushering critical in ushering in socio-economic in socio-economic transformation in transformation in the future. CCAFS the future. CCAFS has partnered with has partnered with ITC Limited, a multi- ITC Limited, a multi- business conglomerate, business conglomerate, in India for enhancing in India for enhancing farmer livelihoods and farmer livelihoods and resilience through resilience through the CSV approach in the CSV approach in several states. several states.  "},{"text":" LOPEz-NORIEGA (BIOVERSITY INTERNATIONAL)THE CLIMATE-SMART VILLAGE APPROACH IN EAST AFRICA THE CLIMATE-SMART VILLAGE APPROACH IN WEST AFRICA CSA innovations in land use: Implemented in the CSVs, half-moons and zaï techniques are efficient soil and water conservation practices that help farmers to harvest under severe drought spells and low soil fertility conditions in semiarid cropping systems. ROBERT zOUGMORE (CCAFS) ROBERT zOUGMORE (CCAFS)  "}],"sieverID":"186af475-cf9b-4db1-86d8-5a8fe26d1e5f","abstract":"As changing weather patterns pose serious threats to traditional agrarian systems, Climate-Smart Agriculture methods are coming to the rescue of farmers across the world"}

data/part_1/0c6de40f08c602a44a3ccf75f0090514.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c6de40f08c602a44a3ccf75f0090514","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5e1be185-ebb5-4067-af98-31ef8e85d0ec/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"INCREASING WOMEN'S EFFECTIVE PARTICIPATION AND LEADERSHIP IN DECISION-MAKING: GUIDANCE FOR VOLUNTARY SUSTAINABILITY SYSTEMS","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"As more VSS increase their efforts to address gender inequality in agri-food value chains, the timing is ripe to reflect on progress to inform future strategies and research. A recent Strategic Evidence Review revisits the body of evidence on VSS and gender equality through the lens of SDG5.5 specifically, to identify if and especially how VSS may support women's full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership in decisionmaking in rural communities."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"A purposive and iterative search of the literature identified 25 empirical studies with findings relevant to the topic. Of the 25 studies:"},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"• • 23 studies involved Fairtrade, either on its own or compared to other VSS. There were also a handful of studies on Organic and Rainforest Alliance/UTZ."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"• • The majority focus on the coffee value chain, specifically smallholder coffee production. There were also a small number of studies on smallholder cocoa, tea and bananas."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"This represents the overall mismatch in VSS studies between what is certified and what is studied, with most standards and commodities underrepresented in the literature."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"The review was also informed by several previous evidence syntheses on the wider topic of VSS and gender equality."}]},{"head":"KEY FINDINGS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Overall, women producers are rarely able to achieve full and effective participation in decision-making or have equal opportunities for leadership, either within producer organizations or in the rural communities where VSS operate. Though VSS have led to some measurable benefits on certain aspects of women's empowerment for some women, it has rarely translated to meaningful participation or equal opportunities for leadership for most or all women."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"The breadth and depth of barriers to achieving changes in women's participation and leadership in decisionmaking, let alone meaningful changes that pave the way for and reflect true equality, are well-documented. These include:"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• • Discriminatory social norms and practices;"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• • Unequal access to productive assets and resources;"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• • Fear of harassment and violence; and"},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"• • A range of personal and relational constraints."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"These barriers present challenges to women's economic and political participation in general and specifically to women (in all their diversity) joining, actively participating in and benefitting from agricultural producer groups and cooperatives, engaged with VSS or otherwise."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"Certain facets of VSS engagement have been shown to present particular obstacles given existing inequalities."},{"index":9,"size":44,"text":"For example, gender-blind rules or practices of producer organizations associated with VSS, such as narrow membership criteria, high registration fees, inconvenient meeting times or lack of quotas or women-only spaces, can make it more difficult for women to join or benefit from VSS efforts."},{"index":10,"size":38,"text":"But VSS can and have taken proactive approaches to addressing some of these barriers, with some successes reported. The table on the following page is illustrative of the different types of approaches and changes that have been identified."},{"index":11,"size":64,"text":"Evidence shows that VSS can play a role in changing some of the attitudes, behaviours, skills and practices that undermine women's role in decision-making. But this is a particularly challenging aspect of women's empowerment and there is a long way to go to achieve the lofty aims of SDG5.5 for 'full and effective' participation and 'equal' opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making."},{"index":12,"size":9,"text":"Approaches that support women's participation and leadership in decision-making"}]},{"head":"Approaches Evidence of changes References","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Organizational structure, policies or activities"}]},{"head":"More flexible membership requirements","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Higher proportion of women become 'active shareholders'."