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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_Shop

Paul Terrell

["1 The Byte Shop","1.1 Apple I","1.2 Expansion","1.3 Legacy","2 Exidy Sorcerer Computer","3 ComputerMania","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"]

American businessman Paul TerrellPaul Terrell is an American businessman. In December 1975, he founded Byte Shop, the first personal computer retailer shop. He helped popularize personal computing to the hobbyist and home computing markets, and was the first retailer to sell an Apple Computer, the Apple I. The Byte Shop Paul Terrell started the Byte Shop in Mountain View, California in December 1975. By January, he was approached by individuals who wanted to open their own stores. He signed dealership agreements with them, whereby he would take a percentage of their profits, and soon there were Byte Shops in Hayward, Santa Clara, San Jose, Palo Alto, Fresno, and Portland, Oregon. In March 1976, Terrell incorporated as Byte, Inc. and was one of the four big computer retailers, along with Dick Heisers, ("The Computer Store"), Peachtree in Atlanta, and Dick Brown. Apple I The Byte Shop was the first retailer of the original Apple I computer. At the time Steve Jobs was planning to sell bare circuit boards for $40, but Terrell told him that he would be interested in the machine only if it came fully assembled, and promised to order 50 of the machines and pay $500 each on delivery. Jobs contacted Cramer Electronics to order the components he needed to assemble the Apple I Computer. When asked how he was going to pay for the parts, he replied, "I have this purchase order from the Byte Shop chain of computer stores for 50 of my computers and the payment terms are COD. If you give me the parts on a net 30 day terms I can build and deliver the computers in that time frame, collect my money from Terrell at the Byte Shop and pay you." The credit manager called Paul Terrell and verified the validity of the purchase order. Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak and their small team spent day and night building and testing the computers and delivered to Terrell on time to pay his suppliers and have a profit left over for their celebration and next order. Expansion Terrell grew the enterprise from the first company-owned store in Mountain View, California into a chain of dealerships initially, and eventually into a franchise operation that reached from the United States to Japan. Byte, Inc. was not only involved in the expansion of its retail chain of stores but began a manufacturing operation to build its own proprietary BYT-8 Computer which was provided only to the Byte Shop stores. This gave both Byte Inc. and its Byte Shops a better profit margin than could be achieved by just distributing the computers of the other computer manufacturers at the time. Legacy In 1977, Terrell sold his chain of 58 Byte Shops to John Peers of Logical Machine Corporation. Many of the original Byte Shop dealers eventually became independent as the personal computer marketplace grew and became segmented by the various uses and applications the PC was developing. Hobby computer stores were becoming business centers and IBM was entering the market with a computer of its own which over time would become the standard in the industry. Byte Shops of Arizona became MicroAge Computers and developed into a major national distributor as well as having its own chain of stores. Byte Shop Northwest dominated its geographical area and was acquired by Pacific Bell in 1985 when they elected to get into computer stores. He was portrayed by Brad William Henke in the biopic Jobs. Exidy Sorcerer Computer Main article: Exidy Sorcerer After selling the Byte Store chain, Terrell convinced his friends Ivy and Kauffman of coin-operated video game company Exidy, Inc to design and build the Exidy Sorcerer to compete with the Apple II, Commodore PET and Tandy TRS-80 computers already in the marketplace. The Sorcerer was a modified S-100 bus based machine, but lacked the internal expansion system common to other S-100 systems. It made do with an S-100 expansion card-edge that could connect to an external S-100 expansion cage. The Sorcerer also featured an advanced (for the era) text display that was capable of 64 characters per line, when most systems supported only 40 characters. The Sorcerer did not support sound, color, or in some respects, graphics, which seems at odds with the company's video game background; however, the characters it displayed were programmable by the user. The Sorcerer made its debut at the Long Beach Computer Show in April 1978 at $895 and generated a 4,000 unit back-log on introduction. The system was never very popular in North America, but found a following in Australia and Europe, notably the Netherlands where the Teleac (broadcaster) used the Exidy Sorcerer for the course Microprocessors. The main importer, Compudata later Tulip Computers, licensed the computer and sold it under their own name until 1983. Exidy licensed the Sorcerer computer and its software to a Texas-based startup called Dynasty Computer Corporation in 1979. It was relabeled and sold by Dynasty as the Dynasty Smart-Alec. ComputerMania Paul Terrell started ComputerMania Inc. which was a chain of computer stores created with the purpose of renting computers and software. Computer Retailer Magazine did a feature article on the viability of renting computers and software to the public prior to the passing of legislation in Congress which outlawed the rental of software because of software piracy issues. Hardware rental, however, was unaffected by this decision and continued to flourish into a multibillion-dollar industry. References ^ a b c "X|x|x|Dedicated Group of Resellers Interfacing with Customers Built the Industry". www.crn.com. Archived from the original on 21 January 2013. Retrieved 3 February 2022. ^ "Shopping for a Computer at the ByteShop is Almost as Much Fun as Building One ". Computer. 10 (3): 28–28. March 1977. doi:10.1109/C-M.1977.217670. ISSN 1558-0814. ^ "Image" (GIF). Apllemuseum.bott.org. Retrieved 2016-03-31. ^ a b Williams, Gregg; Moore, Rob (December 1984). "The Apple Story / Part 1: Early History". BYTE (interview). pp. A67. Retrieved October 23, 2013. ^ Steve Jobs, Walter Isacson, ISBN 978-1451648539 ^ iWoz, Steve Wozniak, ISBN 978-0-7553-1408-9, page 189 ^ "DigiBarn Systems: Byt-8 from the Byte Shop". Digibarn.com. Retrieved 2016-03-31. ^ "The Byte Shop organization has been purchased by John Peers of Logical Machine Corporation...", 1977 Volume 2, Page 26, Interface Age ^ "Exidy Sorcerer computer". Oldcomputers.net. Retrieved 2016-03-31. ^ "History of Compudata". HomeComputerMuseum.nl. Retrieved 2023-03-12. ^ "Report on Computer Software Rental Act". Copyright.gov. Retrieved 2016-03-31. ^ "Computer Rental and Leasing: An Industry Evaluation". Vernon Computer Source. 1997-10-13. Retrieved 2016-03-31. Further reading "The Man Who Jump-Started Apple", posted by Harry McCracken, August 23, 2007 PC World magazine. External links The Freeman PC Museum The Apple 1 computer blog by John Calande

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In December 1975, he founded Byte Shop, the first personal computer retailer shop.[1] He helped popularize personal computing to the hobbyist and home computing markets, and was the first retailer to sell an Apple Computer, the Apple I.","title":"Paul Terrell"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mountain View, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_View,_California"},{"link_name":"Hayward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayward,_California"},{"link_name":"Santa Clara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Clara,_California"},{"link_name":"San Jose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jose,_California"},{"link_name":"Palo Alto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palo_Alto,_California"},{"link_name":"Fresno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresno,_California"},{"link_name":"Portland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crn-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crn-1"}],"text":"Paul Terrell started the Byte Shop in Mountain View, California in December 1975. By January, he was approached by individuals who wanted to open their own stores. He signed dealership agreements with them, whereby he would take a percentage of their profits, and soon there were Byte Shops in Hayward, Santa Clara, San Jose, Palo Alto, Fresno, and Portland, Oregon. \n[1][2]In March 1976, Terrell incorporated as Byte, Inc.[1] and was one of the four big computer retailers, along with Dick Heisers, (\"The Computer Store\"), Peachtree in Atlanta, and Dick Brown.","title":"The Byte Shop"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Apple I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_I"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Steve Jobs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Jobs"},{"link_name":"bare circuit boards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wozniak198412-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"net 30 day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_D"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Steve Jobs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Jobs"},{"link_name":"Steve Wozniak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Wozniak"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wozniak198412-4"}],"sub_title":"Apple I","text":"The Byte Shop was the first retailer of the original Apple I computer.[3] At the time Steve Jobs was planning to sell bare circuit boards for $40,[4] but Terrell told him that he would be interested in the machine only if it came fully assembled,[5]\nand promised to order 50 of the machines and pay $500 each on delivery.Jobs contacted Cramer Electronics to order the components he needed to assemble the Apple I Computer. When asked how he was going to pay for the parts, he replied, \"I have this purchase order from the Byte Shop chain of computer stores for 50 of my computers and the payment terms are COD. If you give me the parts on a net 30 day terms I can build and deliver the computers in that time frame, collect my money from Terrell at the Byte Shop and pay you.\"[6] The credit manager called Paul Terrell and verified the validity of the purchase order.Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak and their small team spent day and night building and testing the computers and delivered to Terrell on time to pay his suppliers and have a profit left over for their celebration and next order.[4]","title":"The Byte Shop"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BYT-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BYT-8&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Expansion","text":"Terrell grew the enterprise from the first company-owned store in Mountain View, California into a chain of dealerships initially, and eventually into a franchise operation that reached from the United States to Japan.Byte, Inc. was not only involved in the expansion of its retail chain of stores but began a manufacturing operation to build its own proprietary BYT-8 Computer which was provided only to the Byte Shop stores. This gave both Byte Inc. and its Byte Shops a better profit margin than could be achieved by just distributing the computers of the other computer manufacturers at the time.\n[7]","title":"The Byte Shop"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Logical Machine Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_Machine_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"MicroAge Computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MicroAge"},{"link_name":"Pacific Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Bell"},{"link_name":"Brad William Henke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_William_Henke"},{"link_name":"Jobs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jobs_(film)"}],"sub_title":"Legacy","text":"In 1977, Terrell sold his chain of 58 Byte Shops to John Peers of Logical Machine Corporation.[8]Many of the original Byte Shop dealers eventually became independent as the personal computer marketplace grew and became segmented by the various uses and applications the PC was developing. Hobby computer stores were becoming business centers and IBM was entering the market with a computer of its own which over time would become the standard in the industry. Byte Shops of Arizona became MicroAge Computers and developed into a major national distributor as well as having its own chain of stores. Byte Shop Northwest dominated its geographical area and was acquired by Pacific Bell in 1985 when they elected to get into computer stores.He was portrayed by Brad William Henke in the biopic Jobs.","title":"The Byte Shop"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"coin-operated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin-operated"},{"link_name":"video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"Exidy, Inc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exidy"},{"link_name":"Exidy Sorcerer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exidy_Sorcerer"},{"link_name":"Commodore PET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_PET"},{"link_name":"TRS-80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRS-80"},{"link_name":"S-100 bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-100_bus"},{"link_name":"Teleac (broadcaster)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleac_(broadcaster)"},{"link_name":"Tulip Computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulip_Computers"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Dynasty Computer Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dynasty_Computer_Corporation&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"After selling the Byte Store chain, Terrell convinced his friends Ivy and Kauffman of coin-operated video game company Exidy, Inc to design and build the Exidy Sorcerer to compete with the Apple II, Commodore PET and Tandy TRS-80 computers already in the marketplace.The Sorcerer was a modified S-100 bus based machine, but lacked the internal expansion system common to other S-100 systems. It made do with an S-100 expansion card-edge that could connect to an external S-100 expansion cage. The Sorcerer also featured an advanced (for the era) text display that was capable of 64 characters per line, when most systems supported only 40 characters. The Sorcerer did not support sound, color, or in some respects, graphics, which seems at odds with the company's video game background; however, the characters it displayed were programmable by the user.The Sorcerer made its debut at the Long Beach Computer Show in April 1978 at $895 and generated a 4,000 unit back-log on introduction. The system was never very popular in North America, but found a following in Australia and Europe, notably the Netherlands where the Teleac (broadcaster) used the Exidy Sorcerer for the course Microprocessors. The main importer, Compudata later Tulip Computers, licensed the computer and sold it under their own name until 1983.[9][10]Exidy licensed the Sorcerer computer and its software to a Texas-based startup called Dynasty Computer Corporation in 1979. It was relabeled and sold by Dynasty as the Dynasty Smart-Alec.","title":"Exidy Sorcerer Computer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Paul Terrell started ComputerMania Inc. which was a chain of computer stores created with the purpose of renting computers and software. Computer Retailer Magazine did a feature article on the viability of renting computers and software to the public prior to the passing of legislation in Congress which outlawed the rental of software because of software piracy issues.[11] Hardware rental, however, was unaffected by this decision and continued to flourish into a multibillion-dollar industry.[12]","title":"ComputerMania"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Man Who Jump-Started Apple\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110511184229/http://blogs.pcworld.com/techlog/archives/005240.html"},{"link_name":"Harry McCracken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_McCracken"},{"link_name":"PC World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_World"}],"text":"\"The Man Who Jump-Started Apple\", posted by Harry McCracken, August 23, 2007 PC World magazine.","title":"Further reading"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essence

Essence

["1 Etymology","2 Philosophy","2.1 Ontological status","2.2 Existentialism","3 Religion","3.1 Buddhism","3.2 Hinduism","4 See also","5 References","6 Sources","7 External links"]

That which makes or defines an entity what it is For other uses, see Essence (disambiguation). Part of a series onPhilosophy Philosophy portal Contents Outline Lists Glossary History Categories Disambiguation Philosophies By period Ancient Ancient Egyptian Ancient Greek Medieval Renaissance Modern Contemporary Analytic Continental By region African Egypt Ethiopia South Africa Eastern philosophy Chinese Indian Indonesia Japan Korea Vietnam Indigenous American Aztec philosophy Middle Eastern philosophy Iranian Western American British French German Italian Russian By religion Buddhist Confucian Christian Hindu Islamic Jain Jewish Taoist Branches Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Aesthetics Education History Language Law Metaphilosophy Mind Ontology Phenomenology Political Religion Science Philosophers Aesthetic philosophers Epistemologists Ethicists Logicians Metaphysicians Philosophers of mind Social and political philosophers Women in philosophy vte Essence (Latin: essentia) has various meanings and uses for different thinkers and in different contexts. It is used in philosophy and theology as a designation for the property or set of properties or attributes that make an entity the entity it is or, expressed negatively, without which it would lose its identity. Essence is contrasted with accident, which is a property or attribute the entity has accidentally or contingently, but upon which its identity does not depend. Etymology The English word essence comes from Latin essentia, via French essence. The original Latin word was created purposefully, by Ancient Roman philosophers, in order to provide an adequate Latin translation for the Greek term ousia. The concept originates as a precise technical term with Aristotle (although it can also be found in Plato), who used the Greek expression to ti ên einai literally meaning "the what it was to be". This also corresponds to the scholastic term quiddity or sometimes the shorter phrase to ti esti literally meaning "the what it is" and corresponding to the scholastic term haecceity (thisness) for the same idea. This phrase presented such difficulties for its Latin translators that they coined the word essentia to represent the whole expression. For Aristotle and his scholastic followers, the notion of essence is closely linked to that of definition (horismos). Stoic philosopher Seneca (d. 65 AD) attributed creation of the word to Cicero (d. 43 BC), while rhetor Quintilian (d. 100 AD) claimed that the word was created much earlier, by the stoic philosopher Sergius Plautus (sec. I AD). Early use of the term is also attested in works of Apuleius (d. 170 AD) and Tertullian (d. 240 AD). During Late Antiquity, the term was often used in Christian theology, and through the works of Augustine (d. 430), Boethius (d. 524) and later theologians, who wrote in Medieval Latin, it became the basis for consequent creation of derived terms in many languages. Thomas Aquinas, in his commentary on De hebdomadibus (Book II) by Boethius, states that in this work the distinction between essence (id quod est, what the thing is) and Being (esse) was introduced for the first time. Whereas the Being participated in entities is infinite and infinitely perfect, the essence — and not the matter — delimits the perfection of the Being in entities and makes them finite. Philosophy Ontological status In his dialogues Plato suggests that concrete beings acquire their essence through their relations to "forms"—abstract universals logically or ontologically separate from the objects of sense perception. These forms are often put forth as the models or paradigms of which sensible things are "copies". Sensible bodies are in constant flux and imperfect and hence, by Plato's reckoning, less real than the forms which are eternal, unchanging, and complete. Typical examples of forms given by Plato are largeness, smallness, equality, unity, goodness, beauty, and justice. According to nominalists such as William of Ockham, universals aren't concrete entities, just voice's sounds; there are only individuals. Universals are words that can call to several individuals; for example, the word "homo". Therefore, a universal is reduced to a sound's emission. John Locke distinguished between "real essences" and "nominal essences". Real essences are the thing(s) that makes a thing a thing, whereas nominal essences are our conception of what makes a thing a thing. According to Edmund Husserl essence is ideal. However, ideal means that essence is an intentional object of consciousness. Essence is interpreted as sense. Existentialism Existentialism is often summed up by Jean-Paul Sartre's statement that for human beings "existence precedes essence", which he understood as a repudiation of the philosophical system that had come before him. Instead of "is-ness" generating "actuality," he argued that existence and actuality come first, and the essence is derived afterward. In this respect he breaks with Søren Kierkegaard, who, although often described as a proto-existentialist, identified essence as "nature." For him, there is no such thing as "human nature" that determines how a human will behave or what a human will be. First, he or she exists, and then comes property. Jean-Paul Sartre's more materialist and skeptical existentialism furthered this existentialist tenet by flatly refuting any metaphysical essence, any soul, and arguing instead that there is merely existence, with attributes as essence. Thus, in existentialist discourse, essence can refer to: a physical aspect or property; the ongoing being of a person (the character or internally determined goals); or the infinite inbound within the human (which can be lost, can atrophy, or can be developed into an equal part with the finite), depending upon the type of existentialist discourse. 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Iqbal al-Kindi Nasr Ramadan al-Razi Sadra al-Shahrastani Shariati Suhrawardi Shaykh Tusi Waliullah Jewish Buber Heschel Maimonides Mendelssohn Schwarzschild Soloveitchik Hindu Adi Shankara Ramanuja Madhvacharya Udayana Kumārila Bhaṭṭa Vāchaspati Misra Jayanta Bhatta Abhinavagupta Raghunatha Siromani Sri Aurobindo Ramana Maharshi Jiddu Krishnamurti Radhakrishnan BK Matilal KC Bhattacharya Others Anderson Emmet Esaulov Ferré Forman Glogau Hartshorne Hatano Hatcher Jefferson Klostermaier Kvanvig Martinich Meltzer Runzo Smart Vallicella Zank Zimmerman Related topics Criticism of religion Ethics in religion Exegesis Faith and rationality History of religions Natural theology Religion and science Religious philosophy Theology Philosophy of religion article indexvte Buddhism Within the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism, Candrakirti identifies the self as "an essence of things that does not depend on others; it is an intrinsic nature. The non-existence of that is selflessness". Buddhapālita adds, while commenting on Nagārjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, "What is the reality of things just as it is? It is the absence of essence. Unskilled persons whose eye of intelligence is obscured by the darkness of delusion conceive of an essence of things and then generate attachment and hostility with regard to them". For the Madhyamaka Buddhists, 'Emptiness' (also known as Anatta or Anatman) is the strong assertion that: all phenomena are empty of any essence; anti-essentialism lies at the root of Buddhist praxis; and it is the innate belief in essence that is considered to be an afflictive obscuration which serves as the root of all suffering. However, the Madhyamaka also rejects the tenets of idealism, materialism or nihilism; instead, the ideas of truth or existence, along with any assertions that depend upon them, are limited to their function within the contexts and conventions that assert them, possibly somewhat akin to relativism or pragmatism. For the Madhyamaka, replacement paradoxes such as Ship of Theseus are answered by stating that the Ship of Theseus remains so (within the conventions that assert it) until it ceases to function as the Ship of Theseus. In Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika Chapter XV examines essence itself. Hinduism In understanding any individual personality, a distinction is made between one's Swadharma (essence) and Swabhava (mental habits and conditionings of ego personality). Svabhava is the nature of a person, which is a result of his or her samskaras (impressions created in the mind due to one's interaction with the external world). These samskaras create habits and mental models and those become our nature. While there is another kind of svabhava that is a pure internal quality – smarana – we are here focusing only on the svabhava that was created due to samskaras (because to discover the pure, internal svabhava and smarana, one should become aware of one's samskaras and take control over them). Dharma is derived from the root dhr "to hold." It is that which holds an entity together. That is, Dharma is that which gives integrity to an entity and holds the core quality and identity (essence), form and function of that entity. Dharma is also defined as righteousness and duty. To do one's dharma is to be righteous, to do one's dharma is to do one's duty (express one's essence). See also Avicenna Essentialism Hypokeimenon Modal logic Phenomenon Physical ontology Smarana Theory of forms Transubstantiation References ^ "The Internet Classics Archive | Euthyphro by Plato". classics.mit.edu. Retrieved 12 June 2018. ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1029b ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1030a ^ S. Marc Cohen, "Aristotle's Metaphysics", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, accessed 20 April 2008. ^ Brown 1996, p. 275-276. ^ In fact, angels are finite due to the finitude of their essence, even being without any matter. Father Battista Mondin, O.P. (2022). Ontologia e metafisica . Filosofia (in Italian) (3rd ed.). Edizioni Studio Domenicano. p. 146,151. ISBN 978-88-5545-053-9. ^ Roscelin, De gener. et spec., 524. ^ Roscelin, De generibus et speciebus. ^ Locke on Real Essence. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2022. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help) ^ E. Husserl, Ideas Pertaining to a Pure Phenomenology and to a Phenomenological Philosophy, paragraphs 3 and 4. ^ Bodhisattvayogacaryācatuḥśatakaṭikā 256.1.7. Translations from "The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path of Enlightenment", Vol. 3 by Tsong-Kha-Pa, Snow Lion Publications ISBN 1-55939-166-9 ^ Buddhapālita-mula-madhyamaka-vrtti, P5242, 73.5.6-74.1.2 ^ Prasadkaipa.com Sources Athanasopoulos, Constantinos; Schneider, Christoph, eds. (2013). Divine Essence and Divine Energies: Ecumenical Reflections on the Presence of God. Cambridge, UK: James Clarke & Co. ISBN 9780227900086. Aveling, Francis (1909). "Essence and Existence". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Brown, Stephen F. (1996). "Theology and Philosophy". Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide. Washington, D.C.: CUA Press. pp. 267–287. ISBN 9780813208428. Weedman, Mark (2007). The Trinitarian Theology of Hilary of Poitiers. Leiden-Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-9004162242. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Essence. Maurice De Wulf: "Nominalism, Realism, Conceptualism.", in: The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. Robertson, Teresa; Atkins, Philip. "Essential vs. Accidental Properties". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. vteMetaphysicsTheories Abstract object theory Action theory Anti-realism Determinism Dualism Enactivism Essentialism Existentialism Free will Idealism Libertarianism Liberty Materialism Meaning of life Monism Naturalism Nihilism Phenomenalism Realism Physicalism Relativism Scientific realism Solipsism Spiritualism Subjectivism Substance theory Theory of forms Truthmaker theory Type theory Concepts Abstract object Anima mundi Category of being Causality Causal closure Cogito, ergo sum Concept Embodied cognition Essence Existence Experience Hypostatic abstraction Idea Identity Information Insight Intelligence Intention Linguistic modality Matter Meaning Mental representation Mind Motion Nature Necessity Object Ontology Pattern Perception Physical object Principle Property Qualia Quality Reality Relation Soul Subject Substantial form Thought Time Truth Type–token distinction Universal Unobservable Value more ... 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Notable works Sophist (c. 350 BC) Timaeus (c. 350 BC) Nyāya Sūtras (c. 200 BC) De rerum natura (c. 80 BC) Metaphysics (c. 50) Enneads (c. 270) Daneshnameh-ye Alai (c. 1000) Meditations on First Philosophy (1641) Ethics (1677) A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710) Monadology (1714) Critique of Pure Reason (1781) Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics (1783) The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807) The World as Will and Representation (1818) Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments (1846) Being and Time (1927) Being and Nothingness (1943) Simulacra and Simulation (1981) Related topics Axiology Cosmology Epistemology Feminist metaphysics Interpretations of quantum mechanics Mereology Meta- Phenomenology Philosophy of mind Philosophy of psychology Philosophy of self Philosophy of space and time Teleology Category Philosophy portal Authority control databases: National France BnF data

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Essence (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essence_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology"},{"link_name":"property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"accident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"accidentally or contingently","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical_contingency"}],"text":"For other uses, see Essence (disambiguation).Essence (Latin: essentia) has various meanings and uses for different thinkers and in different contexts. It is used in philosophy and theology as a designation for the property or set of properties or attributes that make an entity the entity it is or, expressed negatively, without which it would lose its identity. Essence is contrasted with accident, which is a property or attribute the entity has accidentally or contingently, but upon which its identity does not depend.","title":"Essence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Ancient Roman philosophers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophers"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"ousia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ousia"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"scholastic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism"},{"link_name":"quiddity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quiddity"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"haecceity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haecceity"},{"link_name":"horismos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horismos"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Stoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism"},{"link_name":"Seneca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger"},{"link_name":"Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero"},{"link_name":"Quintilian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintilian"},{"link_name":"Apuleius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apuleius"},{"link_name":"Tertullian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertullian"},{"link_name":"Late Antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Antiquity"},{"link_name":"Christian theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_theology"},{"link_name":"Augustine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo"},{"link_name":"Boethius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius"},{"link_name":"Medieval Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Latin"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1996275-276-5"},{"link_name":"Thomas Aquinas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas"},{"link_name":"De hebdomadibus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_hebdomadibus&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Boethius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boethius"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The English word essence comes from Latin essentia, via French essence. The original Latin word was created purposefully, by Ancient Roman philosophers, in order to provide an adequate Latin translation for the Greek term ousia.The concept originates as a precise technical term with Aristotle (although it can also be found in Plato),[1] who used the Greek expression to ti ên einai[2] literally meaning \"the what it was to be\". This also corresponds to the scholastic term quiddity or sometimes the shorter phrase to ti esti[3] literally meaning \"the what it is\" and corresponding to the scholastic term haecceity (thisness) for the same idea. This phrase presented such difficulties for its Latin translators that they coined the word essentia to represent the whole expression. For Aristotle and his scholastic followers, the notion of essence is closely linked to that of definition (horismos).[4]Stoic philosopher Seneca (d. 65 AD) attributed creation of the word to Cicero (d. 43 BC), while rhetor Quintilian (d. 100 AD) claimed that the word was created much earlier, by the stoic philosopher Sergius Plautus (sec. I AD).Early use of the term is also attested in works of Apuleius (d. 170 AD) and Tertullian (d. 240 AD). During Late Antiquity, the term was often used in Christian theology, and through the works of Augustine (d. 430), Boethius (d. 524) and later theologians, who wrote in Medieval Latin, it became the basis for consequent creation of derived terms in many languages.[5]Thomas Aquinas, in his commentary on De hebdomadibus (Book II) by Boethius, states that in this work the distinction between essence (id quod est, what the thing is) and Being (esse) was introduced for the first time. Whereas the Being participated in entities is infinite and infinitely perfect, the essence — and not the matter — delimits the perfection of the Being in entities and makes them finite.[6]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Philosophy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Forms"},{"link_name":"nominalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominalists"},{"link_name":"William of Ockham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_of_Ockham"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"John Locke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Locke"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Edmund Husserl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Husserl"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Ontological status","text":"In his dialogues Plato suggests that concrete beings acquire their essence through their relations to \"forms\"—abstract universals logically or ontologically separate from the objects of sense perception. These forms are often put forth as the models or paradigms of which sensible things are \"copies\". Sensible bodies are in constant flux and imperfect and hence, by Plato's reckoning, less real than the forms which are eternal, unchanging, and complete. Typical examples of forms given by Plato are largeness, smallness, equality, unity, goodness, beauty, and justice.According to nominalists such as William of Ockham, universals aren't concrete entities, just voice's sounds; there are only individuals.[7] Universals are words that can call to several individuals; for example, the word \"homo\". Therefore, a universal is reduced to a sound's emission.[8]John Locke distinguished between \"real essences\" and \"nominal essences\". Real essences are the thing(s) that makes a thing a thing, whereas nominal essences are our conception of what makes a thing a thing.[9]According to Edmund Husserl essence is ideal. However, ideal means that essence is an intentional object of consciousness. Essence is interpreted as sense.[10]","title":"Philosophy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Existentialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism"},{"link_name":"Jean-Paul Sartre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre"},{"link_name":"existence precedes essence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existence_precedes_essence"},{"link_name":"Søren Kierkegaard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard"},{"link_name":"Jean-Paul Sartre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre"}],"sub_title":"Existentialism","text":"Existentialism is often summed up by Jean-Paul Sartre's statement that for human beings \"existence precedes essence\", which he understood as a repudiation of the philosophical system that had come before him. Instead of \"is-ness\" generating \"actuality,\" he argued that existence and actuality come first, and the essence is derived afterward.In this respect he breaks with Søren Kierkegaard, who, although often described as a proto-existentialist, identified essence as \"nature.\" For him, there is no such thing as \"human nature\" that determines how a human will behave or what a human will be. First, he or she exists, and then comes property. Jean-Paul Sartre's more materialist and skeptical existentialism furthered this existentialist tenet by flatly refuting any metaphysical essence, any soul, and arguing instead that there is merely existence, with attributes as essence.Thus, in existentialist discourse, essence can refer to:a physical aspect or property;\nthe ongoing being of a person (the character or internally determined goals); or\nthe infinite inbound within the human (which can be lost, can atrophy, or can be developed into an equal part with the finite), depending upon the type of existentialist discourse.","title":"Philosophy"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Madhyamaka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhyamaka"},{"link_name":"Mahayana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana"},{"link_name":"Buddhism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism"},{"link_name":"Candrakirti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candrakirti"},{"link_name":"self","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atman_(Buddhism)"},{"link_name":"selflessness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatta"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Buddhapālita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita"},{"link_name":"Nagārjuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagarjuna"},{"link_name":"Mūlamadhyamakakārikā","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C5%ABlamadhyamakak%C4%81rik%C4%81"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Madhyamaka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhyamaka"},{"link_name":"Emptiness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunyata"},{"link_name":"Anatta or Anatman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatta"},{"link_name":"all suffering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsara"},{"link_name":"Madhyamaka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhyamaka"},{"link_name":"idealism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism"},{"link_name":"materialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialism"},{"link_name":"nihilism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka#No_life_after_death"},{"link_name":"relativism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativism"},{"link_name":"pragmatism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism"},{"link_name":"Madhyamaka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhyamaka"},{"link_name":"Ship of Theseus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_of_Theseus"},{"link_name":"Nagarjuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagarjuna"},{"link_name":"Mulamadhyamakakarika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulamadhyamakakarika"}],"sub_title":"Buddhism","text":"Within the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism, Candrakirti identifies the self as \"an essence of things that does not depend on others; it is an intrinsic nature. The non-existence of that is selflessness\".[11] Buddhapālita adds, while commenting on Nagārjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, \"What is the reality of things just as it is? It is the absence of essence. Unskilled persons whose eye of intelligence is obscured by the darkness of delusion conceive of an essence of things and then generate attachment and hostility with regard to them\".[12]For the Madhyamaka Buddhists, 'Emptiness' (also known as Anatta or Anatman) is the strong assertion that:all phenomena are empty of any essence;\nanti-essentialism lies at the root of Buddhist praxis; and\nit is the innate belief in essence that is considered to be an afflictive obscuration which serves as the root of all suffering.However, the Madhyamaka also rejects the tenets of idealism, materialism or nihilism; instead, the ideas of truth or existence, along with any assertions that depend upon them, are limited to their function within the contexts and conventions that assert them, possibly somewhat akin to relativism or pragmatism. For the Madhyamaka, replacement paradoxes such as Ship of Theseus are answered by stating that the Ship of Theseus remains so (within the conventions that assert it) until it ceases to function as the Ship of Theseus.In Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika Chapter XV examines essence itself.","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"smarana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simran_(Sanskrit_word)"},{"link_name":"Dharma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Hinduism","text":"In understanding any individual personality, a distinction is made between one's Swadharma (essence) and Swabhava (mental habits and conditionings of ego personality). Svabhava is the nature of a person, which is a result of his or her samskaras (impressions created in the mind due to one's interaction with the external world). These samskaras create habits and mental models and those become our nature. While there is another kind of svabhava that is a pure internal quality – smarana – we are here focusing only on the svabhava that was created due to samskaras (because to discover the pure, internal svabhava and smarana, one should become aware of one's samskaras and take control over them). Dharma is derived from the root dhr \"to hold.\" It is that which holds an entity together. That is, Dharma is that which gives integrity to an entity and holds the core quality and identity (essence), form and function of that entity. Dharma is also defined as righteousness and duty. To do one's dharma is to be righteous, to do one's dharma is to do one's duty (express one's essence).[13]","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Divine Essence and Divine Energies: Ecumenical Reflections on the Presence of God","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=950ABAAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780227900086","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780227900086"},{"link_name":"Aveling, Francis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Aveling"},{"link_name":"\"Essence and Existence\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.newadvent.org/cathen/05543b.htm"},{"link_name":"Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Bb32Th4WAK0C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780813208428","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813208428"},{"link_name":"The Trinitarian Theology of Hilary of Poitiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=9Z8GhJl6BG8C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-9004162242","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004162242"}],"text":"Athanasopoulos, Constantinos; Schneider, Christoph, eds. (2013). Divine Essence and Divine Energies: Ecumenical Reflections on the Presence of God. Cambridge, UK: James Clarke & Co. ISBN 9780227900086.\nAveling, Francis (1909). \"Essence and Existence\". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton Company.\nBrown, Stephen F. (1996). \"Theology and Philosophy\". Medieval Latin: An Introduction and Bibliographical Guide. Washington, D.C.: CUA Press. pp. 267–287. ISBN 9780813208428.\nWeedman, Mark (2007). The Trinitarian Theology of Hilary of Poitiers. Leiden-Boston: Brill. ISBN 978-9004162242.","title":"Sources"}]