}]},{"head":"Dijkdrenth (2015)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Women-only committees or initiatives"},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Women members have an avenue to express opinions (including to the executive board) and organize/contest outside of male-dominated spaces; can build women's confidence and lead to more women on the board and/or more women into management; can help channel women's voices to higher-level decision-making when incorporated into larger governance structure. However, evidence shows there can be a risk of elite capture."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Bacon ( 2010); Bilfield et al. (2020); Gallagher et al. (2020); Said-Allsopp and Tallontire (2014); Sen (2014); TWIN (2013) Women in leadership and decision-making positions"},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"Higher representation of women's issues and priorities; motivates the participation of other women; more positive attitudes about women in leadership. However, evidence shows that when female leaders make unpopular decisions it can negatively impact attitudes towards women's leadership in general."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Mauthofer and Santos (2022); Gallagher et al. (2020); Lyon et al. (2019); Sutton 2019"}]},{"head":"Quotas for representation / leadership","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Certified farmers feel more positively about women's participation and representation; leads to higher representation in other committees and/or executive positions. However, women remain a small minority on committees and on boards. Quotas do not work if other requirements (i.e., education) are unrealistic."}]},{"head":"Gallagher et al. (2020);","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Fairtrade Foundation (2015); Nelson et al. (2013); Stathers and Gathuthi (2013); TWIN (2013); Sutton 2019"}]},{"head":"Payment only made when both spouses are present","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Improved transparency contributes to higher proportion of female or joint decision-making (rather than male control) over coffee revenues."}]},{"head":"Chiputwa and Qaim (2016)","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Dedicated women's enterprises","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Increased number of female farmers and cooperative participation, where women were full-fledged members on their own; correlated with increased women's voice and leadership (in producer organizations and in local community assemblies); women significantly more likely to have served on board of directors than women not involved (but still less than male members). However, this tends to be limited to specific types of women producers (I.e., those with sufficient capital) and excludes women without existing resources."}]},{"head":"Lyon et al. (2019), Lyon (2008)","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Training","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Leadership training Increased women's technical skills, confidence and knowledge of gender equality (as well as men's)."}]},{"head":"Gallagher et al. (2020)","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Skills training","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Spouses of male farmers attending training on production have increased their involvement; increases women's influence on decision-making."}]},{"head":"Chiputwa and Qaim (2016); Sutton 2019","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gender awareness training","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Couples demonstrate changes in attitude towards joint decision-making; changes to intra-household gender relations; contributes to higher proportion of female or joint decision-making (than male control) over revenues. Gallagher et al. (2020); Chiputwa and Qaim (2016); Stathers and Gathuthi (2013); Sutton 2019"}]},{"head":"Increasing Assets","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Transfer of household assets or land shares to women"},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Enables women to join producer organizations on their own, even when they do not have land titles; leads to increases in women's decision-making (household and community); encouraged men to transfer more assets due to its success."}]},{"head":"Gallagher et al. (2020); Osorio et al. (2019)","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Investment in women's businesses","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Women's participation increased, especially when paired with training."}]},{"head":"Gallagher et al. (2020)","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"ACTION POINTS","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"to support women's effective participation and leadership"}]},{"head":"2","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"What can VSS and their partners do to contribute to SDG5.5 or support gender equality in general? The evidence review identified the following key actions to include in their strategies:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Tailor interventions to support women in all their diversity"},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"It is critical that VSS develop strategies that recognize differences among women, identify the needs and realities of different groups of women and tailor interventions that support the participation and leadership of a diversity of women. This may require collecting new types of monitoring data (disaggregated according to age, education, ethnicity, etc, in addition to sex/gender) to be able to identify whether certain groups of women are over-or under-represented in interventions. Failing to tailor programming for different needs risks excluding some women or reinforcing existing hierarchies among women."