[]

[{"title":"Avicenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna"},{"title":"Essentialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialism"},{"title":"Hypokeimenon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypokeimenon"},{"title":"Modal logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modal_logic"},{"title":"Phenomenon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenon"},{"title":"Physical ontology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism"},{"title":"Smarana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simran_(Sanskrit_word)"},{"title":"Theory of forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_forms"},{"title":"Transubstantiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transubstantiation"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingot

Ingot

["1 Types","1.1 Single crystal","1.2 Copper alloys","2 Manufacture","3 Historical ingots","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]

Piece of relatively pure metalFor the fictional character, see Kingsman: The Red Diamond § Characters. Aluminium ingot after ejection from mold Pouring molten gold into a mold at the La Luz Gold Mine in Siuna, Nicaragua, about 1959. An ingot is a piece of relatively pure material, usually metal, that is cast into a shape suitable for further processing. In steelmaking, it is the first step among semi-finished casting products. Ingots usually require a second procedure of shaping, such as cold/hot working, cutting, or milling to produce a useful final product. Non-metallic and semiconductor materials prepared in bulk form may also be referred to as ingots, particularly when cast by mold based methods. Precious metal ingots can be used as currency (with or without being processed into other shapes), or as a currency reserve, as with gold bars. Types Ingots are generally made of metal, either pure or alloy, heated past its melting point and cast into a bar or block using a mold chill method. A special case are polycrystalline or single crystal ingots made by pulling from a molten melt. Single crystal See also: Boule (crystal) Single crystal ingots (called boules) of materials are grown (crystal growth) using methods such as the Czochralski process or Bridgeman technique. The boules may be either semiconductor (e.g. electronic chip wafers, photovoltaic cells) or non-conducting inorganic compounds for industrial and jewelry use (e.g., synthetic ruby, sapphire). Single crystal ingots of metal are produced in similar fashion to that used to produce high purity semiconductor ingots, i.e. by vacuum induction refining. Single crystal ingots of engineering metals are of interest due to their very high strength due to lack of grain boundaries. The method of production is via single crystal dendrite and not via simple casting. Possible uses include turbine blades. Copper alloys In the United States, the brass and bronze ingot making industry started in the early 19th century. The US brass industry grew to be the number one producer by the 1850s. During colonial times the brass and bronze industries were almost non-existent because the British demanded all copper ore be sent to Britain for processing. Copper based alloy ingots weighed approximately 20 pounds (9.1 kg). Manufacture See also: Deoxidized steel Crystalline structure of mold cast ingot. Ingots are manufactured by the cooling of a molten liquid (known as the melt) in a mold. The manufacture of ingots has several aims. Firstly, the mold is designed to completely solidify and form an appropriate grain structure required for later processing, as the structure formed by the cooling of the melt controls the physical properties of the material. Secondly, the shape and size of the mold is designed to allow for ease of ingot handling and downstream processing. Finally, the mold is designed to minimize melt wastage and aid ejection of the ingot, as losing either melt or ingot increases manufacturing costs of finished products. A variety of designs exist for the mold, which may be selected to suit the physical properties of the liquid melt and the solidification process. Molds may exist in the top, horizontal or bottom-up pouring and may be fluted or flat walled. The fluted design increases heat transfer owing to a larger contact area. Molds may be either solid "massive" design, sand cast (e.g. for pig iron), or water-cooled shells, depending upon heat transfer requirements. Ingot molds are tapered to prevent the formation of cracks due to uneven cooling. A crack or void formation occurs as the liquid to solid transition has an associated volume change for a constant mass of material. The formation of these ingot defects may render the cast ingot useless and may need to be re-melted, recycled, or discarded. Pouring ingots at a steel mill Re-melted tin affected with tin pest is poured into ingot molds at Rock Island Arsenal Joint Manufacturing and Technology Center, Rock Island, Illinois. The physical structure of a crystalline material is largely determined by the method of cooling and precipitation of the molten metal. During the pouring process, metal in contact with the ingot walls rapidly cools and forms either a columnar structure or possibly a "chill zone" of equiaxed dendrites, depending upon the liquid being cooled and the cooling rate of the mold. For a top-poured ingot, as the liquid cools within the mold, differential volume effects cause the top of the liquid to recede leaving a curved surface at the mold top which may eventually be required to be machined from the ingot. The mold cooling effect creates an advancing solidification front, which has several associated zones, closer to the wall there is a solid zone that draws heat from the solidifying melt, for alloys there may exist a "mushy" zone, which is the result of solid-liquid equilibrium regions in the alloy's phase diagram, and a liquid region. The rate of front advancement controls the time that dendrites or nuclei have to form in the solidification region. The width of the mushy zone in an alloy may be controlled by tuning the heat transfer properties of the mold or adjusting the liquid melt alloy compositions. Continuous casting methods for ingot processing also exist, whereby a stationary front of solidification is formed by the continual take-off of cooled solid material, and the addition of a molten liquid to the casting process. Approximately 70 percent of aluminium ingots in the U.S. are cast using the direct chill casting process, which reduces cracking. A total of 5 percent of ingots must be scrapped because of stress induced cracks and butt deformation. Historical ingots Ancient copper oxhide ingot from Zakros, Crete. The ingot is shaped in the form of an animal skin, a typical shape of copper ingots from these times. Molds for Chinese sycee, a form of silver and gold ingots used as currency under the empire. Lead ingots from Roman Britain on display at the Wells and Mendip Museum. Pig iron ingot from Norrhyttan, Dalarna, Sweden. Plano-convex ingots are widely distributed archaeological artifacts which are studied to provide information on the history of metallurgy. See also Bullion Gold bar Oxhide ingot Sycee, traditional Chinese ingots Tin ingot Bar stock Wafer etching References ^ Chalmers, p. 254. ^ Wu, B.; Scott, S.; Stoddard, N.; Clark, R.; Sholapurwalla, A. "Simulation of Silicon Casting Process for Photovoltaic (PV) Application" (PDF). ^ Indium ingots Archived 2009-01-06 at the Wayback Machine, lesscommonmetals.com. ^ Innovations: The History of Brass Making in the Naugatuck Valley Archived 2009-06-05 at the Wayback Machine. Copper.org (2010-08-25). Retrieved on 2012-02-24. ^ Innovations: Overview of Recycled Copper Archived 2017-04-30 at the Wayback Machine. Copper.org (2010-08-25). Retrieved on 2012-02-24. ^ Platers' guide: with which is combined Brass world. Brass world publishing co., inc. 1905. pp. 82–. Retrieved 24 February 2012. ^ Arthur Amos Noyes; Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1900). Review of American chemical research. pp. 44–. Retrieved 24 February 2012. ^ Taylor, Howard F; Flemings, Merton. C; Wulff, John (1959). Foundry Engineering. John Wiley and Sons, New York; Chapman and Hall, London. LCCN 59011811. ^ Müller, H. R. (Ed.) (2006). Continuous casting. John Wiley and Sons. ^ "Direct Chill Casting Model" (PDF). December 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-24. Retrieved 2010-03-25. Further reading Chalmers, Bruce (1977). Principles of Solidification. Huntington, New York: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN 0-88275-446-7. Schlenker, B.R. (1974). Introduction to Materials. Jacaranda Press. External links Media related to Ingots at Wikimedia Commons Authority control databases National Germany Other NARA

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kingsman: The Red Diamond § Characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsman:_The_Red_Diamond#Characters"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lingot_aluminium.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pouring_gold.jpg"},{"link_name":"La Luz Gold Mine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:La_Luz_Gold_Mine"},{"link_name":"Siuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siuna,_Nicaragua"},{"link_name":"Nicaragua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaragua"},{"link_name":"metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal"},{"link_name":"cast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"steelmaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelmaking"},{"link_name":"semi-finished casting products","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-finished_casting_products"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Precious metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precious_metal"},{"link_name":"gold bars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_bar"}],"text":"For the fictional character, see Kingsman: The Red Diamond § Characters.Aluminium ingot after ejection from moldPouring molten gold into a mold at the La Luz Gold Mine in Siuna, Nicaragua, about 1959.An ingot is a piece of relatively pure material, usually metal, that is cast into a shape suitable for further processing.[1] In steelmaking, it is the first step among semi-finished casting products. Ingots usually require a second procedure of shaping, such as cold/hot working, cutting, or milling to produce a useful final product. Non-metallic and semiconductor materials prepared in bulk form may also be referred to as ingots, particularly when cast by mold based methods.[2] Precious metal ingots can be used as currency (with or without being processed into other shapes), or as a currency reserve, as with gold bars.","title":"Ingot"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"melting point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melting_point"}],"text":"Ingots are generally made of metal, either pure or alloy, heated past its melting point and cast into a bar or block using a mold chill method.A special case are polycrystalline or single crystal ingots made by pulling from a molten melt.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boule (crystal)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boule_(crystal)"},{"link_name":"Single crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_crystal"},{"link_name":"boules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boule_(crystal)"},{"link_name":"Czochralski process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czochralski_process"},{"link_name":"Bridgeman technique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgeman_technique"},{"link_name":"chip wafers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"photovoltaic cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"grain boundaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_boundary"},{"link_name":"dendrite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrite_(crystal)"},{"link_name":"turbine blades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbine_blade"}],"sub_title":"Single crystal","text":"See also: Boule (crystal)Single crystal ingots (called boules) of materials are grown (crystal growth) using methods such as the Czochralski process or Bridgeman technique.The boules may be either semiconductor (e.g. electronic chip wafers, photovoltaic cells) or non-conducting inorganic compounds for industrial and jewelry use (e.g., synthetic ruby, sapphire).Single crystal ingots of metal are produced in similar fashion to that used to produce high purity semiconductor ingots,[3] i.e. by vacuum induction refining. Single crystal ingots of engineering metals are of interest due to their very high strength due to lack of grain boundaries. The method of production is via single crystal dendrite and not via simple casting. Possible uses include turbine blades.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Copper alloys","text":"In the United States, the brass and bronze ingot making industry started in the early 19th century. The US brass industry grew to be the number one producer by the 1850s.[4] During colonial times the brass and bronze industries were almost non-existent because the British demanded all copper ore be sent to Britain for processing.[5] Copper based alloy ingots weighed approximately 20 pounds (9.1 kg).[6][7]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Deoxidized steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deoxidized_steel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cast_ingot_macrostructure.svg"},{"link_name":"grain structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_structure"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_n-34_0000253_Metallurge_f%C3%BCr_H%C3%BCttentechnik.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Re-melted_tin_affected_with_tin_pest_is_poured_into_ingot_molds_at_Rock_Island_Arsenal_Joint_Manufacturing_and_Technology_Center,_DVIDS3878892.jpg"},{"link_name":"tin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin"},{"link_name":"tin pest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin_pest"},{"link_name":"Rock Island Arsenal Joint Manufacturing and Technology Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Island_Arsenal"},{"link_name":"Rock Island, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_Island,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"dendrites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrite_(metal)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Taylor59-8"},{"link_name":"phase diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_diagram"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"direct chill casting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_chill_casting"},{"link_name":"stress induced cracks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracture"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"See also: Deoxidized steelCrystalline structure of mold cast ingot.Ingots are manufactured by the cooling of a molten liquid (known as the melt) in a mold. The manufacture of ingots has several aims.Firstly, the mold is designed to completely solidify and form an appropriate grain structure required for later processing, as the structure formed by the cooling of the melt controls the physical properties of the material.Secondly, the shape and size of the mold is designed to allow for ease of ingot handling and downstream processing. Finally, the mold is designed to minimize melt wastage and aid ejection of the ingot, as losing either melt or ingot increases manufacturing costs of finished products.A variety of designs exist for the mold, which may be selected to suit the physical properties of the liquid melt and the solidification process. Molds may exist in the top, horizontal or bottom-up pouring and may be fluted or flat walled. The fluted design increases heat transfer owing to a larger contact area. Molds may be either solid \"massive\" design, sand cast (e.g. for pig iron), or water-cooled shells, depending upon heat transfer requirements. Ingot molds are tapered to prevent the formation of cracks due to uneven cooling. A crack or void formation occurs as the liquid to solid transition has an associated volume change for a constant mass of material. The formation of these ingot defects may render the cast ingot useless and may need to be re-melted, recycled, or discarded.Pouring ingots at a steel millRe-melted tin affected with tin pest is poured into ingot molds at Rock Island Arsenal Joint Manufacturing and Technology Center, Rock Island, Illinois.The physical structure of a crystalline material is largely determined by the method of cooling and precipitation of the molten metal. During the pouring process, metal in contact with the ingot walls rapidly cools and forms either a columnar structure or possibly a \"chill zone\" of equiaxed dendrites, depending upon the liquid being cooled and the cooling rate of the mold.[8]For a top-poured ingot, as the liquid cools within the mold, differential volume effects cause the top of the liquid to recede leaving a curved surface at the mold top which may eventually be required to be machined from the ingot. The mold cooling effect creates an advancing solidification front, which has several associated zones, closer to the wall there is a solid zone that draws heat from the solidifying melt, for alloys there may exist a \"mushy\" zone, which is the result of solid-liquid equilibrium regions in the alloy's phase diagram, and a liquid region. The rate of front advancement controls the time that dendrites or nuclei have to form in the solidification region. The width of the mushy zone in an alloy may be controlled by tuning the heat transfer properties of the mold or adjusting the liquid melt alloy compositions.Continuous casting methods for ingot processing also exist, whereby a stationary front of solidification is formed by the continual take-off of cooled solid material, and the addition of a molten liquid to the casting process.[9]Approximately 70 percent of aluminium ingots in the U.S. are cast using the direct chill casting process, which reduces cracking. A total of 5 percent of ingots must be scrapped because of stress induced cracks and butt deformation.[10]","title":"Manufacture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Minoan_copper_ingot_from_Zakros,_Crete.jpg"},{"link_name":"oxhide ingot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxhide_ingot"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ChineseGoldIngot.jpg"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"sycee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sycee"},{"link_name":"empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_China"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lead_ingots.JPG"},{"link_name":"Roman Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Britain"},{"link_name":"Wells and Mendip Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wells_and_Mendip_Museum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tackj%C3%A4rn_Dalarna_1800.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pig iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_iron"},{"link_name":"Dalarna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalarna"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Plano-convex ingots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plano-convex_ingot"},{"link_name":"metallurgy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy"}],"text":"Ancient copper oxhide ingot from Zakros, Crete. The ingot is shaped in the form of an animal skin, a typical shape of copper ingots from these times.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMolds for Chinese sycee, a form of silver and gold ingots used as currency under the empire.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLead ingots from Roman Britain on display at the Wells and Mendip Museum.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPig iron ingot from Norrhyttan, Dalarna, Sweden.Plano-convex ingots are widely distributed archaeological artifacts which are studied to provide information on the history of metallurgy.","title":"Historical ingots"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-88275-446-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88275-446-7"}],"text":"Chalmers, Bruce (1977). Principles of Solidification. Huntington, New York: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN 0-88275-446-7.\nSchlenker, B.R. (1974). Introduction to Materials. Jacaranda Press.","title":"Further reading"}]

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[{"reference":"Wu, B.; Scott, S.; Stoddard, N.; Clark, R.; Sholapurwalla, A. \"Simulation of Silicon Casting Process for Photovoltaic (PV) Application\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.esi-group.com/sites/default/files/resource/publication/1319/tms2009-wu-scott.pdf","url_text":"\"Simulation of Silicon Casting Process for Photovoltaic (PV) Application\""}]},{"reference":"Platers' guide: with which is combined Brass world. Brass world publishing co., inc. 1905. pp. 82–. Retrieved 24 February 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4ZPVAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA82","url_text":"Platers' guide: with which is combined Brass world"}]},{"reference":"Arthur Amos Noyes; Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1900). Review of American chemical research. pp. 44–. Retrieved 24 February 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lW9LAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA44","url_text":"Review of American chemical research"}]},{"reference":"Taylor, Howard F; Flemings, Merton. C; Wulff, John (1959). Foundry Engineering. John Wiley and Sons, New York; Chapman and Hall, London. LCCN 59011811.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/59011811","url_text":"59011811"}]},{"reference":"Müller, H. R. (Ed.) (2006). Continuous casting. John Wiley and Sons.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Direct Chill Casting Model\" (PDF). December 2000. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-24. Retrieved 2010-03-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110724055909/http://www.secat.net/docs/projects/Modeling_Optimization_of_Direct_Chill_Casting.pdf","url_text":"\"Direct Chill Casting Model\""},{"url":"http://www.secat.net/docs/projects/Modeling_Optimization_of_Direct_Chill_Casting.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chalmers, Bruce (1977). Principles of Solidification. Huntington, New York: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN 0-88275-446-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88275-446-7","url_text":"0-88275-446-7"}]},{"reference":"Schlenker, B.R. (1974). Introduction to Materials. Jacaranda Press.","urls":[]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willard_Rockwell

Willard Rockwell

["1 Early life and career","2 Family","3 References","4 Further reading","4.1 Primary sources","5 External links"]

American businessman (1888–1978) Willard RockwellBorn(1888-03-30)March 30, 1888Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.DiedOctober 16, 1978(1978-10-16) (aged 90)Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.Resting placeHomewood Cemetery, PittsburghNationalityAmericanEducationMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyOccupation(s)Business executive, EngineerKnown forFounder of Rockwell InternationalPolitical partyRepublicanSpouseClara Whitcomb ThayerChildren5AwardsHenry Laurence Gantt Medal (1974) Willard Frederick Rockwell, Sr. (March 31, 1888 – October 16, 1978) was an American engineer businessman who helped shape and name what eventually became the Rockwell International company. He created and directed a number of major corporations with a wide range of products for the automobile and aviation and related industries. By the 1970s he was a leading figure in American defense industries. "If it moves, we probably made something on it," was his boast. Early life and career Born in Boston, Massachusetts, where his father was a contractor, Willard attended public schools before attending the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for three years. In 1909-1915 he was the chief engineer for several small companies. In 1915, he moved to Cleveland, Ohio, becoming manager of a company making axles for automobiles and trucks. During World War I, he was a civilian specialist in the Motor Transport Division of the Army Quartermaster Corps. In 1919, he started his first company in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. He sold it to the Timken-Detroit Axle Company in 1928, staying on as its manager, and also a director of Timken. He became president of Timken in 1933-1940, and chairman of the board 1940-1953. During World War II, it produced 80 percent of the axles for large army trucks, and 75 percent of the armor plate for tanks. Simultaneously he was president of several smaller companies. By 1947, his combined enterprises had 5,000 employees in 15 plants, with sales of over $62 million. He merged them into Timken in 1953 to form the Rockwell Spring and Axle Company, of which he was chairman of the board. In 1958, his conglomerate was renamed the Rockwell Standard Corporation, and became one of the largest suppliers of parts to the automobile and truck industry. It produced a wide variety of automobile parts, such as transmissions, gears, springs, bumpers, and especially axles for trucks, buses, streetcars, tractors and other motorized vehicles. Rockwell was always an engineer at heart; He received several patents, such as one in 1926 for an "improved double reduction and reversing differential axle construction especially useful for bus axles." Rockwell became interested in aviation after the war, and produced a wide variety of engine parts, as well as a small executive aircraft. Expanding beyond transportation, his companies made meters for the gas and water industries. He also made power tools, valves, taxi meters, and parking meters. For example, the Pittsburgh Equitable Meter and Manufacturing Company was a conglomerate, comprising many companies that manufactured items ranging from water meters to ball bearings. The company became a major player in the space race of the 1960s. In 1967 Rockwell-Standard merged with North American Aviation, becoming North American-Rockwell. It was renamed Rockwell International in 1973 and became the prime contractor on the Space Shuttle. Sales reached $6.3 billion in 1979, ranking it number 11 in defense contracts, in addition to its major presence in commercial aircraft, electronics, automotive components. Rockwell stepped down that same year. Numerous major corporations brought Rockwell onto their boards, including banks, insurance companies, and railroads. Family Rockwell came from a Yankee family and married Clara Thayer, a descendant of John Alden who arrived aboard the Mayflower in 1620. The couple had five children, Kay, Janet, Willard Jr., Eleanor, and Betty. He was a Baptist and Republican. He brought his son Willard Frederick "Al" Rockwell, Jr. (1914-1992) into the network of family businesses in 1947. Rockwell Jr. became a senior executive for several of them before taking over in the mid-1960s, leading work on the NASA Apollo and Space Shuttle programs until his 1989 retirement. Willard Sr. also brought his brother Walter F. Rockwell (1899-1973) into the family business, making him president of Timken-Detroit Axle 1933 to 1953, as well as other roles. References ^ Ingham 3: 1198 ^ Galbraith and Webb, 2011. ^ See "Double-reduction bus axle US 1571801 A" ^ Galbraith and Webb, 2011. ^ New York Times, Sept. 26, 1992 Further reading Ingham, John N. Biographical dictionary of American business leaders (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1983) 3:1196-99. Primary sources Rockwell, Willard Frederick. The Twelve Hats of a Company President: What it Takes to Run a Company (Prentice-Hall, 1971). External links Willard Rockwell at NNDB Willard Rockwell at Find a Grave Automotive Hall of Fame biography History of Rockwell Automation vteRockwell InternationalPeople Lynde Bradley Arthur A. Collins Clayton M. Jones Willard Rockwell Subsidiaries Draper Corporation Northrop Loom Rockwell Automation Allen-Bradley Rockwell Collins Air Routing International AN/ART-13 ARINC B/E Aerospace Collins 207B-1 Transmitter R-390A Related Admiral Radio and TV Allen-Bradley Clock Tower Evans & Sutherland North American Aviation Atomics International Rocketdyne Rockwell Semiconductor vteHenry Laurence Gantt Medal1929–1950 1929: Henry Laurence Gantt (posthumously) 1930: Fred J. Miller 1931: Leon P. Alford 1932: Henry S. Dennison 1933: Henry Wallace Clark 1934: Horace B. Cheney 1935: Arthur Howland Young 1936: Morris E. Leeds 1940: William Loren Batt 1941: Paul Eugene Holden 1943: Dexter S. Kimball 1944: Frank Bunker Gilbreth Sr. (posthumously) and Lillian Moller Gilbreth 1945: John Milton Hancock 1946: Paul G. Hoffman 1947: Alvin E. Dodd 1948: Harold Fowler McCormick 1949: Arthur Clinton Spurr 1950: Charles R. Hook Sr. 1951–1975 1951: Thomas Roy Jones 1952: Frank Henry Neely 1953: Thomas E. Millsop 1954: Clarence Francis 1955: Walker Lee Cisler 1956: Henning Webb Prentis Jr. 1957: Harold F. Smiddy 1958: Richard Redwood Deupree 1959: Peter Drucker 1960: Charles Perry McCormick 1961: Lyndall Urwick 1962: Austin J. Tobin 1963: Lawrence A. Appley 1964: Harold Bright Maynard 1965: Ralph J. Cordiner 1968: J. Erik Jonsson 1969: David Packard 1970: Frederick Kappel 1971: Donald C. Burnham 1972: Robert Elton Brooker 1973: John T. Connor 1974: Willard Rockwell 1975: Patrick E. Haggerty 1976–1999 1976: Kenneth Daniel 1982: Charles Luckman 1983: Walter A. Fallon 1984: Rawleigh Warner Jr. 1987: Edmund T. Pratt Jr. 1988: William S. Lee 1998: George N. Hatsopoulos 2000–present 2000: Paul Soros 2001: Roy M. Huffington 2002: Alexander W. Dreyfoos Jr. 2003: William R. Timken 2004: Julie Spicer England 2007: Dean Kamen 2009: Charles M. Vest 2018: Todd R. Allen 2019: Margaret G. McCullough Authority control databases International VIAF WorldCat National United States Other SNAC

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rockwell International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell_International"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Willard Frederick Rockwell, Sr. (March 31, 1888 – October 16, 1978) was an American engineer businessman who helped shape and name what eventually became the Rockwell International company. He created and directed a number of major corporations with a wide range of products for the automobile and aviation and related industries. By the 1970s he was a leading figure in American defense industries. \"If it moves, we probably made something on it,\" was his boast.[1]","title":"Willard Rockwell"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boston, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Cleveland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland"},{"link_name":"Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Army Quartermaster Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartermaster_Corps_(United_States_Army)"},{"link_name":"Oshkosh, Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oshkosh,_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"taxi meters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxi_meter"},{"link_name":"parking meters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parking_meter"},{"link_name":"space race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_race"},{"link_name":"Space Shuttle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Born in Boston, Massachusetts, where his father was a contractor, Willard attended public schools before attending the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for three years. In 1909-1915 he was the chief engineer for several small companies. In 1915, he moved to Cleveland, Ohio, becoming manager of a company making axles for automobiles and trucks. During World War I, he was a civilian specialist in the Motor Transport Division of the Army Quartermaster Corps. In 1919, he started his first company in Oshkosh, Wisconsin. He sold it to the Timken-Detroit Axle Company in 1928, staying on as its manager, and also a director of Timken. He became president of Timken in 1933-1940, and chairman of the board 1940-1953. During World War II, it produced 80 percent of the axles for large army trucks, and 75 percent of the armor plate for tanks.[2]Simultaneously he was president of several smaller companies. By 1947, his combined enterprises had 5,000 employees in 15 plants, with sales of over $62 million. He merged them into Timken in 1953 to form the Rockwell Spring and Axle Company, of which he was chairman of the board. In 1958, his conglomerate was renamed the Rockwell Standard Corporation, and became one of the largest suppliers of parts to the automobile and truck industry. It produced a wide variety of automobile parts, such as transmissions, gears, springs, bumpers, and especially axles for trucks, buses, streetcars, tractors and other motorized vehicles. Rockwell was always an engineer at heart; He received several patents, such as one in 1926 for an \"improved double reduction and reversing differential axle construction especially useful for bus axles.\"[3]Rockwell became interested in aviation after the war, and produced a wide variety of engine parts, as well as a small executive aircraft. Expanding beyond transportation, his companies made meters for the gas and water industries. He also made power tools, valves, taxi meters, and parking meters. For example, the Pittsburgh Equitable Meter and Manufacturing Company was a conglomerate, comprising many companies that manufactured items ranging from water meters to ball bearings.The company became a major player in the space race of the 1960s. In 1967 Rockwell-Standard merged with North American Aviation, becoming North American-Rockwell. It was renamed Rockwell International in 1973 and became the prime contractor on the Space Shuttle. Sales reached $6.3 billion in 1979, ranking it number 11 in defense contracts, in addition to its major presence in commercial aircraft, electronics, automotive components.[4] Rockwell stepped down that same year.Numerous major corporations brought Rockwell onto their boards, including banks, insurance companies, and railroads.","title":"Early life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yankee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yankee"},{"link_name":"John Alden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Alden"},{"link_name":"Mayflower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayflower"},{"link_name":"Baptist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_program"},{"link_name":"Space Shuttle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle"}],"text":"Rockwell came from a Yankee family and married Clara Thayer, a descendant of John Alden who arrived aboard the Mayflower in 1620. The couple had five children, Kay, Janet, Willard Jr., Eleanor, and Betty. He was a Baptist and Republican. He brought his son Willard Frederick \"Al\" Rockwell, Jr. (1914-1992)[5] into the network of family businesses in 1947. Rockwell Jr. became a senior executive for several of them before taking over in the mid-1960s, leading work on the NASA Apollo and Space Shuttle programs until his 1989 retirement. Willard Sr. also brought his brother Walter F. Rockwell (1899-1973) into the family business, making him president of Timken-Detroit Axle 1933 to 1953, as well as other roles.","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Ingham, John N. Biographical dictionary of American business leaders (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1983) 3:1196-99.","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Primary sources","text":"Rockwell, Willard Frederick. The Twelve Hats of a Company President: What it Takes to Run a Company (Prentice-Hall, 1971).","title":"Further reading"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_W._Dawson_Jr.

John W. Dawson Jr.

["1 Early life and education","2 Career","3 Books by Dawson","4 Additional publications","5 References","6 External links"]

American mathematicianJohn W. Dawson Jr.Born (1944-02-04) February 4, 1944 (age 80)Wichita, Kansas, U.S.Academic backgroundEducationMassachusetts Institute of Technology (BS)University of Michigan (PhD)Academic workDisciplineMathematicsSub-disciplineMathematical logicSet theoryHistory of logicInstitutionsPrinceton UniversityPenn State York John W. Dawson Jr. (born February 4, 1944) is an American academic who is an emeritus professor of mathematics at Penn State York. Early life and education Born in Wichita, Kansas, Dawson attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a National Merit Scholar before earning a doctorate in mathematical logic from the University of Michigan in 1972. Career An internationally recognized authority on the life and work of Kurt Gödel, Dawson is the author of numerous articles on axiomatic set theory and the history of modern logic. From 1982 to 1984, he catalogued Gödel's papers at the Institute for Advanced Study. He also served as a co-editor of Gödel's Collected Works. He retired as co-editor-in-chief of the journal History and Philosophy of Logic. Books by Dawson John W. Dawson Jr, 1997. Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel, A. K. Peters, Wellesley, MA, ISBN 1-56881-256-6 John W. Dawson Jr, 2015. Why Prove it Again? Alternative Proofs in Mathematical Practice, Springer, Chaim, ISBN 978-3-319-17367-2 Additional publications Dawson, John W. Jr. The published work of Kurt Gödel: an annotated bibliography. Notre Dame J. Formal Logic 24 (1983), no. 2, 255–284. References ^ Date information sourced from Library of Congress Authorities data, via corresponding WorldCat Identities linked authority file (LAF). ^ John William Dawson Jr., Mathematics Genealogy Project. Accessed January 28, 2010 ^ Editorial Board, Archived 2010-07-04 at the Wayback Machine History and Philosophy of Logic, Taylor and Francis. Accessed January 28, 2010 External links Dr. John Dawson, personal webpage, Pennsylvania State University at York Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Germany Italy Israel United States Japan Czech Republic Korea Croatia Netherlands Academics MathSciNet Mathematics Genealogy Project zbMATH Other SNAC IdRef This article about an American mathematician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Penn State York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penn_State_York"}],"text":"John W. Dawson Jr. (born February 4, 1944)[1] is an American academic who is an emeritus professor of mathematics at Penn State York.","title":"John W. Dawson Jr."},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wichita, Kansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wichita,_Kansas"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"National Merit Scholar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Merit_Scholar"},{"link_name":"mathematical logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic"},{"link_name":"University of Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Michigan"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Born in Wichita, Kansas, Dawson attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a National Merit Scholar before earning a doctorate in mathematical logic from the University of Michigan in 1972.[2]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kurt Gödel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del"},{"link_name":"axiomatic set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiomatic_set_theory"},{"link_name":"modern logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_logic"},{"link_name":"Institute for Advanced Study","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"An internationally recognized authority on the life and work of Kurt Gödel, Dawson is the author of numerous articles on axiomatic set theory and the history of modern logic. From 1982 to 1984, he catalogued Gödel's papers at the Institute for Advanced Study. He also served as a co-editor of Gödel's Collected Works. He retired as co-editor-in-chief of the journal History and Philosophy of Logic.[3]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A. K. Peters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._K._Peters"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-56881-256-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56881-256-6"},{"link_name":"Springer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Publishing"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-319-17367-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-17367-2"}],"text":"John W. Dawson Jr, 1997. Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel, A. K. Peters, Wellesley, MA, ISBN 1-56881-256-6\nJohn W. Dawson Jr, 2015. Why Prove it Again? Alternative Proofs in Mathematical Practice, Springer, Chaim, ISBN 978-3-319-17367-2","title":"Books by Dawson"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Notre Dame J. Formal Logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre_Dame_J._Formal_Logic"}],"text":"Dawson, John W. Jr. The published work of Kurt Gödel: an annotated bibliography. Notre Dame J. Formal Logic 24 (1983), no. 2, 255–284.","title":"Additional publications"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucormycosis

Mucormycosis

["1 Classification","2 Signs and symptoms","3 Cause","3.1 Risk factors","4 Mechanism","5 Diagnosis","5.1 Imaging","5.2 Culture and biopsy","5.3 Other","5.4 Differential diagnosis","6 Prevention","7 Treatment","7.1 Medication","7.2 Surgery","7.3 Other considerations","8 Prognosis","9 Epidemiology","9.1 COVID-19–associated mucormycosis","9.2 Recurrence of mucormycosis during COVID-19 second wave in India","10 History","10.1 Naming","10.2 COVID-19–associated mucormycosis","11 Society and culture","12 Other animals","13 References","14 Further reading","15 External links"]

Fungal infection Medical conditionMucormycosisOther namesZygomycosis, black fungusPeriorbital mucormycosisSpecialtyOral and maxillofacial surgery, Infectious disease, Emergency medicineSymptomsDepends on location: runny nose, black area of skin, facial swelling, headache, fever, cough, blurred visionComplicationsBlindness, thrombosisUsual onsetRapidTypesSinuses and brain, lung, stomach and intestine, skin, disseminated, miscellaneousCausesFungi of the Mucorales typeRisk factorsDiabetes, iron overload, low white cells, cancer, organ transplant, kidney problems, immunosuppressants, long-term steroidsDiagnostic methodBiopsy, culture, medical imagingDifferential diagnosisOrbital cellulitis, cavernous sinus thrombosis, aspergillosisPreventionFace masks, avoiding contact with soil or water-damaged buildings, good diabetic controlTreatmentAntifungals, surgical debridement, treat underlying medical conditionsMedicationAmphotericin B, isavuconazole, posaconazolePrognosisPoorFrequencyRare Mucormycosis, also known as black fungus, is a serious fungal infection that comes under fulminant fungal sinusitis, usually in people who are immunocompromised. It is curable only when diagnosed early. Symptoms depend on where in the body the infection occurs. It most commonly infects the nose, sinuses, eyes and brain resulting in a runny nose, one-sided facial swelling and pain, headache, fever, blurred vision, bulging or displacement of the eye (proptosis), and tissue death. Other forms of disease may infect the lungs, stomach and intestines, and skin. The fatality rate is about 54%. It is spread by spores of molds of the order Mucorales, most often through inhalation, contaminated food, or contamination of open wounds. These fungi are common in soils, decomposing organic matter (such as rotting fruit and vegetables), and animal manure, but usually do not affect people. It is not transmitted between people. Risk factors include diabetes with persistently high blood sugar levels or diabetic ketoacidosis, low white blood cells, cancer, organ transplant, iron overload, kidney problems, long-term steroids or use of immunosuppressants, and to a lesser extent in HIV/AIDS. Diagnosis is by biopsy and culture, with medical imaging to help determine the extent of disease. It may appear similar to aspergillosis. Treatment is generally with amphotericin B and surgical debridement. Preventive measures include wearing a face mask in dusty areas, avoiding contact with water-damaged buildings, and protecting the skin from exposure to soil such as when gardening or certain outdoor work. It tends to progress rapidly and is fatal in about half of sinus cases and almost all cases of the widespread type. Mucormycosis is usually rare, but is now ~80 times more common in India. People of any age may be affected, including premature infants. The first known case of mucormycosis was possibly the one described by Friedrich Küchenmeister in 1855. The disease has been reported in natural disasters, including the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and the 2011 Joplin tornado. During the COVID-19 pandemic, an association between mucormycosis and COVID-19 has been reported. This association is thought to relate to reduced immune function during the course of the illness and may also be related to glucocorticoid therapy for COVID-19. A rise in cases was particularly noted in India. Classification Generally, mucormycosis is classified into five main types according to the part of the body affected. A sixth type has been described as mucormycosis of the kidney, or miscellaneous, i.e., mucormycosis at other sites, although less commonly affected. Sinuses and brain (rhinocerebral); most common in people with poorly controlled diabetes and in people who have had a kidney transplant. Lungs (pulmonary); the most common type of mucormycosis in people with cancer and in people who have had an organ transplant or a stem cell transplant. Stomach and intestine (gastrointestinal); more common among young, premature, and low birth weight infants, who have had antibiotics, surgery, or medications that lower the body's ability to fight infection. Skin (cutaneous); after a burn, or other skin injury, in people with leukaemia, poorly controlled diabetes, graft-versus-host disease, HIV and intravenous drug use. Widespread (disseminated); when the infection spreads to other organs via the blood. Signs and symptoms Early stages of periorbital mucormycosis Signs and symptoms of mucormycosis depend on the location in the body of the infection. Infection usually begins in the mouth or nose and enters the central nervous system via the eyes. If the fungal infection begins in the nose or sinus and extends to brain, symptoms and signs may include one-sided eye pain or headache, and may be accompanied by pain in the face, numbness, fever, loss of smell, a blocked nose or runny nose. The person may appear to have sinusitis. The face may look swollen on one side, with rapidly progressing "black lesions" across the nose or upper inside of mouth. One eye may look swollen and bulging, and vision may be blurred. Fever, cough, chest pain, and difficulty breathing, or coughing up blood, can occur when the lungs are involved. A stomach ache, nausea, vomiting and bleeding can occur when the gastrointestinal tract is involved. Affected skin may appear as a dusky reddish tender patch with a darkening centre due to tissue death. There may be an ulcer, and it can be very painful. Invasion of the blood vessels can result in thrombosis and subsequent death of surrounding tissue due to a loss of blood supply. Widespread (disseminated) mucormycosis typically occurs in people who are already sick from other medical conditions, so it can be difficult to know which symptoms are related to mucormycosis. People with disseminated infection in the brain can develop changes in mental status or lapse into a coma. Cause Mucormycosis is a fungal infection caused by fungi in the order Mucorales. In most cases it is due to an invasion of the genera Rhizopus and Mucor, common bread molds. Most fatal infections are caused by Rhizopus oryzae. It is less likely due to Lichtheimia, and rarely due to Apophysomyces. Others include Cunninghamella, Mortierella, and Saksenaea. The fungal spores are present in the environment, can be found on items such as moldy bread and fruit, and are breathed in frequently, but cause disease only in some people. In addition to being breathed in and deposited in the nose, sinuses, and lungs, the spores can also enter the skin via blood or directly through a cut or open wound, and can also grow in the intestine if eaten. Once deposited, the fungus grows branch-like filaments which invade blood vessels, causing clots to form and surrounding tissues to die. Other reported causes include contaminated wound dressings. Mucormycosis has been reported following the use of elastoplast and the use of tongue depressors for holding in place intravenous catheters. Outbreaks have also been linked to hospital bed sheets, negative-pressure rooms, water leaks, poor ventilation, contaminated medical equipment, and building works. One hypothesis suggests that the spread of fungal spores in India could be due to fumes generated from the burning of Mucorales-rich biomass, like cow dung and crop stubble. Risk factors Predisposing factors for mucormycosis include immune deficiencies, a low neutrophil count, and metabolic acidosis. Risk factors include poorly controlled diabetes mellitus (particularly DKA), organ transplant, iron overload, such cancers as lymphomas, kidney failure, liver disease, severe malnutrition, and long term corticosteroid and immunosuppressive therapy. Other risk factors include tuberculosis (TB), deferoxamine and to a lesser extent HIV/AIDS. Cases of mucormycosis in fit and healthy people are less common. Corticosteroids are commonly used in the treatment of COVID-19 and reduce damage caused by the body's own immune response to the virus. They are immunosuppressant and increase blood sugar levels in both diabetic and non-diabetic patients. It is thought that both these effects may contribute to cases of mucormycosis. Mechanism Most people are frequently exposed to Mucorales without developing the disease. Mucormycosis is generally spread by breathing in, eating food contaminated by, or getting spores of molds of the Mucorales type in an open wound. It is not transmitted between people. The precise mechanism by which diabetics become susceptible is unclear. In vivo, a high sugar level alone does not permit the growth of the fungus, but acidosis alone does. People with high sugar levels frequently have high iron levels, also known to be a risk factor for developing mucormycosis. In people taking deferoxamine, the iron removed is captured by siderophores on Rhizopus species, which then use the iron to grow. Diagnosis There is no blood test that can confirm the diagnosis. Diagnosis requires identifying the mold in the affected tissue by biopsy and confirming it with a fungal culture. Because the causative fungi occur all around and may therefore contaminate cultures underway, a culture alone is not decisive. Tests may also include culture and direct detection of the fungus in lung fluid, blood, serum, plasma and urine. Blood tests include a complete blood count to look specifically for neutropenia. Other blood tests include iron levels, blood glucose, bicarbonate, and electrolytes. Endoscopic examination of the nasal passages may be needed. Imaging Imaging is often performed, such as CT scan of lungs and sinuses. Signs on chest CT scans, such as nodules, cavities, halo signs, pleural effusion and wedge-shaped shadows, showing invasion of blood vessels, may suggest a fungal infection, but do not confirm mucormycosis. A reverse halo sign in a person with a blood cancer and low neutrophil count is highly suggestive of mucormycosis. CT scan images of mucormycosis can be useful to distinguish mucormycosis of the orbit and cellulitis of the orbit, but images may appear identical to those of aspergillosis. MRI may also be useful. Currently, MRI with gadolinium contrast is the investigation of choice in rhinoorbito-cerebral mucormycosis. Culture and biopsy To confirm the diagnosis, biopsy samples can be cultured. Culture from biopsy samples does not always give a result as the organism is very fragile. Microscopy can usually determine the genus and sometimes the species, but may require an expert mycologist. The appearance of the fungus under the microscope can vary but generally shows wide (10–20 micron), ribbon-like filaments that generally do not have septa and that—unlike in aspergillosis—branch at right angles, resembling antlers of a moose, which may be seen to be invading blood vessels. Ribbon-like hyphae which branch at 90° Hyphae in blood vessel Mature sporangium of a Mucor Other Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization may be used to identify the species. A blood sample from an artery may be useful to assess for metabolic acidosis. Differential diagnosis Other filamentous fungi may however look similar. It may be difficult to differentiate from aspergillosis. Other possible diagnoses include anthrax, cellulitis, bowel obstruction, ecthyma gangrenosum, lung cancer, clot in lungs, sinusitis, tuberculosis and fusariosis. Prevention Preventive measures include wearing a face mask in dusty areas, washing hands, avoiding direct contact with water-damaged buildings, and protecting skin, feet, and hands where there is exposure to soil or manure, such as gardening or certain outdoor work. In high risk groups, such as organ transplant patients, antifungal drugs may be given as a preventative. Treatment Treatment involves a combination of antifungal drugs, surgically removing infecting tissue and correcting underlying medical problems, such as diabetic ketoacidosis. Medication Once mucormycosis is suspected, amphotericin B at an initial dose of 1 mg is initially given slowly over 10–15 minutes into a vein, then given as a once daily dose according to body weight for the next 14 days. It may need to be continued for longer. Isavuconazole and Posaconazole are alternatives. Surgery Surgery can be very drastic, and, in some cases of disease involving the nasal cavity and the brain, removal of infected brain tissue may be required. Removal of the palate, nasal cavity, or eye structures can be very disfiguring. Sometimes more than one operation is required. Other considerations The disease must be monitored carefully for any signs of reemergence. Treatment also requires correcting sugar levels and improving neutrophil counts. Hyperbaric oxygen may be considered as an adjunctive therapy, because higher oxygen pressure increases the ability of neutrophils to kill the fungus. The efficacy of this therapy is uncertain. Prognosis It tends to progress rapidly and is fatal in about half of sinus cases, two thirds of lung cases, and almost all cases of the widespread type. Skin involvement carries the lowest mortality rate of around 15%. Possible complications of mucormycosis include the partial loss of neurological function, blindness, and clotting of blood vessels in the brain or lung. As treatment usually requires extensive and often disfiguring facial surgery, the effect on life after surviving, particularly sinus and brain involvement, is significant. Epidemiology The true incidence and prevalence of mucormycosis may be higher than appears. Mucormycosis is rare, affecting fewer than 1.7 people per million population each year in San Francisco. It is around 80 times more prevalent in India, where it is estimated that there are around 0.14 cases per 1000 population, and where its incidence has been rising. Causative fungi are highly dependent on location. Apophysomyces variabilis has its highest prevalence in Asia and Lichtheimia spp. in Europe. It is the third most common serious fungal infection to infect people, after aspergillosis and candidiasis. Diabetes is the main underlying disease in low and middle-income countries, whereas, blood cancers and organ transplantation are the more common underlying problems in developed countries. As new immunomodulating drugs and diagnostic tests are developed, the statistics for mucormycosis have been changing. In addition, the figures change as new genera and species are identified, and new risk factors reported such as tuberculosis and kidney problems. COVID-19–associated mucormycosis   India   Countries where COVID-associated mucormycosis has been detected as of June 2021 During the COVID-19 pandemic in India, the Indian government reported that more than 11,700 people were receiving care for mucormycosis as of 25 May 2021. Many Indian media outlets called it "black fungus" because of the black discoloration of dead and dying tissue the fungus causes. Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, rates of mucormycosis in India were estimated to be about 70 times higher than in the rest of the world. Due to its rapidly growing number of cases some Indian state governments have declared it an epidemic. One treatment was a daily injection for eight weeks of anti-fungal intravenous injection of amphotericin B which was in short supply. The injection could be standard amphotericin B deoxycholate or the liposomal form. The liposomal form cost more but it was considered "safer, more effective and lesser side effects".§ The major obstacle of using antifungal drugs in black fungus is the lack of clinical trials. Recurrence of mucormycosis during COVID-19 second wave in India Pre-COVID mucormycosis was a very rare infection, even in India. It is so rare that an ENT (ear, nose, throat) doctor would not witness often a case during their university time. So, the documentation available on the treatment of mucormycosis is limited. In fact, there used to be a couple of mucormycosis expert ENT surgeons for millions of people pre-pandemic. The sudden rise in mucormycosis cases has left a majority of the ENT doctors with no option but to accept mucormycosis cases, as the expert doctors were very much occupied and the patient would die if left untreated. The majority of the ENT doctors had to manage with minimal or no experience on mucormycosis, this has led to the recurrence of mucormycosis in the patients they treated. When a highly experienced doctor in mucormycosis treats a patient even he cannot guarantee that the individual is completely cured and will not have a relapse of mucormycosis; an inexperienced ENT surgeon will definitely have a high number of patients with recurrence due to which there were many recurrent cases of mucormycosis although it did not get the limelight of media or the Indian Government. History The first case of mucormycosis was possibly one described by Friedrich Küchenmeister in 1855. Fürbringer first described the disease in the lungs in 1876. In 1884, Lichtheim established the development of the disease in rabbits and described two species; Mucor corymbifera and Mucor rhizopodiformis, later known as Lichtheimia and Rhizopus, respectively. In 1943, its association with poorly controlled diabetes was reported in three cases with severe sinus, brain and eye involvement. In 1953, Saksenaea vasiformis, found to cause several cases, was isolated from Indian forest soil, and in 1979, P. C. Misra examined soil from an Indian mango orchard, from where they isolated Apophysomyces, later found to be a major cause of mucormycosis. Several species of mucorales have since been described. When cases were reported in the United States in the mid-1950s, the author thought it to be a new disease resulting from the use of antibiotics, ACTH and steroids. Until the latter half of the 20th century, the only available treatment was potassium iodide. In a review of cases involving the lungs diagnosed following flexible bronchoscopy between 1970 and 2000, survival was found to be better in those who received combined surgery and medical treatment, mostly with amphotericin B. Naming Arnold Paltauf coined the term "Mycosis Mucorina" in 1885, after describing a case with systemic symptoms involving the sinus, brain and gastrointestinal tract, following which the term "mucormycosis" became popular. "Mucormycosis" is often used interchangeably with "zygomycosis", a term made obsolete following changes in classification of the kingdom Fungi. The former phylum Zygomycota included Mucorales, Entomophthorales, and others. Mucormycosis describes infections caused by fungi of the order Mucorales. COVID-19–associated mucormycosis COVID-19 associated mucormycosis cases were reported during first and second(delta) wave, with maximum number of cases in delta wave. There were no cases reported during the Omicron wave. A number of cases of mucormycosis, aspergillosis, and candidiasis, linked to immunosuppressive treatment for COVID-19 were reported during the COVID-19 pandemic in India in 2020 and 2021. One review in early 2021 relating to the association of mucormycosis and COVID-19 reported eight cases of mucormycosis; three from the U.S., two from India, and one case each from Brazil, Italy, and the UK. The most common underlying medical condition was diabetes. Most had been in hospital with severe breathing problems due to COVID-19, had recovered, and developed mucormycosis 10–14 days following treatment for COVID-19. Five had abnormal kidney function tests, three involved the sinus, eye and brain, three the lungs, one the gastrointestinal tract, and in one the disease was widespread. In two of the seven deaths, the diagnosis of mucormycosis was made at postmortem. That three had no traditional risk factors led the authors to question the use of steroids and immunosuppressive drugs, although there were cases without diabetes or use of immunosuppressive drugs. There were cases reported even in children. In May 2021, the BBC reported increased cases in India. In a review of COVID-19-related eye problems, mucormycosis affecting the eyes was reported to occur up to several weeks following recovery from COVID-19. It was observed that people with COVID-19 were recovering from mucormycosis a bit easily when compared to non-COVID-19 patients. This is because unlike non-COVID-19 patients with severe diabetes, cancer or HIV, the recovery time required for the main cause of immune suppression is temporary. Other countries affected included Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Russia, Uruguay, Paraguay, Chile, Egypt, Iran, Brazil, Iraq, Mexico, Honduras, Argentina Oman, and Afghanistan. One explanation for why the association has surfaced remarkably in India is high rates of COVID-19 infection and high rates of diabetes. In May 2021, the Indian Council of Medical Research issued guidelines for recognising and treating COVID-19–associated mucormycosis. In India, as of 28 June 2021, over 40,845 people have been confirmed to have mucormycosis, and 3,129 have died. From these cases, 85.5% (34,940) had a history of being infected with SARS-CoV-2 and 52.69% (21,523) were on steroids, also 64.11% (26,187) had diabetes. Society and culture The disease has been reported in natural disasters and catastrophes; 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and the 2011 Missouri tornado. The first international congress on mucormycosis was held in Chicago in 2010, set up by the Hank Schueuler 41 & 9 Foundation, which was established in 2008 for the research of children with leukaemia and fungal infections. A cluster of infections occurred in the wake of the 2011 Joplin tornado. By July 19, 2011, a total of 18 suspected cases of mucormycosis of the skin had been identified, of which 13 were confirmed. A confirmed case was defined as 1) necrotizing soft-tissue infection requiring antifungal treatment or surgical debridement in a person injured in the tornado, 2) with illness onset on or after May 22 and 3) positive fungal culture or histopathology and genetic sequencing consistent with a mucormycete. No additional cases related to that outbreak were reported after June 17. Ten people required admission to an intensive-care unit, and five died. In 2014, details of a lethal mucormycosis outbreak that occurred in 2008 emerged after television and newspaper reports responded to an article in a pediatric medical journal. Contaminated hospital linen was found to be spreading the infection. A 2018 study found many freshly laundered hospital linens delivered to U.S. transplant hospitals were contaminated with Mucorales. Another study attributed an outbreak of hospital-acquired mucormycosis to a laundry facility supplying linens contaminated with Mucorales. The outbreak stopped when major changes were made at the laundry facility. The authors raised concerns on the regulation of healthcare linens. Other animals Mucormycosis in other animals is similar, in terms of frequency and types, to that in people. Cases have been described in cats, dogs, cows, horses, dolphins, bison, and seals. References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Chander J (2018). "26. Mucormycosis". Textbook of Medical Mycology (4th ed.). New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers Ltd. pp. 534–596. ISBN 978-93-86261-83-0. ^ a b "Orphanet: Zygomycosis". www.orpha.net. Archived from the original on May 13, 2021. Retrieved May 13, 2021. ^ a b c Dyer O (May 2021). "Covid-19: India sees record deaths as "black fungus" spreads fear". BMJ. 373: n1238. doi:10.1136/bmj.n1238. PMID 33985993. ^ a b c d Quarterly Current Affairs Vol. 4 - October to December 2020 for Competitive Exams. Vol. 4. Disha Publications. 2020. p. 173. ISBN 978-93-90486-29-8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Grossman ME, Fox LP, Kovarik C, Rosenbach M (2012). "1. Subcutaneous and deep mycoses: Zygomucosis/Mucormycosis". Cutaneous Manifestations of Infection in the Immunocompromised Host (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 51–58. ISBN 978-1-4419-1577-1. ^ a b c d e f g "Symptoms of Mucormycosis". www.cdc.gov. January 14, 2021. Retrieved May 25, 2021. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Spellberg B, Edwards J, Ibrahim A (July 2005). "Novel perspectives on mucormycosis: pathophysiology, presentation, and management". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 18 (3): 556–69. doi:10.1128/CMR.18.3.556-569.2005. PMC 1195964. PMID 16020690. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Mucormycosis". NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders). Archived from the original on May 26, 2021. Retrieved May 25, 2021. ^ a b c d e Hernández, J. L.; Buckley, C. J. (January 2021). Mucormycosis. PMID 31335084. ^ a b c d e "People at Risk For Mucormycosis and prevention". www.cdc.gov. February 2, 2021. 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"Mucormycosis in COVID-19: A systematic review of cases reported worldwide and in India". Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome. 15 (4): 102146. doi:10.1016/j.dsx.2021.05.019. PMC 8137376. PMID 34192610. ^ a b Riley TT, Muzny CA, Swiatlo E, Legendre DP (September 2016). "Breaking the Mold: A Review of Mucormycosis and Current Pharmacological Treatment Options". The Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 50 (9): 747–57. doi:10.1177/1060028016655425. PMID 27307416. S2CID 22454217. ^ a b McDonald PJ. "Mucormycosis (Zygomycosis) Clinical Presentation: History and Physical Examination". emedicine.medscape.com. Retrieved May 28, 2021. ^ Lee S (2001). BrainChip for Microbiology. Blackwell Science. p. 70. ISBN 0-632-04568-X. ^ a b c "MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Mucormycosis". Retrieved May 19, 2008. ^ Lewis RE, Kontoyiannis DP (September 2013). "Epidemiology and treatment of mucormycosis". Future Microbiology. 8 (9): 1163–75. doi:10.2217/fmb.13.78. PMID 24020743. ^ a b Spellberg B, Edwards J, Ibrahim A (July 2005). "Novel perspectives on mucormycosis: pathophysiology, presentation, and management". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 18 (3): 556–69. doi:10.1128/cmr.18.3.556-569.2005. PMC 1195964. PMID 16020690. ^ Lee SC, Idmurm A (2018). "8. Fingal sex: The Mucoromycota". In Heitman J, Howlett BJ, Crous PW, Stukenbrock EH, James TY, Gow NA (eds.). The Fungal Kingdom. Wiley. pp. 177–192. ISBN 978-1-55581-958-3. ^ Martínez-Herrera E, Frías-De-León MG, Julián-Castrejón A, Cruz-Benítez L, Xicohtencatl-Cortes J, Hernández-Castro R (August 2020). "Rhino-orbital mucormycosis due to Apophysomyces ossiformis in a patient with diabetes mellitus: a case report". BMC Infectious Diseases. 20 (1): 614. doi:10.1186/s12879-020-05337-4. PMC 7437167. PMID 32811466. ^ a b c d e f g h McDonald PJ (September 10, 2018). "Mucormycosis (Zygomycosis): Background, Etiology and Pathophysiology, Epidemiology". Medscape. ^ a b c "For Healthcare Professionals | Mucormycosis | CDC". www.cdc.gov. June 17, 2020. Retrieved May 25, 2021. ^ Skaria J, John TM, Varkey S, Kontoyiannis DP (April 2022). "Are Unique Regional Factors the Missing Link in India's COVID-19-Associated Mucormycosis Crisis?". mBio. 13 (2): e0047322. doi:10.1128/mbio.00473-22. PMC 9040830. PMID 35357212. ^ a b Biswas S (May 9, 2021). "Mucormycosis: The 'black fungus' maiming Covid patients in India". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved May 11, 2021. ^ Koehler P, Bassetti M, Chakrabarti A, Chen SC, Colombo AL, Hoenigl M, et al. (June 2021). "Defining and managing COVID-19-associated pulmonary aspergillosis: the 2020 ECMM/ISHAM consensus criteria for research and clinical guidance". The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 21 (6): e149–e162. doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(20)30847-1. PMC 7833078. PMID 33333012. ^ a b Prakash H, Chakrabarti A (March 2019). "Global Epidemiology of Mucormycosis". Journal of Fungi. 5 (1): 26. doi:10.3390/jof5010026. PMC 6462913. PMID 30901907. ^ a b c d e f g h McDonald PJ. "Mucormycosis (Zygomycosis) Workup: Approach Considerations, Laboratory Tests, Radiologic Studies". emedicine.medscape.com. Retrieved May 25, 2021. ^ "Diagnosis and Testing of Mucormycosis | Mucormycosis | CDC". www.cdc.gov. January 14, 2021. ^ a b c Sen M, Honavar SG, Sharma N, Sachdev MS (March 2021). "COVID-19 and Eye: A Review of Ophthalmic Manifestations of COVID-19". Indian Journal of Ophthalmology. 69 (3): 488–509. doi:10.4103/ijo.IJO_297_21. PMC 7942063. PMID 33595463. ^ "Details - Public Health Image Library(PHIL)". phil.cdc.gov. Retrieved May 26, 2021. ^ a b c Cornely OA, Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Arenz D, Chen SC, Dannaoui E, Hochhegger B, et al. (December 2019). "Global guideline for the diagnosis and management of mucormycosis: an initiative of the European Confederation of Medical Mycology in cooperation with the Mycoses Study Group Education and Research Consortium". The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 19 (12): e405–e421. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30312-3. PMC 8559573. PMID 31699664. (several authors) ^ McDonald PJ. "Mucormycosis (Zygomycosis) Differential Diagnoses". emedicine.medscape.com. Retrieved May 25, 2021. ^ BNF (80 ed.). BMJ Group and the Pharmaceutical Press. September 2020 – March 2021. pp. 629–635. ISBN 978-0-85711-369-6. ^ McDonald PJ (September 10, 2018). "What is the role of isavuconazole (Cresemba) in the treatment of mucormycosis (zygomycosis)?". www.medscape.com. Retrieved May 25, 2021. ^ Rebecca J. Frey. "Mucormycosis". Health A to Z. Archived from the original on May 18, 2008. Retrieved May 19, 2008. ^ "Mucormycosis Statistics | Mucormycosis | Fungal Diseases | CDC". www.cdc.gov. June 5, 2020. Archived from the original on May 21, 2021. Retrieved May 22, 2021. ^ Vallabhaneni S, Mody RK, Walker T, Chiller T (2016). "1. The global burden of fungal disease". In Sobel J, Ostrosky-Zeichner L (eds.). Fungal Infections, An Issue of Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. Philadelphia: Elsevier. pp. 5–12. ISBN 978-0-323-41649-8. ^ Petrikkos G, Skiada A, Lortholary O, Roilides E, Walsh TJ, Kontoyiannis DP (February 2012). "Epidemiology and clinical manifestations of mucormycosis". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 54 (suppl_1): S23-34. doi:10.1093/cid/cir866. PMID 22247442. ^ Schwartz I, Chakrabarti A (June 2, 2021). "'Black fungus' is creating a whole other health emergency for Covid-stricken India". The Guardian. Retrieved June 3, 2021. ^ Wadhawan DW, Jain P, Shrivastava S, Kunal K (May 19, 2021). "Rajasthan declares black fungus an epidemic; cases pile up in several states | 10 points". India Today. Retrieved May 20, 2021. ^ "Black fungus in India: Concern over drug shortage as cases rise". BBC News. May 19, 2021. Retrieved July 8, 2021. ^ a b c Yamin HS, Alastal AY, Bakri I (January 2017). "Pulmonary Mucormycosis Over 130 Years: A Case Report and Literature Review". Turkish Thoracic Journal. 18 (1): 1–5. doi:10.5152/TurkThoracJ.2017.16033. PMC 5783164. PMID 29404149. ^ Baker RD (March 1957). "Mucormycosis; a new disease?". Journal of the American Medical Association. 163 (10): 805–8. doi:10.1001/jama.1957.02970450007003. PMID 13405736. ^ "'Cases of Black Fungus emerge across Pakistan'". The News International. May 12, 2021. ^ "Focused COVID-19 Media Monitoring, Nepal (May 24, 2021)". ReliefWeb. May 24, 2021. ^ "Bangladesh reports 1st death by black fungus". Anadolu Agency. May 25, 2021. ^ "Russia Confirms Rare, Deadly 'Black Fungus' Infections Seen in India". The Moscow Times. May 17, 2021. ^ "Paciente con COVID-19 se infectó con el "hongo negro"". EL PAÍS Uruguay (in Spanish). May 25, 2021. ^ "Confirman dos casos de "hongo negro" en Paraguay". RDN (in Spanish). May 27, 2021. ^ "Detectan primer caso de "hongo negro" en Chile en paciente con Covid-19: es el segundo reportado en Latinoamérica". El Mostrador (in Spanish). May 28, 2021. ^ "Mansoura University Hospital reports black fungus cases". Egypt Independent. May 28, 2021. ^ "Coronavirus in Iran: Power outages, black fungus, and warnings of a fifth surge". Track Persia. May 29, 2021. Archived from the original on May 29, 2021. Retrieved June 1, 2021. ^ "Casos suspeitos de fungo preto são investigados no Brasil; entenda". Catraca Livre (in Portuguese). May 31, 2021. ^ "Iraq detects five cases of the deadly "black fungus" among coronavirus patients". Globe Live Media. June 1, 2021. ^ "Detectan en Edomex posible primer caso de hongo negro en México". Uno TV (in Spanish). June 3, 2021. ^ "Salud confirma primer caso de hongo negro en Honduras". Diario El Heraldo (in Spanish). June 7, 2021. ^ ""Hongo negro": advierten que hay que estar atentos a la coinfección fúngica en pacientes con covid". Clarín (in Spanish). June 16, 2021. ^ "'Black fungus' detected in 3 COVID-19 patients in Oman". Al Jazeera. June 15, 2021. ^ "Afghanistan finds deadly 'black fungus' in virus patients – latest updates". TRT World. Retrieved July 17, 2021. ^ Runwal P (May 14, 2021). "A rare black fungus is infecting many of India's COVID-19 patients—why?". National Geographic. Archived from the original on May 14, 2021. ^ "ICMR releases diagnosis and management guidelines for COVID-19-associated Mucormycosis". Firstpost. May 17, 2021. ^ "India reports 40,854 cases of black fungus so far". Mint. June 28, 2021. Retrieved July 16, 2021. ^ "Delhi has more black fungus infections than active Covid-19 cases: Govt data". Mint. July 14, 2021. Retrieved July 16, 2021. ^ Fanfair, Robyn Neblett; et al. (July 29, 2011). "Notes from the Field: Fatal Fungal Soft-Tissue Infections After a Tornado – Joplin, Missouri, 2011". MMWR Weekly. 60 (29): 992. ^ Williams, Timothy (June 10, 2011) Rare Infection Strikes Victims of a Tornado in Missouri. New York Times. ^ Neblett Fanfair R, Benedict K, Bos J, Bennett SD, Lo YC, Adebanjo T, et al. (December 2012). "Necrotizing cutaneous mucormycosis after a tornado in Joplin, Missouri, in 2011". The New England Journal of Medicine. 367 (23): 2214–25. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1204781. PMID 23215557. ^ Catalanello, Rebecca (April 16, 2014). "Mother believes her newborn was the first to die from fungus at Children's Hospital in 2008". NOLA.com. ^ "5 Children's Hospital patients died in 2008, 2009 after contact with deadly fungus". We acknowledge that Children's Hospital is Hospital A in an upcoming article in The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal. The safety and well-being of our patients are our top priorities, so as soon as a problem was suspected, the State Health Department and CDC were notified and invited to assist in the investigation. The hospital was extremely aggressive in trying to isolate and then eliminate the source of the fungus. ^ Sundermann AJ, Clancy CJ, Pasculle AW, Liu G, Cumbie RB, Driscoll E, et al. (February 2019). "How Clean Is the Linen at My Hospital? The Mucorales on Unclean Linen Discovery Study of Large United States Transplant and Cancer Centers". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 68 (5): 850–853. doi:10.1093/cid/ciy669. PMC 6765054. PMID 30299481. ^ Sundermann, Alexander J.; Clancy, Cornelius J.; Pasculle, A. William; Liu, Guojun; Cheng, Shaoji; Cumbie, Richard B.; Driscoll, Eileen; Ayres, Ashley; Donahue, Lisa; Buck, Michael; Streifel, Andrew (July 20, 2021). "Remediation of Mucorales-contaminated Healthcare Linens at a Laundry Facility Following an Investigation of a Case Cluster of Hospital-acquired Mucormycosis". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 74 (8): 1401–1407. doi:10.1093/cid/ciab638. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 34282829. ^ a b Seyedmousavi S, Bosco SM, de Hoog S, Ebel F, Elad D, Gomes RR, et al. (April 2018). "Fungal infections in animals: a patchwork of different situations". Medical Mycology. 56 (suppl_1): 165–187. doi:10.1093/mmy/myx104. PMC 6251577. PMID 29538732. Further reading Cornely OA, Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Arenz D, Chen SC, Dannaoui E, Hochhegger B, et al. (December 2019). "Global guideline for the diagnosis and management of mucormycosis: an initiative of the European Confederation of Medical Mycology in cooperation with the Mycoses Study Group Education and Research Consortium". The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 19 (12): e405–e421. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30312-3. PMC 8559573. PMID 31699664. External links ClassificationDICD-10: B46.0-B46.5ICD-9-CM: 117.7MeSH: D009091DiseasesDB: 31759SNOMED CT: 76627001External resourcesMedlinePlus: 000649Patient UK: MucormycosisOrphanet: 73263 vteFungal infection and mesomycetozoeaSuperficial andcutaneous(dermatomycosis): Tinea = skin;Piedra (exothrix/endothrix) = hairAscomycotaDermatophyte(Dermatophytosis)By location Tinea barbae/tinea capitis Kerion Tinea corporis Ringworm Dermatophytids Tinea cruris Tinea manuum Tinea pedis (athlete's foot) Tinea unguium/onychomycosis White superficial onychomycosis Distal subungual onychomycosis Proximal subungual onychomycosis Tinea corporis gladiatorum Tinea faciei Tinea imbricata Tinea incognito Favus By organism Epidermophyton floccosum Microsporum canis Microsporum audouinii Trichophyton interdigitale/mentagrophytes Trichophyton tonsurans Trichophyton schoenleini Trichophyton rubrum Trichophyton verrucosum Other Hortaea werneckii Tinea nigra Piedraia hortae Black piedra Basidiomycota Malassezia furfur Tinea versicolor Malassezia folliculitis Trichosporon White piedra Subcutaneous,systemic,and opportunisticAscomycotaDimorphic(yeast+mold)Onygenales Coccidioides immitis/Coccidioides posadasii Coccidioidomycosis Disseminated coccidioidomycosis Primary cutaneous coccidioidomycosis. Primary pulmonary coccidioidomycosis Histoplasma capsulatum Histoplasmosis Primary cutaneous histoplasmosis Primary pulmonary histoplasmosis Progressive disseminated histoplasmosis Histoplasma duboisii African histoplasmosis Lacazia loboi Lobomycosis Paracoccidioides brasiliensis Paracoccidioidomycosis Other Blastomyces dermatitidis Blastomycosis North American blastomycosis South American blastomycosis Sporothrix schenckii Sporotrichosis Talaromyces marneffei Talaromycosis Scedosporiosis Emmonsiosis Emmonsia parva Adiaspiromycosis Yeast-like Candida albicans Candidiasis Oral Esophageal Vulvovaginal Chronic mucocutaneous Antibiotic candidiasis Candidal intertrigo Candidal onychomycosis Candidal paronychia Candidid Diaper candidiasis Congenital cutaneous candidiasis Perianal candidiasis Systemic candidiasis Erosio interdigitalis blastomycetica C. auris C. glabrata C. lusitaniae C. tropicalis Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumocystosis Pneumocystis pneumonia Mold-like Aspergillus Aspergillosis Aspergilloma Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis Primary cutaneous aspergillosis Exophiala jeanselmei Eumycetoma Fonsecaea pedrosoi/Fonsecaea compacta/Phialophora verrucosa Chromoblastomycosis Geotrichum candidum Geotrichosis Pseudallescheria boydii Allescheriasis Basidiomycota Cryptococcus neoformans Cryptococcosis Trichosporon spp Trichosporonosis Zygomycota (Zygomycosis)Mucorales (Mucormycosis) Rhizopus oryzae Mucor indicus Lichtheimia corymbifera Syncephalastrum racemosum Apophysomyces variabilis Entomophthorales (Entomophthoramycosis) Basidiobolus ranarum Basidiobolomycosis Conidiobolus coronatus/Conidiobolus incongruus Conidiobolomycosis Microsporidia (Microsporidiosis) Enterocytozoon bieneusi/Encephalitozoon intestinalis Mesomycetozoea Rhinosporidium seeberi Rhinosporidiosis Ungrouped Alternariosis Fungal folliculitis Fusarium Fusariosis Granuloma gluteale infantum Hyalohyphomycosis Otomycosis Keratomycosis Phaeohyphomycosis