}]},{"head":"Target multiple and reinforcing aspects of gender equality","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"VSS interventions targeting one aspect of women's empowerment (especially economic empowerment) should not be assumed to automatically 'spill over' to other dimensions of empowerment or to different levels of decision-making. Complementary approaches are required that address different and reinforcing aspects of women's empowerment in a holistic way. If the goal is to increase women's effective participation in decision-making then discriminatory perceptions and dominant gender relations have to be targeted directly."}]},{"head":"4 5 6","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Address the structural barriers that limit all women"},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"If VSS want to extend their reach beyond more than a few exceptional individual women and support changes that go wider, deeper and are sustained, they will need to work more on addressing the structural barriers limiting women's participation in decision-making at different levels. This will likely involve the use of 'Gender Transformative Approaches'. This means interventions that go beyond individual-level change to target the discriminatory informal and formal institutions, systems and structures that limit all women."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"This could involve advocating for formal laws that secure women's land rights or for policies that support the redistribution of unpaid care responsibilities; it could also involve working with partners to facilitate group reflections on the impact of discriminatory sociocultural norms for both men and women and engaging male allies to advocate against gender-based violence in their communities."}]},{"head":"Partner and engage with key actors to support systemic change","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"A holistic approach is essential to achieving gender equality but no one VSS can directly implement interventions at all levels and regarding all aspects of gender equality. Instead, VSS will need to reflect on their unique strengths and potential contributions to gender equality vis-à-vis potential partners and the larger system that they are embedded in. VSS cannot expect to address all the structural causes of gender inequality but are well-placed to influence the debate and draw public attention to social injustices along agrifood supply chains."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Generate more and better evidence on women's participation and leadership"},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"Existing evidence on VSS contributions to women's decision-making is sparse, lacking depth and makes it difficult to generalize across value chains and contexts. There are multiple suggestions for how to improve the evidence base."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"First, more evidence is needed, especially dedicated studies that explore the impact of VSS on women's full and effective participation and leadership and how change occurs. Secondly, different types of measurement approaches are required to adequately capture women's full, equal and effective participation and leadership in decision-making in different spheres, as well as aspects of individual and collective women's leadership."},{"index":5,"size":68,"text":"Whatever the chosen approach, research methods and monitoring tools will need to detect small, slow and potentially negative changes, changes at different levels and for different groups of women. They should also centre women's voices and perspectives so that VSS strategies are led by targeted women's needs and priorities. Responding to the research gaps will be critical to supporting VSS to develop and refine evidence-based strategies in future."}]},{"head":"Respond to what women want","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The assumption that women want to be leaders needs to be challenged and investigated further. Women may have to (or perceive they will have to) make significant sacrifices to take on leadership roles, including increased tension in their households or communities, less time on food crops, fear of harassment, increased labour burdens and associated time poverty."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Any women's leadership initiative needs to understand and strive to reduce the costs and trade-offs of leadership and create an enabling environment that allows leadership to be perceived as a safe, beneficial and empowering option. It is critical to speak to women being targeted by leadership initiatives to understand whether -and more importantly, under what conditions -they want to assume leadership roles."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"Centring local women's voices (individual and collective) and responding to their needs, wishes and priorities is not just important for shaping VSS strategies related to women's leadership, but for the design of VSS in general. Rural women's representation and leadership in decision-making should be embodied in VSS themselves."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"b203dda8-5bc7-4659-b41e-c082f2bae0a8","abstract":"Voluntary Sustainability Systems (VSS) are varied in their commitments, actions and performances on gender equality. But as more VSS seek to address gender inequalities in agri-food value chains, the timing is ripe to reflect on existing evidence to inform future strategies.A recent evidence review sought to understand if and how VSS can support women's full and effective participation and leadership in decision-making in agri-food value chains. It found that while VSS have led to some measurable benefits on certain aspects of women's empowerment (especially on economic inclusion and higher incomes) for some women, VSS can do more to significantly increase women's participation, representation and leadership in decision-making."}