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disasters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_disaster"},{"link_name":"2004 Indian Ocean tsunami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami"},{"link_name":"2011 Joplin tornado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Joplin_tornado"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dan2020-20"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"COVID-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19"},{"link_name":"glucocorticoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucocorticoid"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-QC2020-4"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Garg2021-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Singh2021-22"}],"text":"Medical conditionMucormycosis, also known as black fungus,[3][4] is a serious fungal infection that comes under fulminant fungal sinusitis,[11] usually in people who are immunocompromised.[9][12] It is curable only when diagnosed early.[11] Symptoms depend on where in the body the infection occurs.[13][14] It most commonly infects the nose, sinuses, eyes and brain resulting in a runny nose, one-sided facial swelling and pain, headache, fever, blurred vision, bulging or displacement of the eye (proptosis), and tissue death.[1][6] Other forms of disease may infect the lungs, stomach and intestines, and skin.[6] The fatality rate is about 54%.It is spread by spores of molds of the order Mucorales, most often through inhalation, contaminated food, or contamination of open wounds.[15] These fungi are common in soils, decomposing organic matter (such as rotting fruit and vegetables), and animal manure, but usually do not affect people.[16] It is not transmitted between people.[14] Risk factors include diabetes with persistently high blood sugar levels or diabetic ketoacidosis, low white blood cells, cancer, organ transplant, iron overload, kidney problems, long-term steroids or use of immunosuppressants, and to a lesser extent in HIV/AIDS.[7][9]Diagnosis is by biopsy and culture, with medical imaging to help determine the extent of disease.[5] It may appear similar to aspergillosis.[17] Treatment is generally with amphotericin B and surgical debridement.[8] Preventive measures include wearing a face mask in dusty areas, avoiding contact with water-damaged buildings, and protecting the skin from exposure to soil such as when gardening or certain outdoor work.[10] It tends to progress rapidly and is fatal in about half of sinus cases and almost all cases of the widespread type.[2][18]Mucormycosis is usually rare,[8] but is now ~80 times more common in India.[19] People of any age may be affected, including premature infants.[8] The first known case of mucormycosis was possibly the one described by Friedrich Küchenmeister in 1855.[1] The disease has been reported in natural disasters, including the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and the 2011 Joplin tornado.[20] During the COVID-19 pandemic, an association between mucormycosis and COVID-19 has been reported. This association is thought to relate to reduced immune function during the course of the illness and may also be related to glucocorticoid therapy for COVID-19.[4][21] A rise in cases was particularly noted in India.[22]","title":"Mucormycosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021About-14"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Riley2016-23"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand2018-1"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Riley2016-23"},{"link_name":"Sinuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paranasal_sinus"},{"link_name":"brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain"},{"link_name":"diabetes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes"},{"link_name":"kidney transplant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney_transplant"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021About-14"},{"link_name":"Lungs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lungs"},{"link_name":"cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer"},{"link_name":"organ transplant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_transplant"},{"link_name":"stem cell transplant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematopoietic_stem_cell_transplantation"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021About-14"},{"link_name":"Stomach and intestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021About-14"},{"link_name":"Skin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin"},{"link_name":"leukaemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukaemia"},{"link_name":"graft-versus-host disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graft-versus-host_disease"},{"link_name":"intravenous drug use","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_injection"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gros2012-5"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021About-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021About-14"}],"text":"Generally, mucormycosis is classified into five main types according to the part of the body affected.[14][23] A sixth type has been described as mucormycosis of the kidney,[1] or miscellaneous, i.e., mucormycosis at other sites, although less commonly affected.[23]Sinuses and brain (rhinocerebral); most common in people with poorly controlled diabetes and in people who have had a kidney transplant.[14]\nLungs (pulmonary); the most common type of mucormycosis in people with cancer and in people who have had an organ transplant or a stem cell transplant.[14]\nStomach and intestine (gastrointestinal); more common among young, premature, and low birth weight infants, who have had antibiotics, surgery, or medications that lower the body's ability to fight infection.[14]\nSkin (cutaneous); after a burn, or other skin injury, in people with leukaemia, poorly controlled diabetes, graft-versus-host disease, HIV and intravenous drug use.[5][14]\nWidespread (disseminated); when the infection spreads to other organs via the blood.[14]","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Periorbital_fungal_infection_known_as_mucormycosis,_or_phycomycosis_PHIL_2831_lores.jpg"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021Sym-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gros2012-5"},{"link_name":"headache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headache"},{"link_name":"fever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fever"},{"link_name":"loss of smell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyposmia"},{"link_name":"blocked nose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_congestion"},{"link_name":"runny nose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coryza"},{"link_name":"sinusitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusitis"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldClinical-24"},{"link_name":"swollen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemosis"},{"link_name":"bulging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proptosis"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021Sym-6"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldClinical-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lee2001-25"},{"link_name":"difficulty breathing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyspnea"},{"link_name":"coughing up blood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoptysis"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021Sym-6"},{"link_name":"stomach ache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdominal_pain"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021Sym-6"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-medplus-26"},{"link_name":"darkening centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eschar"},{"link_name":"tissue death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necrosis"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-John2017-12"},{"link_name":"ulcer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulcer_(dermatology)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gros2012-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spel2005-7"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-John2017-12"},{"link_name":"blood vessels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular"},{"link_name":"thrombosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombosis"},{"link_name":"death of surrounding tissue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necrosis"},{"link_name":"loss of blood supply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischemia"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spel2005-7"},{"link_name":"changes in mental status","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered_state_of_consciousness"},{"link_name":"coma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coma"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Novel_perspectives_on_mucormycosis-28"}],"text":"Early stages of periorbital mucormycosisSigns and symptoms of mucormycosis depend on the location in the body of the infection.[6] Infection usually begins in the mouth or nose and enters the central nervous system via the eyes.[5]If the fungal infection begins in the nose or sinus and extends to brain, symptoms and signs may include one-sided eye pain or headache, and may be accompanied by pain in the face, numbness, fever, loss of smell, a blocked nose or runny nose. The person may appear to have sinusitis.[24] The face may look swollen on one side, with rapidly progressing \"black lesions\" across the nose or upper inside of mouth. One eye may look swollen and bulging, and vision may be blurred.[6][24][25]Fever, cough, chest pain, and difficulty breathing, or coughing up blood, can occur when the lungs are involved.[6] A stomach ache, nausea, vomiting and bleeding can occur when the gastrointestinal tract is involved.[6][26] Affected skin may appear as a dusky reddish tender patch with a darkening centre due to tissue death.[12] There may be an ulcer, and it can be very painful.[5][7][12]Invasion of the blood vessels can result in thrombosis and subsequent death of surrounding tissue due to a loss of blood supply.[7] Widespread (disseminated) mucormycosis typically occurs in people who are already sick from other medical conditions, so it can be difficult to know which symptoms are related to mucormycosis. People with disseminated infection in the brain can develop changes in mental status or lapse into a coma.[27][28]","title":"Signs and symptoms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fungal infection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycosis"},{"link_name":"fungi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus"},{"link_name":"Mucorales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucorales"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gros2012-5"},{"link_name":"genera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus"},{"link_name":"Rhizopus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizopus"},{"link_name":"Mucor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucor"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lee2018-29"},{"link_name":"Rhizopus oryzae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizopus_oryzae"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thornton2020-17"},{"link_name":"Lichtheimia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichtheimia"},{"link_name":"Apophysomyces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apophysomyces"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mart%C3%ADnez2020-30"},{"link_name":"Cunninghamella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunninghamella"},{"link_name":"Mortierella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortierella"},{"link_name":"Saksenaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksenaea"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gros2012-5"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldBackground-31"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gros2012-5"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021About-14"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldBackground-31"},{"link_name":"branch-like filaments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphae"},{"link_name":"blood vessels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessel"},{"link_name":"clots to form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombosis"},{"link_name":"tissues to die","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necrosis"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gros2012-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gros2012-5"},{"link_name":"elastoplast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastoplast"},{"link_name":"tongue depressors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue_depressor"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gros2012-5"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDCInfo-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid35357212-33"}],"text":"Mucormycosis is a fungal infection caused by fungi in the order Mucorales.[5] In most cases it is due to an invasion of the genera Rhizopus and Mucor, common bread molds.[29] Most fatal infections are caused by Rhizopus oryzae.[17] It is less likely due to Lichtheimia, and rarely due to Apophysomyces.[30] Others include Cunninghamella, Mortierella, and Saksenaea.[5][31]The fungal spores are present in the environment, can be found on items such as moldy bread and fruit, and are breathed in frequently, but cause disease only in some people.[5] In addition to being breathed in and deposited in the nose, sinuses, and lungs, the spores can also enter the skin via blood or directly through a cut or open wound, and can also grow in the intestine if eaten.[14][31] Once deposited, the fungus grows branch-like filaments which invade blood vessels, causing clots to form and surrounding tissues to die.[5] Other reported causes include contaminated wound dressings.[5] Mucormycosis has been reported following the use of elastoplast and the use of tongue depressors for holding in place intravenous catheters.[5] Outbreaks have also been linked to hospital bed sheets, negative-pressure rooms, water leaks, poor ventilation, contaminated medical equipment, and building works.[32] One hypothesis suggests that the spread of fungal spores in India could be due to fumes generated from the burning of Mucorales-rich biomass, like cow dung and crop stubble.[33]","title":"Cause"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"immune deficiencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunodeficiency"},{"link_name":"low neutrophil count","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutropenia"},{"link_name":"metabolic acidosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_acidosis"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-John2017-12"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stat2021-9"},{"link_name":"diabetes mellitus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus"},{"link_name":"DKA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic_ketoacidosis"},{"link_name":"organ transplant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_transplant"},{"link_name":"iron overload","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_overload"},{"link_name":"cancers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer"},{"link_name":"lymphomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphoma"},{"link_name":"kidney failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney_failure"},{"link_name":"liver disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirrhosis"},{"link_name":"malnutrition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnutrition"},{"link_name":"corticosteroid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticosteroid"},{"link_name":"immunosuppressive therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunosuppressant"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldBackground-31"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021Prev-10"},{"link_name":"tuberculosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dan2020-20"},{"link_name":"deferoxamine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deferoxamine"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand2018-1"},{"link_name":"HIV/AIDS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV/AIDS"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand2018-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spel2005-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spel2005-7"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc-black-fungus-covid19-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koehler-35"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Garg2021-21"}],"sub_title":"Risk factors","text":"Predisposing factors for mucormycosis include immune deficiencies, a low neutrophil count, and metabolic acidosis.[12][9] Risk factors include poorly controlled diabetes mellitus (particularly DKA), organ transplant, iron overload, such cancers as lymphomas, kidney failure, liver disease, severe malnutrition, and long term corticosteroid and immunosuppressive therapy.[31][10] Other risk factors include tuberculosis (TB),[20] deferoxamine[1] and to a lesser extent HIV/AIDS.[1][7] Cases of mucormycosis in fit and healthy people are less common.[7]Corticosteroids are commonly used in the treatment of COVID-19 and reduce damage caused by the body's own immune response to the virus. They are immunosuppressant and increase blood sugar levels in both diabetic and non-diabetic patients. It is thought that both these effects may contribute to cases of mucormycosis.[34][35][21]","title":"Cause"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldBackground-31"},{"link_name":"breathing in","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhalation"},{"link_name":"Mucorales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucorales"},{"link_name":"wound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wound"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reid2020-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021About-14"},{"link_name":"In vivo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vivo"},{"link_name":"acidosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidosis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand2018-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spel2005-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spel2005-7"},{"link_name":"siderophores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siderophore"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prakash2019-36"}],"text":"Most people are frequently exposed to Mucorales without developing the disease.[31] Mucormycosis is generally spread by breathing in, eating food contaminated by, or getting spores of molds of the Mucorales type in an open wound.[15] It is not transmitted between people.[14]The precise mechanism by which diabetics become susceptible is unclear. In vivo, a high sugar level alone does not permit the growth of the fungus, but acidosis alone does.[1][7] People with high sugar levels frequently have high iron levels, also known to be a risk factor for developing mucormycosis.[7] In people taking deferoxamine, the iron removed is captured by siderophores on Rhizopus species, which then use the iron to grow.[36]","title":"Mechanism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldWork-37"},{"link_name":"biopsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsy"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NORD2021-8"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gros2012-5"},{"link_name":"lung fluid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronchoalveolar_lavage"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dan2020-20"},{"link_name":"complete blood count","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_blood_count"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldWork-37"},{"link_name":"iron levels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferritin"},{"link_name":"blood glucose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_glucose"},{"link_name":"electrolytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney_function"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldWork-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldWork-37"}],"text":"There is no blood test that can confirm the diagnosis.[37] Diagnosis requires identifying the mold in the affected tissue by biopsy and confirming it with a fungal culture.[8] Because the causative fungi occur all around and may therefore contaminate cultures underway, a culture alone is not decisive.[5] Tests may also include culture and direct detection of the fungus in lung fluid, blood, serum, plasma and urine.[20] Blood tests include a complete blood count to look specifically for neutropenia.[37] Other blood tests include iron levels, blood glucose, bicarbonate, and electrolytes.[37] Endoscopic examination of the nasal passages may be needed.[37]","title":"Diagnosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Imaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiology"},{"link_name":"CT scan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CT_scan"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDCImag-38"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thornton2020-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thornton2020-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thornton2020-17"},{"link_name":"MRI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRI"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sen2021-39"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Imaging","text":"Imaging is often performed, such as CT scan of lungs and sinuses.[38] Signs on chest CT scans, such as nodules, cavities, halo signs, pleural effusion and wedge-shaped shadows, showing invasion of blood vessels, may suggest a fungal infection, but do not confirm mucormycosis.[17] A reverse halo sign in a person with a blood cancer and low neutrophil count is highly suggestive of mucormycosis.[17] CT scan images of mucormycosis can be useful to distinguish mucormycosis of the orbit and cellulitis of the orbit, but images may appear identical to those of aspergillosis.[17] MRI may also be useful.[39] Currently,[when?] MRI with gadolinium contrast is the investigation of choice in rhinoorbito-cerebral mucormycosis.[citation needed]","title":"Diagnosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"biopsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsy"},{"link_name":"cultured","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiological_culture"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ICD-11-13"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldWork-37"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thornton2020-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thornton2020-17"},{"link_name":"appearance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(biology)"},{"link_name":"under the microscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histopathology"},{"link_name":"right angles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_angle"},{"link_name":"moose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moose"},{"link_name":"blood vessels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessel"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-John2017-12"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldWork-37"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zygomycosis,_mucormycosis_2.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zygomycosis_Mucormycosis_(13430751363).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mature_sporangium_of_a_Mucor_sp._fungus.jpg"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cdcimage-40"}],"sub_title":"Culture and biopsy","text":"To confirm the diagnosis, biopsy samples can be cultured.[13][37] Culture from biopsy samples does not always give a result as the organism is very fragile.[17] Microscopy can usually determine the genus and sometimes the species, but may require an expert mycologist.[17] The appearance of the fungus under the microscope can vary but generally shows wide (10–20 micron), ribbon-like filaments that generally do not have septa and that—unlike in aspergillosis—branch at right angles, resembling antlers of a moose, which may be seen to be invading blood vessels.[12][37]Ribbon-like hyphae which branch at 90°\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tHyphae in blood vessel\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMature sporangium of a Mucor[40]","title":"Diagnosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldWork-37"},{"link_name":"blood sample from an artery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arterial_blood_gas"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldWork-37"}],"sub_title":"Other","text":"Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization may be used to identify the species.[37] A blood sample from an artery may be useful to assess for metabolic acidosis.[37]","title":"Diagnosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDCInfo-32"},{"link_name":"aspergillosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillosis"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cornely2021-41"},{"link_name":"anthrax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax"},{"link_name":"cellulitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulitis"},{"link_name":"bowel obstruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal_obstruction"},{"link_name":"ecthyma gangrenosum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecthyma_gangrenosum"},{"link_name":"lung cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung_cancer"},{"link_name":"clot in lungs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_embolism"},{"link_name":"sinusitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusitis"},{"link_name":"tuberculosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis"},{"link_name":"fusariosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusariosis"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldDiff-42"}],"sub_title":"Differential diagnosis","text":"Other filamentous fungi may however look similar.[32] It may be difficult to differentiate from aspergillosis.[41] Other possible diagnoses include anthrax, cellulitis, bowel obstruction, ecthyma gangrenosum, lung cancer, clot in lungs, sinusitis, tuberculosis and fusariosis.[42]","title":"Diagnosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021Prev-10"},{"link_name":"antifungal drugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antifungal_drug"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021Prev-10"}],"text":"Preventive measures include wearing a face mask in dusty areas, washing hands, avoiding direct contact with water-damaged buildings, and protecting skin, feet, and hands where there is exposure to soil or manure, such as gardening or certain outdoor work.[10] In high risk groups, such as organ transplant patients, antifungal drugs may be given as a preventative.[10]","title":"Prevention"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"antifungal drugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antifungal_drugs"},{"link_name":"surgically removing infecting tissue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debridement"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand2018-1"}],"text":"Treatment involves a combination of antifungal drugs, surgically removing infecting tissue and correcting underlying medical problems, such as diabetic ketoacidosis.[1]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"amphotericin B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphotericin_B"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BNF80-43"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cornely2021-41"},{"link_name":"Isavuconazole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isavuconazole"},{"link_name":"Posaconazole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posaconazole"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dan2020-20"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldTreat-44"}],"sub_title":"Medication","text":"Once mucormycosis is suspected, amphotericin B at an initial dose of 1 mg is initially given slowly over 10–15 minutes into a vein, then given as a once daily dose according to body weight for the next 14 days.[43] It may need to be continued for longer.[41] Isavuconazole and Posaconazole are alternatives.[20][44]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"palate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palate"},{"link_name":"nasal cavity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_cavity"},{"link_name":"eye structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_eye#Three_layers"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-medplus-26"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldBackground-31"}],"sub_title":"Surgery","text":"Surgery can be very drastic, and, in some cases of disease involving the nasal cavity and the brain, removal of infected brain tissue may be required. Removal of the palate, nasal cavity, or eye structures can be very disfiguring.[26] Sometimes more than one operation is required.[31]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldBackground-31"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HealthAtoZ-45"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand2018-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spel2005-7"},{"link_name":"Hyperbaric oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbaric_oxygen"},{"link_name":"pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure"},{"link_name":"neutrophils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrophil_granulocyte"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spel2005-7"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDCInfo-32"}],"sub_title":"Other considerations","text":"The disease must be monitored carefully for any signs of reemergence.[31][45] Treatment also requires correcting sugar levels and improving neutrophil counts.[1][7] Hyperbaric oxygen may be considered as an adjunctive therapy, because higher oxygen pressure increases the ability of neutrophils to kill the fungus.[7] The efficacy of this therapy is uncertain.[32]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDC2021Stat-18"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldBackground-31"},{"link_name":"blindness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blindness"},{"link_name":"clotting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrombosis"},{"link_name":"brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke"},{"link_name":"lung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_embolism"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-medplus-26"},{"link_name":"effect on life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morbidity"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McDonaldBackground-31"}],"text":"It tends to progress rapidly and is fatal in about half of sinus cases, two thirds of lung cases, and almost all cases of the widespread type.[18] Skin involvement carries the lowest mortality rate of around 15%.[31] Possible complications of mucormycosis include the partial loss of neurological function, blindness, and clotting of blood vessels in the brain or lung.[26]As treatment usually requires extensive and often disfiguring facial surgery, the effect on life after surviving, particularly sinus and brain involvement, is significant.[31]","title":"Prognosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prakash2019-36"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NORD2021-8"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CDCStats-46"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ski2020-19"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vallab2016-47"},{"link_name":"Apophysomyces variabilis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apophysomyces_variabilis"},{"link_name":"Lichtheimia spp.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichtheimia"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dan2020-20"},{"link_name":"aspergillosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillosis"},{"link_name":"candidiasis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candidiasis"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Petrikkos-48"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ski2020-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ski2020-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ski2020-19"}],"text":"The true incidence and prevalence of mucormycosis may be higher than appears.[36] Mucormycosis is rare, affecting fewer than 1.7 people per million population each year in San Francisco.[8][46] It is around 80 times more prevalent in India, where it is estimated that there are around 0.14 cases per 1000 population,[19] and where its incidence has been rising.[47] Causative fungi are highly dependent on location. Apophysomyces variabilis has its highest prevalence in Asia and Lichtheimia spp. in Europe.[20] It is the third most common serious fungal infection to infect people, after aspergillosis and candidiasis.[48]Diabetes is the main underlying disease in low and middle-income countries, whereas, blood cancers and organ transplantation are the more common underlying problems in developed countries.[19] As new immunomodulating drugs and diagnostic tests are developed, the statistics for mucormycosis have been changing.[19] In addition, the figures change as new genera and species are identified, and new risk factors reported such as tuberculosis and kidney problems.[19]","title":"Epidemiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_COVID-associated_Mucormycosis_(Black_fungus)_cases.png"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic in India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_India"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dyer2021-3"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-'Black_fungus'_is_creating_a_whole_other_health_emergency_for_Covid-stricken_India-49"},{"link_name":"epidemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"amphotericin B deoxycholate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphotericin_B_deoxycholate"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Novel_perspectives_on_mucormycosis-28"}],"sub_title":"COVID-19–associated mucormycosis","text":"India   Countries where COVID-associated mucormycosis has been detected as of June 2021During the COVID-19 pandemic in India, the Indian government reported that more than 11,700 people were receiving care for mucormycosis as of 25 May 2021. Many Indian media outlets called it \"black fungus\" because of the black discoloration of dead and dying tissue the fungus causes. Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, rates of mucormycosis in India were estimated to be about 70 times higher than in the rest of the world.[3][49] Due to its rapidly growing number of cases some Indian state governments have declared it an epidemic.[50] One treatment was a daily injection for eight weeks of anti-fungal intravenous injection of amphotericin B which was in short supply. The injection could be standard amphotericin B deoxycholate or the liposomal form. The liposomal form cost more but it was considered \"safer, more effective and [with] lesser side effects\".§[51] The major obstacle of using antifungal drugs in black fungus is the lack of clinical trials.[28]","title":"Epidemiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ENT (ear, nose, throat)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otorhinolaryngology"}],"sub_title":"Recurrence of mucormycosis during COVID-19 second wave in India","text":"Pre-COVID mucormycosis was a very rare infection, even in India. It is so rare that an ENT (ear, nose, throat) doctor would not witness often a case during their university time. So, the documentation available on the treatment of mucormycosis is limited. In fact, there used to be a couple of mucormycosis expert ENT surgeons for millions of people pre-pandemic. The sudden rise in mucormycosis cases has left a majority of the ENT doctors with no option but to accept mucormycosis cases, as the expert doctors were very much occupied and the patient would die if left untreated. The majority of the ENT doctors had to manage with minimal or no experience on mucormycosis, this has led to the recurrence of mucormycosis in the patients they treated. When a highly experienced doctor in mucormycosis treats a patient even he cannot guarantee that the individual is completely cured and will not have a relapse of mucormycosis; an inexperienced ENT surgeon will definitely have a high number of patients with recurrence due to which there were many recurrent cases of mucormycosis although it did not get the limelight of media or the Indian Government.","title":"Epidemiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Friedrich Küchenmeister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_K%C3%BCchenmeister"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand2018-1"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yamin-52"},{"link_name":"Lichtheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Lichtheim"},{"link_name":"development of the disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenesis"},{"link_name":"Mucor corymbifera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichtheimia_corymbifera"},{"link_name":"Mucor rhizopodiformis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizopus_microsporus"},{"link_name":"Rhizopus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizopus"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand2018-1"},{"link_name":"poorly controlled diabetes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic_ketoacidosis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand2018-1"},{"link_name":"Saksenaea vasiformis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saksenaea_vasiformis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand2018-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand2018-1"},{"link_name":"antibiotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic"},{"link_name":"ACTH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenocorticotropic_hormone"},{"link_name":"steroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticosteroid"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yamin-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baker1957-53"},{"link_name":"potassium iodide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_iodide"},{"link_name":"flexible bronchoscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexible_bronchoscopy"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Yamin-52"}],"text":"The first case of mucormycosis was possibly one described by Friedrich Küchenmeister in 1855.[1] Fürbringer first described the disease in the lungs in 1876.[52] In 1884, Lichtheim established the development of the disease in rabbits and described two species; Mucor corymbifera and Mucor rhizopodiformis, later known as Lichtheimia and Rhizopus, respectively.[1] In 1943, its association with poorly controlled diabetes was reported in three cases with severe sinus, brain and eye involvement.[1]In 1953, Saksenaea vasiformis, found to cause several cases, was isolated from Indian forest soil, and in 1979, P. C. Misra examined soil from an Indian mango orchard, from where they isolated Apophysomyces, later found to be a major cause of mucormycosis.[1] Several species of mucorales have since been described.[1] When cases were reported in the United States in the mid-1950s, the author thought it to be a new disease resulting from the use of antibiotics, ACTH and steroids.[52][53] Until the latter half of the 20th century, the only available treatment was potassium iodide. In a review of cases involving the lungs diagnosed following flexible bronchoscopy between 1970 and 2000, survival was found to be better in those who received combined surgery and medical treatment, mostly with amphotericin B.[52]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand2018-1"},{"link_name":"zygomycosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygomycosis"},{"link_name":"changes in classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)"},{"link_name":"kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)"},{"link_name":"Fungi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi"},{"link_name":"phylum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylum"},{"link_name":"Zygomycota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygomycota"},{"link_name":"Entomophthorales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomophthorales"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cornely2021-41"}],"sub_title":"Naming","text":"Arnold Paltauf coined the term \"Mycosis Mucorina\" in 1885, after describing a case with systemic symptoms involving the sinus, brain and gastrointestinal tract, following which the term \"mucormycosis\" became popular.[1] \"Mucormycosis\" is often used interchangeably with \"zygomycosis\", a term made obsolete following changes in classification of the kingdom Fungi. The former phylum Zygomycota included Mucorales, Entomophthorales, and others. Mucormycosis describes infections caused by fungi of the order Mucorales.[41]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-11"},{"link_name":"aspergillosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillosis"},{"link_name":"candidiasis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candidiasis"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-QC2020-4"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sen2021-39"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Garg2021-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Garg2021-21"},{"link_name":"severe breathing problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_respiratory_distress_syndrome"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Garg2021-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Garg2021-21"},{"link_name":"immunosuppressive drugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunosuppressive_drug"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Garg2021-21"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-11"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc-black-fungus-covid19-34"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sen2021-39"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-11"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Indian Council of Medical Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Council_of_Medical_Research"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"}],"sub_title":"COVID-19–associated mucormycosis","text":"COVID-19 associated mucormycosis cases were reported during first and second(delta) wave, with maximum number of cases in delta wave.[11] There were no cases reported during the Omicron wave.[11] A number of cases of mucormycosis, aspergillosis, and candidiasis, linked to immunosuppressive treatment for COVID-19 were reported during the COVID-19 pandemic in India in 2020 and 2021.[4][39] One review in early 2021 relating to the association of mucormycosis and COVID-19 reported eight cases of mucormycosis; three from the U.S., two from India, and one case each from Brazil, Italy, and the UK.[21] The most common underlying medical condition was diabetes.[21] Most had been in hospital with severe breathing problems due to COVID-19, had recovered, and developed mucormycosis 10–14 days following treatment for COVID-19. Five had abnormal kidney function tests, three involved the sinus, eye and brain, three the lungs, one the gastrointestinal tract, and in one the disease was widespread.[21] In two of the seven deaths, the diagnosis of mucormycosis was made at postmortem.[21] That three had no traditional risk factors led the authors to question the use of steroids and immunosuppressive drugs,[21] although there were cases without diabetes or use of immunosuppressive drugs. There were cases reported even in children.[11] In May 2021, the BBC reported increased cases in India.[34] In a review of COVID-19-related eye problems, mucormycosis affecting the eyes was reported to occur up to several weeks following recovery from COVID-19.[39] It was observed that people with COVID-19 were recovering from mucormycosis a bit easily when compared to non-COVID-19 patients. This is because unlike non-COVID-19 patients with severe diabetes, cancer or HIV, the recovery time required for the main cause of immune suppression is temporary.[11]Other countries affected included Pakistan,[54] Nepal,[55] Bangladesh,[56] Russia,[57] Uruguay,[58] Paraguay,[59] Chile,[60] Egypt,[61] Iran,[62] Brazil,[63] Iraq,[64] Mexico,[65] Honduras,[66] Argentina[67] Oman,[68] and Afghanistan.[69] One explanation for why the association has surfaced remarkably in India is high rates of COVID-19 infection and high rates of diabetes.[70] In May 2021, the Indian Council of Medical Research issued guidelines for recognising and treating COVID-19–associated mucormycosis.[71] In India, as of 28 June 2021, over 40,845 people have been confirmed to have mucormycosis, and 3,129 have died. From these cases, 85.5% (34,940) had a history of being infected with SARS-CoV-2 and 52.69% (21,523) were on steroids, also 64.11% (26,187) had diabetes.[72][73]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2004 Indian Ocean tsunami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami"},{"link_name":"2011 Missouri tornado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Joplin_tornado"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dan2020-20"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand2018-1"},{"link_name":"2011 Joplin tornado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Joplin_tornado"},{"link_name":"necrotizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necrotizing"},{"link_name":"debridement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debridement"},{"link_name":"histopathology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histopathology"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Neblett2012-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"}],"text":"The disease has been reported in natural disasters and catastrophes; 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and the 2011 Missouri tornado.[20][74] The first international congress on mucormycosis was held in Chicago in 2010, set up by the Hank Schueuler 41 & 9 Foundation, which was established in 2008 for the research of children with leukaemia and fungal infections.[1] A cluster of infections occurred in the wake of the 2011 Joplin tornado. By July 19, 2011, a total of 18 suspected cases of mucormycosis of the skin had been identified, of which 13 were confirmed. A confirmed case was defined as 1) necrotizing soft-tissue infection requiring antifungal treatment or surgical debridement in a person injured in the tornado, 2) with illness onset on or after May 22 and 3) positive fungal culture or histopathology and genetic sequencing consistent with a mucormycete. No additional cases related to that outbreak were reported after June 17. Ten people required admission to an intensive-care unit, and five died.[75][76]In 2014, details of a lethal mucormycosis outbreak that occurred in 2008 emerged after television and newspaper reports responded to an article in a pediatric medical journal.[77][78] Contaminated hospital linen was found to be spreading the infection. A 2018 study found many freshly laundered hospital linens delivered to U.S. transplant hospitals were contaminated with Mucorales.[79] Another study attributed an outbreak of hospital-acquired mucormycosis to a laundry facility supplying linens contaminated with Mucorales. The outbreak stopped when major changes were made at the laundry facility. The authors raised concerns on the regulation of healthcare linens.[80]","title":"Society and culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sey2018-81"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sey2018-81"}],"text":"Mucormycosis in other animals is similar, in terms of frequency and types, to that in people.[81] Cases have been described in cats, dogs, cows, horses, dolphins, bison, and seals.[81]","title":"Other animals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Global guideline for the diagnosis and management of mucormycosis: an initiative of the European Confederation of Medical Mycology in cooperation with the Mycoses Study Group Education and Research Consortium\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8559573"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30312-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2819%2930312-3"},{"link_name":"PMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"8559573","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8559573"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"31699664","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31699664"}],"text":"Cornely OA, Alastruey-Izquierdo A, Arenz D, Chen SC, Dannaoui E, Hochhegger B, et al. (December 2019). \"Global guideline for the diagnosis and management of mucormycosis: an initiative of the European Confederation of Medical Mycology in cooperation with the Mycoses Study Group Education and Research Consortium\". The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 19 (12): e405–e421. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30312-3. PMC 8559573. PMID 31699664.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Early stages of periorbital mucormycosis","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Periorbital_fungal_infection_known_as_mucormycosis%2C_or_phycomycosis_PHIL_2831_lores.jpg/200px-Periorbital_fungal_infection_known_as_mucormycosis%2C_or_phycomycosis_PHIL_2831_lores.jpg"},{"image_text":"  India   Countries where COVID-associated mucormycosis has been detected as of June 2021","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Map_of_COVID-associated_Mucormycosis_%28Black_fungus%29_cases.png/220px-Map_of_COVID-associated_Mucormycosis_%28Black_fungus%29_cases.png"}]

[{"reference":"Chander J (2018). \"26. Mucormycosis\". Textbook of Medical Mycology (4th ed.). New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers Ltd. pp. 534–596. ISBN 978-93-86261-83-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OLpEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA554","url_text":"\"26. Mucormycosis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-86261-83-0","url_text":"978-93-86261-83-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Orphanet: Zygomycosis\". www.orpha.net. Archived from the original on May 13, 2021. Retrieved May 13, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210513211358/https://www.orpha.net/consor/cgi-bin/OC_Exp.php?lng=en&Expert=73263","url_text":"\"Orphanet: Zygomycosis\""},{"url":"https://www.orpha.net/consor/cgi-bin/OC_Exp.php?lng=en&Expert=73263","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Dyer O (May 2021). \"Covid-19: India sees record deaths as \"black fungus\" spreads fear\". 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PMID 31699664.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8559573","url_text":"\"Global guideline for the diagnosis and management of mucormycosis: an initiative of the European Confederation of Medical Mycology in cooperation with the Mycoses Study Group Education and Research Consortium\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2819%2930312-3","url_text":"10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30312-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8559573","url_text":"8559573"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31699664","url_text":"31699664"}]}]

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The Mucorales on Unclean Linen Discovery Study of Large United States Transplant and Cancer Centers\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcid%2Fciy669","external_links_name":"10.1093/cid/ciy669"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6765054","external_links_name":"6765054"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30299481","external_links_name":"30299481"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34282829","external_links_name":"\"Remediation of Mucorales-contaminated Healthcare Linens at a Laundry Facility Following an Investigation of a Case Cluster of Hospital-acquired Mucormycosis\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcid%2Fciab638","external_links_name":"10.1093/cid/ciab638"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1537-6591","external_links_name":"1537-6591"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34282829","external_links_name":"34282829"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6251577","external_links_name":"\"Fungal infections in animals: a patchwork of different situations\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmmy%2Fmyx104","external_links_name":"10.1093/mmy/myx104"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6251577","external_links_name":"6251577"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29538732","external_links_name":"29538732"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8559573","external_links_name":"\"Global guideline for the diagnosis and management of mucormycosis: an initiative of the European Confederation of Medical Mycology in cooperation with the Mycoses Study Group Education and Research Consortium\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2819%2930312-3","external_links_name":"10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30312-3"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8559573","external_links_name":"8559573"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31699664","external_links_name":"31699664"},{"Link":"https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/B46.0","external_links_name":"B46.0"},{"Link":"https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/B46.5","external_links_name":"B46.5"},{"Link":"http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=117.7","external_links_name":"117.7"},{"Link":"https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D009091","external_links_name":"D009091"},{"Link":"http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb31759.htm","external_links_name":"31759"},{"Link":"http://snomed.info/id/76627001","external_links_name":"76627001"},{"Link":"https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000649.htm","external_links_name":"000649"},{"Link":"https://patient.info/doctor/Mucormycosis","external_links_name":"Mucormycosis"},{"Link":"https://www.orpha.net/consor/cgi-bin/OC_Exp.php?lng=en&Expert=73263","external_links_name":"73263"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealNetworks

RealNetworks

["1 History","2 Corporate governance","3 Products and services","3.1 SAFR","3.2 Kontxt","3.3 RealTimes (formerly RealPlayer Cloud)","3.4 GameHouse","3.5 RealDVD","3.6 Real Alternative","3.7 Helix","3.8 Subscription services","3.9 Other products and technologies","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

American technology company RealNetworks LLCHeadquarters at Home Plate Center in SeattleFormerlyProgressive Networks (1994-1997) RealNetworks, Inc. (1997-2023)Company typePrivateIndustrySoftwareFounded1994; 30 years ago (1994)FoundersRob GlaserPhil BarrettAndy SharplessStephen BuerkleHeadquartersHome Plate Center, Seattle, Washington, United StatesKey peopleRob Glaser(Chairman and CEO)Products RealAudio RealDownloader RealDVD RealPlayer RealArcade RealPlayer Converter Real SuperPass RealPlayer Trimmer RealTimes RealVideo Helix Rinse Unifi Revenue US$156.2 Million (2014)Net income US$7.18 Million (2014)Number of employees1,060 (2012)DivisionsGameHouseASN11922 Websiterealnetworks.com RealNetworks, Inc. is an American technology company and provider of Internet streaming media delivery software and services based in Seattle, Washington. The company also provides subscription-based online entertainment services and mobile entertainment and messaging services. History RealNetworks (then known as Progressive Networks) was founded in 1994 by Rob Glaser, an ex-Microsoft executive, and a management team including Phil Barrett, Andy Sharpless, and Stephen Buerkle. The original goal of the company was to provide a distribution channel for politically progressive content. It evolved into a technology venture to leverage the Internet as an alternative distribution medium for audio broadcasts. Progressive Networks became RealNetworks in September 1997, in advance of the company's initial public offering (IPO) in October 1997 when shares of the company started trading on Nasdaq as "RNWK". RealNetworks were pioneers in the streaming media markets and broadcast one of the earlier audio events over the Internet, a baseball game between the New York Yankees and Seattle Mariners on September 5, 1995. They announced streaming video technology in 1997. According to some accounts, by 2000 more than 85% of streaming content on the Internet was in the Real format. Despite this success, problems arose because RealNetworks's primary business model depended upon the sale of streaming media server software, and Microsoft and Apple were giving those products away. As servers from Microsoft and Apple became more capable, Real's server sales inevitably eroded. In RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc. in January 2000, RealNetworks filed an injunction against Streambox, Inc. regarding that company's product designed to convert Real Audio (.rm) formatted files to other formats. On December 4, 2001, the company was to launch the first coordinated effort to sell and deliver music from major record labels over the Internet, part of a broader initiative by the company to develop subscription Internet services aimed at Web users with fast Internet connections. In 2002, a strategic alliance was formed between RealNetworks and Sony Corporation to expand collaboration. In October 2005, Microsoft agreed to pay RealNetworks $460 million to settle an antitrust lawsuit. In August 2003, RealNetworks acquired Listen.com's Rhapsody music service, and renamed it RealRhapsody. It offered streaming music downloads for a monthly fee. In January 2004, RealNetworks announced the RealPlayer Music Store, featuring digital rights management (DRM) restricted music in the AAC file format. After some initial tries to push their own DRM scheme (named Helix DRM) onto all device manufacturers with the Creative Zen Xtra and the Sansa e200r as the only existing compliant devices, they sparked controversy by introducing a technology called Harmony that allowed their music to play on iPods as well as Microsoft Windows Media Audio DRM-equipped devices using a "wrapper" that would convert Helix DRM into the two other target DRM schemes. Real Networks acquired Dutch game company Zylom for $21 million in February 2006. It became part of GameHouse. On April 6, 2010, Rhapsody was spun off from RealNetworks. In July 2013, RealNetworks acquired Slingo for $15.6 million. The company introduced a mobile phone app called Listen in April 2014 that plays custom ringtones to those calling the user's phone. On December 21, 2022, RealNetworks was taken private by founder and CEO Rob Glaser. Corporate governance RealNetworks has its headquarters in Seattle, Washington, in the Home Plate Center building in SoDo across from T-Mobile Park, sharing the building with local television station KING-TV and Logic 20/20 Consulting. Notable RealNetworks employees have included Alex Alben; the first Chief Privacy Officer of Washington State; Tony Fadell, the inventor of the iPod; musician Daniel House; and Philip Rosedale, the founder of Linden Lab. The domain real.com attracted at least 67 million visitors annually by 2008, according to a Compete.com study. Products and services SAFR SAFR from RealNetworks Launched by RealNetworks on July 17, 2018, SAFR – Secure Accurate Facial Recognition, is a machine learning facial recognition platform. The SAFR platform was updated in 2020 with COVID-19 response features, including the ability to detect whether a person is wearing a mask and identify people wearing masks with 98.85 percent accuracy. On April 27, 2021, SAFR received a grant from the US Air Force to develop its AI-powered analytics for rescue missions, perimeter protection and domestic search operations. Kontxt In 2017, RealNetworks launched Kontxt, a product that offers management of text messaging in mobile networks. It identifies the content of the message and sorts it into categories to determine which ones are more important, and prioritize message delivery. In March 2021, RealNetworks unveiled KONTXT for Voice to identify and stop scam robocalls. RealTimes (formerly RealPlayer Cloud) RealNetworks on September 24, 2013, launched RealPlayer Cloud, a service that adds the ability to share videos recorded on smartphones and tablets. RealPlayer Cloud ties into the existing RealPlayer; however, it also has a Web app and apps for Android, iOS and Roku. The service has 2GB of free cloud storage and more storage for a monthly fee. It was renamed to RealTimes on May 19, 2015, with a new focus on creating and sharing "Stories"—video collages of users' personal photos and videos, set to background music. GameHouse Main article: GameHouse RealNetworks entered the computer game market in October 2001 with RealArcade, a PC game distribution application that allows users to play casual video games for free for 60 minutes, then decide if they want to purchase them. Many of the games were developed by GameHouse, which RealNetworks acquired for $35.6 million in 2004. In 2010, RealNetworks re-branded its games division under the name Gamehouse. It began focusing on social games, such as Facebook applets, and in 2013 acquired casual casino games company, Slingo, for $15.6 million. RealDVD On September 30, 2008, RealNetworks launched a new product called RealDVD. The software allows any user to save a copy of a DVD movie they own. The company was later found to have violated the Digital Millennium Copyright Act and RealNetworks' contract with the DVD Copy Control Association, as the software also allowed anyone to save a movie they do not legally own. (See RealNetworks, Inc. v. DVD Copy Control Ass'n, Inc.). The product's distribution was barred by a court injunction. Real Alternative Real Alternative is a discontinued software bundle that allows users to play RealMedia files without installing RealPlayer. The last version, 2.02, was released on February 19, 2010. It included Media Player Classic. Beginning in 2010, RealNetworks sued Hilbrand Edskes, a 26-year-old Dutch webmaster, for having inserted hyperlinks to Real Alternative on his site www.codecpack.nl. RealNetworks alleges that Real Alternative is a reverse engineered package. In November 2011, RealNetworks' case against Edskes was dismissed and RealNetworks was ordered to pay him €48,000 in damages. Details of the case and judgement have been published. RealNetworks appealed the case in 2013, this time alleging that Edskes was after all involved in uploading Real Alternatives. Edskes countered that while his automated script did upload Real Alternatives, the web server was deliberately configured to keep the file unavailable to public. He audited the uploads and deleted Real Alternatives before he was raided in February 17, 2010. Therefore, he was never committed unauthorized distribution. Helix Main article: Helix (multimedia project) Helix is a suite of streaming media software and services intended for digital TV set-top boxes, mobile devices, as well as QuickTime, Flash and other programs. It includes the Helix open-source code and the Helix Universal Server, which hosts, distributes and manages digital rights for multimedia content. Helix competes with the Windows Media 9 Series from Microsoft, but has a greater emphasis on open-source. Helix was announced in July 2002. Support for mobile devices was added in November 2005. It was discontinued in October 2014. Subscription services In 2000, one of the initial products, the download manager RealDownload, was already used for pushing small software, such as games, to subscribers' computers. On top of the subscription for RealDownload and using its RealVideo streaming technology, a service called GoldPass, including unlimited access for video snippets from ABC and movie previews, was offered to registered users for a monthly $10 fee. More content was added through deals with CBS for the reality show Big Brother and NBA basketball. Other products and technologies RealAudio, a compressed audio format RealDownloader, a download manager RealPlayer, a media player RealVideo, a compressed video format Rinse, a digital music library cleanup tool Unifi, a personal cloud media service Mobile entertainment and messaging services for mobile carriers See also United States v. ASCAP Trymedia References ^ Kerr, Dave (July 30, 2014). "RealNetworks names Rob Glaser its permanent CEO". CNET. Retrieved August 30, 2014. ^ a b "RealNetworks, Inc. 2014 Annual Report on Form 10-K" (PDF). RealNetworks. p. 18. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved October 25, 2015. ^ "Company Profile for RealNetworks Inc. (RNWK)". Retrieved September 24, 2011. ^ Kawamoto, Dawn (October 15, 1997). "RealNetworks to launch IPO". CNET. Retrieved October 6, 2022. ^ "RealNetworks Inc". Funding Universe. Retrieved July 23, 2011. ^ "The History & Future of Real Networks". Internet Video Magazine. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. Retrieved July 23, 2011. ^ (January 18, 2000) Real Networks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc. Case Summary, Retrieved on August 2, 2009 ^ "Realnetworks is set to launch music service". ^ "Sony, RealNetworks Form Tech Alliance". Los Angeles Times. May 1, 2002. Retrieved July 25, 2013. ^ Montalbano, Elizabeth. "Microsoft, RealNetworks Settle for $761 Million", PC World, October 11, 2005. Retrieved on June 29, 2012. ^ Bennett, Amy (August 2, 2004). "Apple, RealNetworks clash fuels industry debate". Computerworld. Retrieved November 3, 2021. ^ "RealNetworks Buys European Game Company Zylom". Forbes. February 7, 2006. Retrieved January 15, 2024. ^ "RealNetworks Acquires Slingo". RTTNews. July 31, 2013. Retrieved August 2, 2013. ^ Moscaritolo, Angela (April 10, 2014). "Ringback Tones Return on RealNetworks 'Listen' App". PC Magazine. Retrieved May 19, 2015. ^ "RealNetworks LLC Announces Closing of Acquisition of RealNetworks, Inc. by CEO Rob Glaser". www.prnewswire.com (Press release). Retrieved January 20, 2023. ^ "Register". www.bizjournals.com. Retrieved August 19, 2023. ^ "Register". www.bizjournals.com. Retrieved August 19, 2023. ^ John Cook (May 6, 2013). "RealNetworks returns to roots, plans move to smaller offices near Safeco Field". GeekWire. ^ Remy Mooney (June 5, 2013). "RealNetworks Leases 85,000 SF in the Home Plate Center in Seattle". Archived from the original on March 5, 2017. Retrieved March 18, 2016. ^ "Real.com attracts 67 million visitors annually". Archived from the original on October 8, 2016. Retrieved April 26, 2008. ^ "RealNetworks Launches SAFR, a Best-In-Class Facial Recognition Platform". Bloomberg.com. July 17, 2018. Retrieved April 27, 2021. ^ "SAFR Upgrades Biometric Platform's Mask Detection Capabilities". FindBiometrics. October 29, 2020. Retrieved April 28, 2021. ^ "SAFR wins USAF SBIR grant to extend AI-powered analytics to UGV". www.airforce-technology.com. April 27, 2021. Retrieved April 28, 2021. ^ "RealNetworks' new product Kontxt aims to manage trillions of texts on mobile networks". GeekWire. November 28, 2017. Retrieved April 27, 2021. ^ "RealNetworks unveils KONTXT for VOICE to Identify and Stop Scam Robocalls once and for all". AiThority. March 25, 2021. Retrieved April 27, 2021. ^ "With its new cloud player, RealNetworks is trying the next big turnaround — Tech News and Analysis". Gigaom.com. September 24, 2013. Retrieved December 10, 2013. ^ "RealTimes Features". www.real.com. ^ Richman, Dan (January 26, 2004). "RealNetworks to buy game developer GameHouse". Seattle Post. Retrieved September 19, 2014. ^ Haley, Colin (October 11, 2001). "RealNetworks Launches Streaming Video Game Service". InternetNews. Retrieved September 19, 2014. ^ Evers, Joris (January 26, 2004). "RealNetworks Acquires GameHouse". PCWorld. IDG News Service. Retrieved August 27, 2014. ^ Pham, Alex (May 4, 2010). "RealNetworks renovates its GameHouse business to be more social". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 28, 2014. ^ Takahashi, Dean (September 22, 2011). "Real Networks' GameHouse makes its run at social gaming". VentureBeat. Retrieved August 28, 2014. ^ Takahashi, Dean (July 31, 2013). "RealNetworks buys Slingo for $15.6M as it doubles down on social casino games". ^ The New York Times (October 1, 2008) Studios sue to bar a DVD copying program, Retrieved on August 2, 2009 ^ Hachman, Mark (August 11, 2009). "RealNetworks Loses DVD Copying Decision". PC Magazine. Retrieved August 12, 2009. ^ Stone, Brad (August 11, 2009). "RealNetworks Barred From Selling DVD Copy Maker". Bits. The New York Times. Retrieved August 12, 2009. ^ "Real Alternative 2.02". FileHippo. Retrieved August 29, 2011. ^ "Real Alternative 2.02 - Technical details". FileHippo. February 20, 2010. Retrieved August 29, 2011. ^ "Real Alternative 2.0.2". Free-Codecs.com. February 19, 2010. Retrieved August 29, 2011. ^ De Winter, Brenno (August 25, 2011). "RealNetworks crushes Dutch webmaster for hyperlink". PC Advisor. IDG. Retrieved August 29, 2011. ^ de Winter, Brenno (November 7, 2011). "RealNetworks gaat door met rechtszaak om hyperlink". WebWerld (Dutch language). Retrieved December 9, 2011. ^ Collin, Branko (November 6, 2011). "Internet thugs Realnetworks lose case against Hilbrand Edskes". 24Oranges. Retrieved December 9, 2011. ^ "LJN: BU3223, Rechtbank's-Gravenhage, 363011 / HA ZA 10-1233". de Rechtspraak (Dutch language). November 4, 2011. Archived from the original on April 25, 2012. Retrieved December 10, 2011. ^ "Sitebouwer uploadde toch Real Networks-software". December 7, 2013. Retrieved March 12, 2021. ^ "Conclusies en tussenvonnis RealNetworks tegen Edskes". Archived from the original on February 6, 2018. Retrieved March 11, 2021. ^ Ozer, Jan (November 2012). "A closer look at streaming servers". Sound & Video Contractor. ^ a b c Applebaum, Simon (July 28, 2002). "RealNetworks Is Streaming Against the Microsoft Tide". Multichannel News. Retrieved August 27, 2014. ^ a b c Kerschbaumer, Ken (July 28, 2002). "RealNetworks launches Helix". Broadcasting & Cable. Retrieved August 27, 2014. ^ "RealNetworks Upgrades Helix To Support Wireless Networks". InformationWeek. November 16, 2005. Retrieved August 27, 2014. ^ Dreier, Troy (October 31, 2014). "RealNetworks Discontinues Helix Media Delivery Suite of Products". Streaming Media. Retrieved June 29, 2015. ^ Kieskowski, Ellie (August 15, 2000). "RealNetworks Launches Subscription Service". Streamingmedia.com. Retrieved January 3, 2014. ^ RBR.com (July 6, 2007). "RealNetworks, CBS deliver access to Big Brother 8 | Radio & Television Business Report". Retrieved November 3, 2021. External links Official website Portal: Companies vteDigital distribution of software App store Cloud gaming Content delivery network Digital library Digital distribution of video games List of mobile app distribution platforms Over-the-air update Package manager Software distribution ActivePersonal computers Amazon Digital Game Store Battle.net Big Fish Games Chrome Web Store Digital River Direct2Drive Discord DLsite Discover DMM Games Epic Games Store Flathub GameHouse GamersGate Gamesplanet Game Jolt GNOME Software GOG.com Humble Store itch.io MacGameStore MacUpdate Mac App Store Microsoft Store MSN Games Origin Pogo.com Pokki PureOS Software Center Robot Cache Snap Store Steam Ubisoft Connect WeGame WildTangent Consoles Microsoft Store Nintendo eShop PlayStation Store Xbox Games Store Mobile devices & Smart TVs Amazon Appstore Apple App Store Appland Aptoide Cafe Bazaar Cydia F-Droid Galaxy Store GetJar Google Play Huawei AppGallery Meta Horizon Store MiKandi OpenStore PureOS Software Center SlideME Arcade ALL.Net E-Amusement NESiCAxLive Defunct Allmyapps BlackBerry World Club Nokia Desura Download! GameAgent GameShadow GameTap Games for Windows Marketplace Handango Impulse Intel AppUp Kartridge Kazaa N-Gage Nokia Store Opera Mobile Store PlayNow Arena Stardock Central Triton Ubuntu App Store Ubuntu Software Center Vodafone live! Wii Shop Channel Windows Marketplace Windows Marketplace for Mobile Windows Phone Store Xbox Live Arcade Yahoo! Games Zune Marketplace  Category  Portal Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National United States

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The company also provides subscription-based online entertainment services and mobile entertainment and messaging services.","title":"RealNetworks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rob Glaser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Glaser"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"progressive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressivism"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"initial public offering (IPO)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_public_offering"},{"link_name":"Nasdaq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasdaq"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"streaming media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_media"},{"link_name":"New York Yankees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Yankees"},{"link_name":"Seattle Mariners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Mariners"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"server software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Apple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealNetworks,_Inc._v._Streambox,_Inc."},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"strategic alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_alliance"},{"link_name":"Sony Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Rhapsody","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhapsody_(online_music_service)"},{"link_name":"RealPlayer Music Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhapsody_(online_music_service)"},{"link_name":"digital rights management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_rights_management"},{"link_name":"AAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Audio_Coding"},{"link_name":"Creative Zen Xtra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Zen"},{"link_name":"Harmony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FairPlay#RealNetworks_and_Harmony_technology"},{"link_name":"iPods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows Media Audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Media_Audio"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"GameHouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameHouse"},{"link_name":"Slingo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slingo"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Rob Glaser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Glaser"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"RealNetworks (then known as Progressive Networks) was founded in 1994 by Rob Glaser, an ex-Microsoft executive, and a management team including Phil Barrett, Andy Sharpless, and Stephen Buerkle. The original goal of the company was to provide a distribution channel for politically progressive content. It evolved into a technology venture to leverage the Internet as an alternative distribution medium for audio broadcasts. Progressive Networks became RealNetworks in September 1997, in advance of the company's initial public offering (IPO) in October 1997 when shares of the company started trading on Nasdaq as \"RNWK\".[4]RealNetworks were pioneers in the streaming media markets and broadcast one of the earlier audio events over the Internet, a baseball game between the New York Yankees and Seattle Mariners on September 5, 1995. They announced streaming video technology in 1997. According to some accounts, by 2000 more than 85% of streaming content on the Internet was in the Real format.[5]Despite this success, problems arose because RealNetworks's primary business model depended upon the sale of streaming media server software, and Microsoft and Apple were giving those products away. As servers from Microsoft and Apple became more capable, Real's server sales inevitably eroded.[6]In RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc. in January 2000, RealNetworks filed an injunction against Streambox, Inc. regarding that company's product designed to convert Real Audio (.rm) formatted files to other formats.[7] On December 4, 2001, the company was to launch the first coordinated effort to sell and deliver music from major record labels over the Internet, part of a broader initiative by the company to develop subscription Internet services aimed at Web users with fast Internet connections.[8] In 2002, a strategic alliance was formed between RealNetworks and Sony Corporation to expand collaboration.[9]\nIn October 2005, Microsoft agreed to pay RealNetworks $460 million to settle an antitrust lawsuit.[10]In August 2003, RealNetworks acquired Listen.com's Rhapsody music service, and renamed it RealRhapsody. It offered streaming music downloads for a monthly fee. In January 2004, RealNetworks announced the RealPlayer Music Store, featuring digital rights management (DRM) restricted music in the AAC file format. After some initial tries to push their own DRM scheme (named Helix DRM) onto all device manufacturers with the Creative Zen Xtra and the Sansa e200r as the only existing compliant devices, they sparked controversy by introducing a technology called Harmony that allowed their music to play on iPods as well as Microsoft Windows Media Audio DRM-equipped devices using a \"wrapper\" that would convert Helix DRM into the two other target DRM schemes.[11]Real Networks acquired Dutch game company Zylom for $21 million in February 2006.[12] It became part of GameHouse.On April 6, 2010, Rhapsody was spun off from RealNetworks. In July 2013, RealNetworks acquired Slingo for $15.6 million.[13] The company introduced a mobile phone app called Listen in April 2014 that plays custom ringtones to those calling the user's phone.[14]On December 21, 2022, RealNetworks was taken private by founder and CEO Rob Glaser.[15][16][17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"T-Mobile Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-Mobile_Park"},{"link_name":"KING-TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KING-TV"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Alex Alben","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Alben"},{"link_name":"Washington State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_(state)"},{"link_name":"Tony Fadell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Fadell"},{"link_name":"iPod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod"},{"link_name":"Daniel House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_House_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Philip Rosedale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Rosedale"},{"link_name":"Linden Lab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linden_Lab"},{"link_name":"Compete.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compete.com"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"RealNetworks has its headquarters in Seattle, Washington, in the Home Plate Center building in SoDo across from T-Mobile Park, sharing the building with local television station KING-TV and Logic 20/20 Consulting.[18][19]Notable RealNetworks employees have included Alex Alben; the first Chief Privacy Officer of Washington State; Tony Fadell, the inventor of the iPod; musician Daniel House; and Philip Rosedale, the founder of Linden Lab.The domain real.com attracted at least 67 million visitors annually by 2008, according to a Compete.com study.[20]","title":"Corporate governance"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Products and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SAFR_Picture1.png"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"SAFR","text":"SAFR from RealNetworksLaunched by RealNetworks on July 17, 2018, SAFR – Secure Accurate Facial Recognition, is a machine learning facial recognition platform.[21] The SAFR platform was updated in 2020 with COVID-19 response features, including the ability to detect whether a person is wearing a mask and identify people wearing masks with 98.85 percent accuracy.[22] On April 27, 2021, SAFR received a grant from the US Air Force to develop its AI-powered analytics for rescue missions, perimeter protection and domestic search operations.[23]","title":"Products and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Kontxt","text":"In 2017, RealNetworks launched Kontxt, a product that offers management of text messaging in mobile networks. It identifies the content of the message and sorts it into categories to determine which ones are more important, and prioritize message delivery.[24] In March 2021, RealNetworks unveiled KONTXT for Voice to identify and stop scam robocalls.[25]","title":"Products and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"RealTimes (formerly RealPlayer Cloud)","text":"RealNetworks on September 24, 2013, launched RealPlayer Cloud, a service that adds the ability to share videos recorded on smartphones and tablets. RealPlayer Cloud ties into the existing RealPlayer; however, it also has a Web app and apps for Android, iOS and Roku. The service has 2GB of free cloud storage and more storage for a monthly fee.[26] It was renamed to RealTimes on May 19, 2015, with a new focus on creating and sharing \"Stories\"—video collages of users' personal photos and videos, set to background music.[27]","title":"Products and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-four-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"GameHouse","text":"RealNetworks entered the computer game market in October 2001 with RealArcade, a PC game distribution application that allows users to play casual video games for free for 60 minutes, then decide if they want to purchase them.[28][29] Many of the games were developed by GameHouse, which RealNetworks acquired for $35.6 million in 2004.[30] In 2010, RealNetworks re-branded its games division under the name Gamehouse.[31] It began focusing on social games, such as Facebook applets,[32] and in 2013 acquired casual casino games company, Slingo, for $15.6 million.[33]","title":"Products and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Digital Millennium Copyright Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Millennium_Copyright_Act"},{"link_name":"DVD Copy Control Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_Copy_Control_Association"},{"link_name":"RealNetworks, Inc. v. DVD Copy Control Ass'n, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealNetworks,_Inc._v._DVD_Copy_Control_Ass%27n,_Inc."},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"RealDVD","text":"On September 30, 2008, RealNetworks launched a new product called RealDVD. The software allows any user to save a copy of a DVD movie they own. The company was later found to have violated the Digital Millennium Copyright Act and RealNetworks' contract with the DVD Copy Control Association, as the software also allowed anyone to save a movie they do not legally own. (See RealNetworks, Inc. v. DVD Copy Control Ass'n, Inc.).[34] The product's distribution was barred by a court injunction.[35][36]","title":"Products and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RealMedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealMedia"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-filehippo-ra-37"},{"link_name":"Media Player Classic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Player_Classic"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"hyperlinks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink"},{"link_name":"reverse engineered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_engineering"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Real Alternative","text":"Real Alternative is a discontinued software bundle that allows users to play RealMedia files without installing RealPlayer.[37] The last version, 2.02, was released on February 19, 2010. It included Media Player Classic.[38][39]Beginning in 2010, RealNetworks sued Hilbrand Edskes, a 26-year-old Dutch webmaster, for having inserted hyperlinks to Real Alternative on his site www.codecpack.nl. RealNetworks alleges that Real Alternative is a reverse engineered package.[40]In November 2011, RealNetworks' case against Edskes was dismissed and RealNetworks was ordered to pay him €48,000 in damages.[41][42] Details of the case and judgement have been published.[43] RealNetworks appealed the case in 2013, this time alleging that Edskes was after all involved in uploading Real Alternatives. Edskes countered that while his automated script did upload Real Alternatives, the web server was deliberately configured to keep the file unavailable to public. He audited the uploads and deleted Real Alternatives before he was raided in February 17, 2010. Therefore, he was never committed unauthorized distribution.[44][45]","title":"Products and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-one-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-two-48"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-two-48"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-one-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-two-48"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-one-47"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"sub_title":"Helix","text":"Helix is a suite of streaming media software and services intended for digital TV set-top boxes, mobile devices, as well as QuickTime, Flash and other programs.[46][47][48] It includes the Helix open-source code and the Helix Universal Server, which hosts, distributes and manages digital rights for multimedia content.[48] Helix competes with the Windows Media 9 Series from Microsoft, but has a greater emphasis on open-source.[47][48] Helix was announced in July 2002.[47] Support for mobile devices was added in November 2005.[49] It was discontinued in October 2014.[50]","title":"Products and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"download manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Download_manager"},{"link_name":"ABC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"CBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS"},{"link_name":"Big Brother","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Brother_(American_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"NBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Basketball_Association"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"Subscription services","text":"In 2000, one of the initial products, the download manager RealDownload, was already used for pushing small software, such as games, to subscribers' computers. On top of the subscription for RealDownload and using its RealVideo streaming technology, a service called GoldPass, including unlimited access for video snippets from ABC and movie previews, was offered to registered users for a monthly $10 fee.[51] More content was added through deals with CBS for the reality show Big Brother and NBA basketball.[52]","title":"Products and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RealAudio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealAudio"},{"link_name":"RealDownloader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealDownloader"},{"link_name":"RealPlayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealPlayer"},{"link_name":"RealVideo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RealVideo"},{"link_name":"personal cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_cloud"}],"sub_title":"Other products and technologies","text":"RealAudio, a compressed audio format\nRealDownloader, a download manager\nRealPlayer, a media player\nRealVideo, a compressed video format\nRinse, a digital music library cleanup tool\nUnifi, a personal cloud media service\nMobile entertainment and messaging services for mobile carriers","title":"Products and services"}]

[{"image_text":"SAFR from RealNetworks","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/SAFR_Picture1.png/220px-SAFR_Picture1.png"}]

[{"title":"United States v. ASCAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._ASCAP"},{"title":"Trymedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trymedia"}]

[{"reference":"Kerr, Dave (July 30, 2014). \"RealNetworks names Rob Glaser its permanent CEO\". CNET. Retrieved August 30, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnet.com/news/realnetworks-names-rob-glaser-its-permanent-ceo/","url_text":"\"RealNetworks names Rob Glaser its permanent CEO\""}]},{"reference":"\"RealNetworks, Inc. 2014 Annual Report on Form 10-K\" (PDF). RealNetworks. p. 18. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved October 25, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053605/http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/RNWK/912895436x0x830198/8be2372b-7280-4e72-9763-9a040de14dba/10-K_2014_as_filed_.pdf","url_text":"\"RealNetworks, Inc. 2014 Annual Report on Form 10-K\""},{"url":"http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/RNWK/912895436x0x830198/8be2372b-7280-4e72-9763-9a040de14dba/10-K_2014_as_filed_.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Company Profile for RealNetworks Inc. (RNWK)\". Retrieved September 24, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/technologybrierdudleysblog/2019011228_realnetworks_cutting_up_to_160.html","url_text":"\"Company Profile for RealNetworks Inc. (RNWK)\""}]},{"reference":"Kawamoto, Dawn (October 15, 1997). \"RealNetworks to launch IPO\". CNET. Retrieved October 6, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnet.com/tech/tech-industry/realnetworks-to-launch-ipo/","url_text":"\"RealNetworks to launch IPO\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNET","url_text":"CNET"}]},{"reference":"\"RealNetworks Inc\". Funding Universe. Retrieved July 23, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/RealNetworks-Inc-Company-History.html","url_text":"\"RealNetworks Inc\""}]},{"reference":"\"The History & Future of Real Networks\". Internet Video Magazine. Archived from the original on July 19, 2011. 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Retrieved July 25, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.latimes.com/2002/may/01/business/fi-techbriefs1.1","url_text":"\"Sony, RealNetworks Form Tech Alliance\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"Bennett, Amy (August 2, 2004). \"Apple, RealNetworks clash fuels industry debate\". Computerworld. Retrieved November 3, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerworld.com/article/2812584/apple--realnetworks-clash-fuels-industry-debate.html","url_text":"\"Apple, RealNetworks clash fuels industry debate\""}]},{"reference":"\"RealNetworks Buys European Game Company Zylom\". Forbes. February 7, 2006. Retrieved January 15, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/2006/02/07/realnetworks-zylom-0207markets03.html","url_text":"\"RealNetworks Buys European Game Company Zylom\""}]},{"reference":"\"RealNetworks Acquires Slingo\". RTTNews. July 31, 2013. Retrieved August 2, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nasdaq.com/article/realnetworks-acquires-slingo-20130731-00982","url_text":"\"RealNetworks Acquires Slingo\""}]},{"reference":"Moscaritolo, Angela (April 10, 2014). \"Ringback Tones Return on RealNetworks 'Listen' App\". PC Magazine. Retrieved May 19, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2456344,00.asp","url_text":"\"Ringback Tones Return on RealNetworks 'Listen' App\""}]},{"reference":"\"RealNetworks LLC Announces Closing of Acquisition of RealNetworks, Inc. by CEO Rob Glaser\". www.prnewswire.com (Press release). Retrieved January 20, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/realnetworks-llc-announces-closing-of-acquisition-of-realnetworks-inc-by-ceo-rob-glaser-301708718.html","url_text":"\"RealNetworks LLC Announces Closing of Acquisition of RealNetworks, Inc. by CEO Rob Glaser\""}]},{"reference":"\"Register\". www.bizjournals.com. Retrieved August 19, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bizjournals.com/seattle/news/2022/12/18/realnetworks-shareholders-merger-greater-heights.html","url_text":"\"Register\""}]},{"reference":"\"Register\". www.bizjournals.com. Retrieved August 19, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bizjournals.com/seattle/news/2022/12/22/realnetworks-acquisition-greater-heights-private.html","url_text":"\"Register\""}]},{"reference":"John Cook (May 6, 2013). \"RealNetworks returns to roots, plans move to smaller offices near Safeco Field\". GeekWire.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.geekwire.com/2013/realnetworks-returns-roots-plans-move-smaller-offices-safeco-field/","url_text":"\"RealNetworks returns to roots, plans move to smaller offices near Safeco Field\""}]},{"reference":"Remy Mooney (June 5, 2013). \"RealNetworks Leases 85,000 SF in the Home Plate Center in Seattle\". Archived from the original on March 5, 2017. Retrieved March 18, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170305002107/http://www.costar.com/News/Article/RealNetworks-Leases-85000-SF-in-the-Home-Plate-Center-in-Seattle/148883","url_text":"\"RealNetworks Leases 85,000 SF in the Home Plate Center in Seattle\""},{"url":"http://www.costar.com/News/Article/RealNetworks-Leases-85000-SF-in-the-Home-Plate-Center-in-Seattle/148883","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Real.com attracts 67 million visitors annually\". Archived from the original on October 8, 2016. Retrieved April 26, 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161008182237/https://siteanalytics.compete.com/real.com/?metric=uv","url_text":"\"Real.com attracts 67 million visitors annually\""},{"url":"http://siteanalytics.compete.com/real.com?metric=uv","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"RealNetworks Launches SAFR, a Best-In-Class Facial Recognition Platform\". Bloomberg.com. July 17, 2018. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_U-Go

Operation U-Go

["1 Origins of the Japanese plan","1.1 Japanese planning process","1.2 Azad Hind influence","2 Japanese plans","3 Allied plans","4 Ha Go","5 U Go","5.1 Imphal","5.2 Kohima","5.3 Retreat","6 Impact","7 Notes","8 References","9 Further reading"]

Japanese Invasion of India in 1944 U Go offensivePart of the Burma Campaign in the South-East Asian theatre of World War IIThe summit of Nippon Hill, east of Imphal, which was hotly contested during Operation U-GoDateMarch 1944 – June 1944LocationKohima, Naga Hills, Manipur Kingdom and Calcutta in British IndiaResult British victoryBelligerents  British Empire  India  Empire of Japan Azad HindCommanders and leaders William Slim Montagu Stopford Geoffry Scoones Renya Mutaguchi Masakazu Kawabe Subhas C. BoseStrength 7 infantry divisions1 tank brigade2 infantry brigades 5 infantry divisions1 tank regiment84,280 men (excluding INA)Casualties and losses 16,987–21,500 15th, 31st, and 33rd Divisions:12,443 killed1,652 missing in action8,407 dead from diseaseMisc. Army Troops:8,000 dead from all causesTotal:30,502 dead,23,003 hospitalizedvteBurma campaign Japanese invasion of Burma (1941–1942) Bilin River Sittang Bridge Pegu Taukkyan Yunnan-Burma Road Tachiao Oktwin Toungoo Shwedaung Prome Yenangyaung Burma campaign (1942–1943) Arakan The Hump Chindits Burma campaign (1943–1944) Chindits (II) Admin Box U Go Imphal Shangshak Tennis Court Kohima Myitkyina Mogaung Northern Burma and Western Yunnan (1943–1945) Mount Song Burma campaign (1944–1945) Meiktila and Mandalay Pakokku Hill 170 Ramree Island Tanlwe Chaung Dracula Elephant Point Sittang Bend vtePacific War Central Pacific Pearl Harbor Marshalls–Gilberts raids K Doolittle Raid Midway Gilberts and Marshalls Marianas and Palau Volcano and Ryukyu Truk Ocean Island Indian Ocean (1941–1945) Japanese merchant raids Andaman Islands Homfreyganj massacre Christmas Island 1st Indian Ocean Ceylon Bay of Bengal 2nd Indian Ocean Southeast Asia Indochina (1940) Franco-Thai War Thailand Malaya Hong Kong Singapore Indochina (1945) Malacca Strait Vietnam Jurist Tiderace Zipper Strategic bombing (1944–45) Burma and India Burma (1941–42) Burma (1942–43) Burma and India (1944) Burma (1944–45) Southwest Pacific Dutch East Indies (1941–42) Philippines (1941–42) RY Solomon Islands Coral Sea Timor Australia New Guinea New Britain Philippines (1944–45) Borneo (1945) North America Ellwood Aleutian Islands Estevan Point Lighthouse Fort Stevens Lookout Air Raids Fire balloon bombs Project Hula PX Japan Air raids Tokyo Yokosuka Kure Hiroshima and Nagasaki Mariana Islands Volcano and Ryukyu Islands Starvation Naval bombardments Sagami Bay South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Downfall Japanese surrender Manchuria and Northern Korea Kantokuen Manchuria (1945) Mutanchiang Chongjin Second Sino-Japanese War vteCampaigns of World War IIEurope Poland Phoney War Finland Winter War Karelia Lapland Denmark and Norway Western Front 1940 1944–1945 Britain Balkans Eastern Front Italy Sicily Asia-Pacific China Pacific Ocean South West Pacific Franco-Thai War South-East Asia Burma and India Japan Manchuria and Northern Korea pre-war border conflicts Mediterranean and Middle East Africa North Africa East Africa Mediterranean Sea Adriatic Malta Middle East Iraq Syria–Lebanon Iran Dodecanese Southern France Other campaigns Americas Atlantic Arctic Strategic bombing French West Africa Indian Ocean Madagascar Coups Yugoslavia Iraq Italy Romania Bulgaria Hungary French Indochina The U Go offensive, or Operation C (ウ号作戦 U Gō sakusen), was the Japanese offensive launched in March 1944 against forces of the British Empire in the northeast Indian regions of Manipur and the Naga Hills (then administered as part of Assam). Aimed at the Brahmaputra Valley, through the two towns of Imphal and Kohima, the offensive along with the overlapping Ha Go offensive was one of the last major Japanese offensives during the Second World War. The offensive culminated in the Battles of Imphal and Kohima, where the Japanese and their allies were first held and then pushed back. Origins of the Japanese plan In 1942, the Japanese Army had driven the British, Indian and Chinese troops out of Burma. When heavy monsoon rains stopped campaigning, the British and Indian troops had occupied Imphal, the capital of Manipur state. This lay in a plain astride one of the few practicable routes over the jungle-covered mountains which separated India and Burma. The Japanese commander in Burma, Lieutenant General Shōjirō Iida, was asked for his opinion on whether a renewed advance should be made into India after the rains ended. After conferring with his divisional commanders, Iida reported that it would be unwise to do so, because of the difficult terrain and supply problems. During the year and a half which followed, the Allies reconstructed the lines of communication to Assam, in north-east India. The United States Army (with large numbers of Indian labourers) constructed several airbases in Assam from which supplies were flown to the Nationalist Chinese government under Chiang Kai-shek and American airbases in China. This air route, which crossed several mountain ranges, was known as the Hump. The Americans also began constructing the Ledo road, which they intended would form a land link from Assam to China. In mid-1943, the Japanese command in Burma had been reorganised. General Iida was posted back to Japan and a new headquarters, Burma Area Army, was created under Lieutenant-General Masakasu Kawabe. One of its subordinate formations, responsible for the central part of the front facing Imphal and Assam, was the Fifteenth Army, whose new commander was Lieutenant-General Renya Mutaguchi. From the moment he took command, Mutaguchi forcefully advocated an invasion of India. Rather than seeking a mere tactical victory, he planned to exploit the capture of Imphal by advancing to the Brahmaputra Valley, thereby cutting the Allied supply lines to their front in northern Burma, and to the airfields supplying the Nationalist Chinese. His motives for doing so appear to be complex. In late 1942, when he was consulted by Lieutenant General Iida about the advisability of continuing the Japanese advance, he had been particularly vocal in his opposition, as the terrain appeared to be too difficult and the logistic problems seemed impossible to overcome. He had thought at the time that this plan originated at a local level, but was ashamed of his earlier caution when he found that Imperial Army HQ had originally advocated it. By design or chance, Mutaguchi had played a major part in several Japanese victories, ever since the Marco Polo Bridge incident in 1937. He believed it was his destiny to win the decisive battle of the war for Japan. Mutaguchi was also goaded by the first Chindit long-range penetration expedition launched by the British under Orde Wingate early in 1943. Wingate's troops had traversed terrain which Mutaguchi had earlier claimed would be impassable to the Japanese 18th Division which he commanded at the time. The Allies had widely publicised the successful aspects of Wingate's expedition while concealing their losses to disease and exhaustion, misleading Mutaguchi and some of his staff as to the difficulties they would later face. Japanese planning process Between 24 June and 27 June 1943, a planning conference was held in Rangoon. Mutaguchi's Chief of Staff, Major General Todai Kunomura, presented Mutaguchi's plan, but was brusquely overruled. The staff of Burma Area Army objected to Kunomura pre-empting their own limited plans to push the Japanese forward defensive lines a short distance into the mountainous frontier with India. Mutaguchi's plan was nevertheless examined. Lieutenant General Eitaro Naka, (Burma Area Army's Chief of Staff), Major General Masazumi Inada, (the Vice Chief of Staff of Southern Expeditionary Army Group) and even Lieutenant General Gonpachi Kondo from Imperial General Headquarters all pointed out tactical and logistical weaknesses in Mutaguchi's plan. However, Lieutenant General Kawabe did not expressly forbid Mutaguchi to carry out his ideas. At subsequent exercises at Fifteenth Army's headquarters in Maymyo and at Southern Expeditionary Army Group's headquarters in Singapore, Lieutenant General Naka appeared to have been won over to Mutaguchi's ideas. Lieutenant General Inada was still opposed, but put forward to Kunomura and Major Iwaichi Fujiwara (one of Mutaguchi's staff officers) the apparently frivolous idea of attacking into the Chinese province of Yunnan instead. However, Inada was removed from Southern Expeditionary Army on 11 October 1943, after being made the scapegoat for failures to comply with an agreement to cede territories to Thailand which, under Field Marshal Plaek Pibulsonggram, was allied to Japan. After another map exercise in Singapore on 23 December 1943, Field Marshal Hisaichi Terauchi (Commander in Chief of Southern Expeditionary Army Group) approved the plan. Inada's replacement, Lieutenant General Kitsuju Ayabe, was despatched to Imperial Army HQ to gain approval. Prime Minister Hideki Tōjō gave final sanction after questioning a staff officer over aspects of the plan from his bath. Once this decision was taken, neither Lieutenant General Kawabe nor Field Marshal Terauchi were given any opportunity to call off Mutaguchi's attack, codenamed U-GO or Operation C (ウ号作戦), nor to exercise much control over it once it was launched. Azad Hind influence To some extent, Mutaguchi and Tojo were influenced by Subhas Chandra Bose, who led the Azad Hind, a movement which was dedicated to freeing India from British rule. Bose was also commander in chief of the movement's armed forces, the Azad Hind Fauj or Indian National Army (INA). The INA was composed mainly of former prisoners of war from the British Indian Army who had been captured by the Japanese after the fall of Singapore, and Indian expatriates in South East Asia who had decided to join the nationalist movement. Bose was eager for the INA to participate in any invasion of India, and persuaded several Japanese that a victory such as Mutaguchi anticipated would lead to the collapse of British rule in India. The idea that their western boundary would be controlled by a more friendly government was attractive to the Japanese. It would also have been consistent with the idea that Japanese expansion into Asia was part of an effort to support Asian government of Asia and counter western colonialism. Japanese plans Imphal and Kohima Campaign The Allies were preparing to take the offensive themselves in early 1944. The Indian XV Corps was advancing in the coastal Arakan Province, while the British IV Corps had pushed two Indian infantry divisions almost to the Chindwin River at Tamu and Tiddim. These two divisions were widely separated and vulnerable to being isolated. The Japanese planned that a division from the Twenty-Eighth Army would launch a diversionary attack in the Arakan, codenamed Ha Go, in the first week of February. This would attract Allied reserves from Assam, and also create the impression that the Japanese intended to attack Bengal through Chittagong. In the centre, Mutaguchi's Fifteenth Army would launch the main attack into Manipur in the first week in March, aiming to capture Imphal and Kohima, scattering British forces and forestalling any offensive movements against Burma. In detail, the Fifteenth Army plans were: The 33rd Infantry Division under Lieutenant-General Motoso Yanagida would destroy the 17th Indian Infantry Division at Tiddim, then attack Imphal from the south. Yamamoto Force, formed from units detached from the 33rd and 15th Divisions under Major-General Tsunoru Yamamoto (commander of 33rd Division's Infantry Group), supported by tanks and heavy artillery, would destroy the 20th Indian Infantry Division at Tamu, then attack Imphal from the east. The 15th Infantry Division under Lieutenant-General Masafumi Yamauchi would envelop Imphal from the north. In a separate subsidiary operation, the 31st Infantry Division under Lieutenant-General Kōtoku Satō would isolate Imphal by capturing Kohima, then push onwards to capture the vital Allied supply base at Dimapur in the Brahmaputra valley. At the insistence of Bose, two brigades from the Indian National Army were also assigned to the attacks on Imphal from the south and east. The Japanese had originally intended using the INA as auxiliaries to their forces only, for reconnaissance and propaganda. The staff at Burma Area Army had originally thought this plan too risky. They believed it was unwise to separate the attacking forces so widely, but several officers who were vocal in their opposition were transferred. Mutaguchi's divisional commanders were also pessimistic. They thought that Mutaguchi was gambling too heavily on gaining early success to solve supply problems. Some of them thought him a "blockhead", or reckless. Allied plans In early 1944, the Allied formations in Assam and Arakan were part of the British Fourteenth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General William Slim. Over the preceding year, since the failure of an earlier offensive in the Arakan, he and his predecessor, General George Giffard, had been striving to improve the health, training and morale of the British and Indian units of the army. Through improvements in the lines of communication, better administration in the rear areas, and above all, better supply of fresh rations and medicines, these efforts had been successful. The Allies had also developed methods to counter the standard Japanese tactics of outflanking and isolating formations. In particular, they would increasingly depend upon aircraft to supply cut-off units. The Japanese had not anticipated this, and their attacks would be thwarted several times. From various intelligence sources, Slim and Lieutenant General Geoffry Scoones (commanding Indian IV Corps) had learned of the general intentions of the Japanese to launch an offensive, although they did not have specific information on the Japanese objectives and were to be surprised several times when the Japanese did launch their attacks. Rather than anticipate the Japanese by attacking across the Chindwin, or trying to defend the line of the river itself, Slim intended to exploit known Japanese logistical weaknesses by withdrawing into Imphal to fight a defensive battle where the Japanese would be unable to supply their troops. Ha Go Main article: Battle of the Admin Box The diversionary Japanese attack in Arakan began on 5 February. A force from the Japanese 55th Division infiltrated the lines of Indian XV Corps to overrun an Indian divisional headquarters and isolate the Corps' forward divisions. When they tried to press their attacks against a hastily fortified administrative area known as the "Admin Box", they found that Allied aircraft dropped supplies to the garrison, while the Japanese themselves were cut off from their supply sources and starved. British and Indian tanks and infantry broke through a hill pass to relieve the defenders of the Box. The badly supplied and starving Japanese forces were forced to withdraw. U Go Imphal Main article: Battle of Imphal The main U Go offensive began on 6 March 1944. Slim and Scoones had given their forward divisions orders to withdraw too late. The 20th Indian Division withdrew safely, but the 17th Indian Division was cut off and forced to fight its way back into the Imphal plain. Scoones was forced to commit almost all his reserves to help the 17th Division. Because the diversionary offensive in the Arakan had already failed, the Allies were able to fly a division (including its artillery and front-line transport) from the Arakan front to Imphal, in time to prevent the Japanese 15th Division overrunning Imphal from the north. During April, the Japanese attacks against the defences at the edge of the Imphal plain were all held. In May, IV Corps began a counter-offensive, pushing northward to link up with a relieving force fighting its way southward from Kohima. Although the Allied progress was slow, the Japanese 15th Division was forced to withdraw through lack of supply, and the Allies reopened the Kohima–Imphal road on 22 June, ending the siege (although the Japanese continued to mount attacks from the south and east of Imphal). Kohima Main article: Battle of Kohima The battle of Kohima took place in two stages. From 3 to 16 April 1944, the Japanese 31st Division attempted to capture Kohima ridge, a feature which dominated the road from Dimapur to Imphal on which IV Corps at Imphal depended for supply. On 16 April the small British force at Kohima was relieved, and from 18 April to 16 May the newly arrived Indian XXXIII Corps counter-attacked to drive the Japanese from the positions they had captured. At the end of May, with the Japanese starving, Lieutenant General Kōtoku Satō defied orders from Mutaguchi to stand firm and ordered his division to withdraw. Although a detachment continued to fight rearguard actions to block the road, XXXIII Corps drove south to link up with the defenders of Imphal on 22 June. Retreat Mutaguchi continued to order fresh attacks, but by late June it was clear that the starving and disease-ridden Japanese formations were in no state to obey. When he realised that none of his formations were obeying his orders for a renewed attack, Mutaguchi finally ordered the offensive to be broken off on 3 July. The Japanese, reduced in many cases to a rabble, fell back to the Chindwin, abandoning their artillery, transport, and soldiers too sick to walk. Impact The Japanese defeats at Kohima and Imphal were the largest up until that time. The British and Indian forces had lost around 16,987 men, dead, missing and wounded. The Japanese suffered 60,643 casualties, including 13,376 dead. Most of these losses were the result of starvation, disease and exhaustion. The defeat resulted in sweeping changes in command within the Japanese Army in Burma. Mutaguchi sacked all his division commanders during the operation, before being sacked himself on 30 August. Kawabe, whose health was broken, was also dismissed. Many of the senior staff officers at the headquarters of Fifteenth Army and Burma Area Army were also transferred to divisional or regimental commands. Notes ^ Allen (1984), p. 643 ^ a b c Allen (1984), p. 638 ^ JM-134 pp. 164 Retrieved 5/19/16 ^ Lebra 1977, p. 20 ^ a b Allen (1984), pp. 152–153 ^ Allen (1984), p. 158 ^ Allen (1984), pp. 159–160 ^ Allen (1984), pp. 164–165 ^ Allen (1984), p. 166 ^ Syonan Sinbun, 26 January 1943 ^ Lebra, 1977, p. 20 ^ Fay 1993, p. 281 ^ Fay 1993, p. 265 ^ Allen (1984), p. 170 ^ Allen, (1984), pp. 159–162 ^ Allen (1984), p. 155 ^ Fay 1993, p. 264 ^ Allen (1984), p. 386 References Fay, Peter W. (1993), The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945., Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0-472-08342-2 Lebra, Joyce C. (1977), Japanese trained armies in South-East Asia, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-03995-6 Allen, Louis (1984). Burma: The Longest War. J. M. Dent & Sons. ISBN 0-460-02474-4. Further reading Latimer, Jon (2004). Burma: The Forgotten War. John Murray. ISBN 0-7195-6576-6. Slim, William (1961). Defeat into Victory. New York: David McKay. ISBN 1-56849-077-1. vteIndian National ArmyHistorical Revolutionary conspiracy of WWI Rash Behari Har Dayal Ghadr Chatto Berlin Committee Bagha Jatin Barkatullah Kabul mission Provisional Government of India Imperial Japan Pan Asianism Greater East Asia more Indian IndependenceLeague (IIL) Pritam Singh Swami Satyananda Puri Indian National Council I Fujiwara F Kikan K.P.K. Menon A.M. Sahay S.A. Ayer Rash Behari Bose Bidadary Resolutions Tokyo Conference H Iwakuro I Kikan Bangkok Conference Azad Hind Hikari Kikan Azad Hind Dal more Subhas Chandra Bose Indian National Congress C.R. Das Sarat Bose Purna Swaraj Bengal Volunteers Emilie Schenkl Forward Bloc Indian Legion U-180 Azad Hind Habib-ur-Rahman Death controversy more Indian NationalArmy Battle of Malaya Mohan Singh Fall of Singapore Farrer Park First INA First Arakan offensive Hindustan Field Force Jiffs Azad Brigade Gandhi Brigade Nehru Brigade Subhas Brigade Bahadur Group Tokyo Boys Rani of Jhansi Regiment Andaman and Nicobar Islands Mohammed Zaman Kiani Lakshmi Sahgal A.D. Loganathan J.R. Bhonsle Janaki Davar Rasammah Bhupalan Shaukat Malik John Thivy Battles Burma theatre Admin Box U-Go Battle of Imphal Battle of Kohima Battle of Irrawaddy Battle of Meiktila Surrender of Japan more Red Fort trials CSDIC Dhillon Sahgal Shah Nawaz Burhan-ud-Din INA Defence Committee Kailash Nath Katju Asaf Ali Tej Bahadur Sapru Bhulabhai Desai Jawaharlal Nehru Bombay mutiny more Related topics Azad Hind Radio Battaglione Azad Hindoustan Special Bureau for India Azad Hind Decorations Selarang Barracks incident Japanese occupation of Burma Burma Area Army Masakasu Kawabe India in World War II 14th Army William Slim Malaysian Indian Congress INA treasure Peter Fay Joyce Lebra Hugh Toye more

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bombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fu-Go_balloon_bomb"},{"link_name":"Project Hula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Hula"},{"link_name":"PX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_PX"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_campaign"},{"link_name":"Air raids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_raids_on_Japan"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Yokosuka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Yokosuka"},{"link_name":"Kure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacks_on_Kure_and_the_Inland_Sea_(July_1945)"},{"link_name":"Hiroshima and Nagasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki"},{"link_name":"Mariana Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_air_attacks_on_the_Mariana_Islands"},{"link_name":"Volcano and Ryukyu Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcano_and_Ryukyu_Islands_campaign"},{"link_name":"Starvation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Starvation"},{"link_name":"Naval bombardments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Sagami Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sagami_Bay"},{"link_name":"South Sakhalin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_South_Sakhalin"},{"link_name":"Kuril Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands"},{"link_name":"Shumshu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shumshu"},{"link_name":"Downfall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Downfall"},{"link_name":"Japanese surrender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Manchuria and Northern Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War"},{"link_name":"Kantokuen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantokuen"},{"link_name":"Manchuria (1945)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria"},{"link_name":"Mutanchiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mutanchiang"},{"link_name":"Chongjin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seishin_Operation"},{"link_name":"Second Sino-Japanese War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Phoney War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoney_War"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Winter War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_War"},{"link_name":"Karelia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuation_War"},{"link_name":"Lapland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapland_War"},{"link_name":"Denmark and Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Weser%C3%BCbung"},{"link_name":"Western Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"1940","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_France"},{"link_name":"1944–1945","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_II)#1944%E2%80%931945:_The_Second_Front"},{"link_name":"Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Britain"},{"link_name":"Balkans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans_campaign_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"Eastern Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_campaign_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily"},{"link_name":"Asia-Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean_theater_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"South West Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Franco-Thai War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Thai_War"},{"link_name":"South-East Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Burma and India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_campaign"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_campaign"},{"link_name":"Manchuria and Northern Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War"},{"link_name":"pre-war border conflicts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_border_conflicts"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean and Middle East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_and_Middle_East_theatre_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"North Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_African_campaign"},{"link_name":"East Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_African_campaign_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Mediterranean"},{"link_name":"Adriatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic_campaign_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War"},{"link_name":"Syria–Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_campaign"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Soviet_invasion_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"Dodecanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodecanese_campaign"},{"link_name":"Southern France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Dragoon"},{"link_name":"Americas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Theater_(World_War_II)"},{"link_name":"Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Atlantic"},{"link_name":"Arctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_naval_operations_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Strategic bombing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_bombing_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"French West Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_West_Africa_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Indian Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Madagascar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar"},{"link_name":"Yugoslavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslav_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat"},{"link_name":"Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1941_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1944_Romanian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat"},{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1944_Bulgarian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Panzerfaust"},{"link_name":"French Indochina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army"},{"link_name":"British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"Manipur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipur"},{"link_name":"Naga Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naga_Hills"},{"link_name":"Assam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam"},{"link_name":"Brahmaputra Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmaputra_Valley"},{"link_name":"Imphal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imphal"},{"link_name":"Kohima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohima"},{"link_name":"Ha Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Admin_Box"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"Imphal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal"},{"link_name":"Kohima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kohima"}],"text":"U Go offensivePart of the Burma Campaign in the South-East Asian theatre of World War IIThe summit of Nippon Hill, east of Imphal, which was hotly contested during Operation U-GoDateMarch 1944 – June 1944LocationKohima, Naga Hills, Manipur Kingdom and Calcutta in British IndiaResult\nBritish victoryBelligerents\n British Empire\n\n India\n Empire of Japan\n\n Azad HindCommanders and leaders\n William Slim Montagu Stopford Geoffry Scoones\n Renya Mutaguchi Masakazu Kawabe Subhas C. BoseStrength\n7 infantry divisions1 tank brigade2 infantry brigades\n5 infantry divisions1 tank regiment84,280 men (excluding INA)Casualties and losses\n16,987–21,500[1][2]\n15th, 31st, and 33rd Divisions:12,443 killed1,652 missing in action8,407 dead from diseaseMisc. Army Troops:8,000 dead from all causesTotal:30,502 dead,23,003 hospitalized[3]vteBurma campaign\nJapanese invasion of Burma (1941–1942)\nBilin River\nSittang Bridge\nPegu\nTaukkyan\nYunnan-Burma Road\nTachiao\nOktwin\nToungoo\nShwedaung\nProme\nYenangyaung\nBurma campaign (1942–1943)\nArakan\nThe Hump\nChindits\nBurma campaign (1943–1944)\nChindits (II)\nAdmin Box\nU Go\nImphal\nShangshak\nTennis Court\nKohima\nMyitkyina\nMogaung\nNorthern Burma and Western Yunnan (1943–1945)\nMount Song\nBurma campaign (1944–1945)\nMeiktila and Mandalay\nPakokku\nHill 170\nRamree Island\nTanlwe Chaung\nDracula\nElephant Point\nSittang Bend\n\nvtePacific War\nCentral Pacific\nPearl Harbor\nMarshalls–Gilberts raids\nK\nDoolittle Raid\nMidway\nGilberts and Marshalls\nMarianas and Palau\nVolcano and Ryukyu\nTruk\nOcean Island\nIndian Ocean (1941–1945)\nJapanese merchant raids\nAndaman Islands\nHomfreyganj massacre\nChristmas Island\n1st Indian Ocean\nCeylon\nBay of Bengal\n2nd Indian Ocean\nSoutheast Asia\nIndochina (1940)\nFranco-Thai War\nThailand\nMalaya\nHong Kong\nSingapore\nIndochina (1945)\nMalacca Strait\nVietnam\nJurist\nTiderace\nZipper\nStrategic bombing (1944–45)\nBurma and India\nBurma (1941–42)\nBurma (1942–43)\nBurma and India (1944)\nBurma (1944–45)\nSouthwest Pacific\nDutch East Indies (1941–42)\nPhilippines (1941–42)\nRY\nSolomon Islands\nCoral Sea\nTimor\nAustralia\nNew Guinea\nNew Britain\nPhilippines (1944–45)\nBorneo (1945)\nNorth America\nEllwood\nAleutian Islands\nEstevan Point Lighthouse\nFort Stevens\nLookout Air Raids\nFire balloon bombs\nProject Hula\nPX\nJapan\nAir raids\nTokyo\nYokosuka\nKure\nHiroshima and Nagasaki\nMariana Islands\nVolcano and Ryukyu Islands\nStarvation\nNaval bombardments\nSagami Bay\nSouth Sakhalin\nKuril Islands\nShumshu\nDownfall\nJapanese surrender\nManchuria and Northern Korea\nKantokuen\nManchuria (1945)\nMutanchiang\nChongjin\n\nSecond Sino-Japanese War\n\n\nvteCampaigns of World War IIEurope\nPoland\nPhoney War\nFinland\nWinter War\nKarelia\nLapland\nDenmark and Norway\nWestern Front\n1940\n1944–1945\nBritain\nBalkans\nEastern Front\nItaly\nSicily\nAsia-Pacific\n\nChina\nPacific Ocean\nSouth West Pacific\nFranco-Thai War\nSouth-East Asia\nBurma and India\nJapan\nManchuria and Northern Korea\npre-war border conflicts\nMediterranean and Middle East\n\nAfrica\nNorth Africa\nEast Africa\nMediterranean Sea\nAdriatic\nMalta\nMiddle East\nIraq\nSyria–Lebanon\nIran\nDodecanese\nSouthern France\nOther campaigns\n\nAmericas\nAtlantic\nArctic\nStrategic bombing\nFrench West Africa\nIndian Ocean\nMadagascar\nCoups\n\nYugoslavia\nIraq\nItaly\nRomania\nBulgaria\nHungary\nFrench IndochinaThe U Go offensive, or Operation C (ウ号作戦 U Gō sakusen), was the Japanese offensive launched in March 1944 against forces of the British Empire in the northeast Indian regions of Manipur and the Naga Hills (then administered as part of Assam). Aimed at the Brahmaputra Valley, through the two towns of Imphal and Kohima, the offensive along with the overlapping Ha Go offensive was one of the last major Japanese offensives during the Second World War. The offensive culminated in the Battles of Imphal and Kohima, where the Japanese and their allies were first held and then pushed back.","title":"Operation U-Go"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japanese Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)"},{"link_name":"Burma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_rule_in_Burma"},{"link_name":"monsoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsoon"},{"link_name":"Imphal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imphal"},{"link_name":"Manipur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipur"},{"link_name":"jungle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungle"},{"link_name":"Shōjirō Iida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%8Djir%C5%8D_Iida"},{"link_name":"lines of communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_of_communication"},{"link_name":"Assam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"Nationalist Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)"},{"link_name":"Chiang Kai-shek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek"},{"link_name":"American airbases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Burma_India_Theater_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lebra_1977_p=20-4"},{"link_name":"the Hump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hump"},{"link_name":"Ledo road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledo_road"},{"link_name":"Burma Area Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Area_Army"},{"link_name":"Masakasu Kawabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakasu_Kawabe"},{"link_name":"Fifteenth Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Fifteenth_Army"},{"link_name":"Renya Mutaguchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renya_Mutaguchi"},{"link_name":"Brahmaputra Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmaputra_Valley"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Allen152-5"},{"link_name":"Marco Polo Bridge incident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_incident"},{"link_name":"Chindit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chindit"},{"link_name":"Orde Wingate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orde_Wingate"},{"link_name":"Japanese 18th Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_18th_Division"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Allen152-5"}],"text":"In 1942, the Japanese Army had driven the British, Indian and Chinese troops out of Burma. When heavy monsoon rains stopped campaigning, the British and Indian troops had occupied Imphal, the capital of Manipur state. This lay in a plain astride one of the few practicable routes over the jungle-covered mountains which separated India and Burma. The Japanese commander in Burma, Lieutenant General Shōjirō Iida, was asked for his opinion on whether a renewed advance should be made into India after the rains ended. After conferring with his divisional commanders, Iida reported that it would be unwise to do so, because of the difficult terrain and supply problems.During the year and a half which followed, the Allies reconstructed the lines of communication to Assam, in north-east India. The United States Army (with large numbers of Indian labourers) constructed several airbases in Assam from which supplies were flown to the Nationalist Chinese government under Chiang Kai-shek and American airbases in China.[4] This air route, which crossed several mountain ranges, was known as the Hump. The Americans also began constructing the Ledo road, which they intended would form a land link from Assam to China.In mid-1943, the Japanese command in Burma had been reorganised. General Iida was posted back to Japan and a new headquarters, Burma Area Army, was created under Lieutenant-General Masakasu Kawabe. One of its subordinate formations, responsible for the central part of the front facing Imphal and Assam, was the Fifteenth Army, whose new commander was Lieutenant-General Renya Mutaguchi.From the moment he took command, Mutaguchi forcefully advocated an invasion of India. Rather than seeking a mere tactical victory, he planned to exploit the capture of Imphal by advancing to the Brahmaputra Valley, thereby cutting the Allied supply lines to their front in northern Burma, and to the airfields supplying the Nationalist Chinese. His motives for doing so appear to be complex. In late 1942, when he was consulted by Lieutenant General Iida about the advisability of continuing the Japanese advance, he had been particularly vocal in his opposition, as the terrain appeared to be too difficult and the logistic problems seemed impossible to overcome. He had thought at the time that this plan originated at a local level, but was ashamed of his earlier caution when he found that Imperial Army HQ had originally advocated it.[5]By design or chance, Mutaguchi had played a major part in several Japanese victories, ever since the Marco Polo Bridge incident in 1937. He believed it was his destiny to win the decisive battle of the war for Japan. Mutaguchi was also goaded by the first Chindit long-range penetration expedition launched by the British under Orde Wingate early in 1943. Wingate's troops had traversed terrain which Mutaguchi had earlier claimed would be impassable to the Japanese 18th Division which he commanded at the time.[5] The Allies had widely publicised the successful aspects of Wingate's expedition while concealing their losses to disease and exhaustion, misleading Mutaguchi and some of his staff as to the difficulties they would later face.","title":"Origins of the Japanese plan"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rangoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangon"},{"link_name":"Chief of Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_Staff"},{"link_name":"Todai Kunomura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Todai_Kunomura&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Eitaro Naka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eitaro_Naka&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Masazumi Inada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masazumi_Inada"},{"link_name":"Southern Expeditionary Army Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Expeditionary_Army_Group"},{"link_name":"Gonpachi Kondo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gonpachi_Kondo&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Imperial General Headquarters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Maymyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maymyo"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"Iwaichi Fujiwara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwaichi_Fujiwara"},{"link_name":"Yunnan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunnan"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"link_name":"Plaek Pibulsonggram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaek_Pibulsonggram"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Hisaichi Terauchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hisaichi_Terauchi"},{"link_name":"Kitsuju Ayabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitsuju_Ayabe"},{"link_name":"Hideki Tōjō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hideki_T%C5%8Dj%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Japanese planning process","text":"Between 24 June and 27 June 1943, a planning conference was held in Rangoon. Mutaguchi's Chief of Staff, Major General Todai Kunomura, presented Mutaguchi's plan, but was brusquely overruled. The staff of Burma Area Army objected to Kunomura pre-empting their own limited plans to push the Japanese forward defensive lines a short distance into the mountainous frontier with India.[6]Mutaguchi's plan was nevertheless examined. Lieutenant General Eitaro Naka, (Burma Area Army's Chief of Staff), Major General Masazumi Inada, (the Vice Chief of Staff of Southern Expeditionary Army Group) and even Lieutenant General Gonpachi Kondo from Imperial General Headquarters all pointed out tactical and logistical weaknesses in Mutaguchi's plan. However, Lieutenant General Kawabe did not expressly forbid Mutaguchi to carry out his ideas.[7]At subsequent exercises at Fifteenth Army's headquarters in Maymyo and at Southern Expeditionary Army Group's headquarters in Singapore, Lieutenant General Naka appeared to have been won over to Mutaguchi's ideas. Lieutenant General Inada was still opposed, but put forward to Kunomura and Major Iwaichi Fujiwara (one of Mutaguchi's staff officers) the apparently frivolous idea of attacking into the Chinese province of Yunnan instead. However, Inada was removed from Southern Expeditionary Army on 11 October 1943, after being made the scapegoat for failures to comply with an agreement to cede territories to Thailand which, under Field Marshal Plaek Pibulsonggram, was allied to Japan.[8]After another map exercise in Singapore on 23 December 1943, Field Marshal Hisaichi Terauchi (Commander in Chief of Southern Expeditionary Army Group) approved the plan. Inada's replacement, Lieutenant General Kitsuju Ayabe, was despatched to Imperial Army HQ to gain approval. Prime Minister Hideki Tōjō gave final sanction after questioning a staff officer over aspects of the plan from his bath.[9]Once this decision was taken, neither Lieutenant General Kawabe nor Field Marshal Terauchi were given any opportunity to call off Mutaguchi's attack, codenamed U-GO or Operation C (ウ号作戦), nor to exercise much control over it once it was launched.","title":"Origins of the Japanese plan"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Subhas Chandra Bose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subhas_Chandra_Bose"},{"link_name":"Azad Hind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azad_Hind"},{"link_name":"Azad Hind Fauj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azad_Hind_Fauj"},{"link_name":"prisoners of war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner_of_war"},{"link_name":"British Indian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Indian_Army"},{"link_name":"fall of Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore"},{"link_name":"Indian expatriates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-resident_Indian_and_person_of_Indian_origin"},{"link_name":"South East Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_East_Asia"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Azad Hind influence","text":"To some extent, Mutaguchi and Tojo were influenced by Subhas Chandra Bose, who led the Azad Hind, a movement which was dedicated to freeing India from British rule. Bose was also commander in chief of the movement's armed forces, the Azad Hind Fauj or Indian National Army (INA). The INA was composed mainly of former prisoners of war from the British Indian Army who had been captured by the Japanese after the fall of Singapore, and Indian expatriates in South East Asia who had decided to join the nationalist movement.Bose was eager for the INA to participate in any invasion of India, and persuaded several Japanese that a victory such as Mutaguchi anticipated would lead to the collapse of British rule in India. The idea that their western boundary would be controlled by a more friendly government was attractive to the Japanese. It would also have been consistent with the idea that Japanese expansion into Asia was part of an effort to support Asian government of Asia and counter western colonialism.[10][11]","title":"Origins of the Japanese plan"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kohima.jpg"},{"link_name":"Indian XV Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XV_Corps_(British_India)"},{"link_name":"Arakan Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arakan_Province"},{"link_name":"British IV Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IV_Corps_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Chindwin River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chindwin_River"},{"link_name":"Tamu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamu,_Burma"},{"link_name":"Tiddim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tedim"},{"link_name":"Twenty-Eighth Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Twenty-Eighth_Army"},{"link_name":"Ha Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Admin_Box"},{"link_name":"Bengal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal"},{"link_name":"Chittagong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chittagong"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"33rd Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/33rd_Division_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)"},{"link_name":"Motoso Yanagida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Motoso_Yanagida&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"17th Indian Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17th_Indian_Infantry_Division"},{"link_name":"Tsunoru Yamamoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tsunoru_Yamamoto&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"20th Indian Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_Indian_Infantry_Division"},{"link_name":"Tamu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamu,_Myanmar"},{"link_name":"15th Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15th_Division_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)"},{"link_name":"Masafumi Yamauchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Masafumi_Yamauchi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"31st Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/31st_Division_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)"},{"link_name":"Kōtoku Satō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dtoku_Sat%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Kohima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohima"},{"link_name":"Dimapur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimapur"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Imphal and Kohima CampaignThe Allies were preparing to take the offensive themselves in early 1944. The Indian XV Corps was advancing in the coastal Arakan Province, while the British IV Corps had pushed two Indian infantry divisions almost to the Chindwin River at Tamu and Tiddim. These two divisions were widely separated and vulnerable to being isolated.The Japanese planned that a division from the Twenty-Eighth Army would launch a diversionary attack in the Arakan, codenamed Ha Go, in the first week of February. This would attract Allied reserves from Assam, and also create the impression that the Japanese intended to attack Bengal through Chittagong.In the centre, Mutaguchi's Fifteenth Army would launch the main attack into Manipur in the first week in March, aiming to capture Imphal and Kohima, scattering British forces and forestalling any offensive movements against Burma.[12][13] In detail, the Fifteenth Army plans were:The 33rd Infantry Division under Lieutenant-General Motoso Yanagida would destroy the 17th Indian Infantry Division at Tiddim, then attack Imphal from the south.\nYamamoto Force, formed from units detached from the 33rd and 15th Divisions under Major-General Tsunoru Yamamoto (commander of 33rd Division's Infantry Group), supported by tanks and heavy artillery, would destroy the 20th Indian Infantry Division at Tamu, then attack Imphal from the east.\nThe 15th Infantry Division under Lieutenant-General Masafumi Yamauchi would envelop Imphal from the north.\nIn a separate subsidiary operation, the 31st Infantry Division under Lieutenant-General Kōtoku Satō would isolate Imphal by capturing Kohima, then push onwards to capture the vital Allied supply base at Dimapur in the Brahmaputra valley.At the insistence of Bose, two brigades from the Indian National Army were also assigned to the attacks on Imphal from the south and east. The Japanese had originally intended using the INA as auxiliaries to their forces only, for reconnaissance and propaganda.[14]The staff at Burma Area Army had originally thought this plan too risky. They believed it was unwise to separate the attacking forces so widely, but several officers who were vocal in their opposition were transferred.[15] Mutaguchi's divisional commanders were also pessimistic. They thought that Mutaguchi was gambling too heavily on gaining early success to solve supply problems. Some of them thought him a \"blockhead\", or reckless.","title":"Japanese plans"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"British Fourteenth Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Fourteenth_Army"},{"link_name":"William Slim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Slim"},{"link_name":"George Giffard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Giffard"},{"link_name":"Geoffry Scoones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffry_Scoones"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"In early 1944, the Allied formations in Assam and Arakan were part of the British Fourteenth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General William Slim. Over the preceding year, since the failure of an earlier offensive in the Arakan, he and his predecessor, General George Giffard, had been striving to improve the health, training and morale of the British and Indian units of the army. Through improvements in the lines of communication, better administration in the rear areas, and above all, better supply of fresh rations and medicines, these efforts had been successful. The Allies had also developed methods to counter the standard Japanese tactics of outflanking and isolating formations. In particular, they would increasingly depend upon aircraft to supply cut-off units. The Japanese had not anticipated this, and their attacks would be thwarted several times.From various intelligence sources, Slim and Lieutenant General Geoffry Scoones (commanding Indian IV Corps) had learned of the general intentions of the Japanese to launch an offensive, although they did not have specific information on the Japanese objectives and were to be surprised several times when the Japanese did launch their attacks. Rather than anticipate the Japanese by attacking across the Chindwin, or trying to defend the line of the river itself, Slim intended to exploit known Japanese logistical weaknesses by withdrawing into Imphal to fight a defensive battle where the Japanese would be unable to supply their troops.[16]","title":"Allied plans"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japanese 55th Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/55th_Division_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"The diversionary Japanese attack in Arakan began on 5 February. A force from the Japanese 55th Division infiltrated the lines of Indian XV Corps to overrun an Indian divisional headquarters and isolate the Corps' forward divisions. When they tried to press their attacks against a hastily fortified administrative area known as the \"Admin Box\", they found that Allied aircraft dropped supplies to the garrison, while the Japanese themselves were cut off from their supply sources and starved. British and Indian tanks and infantry broke through a hill pass to relieve the defenders of the Box. The badly supplied and starving Japanese forces were forced to withdraw.[17]","title":"Ha Go"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"U Go"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Imphal","text":"The main U Go offensive began on 6 March 1944. Slim and Scoones had given their forward divisions orders to withdraw too late. The 20th Indian Division withdrew safely, but the 17th Indian Division was cut off and forced to fight its way back into the Imphal plain. Scoones was forced to commit almost all his reserves to help the 17th Division. Because the diversionary offensive in the Arakan had already failed, the Allies were able to fly a division (including its artillery and front-line transport) from the Arakan front to Imphal, in time to prevent the Japanese 15th Division overrunning Imphal from the north.During April, the Japanese attacks against the defences at the edge of the Imphal plain were all held. In May, IV Corps began a counter-offensive, pushing northward to link up with a relieving force fighting its way southward from Kohima. Although the Allied progress was slow, the Japanese 15th Division was forced to withdraw through lack of supply, and the Allies reopened the Kohima–Imphal road on 22 June, ending the siege (although the Japanese continued to mount attacks from the south and east of Imphal).","title":"U Go"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Indian XXXIII Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XXXIII_Corps_(British_India)"},{"link_name":"Kōtoku Satō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dtoku_Sat%C5%8D"}],"sub_title":"Kohima","text":"The battle of Kohima took place in two stages. From 3 to 16 April 1944, the Japanese 31st Division attempted to capture Kohima ridge, a feature which dominated the road from Dimapur to Imphal on which IV Corps at Imphal depended for supply. On 16 April the small British force at Kohima was relieved, and from 18 April to 16 May the newly arrived Indian XXXIII Corps counter-attacked to drive the Japanese from the positions they had captured. At the end of May, with the Japanese starving, Lieutenant General Kōtoku Satō defied orders from Mutaguchi to stand firm and ordered his division to withdraw. Although a detachment continued to fight rearguard actions to block the road, XXXIII Corps drove south to link up with the defenders of Imphal on 22 June.","title":"U Go"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Retreat","text":"Mutaguchi continued to order fresh attacks, but by late June it was clear that the starving and disease-ridden Japanese formations were in no state to obey. When he realised that none of his formations were obeying his orders for a renewed attack, Mutaguchi finally ordered the offensive to be broken off on 3 July. The Japanese, reduced in many cases to a rabble, fell back to the Chindwin, abandoning their artillery, transport, and soldiers too sick to walk.","title":"U Go"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Allen638-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Allen638-2"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"The Japanese defeats at Kohima and Imphal were the largest up until that time. The British and Indian forces had lost around 16,987 men, dead, missing and wounded.[2] The Japanese suffered 60,643 casualties, including 13,376 dead.[2] Most of these losses were the result of starvation, disease and exhaustion.The defeat resulted in sweeping changes in command within the Japanese Army in Burma. Mutaguchi sacked all his division commanders during the operation, before being sacked himself on 30 August. Kawabe, whose health was broken, was also dismissed. Many of the senior staff officers at the headquarters of Fifteenth Army and Burma Area Army were also transferred to divisional or regimental commands.[18]","title":"Impact"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Allen643_1-0"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Allen638_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Allen638_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Allen638_2-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"JM-134","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Monos/pdfs/JM-134/JM-134.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Lebra_1977_p=20_4-0"},{"link_name":"Lebra 1977","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLebra1977"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Allen152_5-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Allen152_5-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"Fay 1993","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFFay1993"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"Fay 1993","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFFay1993"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"Fay 1993","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFFay1993"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"}],"text":"^ Allen (1984), p. 643\n\n^ a b c Allen (1984), p. 638\n\n^ JM-134 pp. 164 Retrieved 5/19/16\n\n^ Lebra 1977, p. 20\n\n^ a b Allen (1984), pp. 152–153\n\n^ Allen (1984), p. 158\n\n^ Allen (1984), pp. 159–160\n\n^ Allen (1984), pp. 164–165\n\n^ Allen (1984), p. 166\n\n^ Syonan Sinbun, 26 January 1943\n\n^ Lebra, 1977, p. 20\n\n^ Fay 1993, p. 281\n\n^ Fay 1993, p. 265\n\n^ Allen (1984), p. 170\n\n^ Allen, (1984), pp. 159–162\n\n^ Allen (1984), p. 155\n\n^ Fay 1993, p. 264\n\n^ Allen (1984), p. 386","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Latimer, Jon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Latimer"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7195-6576-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7195-6576-6"},{"link_name":"Slim, William","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Slim"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-56849-077-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56849-077-1"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Azad_Hind_Fauj"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Azad_Hind_Fauj"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Azad_Hind_Fauj"},{"link_name":"Indian National Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Army"},{"link_name":"Revolutionary conspiracy of WWI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93German_Conspiracy"},{"link_name":"Rash Behari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rash_Behari_Bose"},{"link_name":"Har Dayal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Har_Dayal"},{"link_name":"Ghadr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghadar_Party"},{"link_name":"Chatto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virendranath_Chattopadhyaya"},{"link_name":"Berlin Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Committee"},{"link_name":"Bagha Jatin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagha_Jatin"},{"link_name":"Barkatullah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Hafiz_Mohamed_Barakatullah"},{"link_name":"Kabul mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niedermayer%E2%80%93Hentig_Expedition"},{"link_name":"Provisional Government of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_India"},{"link_name":"Imperial Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Pan Asianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan-Asianism"},{"link_name":"Greater East Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_East_Asia_Co-Prosperity_Sphere"},{"link_name":"more","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Indian_independence_movement"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1931_Flag_of_India.svg"},{"link_name":"Indian IndependenceLeague (IIL)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Independence_League"},{"link_name":"Pritam Singh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giani_Pritam_Singh_Dhillon"},{"link_name":"Swami Satyananda Puri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prafulla_Kumar_Sen"},{"link_name":"Indian National Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Council"},{"link_name":"I Fujiwara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwaichi_Fujiwara"},{"link_name":"F Kikan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F_Kikan"},{"link_name":"K.P.K. Menon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._P._K._Menon"},{"link_name":"A.M. Sahay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._M._Sahay"},{"link_name":"S.A. Ayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._A._Ayer"},{"link_name":"Rash Behari Bose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rash_Behari_Bose"},{"link_name":"Bidadary Resolutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidadary_Resolutions"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Conference"},{"link_name":"H Iwakuro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hideo_Iwakuro"},{"link_name":"I Kikan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Kikan"},{"link_name":"Bangkok Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok_Conference"},{"link_name":"Azad Hind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azad_Hind"},{"link_name":"Hikari Kikan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hikari_Kikan"},{"link_name":"Azad Hind Dal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azad_Hind_Dal"},{"link_name":"more","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Indian_Independence_League"},{"link_name":"Subhas Chandra Bose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subhas_Chandra_Bose"},{"link_name":"Indian National Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Congress"},{"link_name":"C.R. Das","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chittaranjan_Das"},{"link_name":"Sarat Bose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarat_Chandra_Bose"},{"link_name":"Purna Swaraj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purna_Swaraj"},{"link_name":"Bengal Volunteers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_Volunteers"},{"link_name":"Emilie Schenkl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilie_Schenkl"},{"link_name":"Forward Bloc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_India_Forward_Bloc"},{"link_name":"Indian Legion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Legion"},{"link_name":"U-180","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_submarine_U-180"},{"link_name":"Azad Hind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azad_Hind"},{"link_name":"Habib-ur-Rahman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habib_ur_Rahman_(Indian_National_Army_officer)"},{"link_name":"Death controversy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_of_Subhas_Chandra_Bose"},{"link_name":"more","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Subhas_Chandra_Bose"},{"link_name":"Indian NationalArmy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Army"},{"link_name":"Battle of Malaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayan_Campaign"},{"link_name":"Mohan Singh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohan_Singh_(general)"},{"link_name":"Fall of Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore"},{"link_name":"Farrer Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrer_Park_address"},{"link_name":"First INA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Indian_National_Army"},{"link_name":"First Arakan offensive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Arakan_offensive"},{"link_name":"Hindustan Field Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan_Field_Force"},{"link_name":"Jiffs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiffs"},{"link_name":"Azad Brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azad_Brigade"},{"link_name":"Gandhi Brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandhi_Brigade_(regiment)"},{"link_name":"Nehru Brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nehru_Brigade"},{"link_name":"Subhas Brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subhas_Brigade"},{"link_name":"Bahadur Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahadur_Group"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Boys"},{"link_name":"Rani of Jhansi Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rani_of_Jhansi_Regiment"},{"link_name":"Andaman and Nicobar Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_the_Andaman_Islands"},{"link_name":"Mohammed Zaman Kiani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_Zaman_Kiani"},{"link_name":"Lakshmi Sahgal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakshmi_Sahgal"},{"link_name":"A.D. Loganathan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._D._Loganathan"},{"link_name":"J.R. Bhonsle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._Bhonsle"},{"link_name":"Janaki Davar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janaky_Athi_Nahappan"},{"link_name":"Rasammah Bhupalan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasammah_Bhupalan"},{"link_name":"Shaukat Malik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaukat_Malik"},{"link_name":"John Thivy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Thivy"},{"link_name":"Battles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battles_and_operations_of_the_Indian_National_Army"},{"link_name":"Burma theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Campaign"},{"link_name":"Admin Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Admin_Box"},{"link_name":"U-Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Battle of Imphal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal"},{"link_name":"Battle of Kohima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kohima"},{"link_name":"Battle of Irrawaddy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Pokoku_and_Irrawaddy_River_operations"},{"link_name":"Battle of Meiktila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Meiktila_and_Mandalay"},{"link_name":"Surrender of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"more","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Indian_National_Army"},{"link_name":"Red Fort trials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_National_Army_trials"},{"link_name":"CSDIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSDIC(I)"},{"link_name":"Dhillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurbaksh_Singh_Dhillon"},{"link_name":"Sahgal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prem_Sahgal"},{"link_name":"Shah Nawaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Nawaz_Khan_(general)"},{"link_name":"Burhan-ud-Din","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burhan-ud-Din_of_Chitral"},{"link_name":"INA Defence Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INA_Defence_Committee"},{"link_name":"Kailash Nath Katju","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kailash_Nath_Katju"},{"link_name":"Asaf Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asaf_Ali"},{"link_name":"Tej Bahadur Sapru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tej_Bahadur_Sapru"},{"link_name":"Bhulabhai Desai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhulabhai_Desai"},{"link_name":"Jawaharlal Nehru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru"},{"link_name":"Bombay mutiny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Indian_Navy_mutiny"},{"link_name":"more","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Indian_National_Army_trials"},{"link_name":"Azad Hind Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azad_Hind_Radio"},{"link_name":"Battaglione Azad Hindoustan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battaglione_Azad_Hindoustan"},{"link_name":"Special Bureau for India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Bureau_for_India"},{"link_name":"Azad Hind Decorations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decorations_of_Azad_Hind"},{"link_name":"Selarang Barracks incident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selarang_Barracks_incident"},{"link_name":"Japanese occupation of Burma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Burma"},{"link_name":"Burma Area Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Burma_Area_Army"},{"link_name":"Masakasu Kawabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakazu_Kawabe"},{"link_name":"India in World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"14th Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteenth_Army_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"William Slim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Slim,_1st_Viscount_Slim"},{"link_name":"Malaysian Indian Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian_Indian_Congress"},{"link_name":"INA treasure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INA_treasure_controversy"},{"link_name":"Peter Fay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_W._Fay"},{"link_name":"Joyce Lebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joyce_Lebra"},{"link_name":"Hugh Toye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Toye"},{"link_name":"more","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II"}],"text":"Latimer, Jon (2004). Burma: The Forgotten War. John Murray. ISBN 0-7195-6576-6.\nSlim, William (1961). Defeat into Victory. New York: David McKay. ISBN 1-56849-077-1.vteIndian National ArmyHistorical\nRevolutionary conspiracy of WWI\nRash Behari\nHar Dayal\nGhadr\nChatto\nBerlin Committee\nBagha Jatin\nBarkatullah\nKabul mission\nProvisional Government of India\nImperial Japan\nPan Asianism\nGreater East Asia\nmore\nIndian IndependenceLeague (IIL)\nPritam Singh\nSwami Satyananda Puri\nIndian National Council\nI Fujiwara\nF Kikan\nK.P.K. Menon\nA.M. Sahay\nS.A. Ayer\nRash Behari Bose\nBidadary Resolutions\nTokyo Conference\nH Iwakuro\nI Kikan\nBangkok Conference\nAzad Hind\nHikari Kikan\nAzad Hind Dal\nmore\nSubhas Chandra Bose\nIndian National Congress\nC.R. Das\nSarat Bose\nPurna Swaraj\nBengal Volunteers\nEmilie Schenkl\nForward Bloc\nIndian Legion\nU-180\nAzad Hind\nHabib-ur-Rahman\nDeath controversy\nmore\nIndian NationalArmy\nBattle of Malaya\nMohan Singh\nFall of Singapore\nFarrer Park\nFirst INA\nFirst Arakan offensive\nHindustan Field Force\nJiffs\nAzad Brigade\nGandhi Brigade\nNehru Brigade\nSubhas Brigade\nBahadur Group\nTokyo Boys\nRani of Jhansi Regiment\nAndaman and Nicobar Islands\nMohammed Zaman Kiani\nLakshmi Sahgal\nA.D. Loganathan\nJ.R. Bhonsle\nJanaki Davar\nRasammah Bhupalan\nShaukat Malik\nJohn Thivy\nBattles\nBurma theatre\nAdmin Box\nU-Go\nBattle of Imphal\nBattle of Kohima\nBattle of Irrawaddy\nBattle of Meiktila\nSurrender of Japan\nmore\nRed Fort trials\nCSDIC\nDhillon\nSahgal\nShah Nawaz\nBurhan-ud-Din\nINA Defence Committee\nKailash Nath Katju\nAsaf Ali\nTej Bahadur Sapru\nBhulabhai Desai\nJawaharlal Nehru\nBombay mutiny\nmore\nRelated topics\nAzad Hind Radio\nBattaglione Azad Hindoustan\nSpecial Bureau for India\nAzad Hind Decorations\nSelarang Barracks incident\nJapanese occupation of Burma\nBurma Area Army\nMasakasu Kawabe\nIndia in World War II\n14th Army\nWilliam Slim\nMalaysian Indian Congress\nINA treasure\nPeter Fay\nJoyce Lebra\nHugh Toye\nmore","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Imphal and Kohima Campaign","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Kohima.jpg/290px-Kohima.jpg"}]

[{"reference":"Fay, Peter W. (1993), The Forgotten Army: India's Armed Struggle for Independence, 1942–1945., Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0-472-08342-2","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-08342-2","url_text":"0-472-08342-2"}]},{"reference":"Lebra, Joyce C. (1977), Japanese trained armies in South-East Asia, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-03995-6","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-03995-6","url_text":"0-231-03995-6"}]},{"reference":"Allen, Louis (1984). Burma: The Longest War. J. M. Dent & Sons. ISBN 0-460-02474-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-460-02474-4","url_text":"0-460-02474-4"}]},{"reference":"Latimer, Jon (2004). Burma: The Forgotten War. John Murray. ISBN 0-7195-6576-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Latimer","url_text":"Latimer, Jon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7195-6576-6","url_text":"0-7195-6576-6"}]},{"reference":"Slim, William (1961). Defeat into Victory. New York: David McKay. ISBN 1-56849-077-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Slim","url_text":"Slim, William"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56849-077-1","url_text":"1-56849-077-1"}]}]

[{"Link":"http://ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Monos/pdfs/JM-134/JM-134.pdf","external_links_name":"JM-134"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extra_dimensions

Extra dimensions

["1 References","2 External links"]

Proposed higher dimensions of space and time In physics, extra dimensions are proposed additional space or time dimensions beyond the (3 + 1) typical of observed spacetime, such as the first attempts based on the Kaluza–Klein theory. Among theories proposing extra dimensions are: Large extra dimension, mostly motivated by the ADD model, by Nima Arkani-Hamed, Savas Dimopoulos, and Gia Dvali in 1998, in an attempt to solve the hierarchy problem. This theory requires that the fields of the Standard Model are confined to a four-dimensional membrane, while gravity propagates in several additional spatial dimensions that are large compared to the Planck scale. Warped extra dimensions, such as those proposed by the Randall–Sundrum model (RS), based on warped geometry where the universe is a five-dimensional anti-de Sitter space and the elementary particles except for the graviton are localized on a (3 + 1)-dimensional brane or branes. Universal extra dimension, proposed and first studied in 2000, assume, at variance with the ADD and RS approaches, that all fields propagate universally in extra dimensions. Multiple time dimensions, i.e. the possibility that there might be more than one dimension of time, has occasionally been discussed in physics and philosophy, although those models have to deal with the problem of causality. References ^ Rizzo, Thomas G. (2004). "Pedagogical Introduction to Extra Dimensions". SLAC Summer Institute. arXiv:hep-ph/0409309. Bibcode:2004hep.ph....9309R. ^ For a pedagogical introduction, see M. Shifman (2009). Large Extra Dimensions: Becoming acquainted with an alternative paradigm. Crossing the boundaries: Gauge dynamics at strong coupling. Singapore: World Scientific. arXiv:0907.3074. Bibcode:2010IJMPA..25..199S. doi:10.1142/S0217751X10048548. ^ Randall, Lisa; Sundrum, Raman (1999). "Large Mass Hierarchy from a Small Extra Dimension". Physical Review Letters. 83 (17): 3370–3373. arXiv:hep-ph/9905221. Bibcode:1999PhRvL..83.3370R. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.3370. External links Quotations related to Extra dimensions at Wikiquote

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Haack

Susan Haack

["1 Career","1.1 Education","2 Philosophical work","3 Memberships","4 Selected writings","5 References","6 Sources","7 External links"]

British philosopher and academic (born 1945) Susan HaackHaack in 2005Born1945 (age 78–79)EnglandAlma materSt Hilda's College, OxfordEraContemporary philosophyRegionWestern philosophySchoolAnalyticNeopragmatismFoundherentismInstitutionsUniversity of CambridgeUniversity of WarwickUniversity of MiamiMain interestsPhilosophy of sciencePhilosophy of logicEpistemologyPragmatismNotable ideasFoundherentism Susan Haack (born 1945) is a distinguished professor in the humanities, Cooper Senior Scholar in Arts and Sciences, professor of philosophy, and professor of law at the University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida. Haack has written on logic, the philosophy of language, epistemology, and metaphysics. Her pragmatism follows that of Charles Sanders Peirce. Career Education Haack is a graduate of the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge (B.A., B.Phil., Oxford; Ph.D., Cambridge). She was elected into Phi Beta Kappa as an honorary member. At Oxford, she studied at St. Hilda's College, where her first philosophy teacher was Jean Austin, the widow of J. L. Austin. As an undergraduate, she took Politics, Philosophy and Economics and said of her taste for philosophy: "it was, initially, the 'politics' part that most appealed to me. But somewhere down the line, despite encouragement from my politics tutor to pursue that subject, philosophy took over." She studied Plato with Gilbert Ryle and logic with Michael Dummett. David Pears supervised her B.Phil. dissertation on ambiguity. At Cambridge, she wrote her PhD under the supervision of Timothy Smiley. She held the positions of Fellow of New Hall, Cambridge and professor of philosophy at the University of Warwick before taking her current position at the University of Miami. Haack has said of her career that she is "very independent": rather than follow philosophical fads and fashions, I pursue questions I believe are important, and tackle them in the ways that seem most likely to yield results; I am beholden to no clique or citation cartel; I put no stock in the ranking of philosophy graduate programs over which my colleagues obsess; I accept no research or travel funds from my university; I avoid publishing in journals that insist on taking all the rights to my work; etc., etc. Naturally, this independence comes at a price; but it also earns me the freedom to do the best work I can, without self-censorship, and to communicate with a much wider audience than the usual "niche literature" does Philosophical work Haack's major contribution to philosophy, in the 1993 book Evidence and Inquiry is her epistemological theory called foundherentism, which is her attempt to avoid the logical problems of both pure foundationalism (which is susceptible to infinite regress) and pure coherentism (which is susceptible to circularity). She illustrates this idea with the metaphor of the crossword puzzle. A highly simplified version of this proceeds as follows: Finding an answer using a clue is analogous to a foundational source (grounded in empirical evidence). Making sure that the interlocking words are mutually sensible is analogous to justification through coherence. Both are necessary components in the justification of knowledge. Haack has been a fierce critic of Richard Rorty. She wrote a play, We Pragmatists ...: Peirce and Rorty in Conversation, consisting entirely of quotes from both philosophers. She performed the role of Peirce. Haack published a vigorous essay in the New Criterion, taking strong exception to many of Rorty's views, especially his claim to be a sort of pragmatist. In Manifesto of a Passionate Moderate, Haack is highly critical of the view that there is a specifically female perspective on logic and scientific truth and is critical of feminist epistemology. She holds that many feminist critiques of science and philosophy are excessively concerned with political correctness. Haack describes her 2003 book Defending Science – Within Reason: Between Scientism and Cynicism, as a defence of scientific inquiry from the moderate viewpoint. During an interview with D.J. Grothe, then of the Center for Inquiry, Haack put forward the proposition that those on the far left consider science to be rhetoric motivated by power or politics, and she then proceeds to show how science can, and often does provide real benefits and gains, regardless of what the left may claim. The book offers a sounder and more solid defence of scientific inquiry in response to the narrow logical models of rationality proposed by some philosophers of science. Haack's opinion on the topic of inquiry, whoever may be undertaking it, is that good evidence, sound methods, transparent review and fitting new discovery into the collective sphere of human knowledge are signs of robust inquiry. Haack claims that quality inquiry can be done by many, however the scientific community has numerous tools or helps that have brought many benefits to mankind, and which help foster science's credibility. These tools and helps may not be available to those engaged in individual inquiry. When asked about how she responds to paranormal or supernatural claims, Haack indicates supporters of such claims have a heavy burden of proof. Rather than labelling such claims as pseudo-science, she admits these things can be "pretty bad stuff" and if they are to be considered seriously, they would need extraordinary evidence, and that such evidence should fit with the best warranted scientific theory about how things are. In this interview Haack also responds to the question of religion's compatibility with science. She agrees there is great tension between the two. While stating her disagreement with British philosopher of religion Richard G. Swinburne and Stephen Jay Gould, she referred to the pertinent chapter of her book for a comprehensive understanding of her views on this matter. In the related chapter ten of Defending Science, Haack disagrees with Gould's claim that science and religion have their own distinct domains that do not overlap. (See NOMA). Haack also disagrees with Swinburne. Haack believes that while scientists, historians and detectives play a useful role in scientific inquiry, theologians do not. Haack shows how religion and science make claims about how the world is. She shows how science and religion also make assertions as to what could lead to a better human condition. By these statements, Haack shows that religion and science do not enjoy their own separate space. She points out areas where prior and current religious claims about the natural universe are strongly refuted by the best warranted findings of science. She also stipulates that controversy and unanswered questions abound in modern science. She summarises her defence for scientific inquiry by stating that she makes no apology for reserving her "greatest admiration for those who delight to exercise the mind, no matter which way it takes them...those for whom doing their damnedest with the mind, no holds barred, is a point of honor". She has written for Free Inquiry magazine and the Council for Secular Humanism. Haack's work has been reviewed and cited in the popular press, such as The Times Literary Supplement as well as in academic journals. Memberships Haack is an honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa Society and Phi Kappa Phi, a past President of the Charles S. Peirce Society, and a past member of the US/UK Educational Commission. Selected writings Deviant Logic. Cambridge University Press, 1974. Haack, Susan; Kolenda, Konstantin (1977). "Two Fallibilists in Search of the Truth". Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society. 51 (Supplementary Volumes): 63–104. doi:10.1093/aristoteliansupp/51.1.63. JSTOR 4106816. (Charles Sanders Peirce and Karl Popper have strikingly similar views on the propensity theory of probability and philosophy of science.) Philosophy of Logics. Cambridge University Press, 1978. Evidence and Inquiry. Blackwell, 1993. Second edition, Prometheus Books 2009. Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism. The University of Chicago Press, 1996. (Extends the 1974 Deviant Logic, with some additional essays published between 1973 and 1980, particularly on fuzzy logic, cf The Philosophical Review, 107:3, 468–471 ) "Vulgar Rortyism," The New Criterion 16, 1997. Manifesto of a Passionate Moderate: Unfashionable Essays. The University of Chicago Press, 1997. Defending Science – Within Reason: Between Scientism and Cynicism. Prometheus Books, 2003. ISBN 1-59102-117-0. "Trial and Error: The Supreme Court's Philosophy of Science". American Journal of Public Health, 2005. Pragmatism, Old and New (Robert Lane, associate editor). Prometheus Books, 2006. Putting Philosophy to Work: Inquiry and Its Place in Culture. Prometheus Books, 2008. Evidence Matters: Science, Proof and Truth in the Law. Cambridge University Press, 2014. References ^ Pragmatism – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ^ a b "Interview with Susan Haack". Richard Carrier Blogs. 6 May 2012. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. Retrieved 11 May 2012. ^ Aune, B. (1996). "Haack's Evidence and Inquiry". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 56 (3): 627–632. doi:10.2307/2108389. JSTOR 2108389. ^ Flage, D. E. (1995). "Evidence and Inquiry: Towards Reconstruction in Epistemology". The Review of Metaphysics. 49 (1): 136–138. JSTOR 20129822. ^ Fumerton, R. (1998). "Evidence and Enquiry". The Philosophical Quarterly. 48 (192): 409–412. JSTOR 2660334. ^ Haack, Susan (1993). "Ch. 9: Vulgar Pragmatism: an Unedifying Prospect". Evidence and Inquiry. Oxford UK: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-11851-9. OL 1398949M. ^ Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Richard Rorty". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ^ Haack, Susan (November 1997). "Vulgar Rortyism". The New Criterion. ^ Haack, Susan (2000) . Manifesto of a Passionate Moderate: Unfashionable Essays. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31137-1. ^ Lynn Hankinson Nelson (1995). "The Very Idea of Feminist Epistemology". Hypatia. 10 (3): 31–49. doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.1995.tb00736.x. JSTOR 3810236. S2CID 144075886. ^ Susan, Haack. "Interview with D.J Groeth". Center for Inquiry. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 26 January 2014. ^ Haack, Susan (2003). Defending Science – Within Reason: between Scientisim and Cynicism. Chapter 10, "And, in Conclusion": Prometheus Books. p. 175. ISBN 1-59102-117-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) ^ "The Charles S. Peirce Society". Sources Christian, Rose Ann (2009). "Restricting the Scope of the Ethics of Belief: Haack's Alternative to Clifford and James". J Am Acad Relig. 77 (3): 461–493. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfp037. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Susan Haack. Listen to this article (6 minutes) This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 20 September 2012 (2012-09-20), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles) Susan Haack's Web Page at University of Miami. Interview with Susan Haack by Richard Carrier Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Spain France BnF data Germany Israel Belgium United States Czech Republic Korea Netherlands Poland Academics PhilPeople zbMATH Other IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"distinguished professor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_professor"},{"link_name":"University of Miami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Miami"},{"link_name":"Coral Gables, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_Gables,_Florida"},{"link_name":"logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic"},{"link_name":"philosophy of language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_language"},{"link_name":"epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology"},{"link_name":"metaphysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics"},{"link_name":"pragmatism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism"},{"link_name":"Charles Sanders Peirce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce"}],"text":"British philosopher and academic (born 1945)Susan Haack (born 1945) is a distinguished professor in the humanities, Cooper Senior Scholar in Arts and Sciences, professor of philosophy, and professor of law at the University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida.Haack has written on logic, the philosophy of language, epistemology, and metaphysics. Her pragmatism follows that of Charles Sanders Peirce.","title":"Susan Haack"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Phi Beta Kappa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Beta_Kappa"},{"link_name":"St. Hilda's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Hilda%27s_College,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"J. L. Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._L._Austin"},{"link_name":"Politics, Philosophy and Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics,_Philosophy_and_Economics"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carrier-2"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Gilbert Ryle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle"},{"link_name":"Michael Dummett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Dummett"},{"link_name":"David Pears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Pears"},{"link_name":"ambiguity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity"},{"link_name":"Timothy Smiley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Smiley"},{"link_name":"New Hall, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hall,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"University of Warwick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Warwick"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carrier-2"}],"sub_title":"Education","text":"Haack is a graduate of the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge (B.A., B.Phil., Oxford; Ph.D., Cambridge). She was elected into Phi Beta Kappa as an honorary member. At Oxford, she studied at St. Hilda's College, where her first philosophy teacher was Jean Austin, the widow of J. L. Austin. As an undergraduate, she took Politics, Philosophy and Economics and said of her taste for philosophy: \"it was, initially, the 'politics' part that most appealed to me. But somewhere down the line, despite encouragement from my politics tutor to pursue that subject, philosophy took over.\"[2]She studied Plato with Gilbert Ryle and logic with Michael Dummett. David Pears supervised her B.Phil. dissertation on ambiguity. At Cambridge, she wrote her PhD under the supervision of Timothy Smiley. She held the positions of Fellow of New Hall, Cambridge and professor of philosophy at the University of Warwick before taking her current position at the University of Miami.Haack has said of her career that she is \"very independent\":rather than follow philosophical fads and fashions, I pursue questions I believe are important, and tackle them in the ways that seem most likely to yield results; I am beholden to no clique or citation cartel; I put no stock in the ranking of philosophy graduate programs over which my colleagues obsess; I accept no research or travel funds from my university; I avoid publishing in journals that insist on taking all the rights to my work; etc., etc. Naturally, this independence comes at a price; but it also earns me the freedom to do the best work I can, without self-censorship, and to communicate with a much wider audience than the usual \"niche literature\" does[2]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"epistemological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology"},{"link_name":"foundherentism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundherentism"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"foundationalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundationalism"},{"link_name":"coherentism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherentism"},{"link_name":"empirical evidence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence"},{"link_name":"Richard Rorty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Rorty"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Peirce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce"},{"link_name":"Rorty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Rorty"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"New Criterion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Criterion"},{"link_name":"feminist epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_epistemology"},{"link_name":"political correctness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_correctness"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"scientific inquiry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_inquiry"},{"link_name":"D.J. Grothe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D.J._Grothe"},{"link_name":"Center for Inquiry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Inquiry"},{"link_name":"Richard G. Swinburne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_G._Swinburne"},{"link_name":"Stephen Jay Gould","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"NOMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-overlapping_magisteria"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Free Inquiry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Inquiry"},{"link_name":"Council for Secular Humanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_for_Secular_Humanism"},{"link_name":"The Times Literary Supplement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times_Literary_Supplement"}],"text":"Haack's major contribution to philosophy, in the 1993 book Evidence and Inquiry is her epistemological theory called foundherentism,[3][4][5] which is her attempt to avoid the logical problems of both pure foundationalism (which is susceptible to infinite regress) and pure coherentism (which is susceptible to circularity). She illustrates this idea with the metaphor of the crossword puzzle. A highly simplified version of this proceeds as follows: Finding an answer using a clue is analogous to a foundational source (grounded in empirical evidence). Making sure that the interlocking words are mutually sensible is analogous to justification through coherence. Both are necessary components in the justification of knowledge.Haack has been a fierce critic of Richard Rorty.[6][7] She wrote a play, We Pragmatists ...: Peirce and Rorty in Conversation, consisting entirely of quotes from both philosophers. She performed the role of Peirce. Haack published a vigorous essay[8] in the New Criterion, taking strong exception to many of Rorty's views, especially his claim to be a sort of pragmatist.In Manifesto of a Passionate Moderate, Haack is highly critical of the view that there is a specifically female perspective on logic and scientific truth and is critical of feminist epistemology. She holds that many feminist critiques of science and philosophy are excessively concerned with political correctness.[9][10]Haack describes her 2003 book Defending Science – Within Reason: Between Scientism and Cynicism, as a defence of scientific inquiry from the moderate viewpoint. During an interview with D.J. Grothe, then of the Center for Inquiry, Haack put forward the proposition that those on the far left consider science to be rhetoric motivated by power or politics, and she then proceeds to show how science can, and often does provide real benefits and gains, regardless of what the left may claim. The book offers a sounder and more solid defence of scientific inquiry in response to the narrow logical models of rationality proposed by some philosophers of science. Haack's opinion on the topic of inquiry, whoever may be undertaking it, is that good evidence, sound methods, transparent review and fitting new discovery into the collective sphere of human knowledge are signs of robust inquiry. Haack claims that quality inquiry can be done by many, however the scientific community has numerous tools or helps that have brought many benefits to mankind, and which help foster science's credibility. These tools and helps may not be available to those engaged in individual inquiry. When asked about how she responds to paranormal or supernatural claims, Haack indicates supporters of such claims have a heavy burden of proof. Rather than labelling such claims as pseudo-science, she admits these things can be \"pretty bad stuff\" and if they are to be considered seriously, they would need extraordinary evidence, and that such evidence should fit with the best warranted scientific theory about how things are. In this interview Haack also responds to the question of religion's compatibility with science. She agrees there is great tension between the two. While stating her disagreement with British philosopher of religion Richard G. Swinburne and Stephen Jay Gould, she referred to the pertinent chapter of her book for a comprehensive understanding of her views on this matter.[11]In the related chapter ten of Defending Science, Haack disagrees with Gould's claim that science and religion have their own distinct domains that do not overlap. (See NOMA). Haack also disagrees with Swinburne. Haack believes that while scientists, historians and detectives play a useful role in scientific inquiry, theologians do not. Haack shows how religion and science make claims about how the world is. She shows how science and religion also make assertions as to what could lead to a better human condition. By these statements, Haack shows that religion and science do not enjoy their own separate space. She points out areas where prior and current religious claims about the natural universe are strongly refuted by the best warranted findings of science. She also stipulates that controversy and unanswered questions abound in modern science. She summarises her defence for scientific inquiry by stating that she makes no apology for reserving her \"greatest admiration for those who delight to exercise the mind, no matter which way it takes them...those for whom doing their damnedest with the mind, no holds barred, is a point of honor\".[12]She has written for Free Inquiry magazine and the Council for Secular Humanism. Haack's work has been reviewed and cited in the popular press, such as The Times Literary Supplement as well as in academic journals.","title":"Philosophical work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Phi Beta Kappa Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Beta_Kappa_Society"},{"link_name":"Phi Kappa Phi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_Kappa_Phi"},{"link_name":"Charles S. Peirce Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce#CSPS"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Haack is an honorary member of Phi Beta Kappa Society and Phi Kappa Phi, a past President of the Charles S. Peirce Society,[13] and a past member of the US/UK Educational Commission.","title":"Memberships"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Deviant Logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deviant_Logic"},{"link_name":"Haack, Susan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1093/aristoteliansupp/51.1.63","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1093%2Faristoteliansupp%2F51.1.63"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"4106816","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/4106816"},{"link_name":"Charles Sanders Peirce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce"},{"link_name":"Karl Popper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Popper"},{"link_name":"propensity theory of probability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propensity_probability"},{"link_name":"philosophy of science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science"},{"link_name":"The Philosophical Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Philosophical_Review"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.columbia.edu/~av72/papers/PhilReview(Review)_1998.pdf"},{"link_name":"Vulgar Rortyism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.newcriterion.com/articles.cfm/rortyism-haack-3261"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-59102-117-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59102-117-0"},{"link_name":"Trial and Error: The Supreme Court's Philosophy of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20060628074443/http://www.defendingscience.org/loader.cfm?url=%2Fcommonspot%2Fsecurity%2Fgetfile.cfm&PageID=2408"}],"text":"Deviant Logic. Cambridge University Press, 1974.\nHaack, Susan; Kolenda, Konstantin (1977). \"Two Fallibilists in Search of the Truth\". Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society. 51 (Supplementary Volumes): 63–104. doi:10.1093/aristoteliansupp/51.1.63. JSTOR 4106816. (Charles Sanders Peirce and Karl Popper have strikingly similar views on the propensity theory of probability and philosophy of science.)\nPhilosophy of Logics. Cambridge University Press, 1978.\nEvidence and Inquiry. Blackwell, 1993. Second edition, Prometheus Books 2009.\nDeviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism. The University of Chicago Press, 1996. (Extends the 1974 Deviant Logic, with some additional essays published between 1973 and 1980, particularly on fuzzy logic, cf The Philosophical Review, 107:3, 468–471 [1])\n\"Vulgar Rortyism,\" The New Criterion 16, 1997.\nManifesto of a Passionate Moderate: Unfashionable Essays. The University of Chicago Press, 1997.\nDefending Science – Within Reason: Between Scientism and Cynicism. Prometheus Books, 2003. ISBN 1-59102-117-0.\n\"Trial and Error: The Supreme Court's Philosophy of Science\". American Journal of Public Health, 2005.\nPragmatism, Old and New (Robert Lane, associate editor). Prometheus Books, 2006.\nPutting Philosophy to Work: Inquiry and Its Place in Culture. Prometheus Books, 2008.\nEvidence Matters: Science, Proof and Truth in the Law. Cambridge University Press, 2014.","title":"Selected writings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Restricting the Scope of the Ethics of Belief: Haack's Alternative to Clifford and James\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//jaar.oxfordjournals.org/content/77/3/461.short"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1093/jaarel/lfp037","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfp037"}],"text":"Christian, Rose Ann (2009). \"Restricting the Scope of the Ethics of Belief: Haack's Alternative to Clifford and James\". J Am Acad Relig. 77 (3): 461–493. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfp037.","title":"Sources"}]

[{}]

[{"reference":"Haack, Susan; Kolenda, Konstantin (1977). \"Two Fallibilists in Search of the Truth\". Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society. 51 (Supplementary Volumes): 63–104. doi:10.1093/aristoteliansupp/51.1.63. JSTOR 4106816.","urls":[{"url_text":"Haack, Susan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Faristoteliansupp%2F51.1.63","url_text":"10.1093/aristoteliansupp/51.1.63"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4106816","url_text":"4106816"}]},{"reference":"\"Interview with Susan Haack\". Richard Carrier Blogs. 6 May 2012. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. Retrieved 11 May 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120509022732/http://freethoughtblogs.com/carrier/archives/1207","url_text":"\"Interview with Susan Haack\""},{"url":"http://freethoughtblogs.com/carrier/archives/1207","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Aune, B. (1996). \"Haack's Evidence and Inquiry\". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 56 (3): 627–632. doi:10.2307/2108389. JSTOR 2108389.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_and_Phenomenological_Research","url_text":"Philosophy and Phenomenological Research"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2108389","url_text":"10.2307/2108389"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2108389","url_text":"2108389"}]},{"reference":"Flage, D. E. (1995). \"Evidence and Inquiry: Towards Reconstruction in Epistemology\". The Review of Metaphysics. 49 (1): 136–138. JSTOR 20129822.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Review_of_Metaphysics","url_text":"The Review of Metaphysics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20129822","url_text":"20129822"}]},{"reference":"Fumerton, R. (1998). \"Evidence and Enquiry\". The Philosophical Quarterly. 48 (192): 409–412. JSTOR 2660334.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_by_acquaintance#Fumerton","url_text":"Fumerton, R."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Philosophical_Quarterly","url_text":"The Philosophical Quarterly"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2660334","url_text":"2660334"}]},{"reference":"Haack, Susan (1993). \"Ch. 9: Vulgar Pragmatism: an Unedifying Prospect\". Evidence and Inquiry. Oxford UK: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-11851-9. OL 1398949M.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-11851-9","url_text":"0-631-11851-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OL_(identifier)","url_text":"OL"},{"url":"https://openlibrary.org/books/OL1398949M","url_text":"1398949M"}]},{"reference":"Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). \"Richard Rorty\". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta","url_text":"Zalta, Edward N."},{"url":"https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rorty/","url_text":"\"Richard Rorty\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy","url_text":"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"}]},{"reference":"Haack, Susan (November 1997). \"Vulgar Rortyism\". The New Criterion.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.newcriterion.com/articles.cfm/rortyism-haack-3261","url_text":"\"Vulgar Rortyism\""}]},{"reference":"Haack, Susan (2000) [1998]. Manifesto of a Passionate Moderate: Unfashionable Essays. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31137-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2ezeTXOlQngC","url_text":"Manifesto of a Passionate Moderate: Unfashionable Essays"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31137-1","url_text":"978-0-226-31137-1"}]},{"reference":"Lynn Hankinson Nelson (1995). \"The Very Idea of Feminist Epistemology\". Hypatia. 10 (3): 31–49. doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.1995.tb00736.x. JSTOR 3810236. S2CID 144075886.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypatia_(journal)","url_text":"Hypatia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1527-2001.1995.tb00736.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1527-2001.1995.tb00736.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3810236","url_text":"3810236"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144075886","url_text":"144075886"}]},{"reference":"Susan, Haack. \"Interview with D.J Groeth\". Center for Inquiry. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucifer_(cipher)

Lucifer (cipher)

["1 Overview","2 Description of the Sorkin variant","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"]

Earliest civilian block ciphers LuciferGeneralDesignersHorst Feistel et al.First published1971SuccessorsDESCipher detailKey sizes48, 64 or 128 bitsBlock sizes48, 32 or 128 bitsStructureSubstitution–permutation network, Feistel networkRounds16 In cryptography, Lucifer was the name given to several of the earliest civilian block ciphers, developed by Horst Feistel and his colleagues at IBM. Lucifer was a direct precursor to the Data Encryption Standard. One version, alternatively named DTD-1, saw commercial use in the 1970s for electronic banking. Overview Lucifer uses a combination of transposition and substitution crypting as a starting point in decoding ciphers. One variant, described by Feistel in 1971, uses a 48-bit key and operates on 48-bit blocks. The cipher is a substitution–permutation network and uses two 4-bit S-boxes. The key selects which S-boxes are used. The patent describes the execution of the cipher operating on 24 bits at a time, and also a sequential version operating on 8 bits at a time. Another variant by John L. Smith from the same year uses a 64-bit key operating on a 32-bit block, using one addition mod 4 and a singular 4-bit S-box. The construction is designed to operate on 4 bits per clock cycle. This may be one of the smallest block-cipher implementations known. Feistel later described a stronger variant that uses a 128-bit key and operates on 128-bit blocks. Sorkin (1984) described a later Lucifer as a 16-round Feistel network, also on 128-bit blocks and 128-bit keys. This version is susceptible to differential cryptanalysis; for about half the keys, the cipher can be broken with 236 chosen plaintexts and 236 time complexity. IBM submitted the Feistel-network version of Lucifer as a candidate for the Data Encryption Standard (compare the more recent AES process). It became the DES after the National Security Agency reduced the cipher's key size to 56 bits, reduced the block size to 64 bits, and made the cipher resistant against differential cryptanalysis, which was at the time known only to IBM and the NSA. The name "Lucifer" was apparently a pun on "Demon". This was in turn a truncation of "Demonstration", the name for a privacy system Feistel was working on. The operating system used could not handle the longer name. Description of the Sorkin variant The variant described by Sorkin (1984) has 16 Feistel rounds, like DES, but no initial or final permutations. The key and block sizes are both 128 bits. The Feistel function operates on a 64-bit half-block of data, together with a 64-bit subkey and 8 "interchange control bits" (ICBs). The ICBs control a swapping operation. The 64-bit data block is considered as a series of eight 8-bit bytes, and if the ICB corresponding to a particular byte is zero, the left and right 4-bit halves (nibbles) are swapped. If the ICB is one, the byte is left unchanged. Each byte is then operated on by two 4×4-bit S-boxes, denoted S0 and S1 — S0 operates on the left 4-bit nibble and S1 operates on the right. The resultant outputs are concatenated and then combined with the subkey using exclusive or (XOR); this is termed "key interruption". This is followed by a permutation operation in two stages; the first permutes each byte under a fixed permutation. The second stage mixes bits between the bytes. The key-scheduling algorithm is relatively simple. Initially, the 128 key bits are loaded into a shift register. Each round, the left 64 bits of the register form the subkey, and right eight bits form the ICB bits. After each round, the register is rotated 56 bits to the left. References ^ "QDLPluginEncryptionPS Reference - QDLPlgLucifer". www.patisoftware.eu. Retrieved 2020-11-22. ^ Horst Feistel. Block Cipher Cryptographic System, US Patent 3,798,359. Filed June 30, 1971. (IBM) ^ John Lynn Smith. Recirculating Block Cipher Cryptographic System, US Patent 3,796,830. Filed Nov 2, 1971. (IBM) ^ Horst Feistel, (1973). Cryptography and Computer Privacy". Scientific American, 228(5), May 1973, pp 15–23. ^ Sorkin, Arthur (1984). "Lucifer: a cryptographic algorithm". Cryptologia. 8 (1): 22–35. doi:10.1080/0161-118491858746. ^ Ishai Ben-Aroya, Eli Biham (1996). Differential Cryptanalysis of Lucifer. Journal of Cryptology 9(1), pp. 21–34, 1996. ^ Konheim, Alan G. (2007), Computer Security and Cryptography, John Wiley & Sons, p. 283, ISBN 9780470083970. Further reading Eli Biham, Adi Shamir (1991). Differential Cryptanalysis of Snefru, Khafre, REDOC-II, LOKI and Lucifer. CRYPTO 1991: pp156–171 Whitfield Diffie, Susan Landau (1998). Privacy on the Line: The Politics of Wiretapping and Encryption. Steven Levy. (2001). Crypto: Secrecy and Privacy in the New Code War (Penguin Press Science). External links John Savard's description of Lucifer vteIBMHistory History Mergers and acquisitions PC business acquisition by Lenovo ProductsHardwareCurrent Mainframe IBM Z Power microprocessors Power Systems Storage FlashSystem DS8000 Quantum Q System One Q System Two Eagle Osprey Heron Condor Former Blue Gene Cell microprocessors PowerPC Midrange computer Personal Computer Selectric ThinkPad Other alphaWorks Carbon Design System Cloud Cloudant Cognos Analytics Connections Criminal Reduction Utilising Statistical History Fortran ILOG Information Management Software Lotus Software Mainframe operating systems Mashup Center Planning Analytics PureQuery Quantum Platform Qiskit OpenQASM Rational Software SPSS Tivoli Software Service Automation Manager Watson Watsonx Granite WebSphere BusinessentitiesCurrent Apptio Center for The Business of Government Consulting Promontory Kenexa International subsidiaries India Press Red Hat Research Former AdStar AIM alliance Kaleida Labs Taligent Ambra Computer Cognos EduQuest Kyndryl Lexmark Merative Microelectronics Product Center Science Research Associates Service Bureau The Weather Company (Weather Underground) Facilities Towers 1250 René-Lévesque, Montreal, QC One Atlantic Center, Atlanta, GA Software Labs Rome Software Lab Toronto Software Lab IBM Buildings 330 North Wabash, Chicago, IL Honolulu Seattle Facilities Thomas J. Watson Research Center Hakozaki Facility Yamato Facility Cambridge Scientific Center IBM Hursley Canada Head Office Building IBM Rochester Initiatives Academy of Technology Deep Thunder Developer Develothon Fellow The Great Mind Challenge Linux Technology Center SkillsBuild Smarter Planet Virtual Universe Community World Community Grid Think conference Inventions Automated teller machine Cynefin framework DRAM Electronic keypunch Floppy disk Hard disk drive Magnetic stripe card Relational model Sabre airline reservation system Scanning tunneling microscope Financial swaps Universal Product Code Terminology Big Blue Commercial Processing Workload Customer engineer Globally integrated enterprise e-business Think slogan CEOs Thomas J. Watson (1914–1956) Thomas Watson Jr. (1956–1971) T. Vincent Learson (1971–1973) Frank T. Cary (1973–1981) John R. Opel (1981–1985) John Fellows Akers (1985–1993) Louis V. Gerstner Jr. (1993–2002) Samuel J. Palmisano (2002–2011) Ginni Rometty (2012–2020) Arvind Krishna (since 2020) Board ofdirectors Thomas Buberl David Farr Alex Gorsky Michelle J. Howard Arvind Krishna Andrew Liveris Martha E. Pollack Joseph R. Swedish Peter R. Voser Other A Boy and His Atom Big Blue sports teams American football Rugby union Common Public License/IBM Public License Deep Blue Deep Thought Dynamic infrastructure GlobalFoundries GUIDE International IBM and the Holocaust International chess tournament Lucifer cipher Mathematica IBM Plex SHARE computing ScicomP Unions Category Commons Navigational boxes FOSS Midrange computers Operating systems Personal computers System/360 System/370 Typewriters Vacuum tube computers vteBlock ciphers (security summary)Commonalgorithms AES Blowfish DES (internal mechanics, Triple DES) Serpent SM4 Twofish Less commonalgorithms ARIA Camellia CAST-128 GOST IDEA LEA RC5 RC6 SEED Skipjack TEA XTEA Otheralgorithms 3-Way Adiantum Akelarre Anubis Ascon BaseKing BassOmatic BATON BEAR and LION CAST-256 Chiasmus CIKS-1 CIPHERUNICORN-A CIPHERUNICORN-E CLEFIA CMEA Cobra COCONUT98 Crab Cryptomeria/C2 CRYPTON CS-Cipher DEAL DES-X DFC E2 FEAL FEA-M FROG G-DES Grand Cru Hasty Pudding cipher Hierocrypt ICE IDEA NXT Intel Cascade Cipher Iraqi Kalyna KASUMI KeeLoq KHAZAD Khufu and Khafre KN-Cipher Kuznyechik Ladder-DES LOKI (97, 89/91) Lucifer M6 M8 MacGuffin Madryga MAGENTA MARS Mercy MESH MISTY1 MMB MULTI2 MultiSwap New Data Seal NewDES Nimbus NOEKEON NUSH PRESENT Prince Q RC2 REDOC Red Pike S-1 SAFER SAVILLE SC2000 SHACAL SHARK Simon Speck Spectr-H64 Square SXAL/MBAL Threefish Treyfer UES xmx XXTEA Zodiac Design Feistel network Key schedule Lai–Massey scheme Product cipher S-box P-box SPN Confusion and diffusion Round Avalanche effect Block size Key size Key whitening (Whitening transformation) Attack(cryptanalysis) Brute-force (EFF DES cracker) MITM Biclique attack 3-subset MITM attack Linear (Piling-up lemma) Differential Impossible Truncated Higher-order Differential-linear Distinguishing (Known-key) Integral/Square Boomerang Mod n Related-key Slide Rotational Side-channel Timing Power-monitoring Electromagnetic Acoustic Differential-fault XSL Interpolation Partitioning Rubber-hose Black-bag Davies Rebound Weak key Tau Chi-square Time/memory/data tradeoff Standardization AES process CRYPTREC NESSIE Utilization Initialization vector Mode of operation Padding vteCryptographyGeneral History of cryptography Outline of cryptography Cryptographic protocol Authentication protocol Cryptographic primitive Cryptanalysis Cryptocurrency Cryptosystem Cryptographic nonce Cryptovirology Hash function Cryptographic hash function Key derivation function Digital signature Kleptography Key (cryptography) Key exchange Key generator Key schedule Key stretching Keygen Cryptojacking malware Ransomware Random number generation Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator (CSPRNG) Pseudorandom noise (PRN) Secure channel Insecure channel Subliminal channel Encryption Decryption End-to-end encryption Harvest now, decrypt later Information-theoretic security Plaintext Codetext Ciphertext Shared secret Trapdoor function Trusted timestamping Key-based routing Onion routing Garlic routing Kademlia Mix network Mathematics Cryptographic hash function Block cipher Stream cipher Symmetric-key algorithm Authenticated encryption Public-key cryptography Quantum key distribution Quantum cryptography Post-quantum cryptography Message authentication code Random numbers Steganography Category

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One version, alternatively named DTD-1,[1] saw commercial use in the 1970s for electronic banking.","title":"Lucifer (cipher)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_key"},{"link_name":"substitution–permutation network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substitution%E2%80%93permutation_network"},{"link_name":"S-boxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-box"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Sorkin (1984)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSorkin1984"},{"link_name":"Feistel network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feistel_network"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"differential cryptanalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_cryptanalysis"},{"link_name":"chosen plaintexts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chosen_plaintext"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Data Encryption Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Encryption_Standard"},{"link_name":"AES process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Encryption_Standard_process"},{"link_name":"National Security Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agency"},{"link_name":"differential cryptanalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_cryptanalysis"},{"link_name":"could not handle the longer name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filename#Length_restrictions"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Lucifer uses a combination of transposition and substitution crypting as a starting point in decoding ciphers.[clarification needed] One variant, described by Feistel in 1971,[2] uses a 48-bit key and operates on 48-bit blocks. The cipher is a substitution–permutation network and uses two 4-bit S-boxes. The key selects which S-boxes are used. The patent describes the execution of the cipher operating on 24 bits at a time, and also a sequential version operating on 8 bits at a time. Another variant by John L. Smith from the same year[3] uses a 64-bit key operating on a 32-bit block, using one addition mod 4 and a singular 4-bit S-box. The construction is designed to operate on 4 bits per clock cycle. This may be one of the smallest block-cipher implementations known. \nFeistel later described a stronger variant that uses a 128-bit key and operates on 128-bit blocks.[4]Sorkin (1984) described a later Lucifer as a 16-round Feistel network, also on 128-bit blocks and 128-bit keys.[5] This version is susceptible to differential cryptanalysis; for about half the keys, the cipher can be broken with 236 chosen plaintexts and 236 time complexity.[6]IBM submitted the Feistel-network version of Lucifer as a candidate for the Data Encryption Standard (compare the more recent AES process). It became the DES after the National Security Agency reduced the cipher's key size to 56 bits, reduced the block size to 64 bits, and made the cipher resistant against differential cryptanalysis, which was at the time known only to IBM and the NSA.The name \"Lucifer\" was apparently a pun on \"Demon\". This was in turn a truncation of \"Demonstration\", the name for a privacy system Feistel was working on. The operating system used could not handle the longer name.[7]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sorkin (1984)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSorkin1984"},{"link_name":"Feistel rounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feistel_network"},{"link_name":"nibbles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibble"},{"link_name":"exclusive or","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_or"},{"link_name":"shift register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_register"}],"text":"The variant described by Sorkin (1984) has 16 Feistel rounds, like DES, but no initial or final permutations. The key and block sizes are both 128 bits. The Feistel function operates on a 64-bit half-block of data, together with a 64-bit subkey and 8 \"interchange control bits\" (ICBs). The ICBs control a swapping operation. The 64-bit data block is considered as a series of eight 8-bit bytes, and if the ICB corresponding to a particular byte is zero, the left and right 4-bit halves (nibbles) are swapped. If the ICB is one, the byte is left unchanged. Each byte is then operated on by two 4×4-bit S-boxes, denoted S0 and S1 — S0 operates on the left 4-bit nibble and S1 operates on the right. The resultant outputs are concatenated and then combined with the subkey using exclusive or (XOR); this is termed \"key interruption\". This is followed by a permutation operation in two stages; the first permutes each byte under a fixed permutation. The second stage mixes bits between the bytes.The key-scheduling algorithm is relatively simple. Initially, the 128 key bits are loaded into a shift register. Each round, the left 64 bits of the register form the subkey, and right eight bits form the ICB bits. After each round, the register is rotated 56 bits to the left.","title":"Description of the Sorkin variant"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Eli Biham, Adi Shamir (1991). Differential Cryptanalysis of Snefru, Khafre, REDOC-II, LOKI and Lucifer. CRYPTO 1991: pp156–171\nWhitfield Diffie, Susan Landau (1998). Privacy on the Line: The Politics of Wiretapping and Encryption.\nSteven Levy. (2001). Crypto: Secrecy and Privacy in the New Code War (Penguin Press Science).","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_channel

Fibre Channel

["1 Etymology","2 History","3 Characteristics","4 Topologies","5 Layers","6 Ports","7 Media and modules","8 Storage area networks","9 Switches","10 Host bus adapters","11 See also","12 References","12.1 INCITS standards","13 Sources","14 Further reading","15 External links"]

Computer storage networking technology This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. (April 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Fibre Channel" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Fibre ChannelLayer 4. Protocol mappingLUN maskingLayer 3. Common servicesLayer 2. NetworkFibre Channel fabricFibre Channel zoningRegistered state change notificationLayer 1. Data linkFibre Channel 8b/10b encodingLayer 0. Physical Fibre Channel (FC) is a high-speed data transfer protocol providing in-order, lossless delivery of raw block data. Fibre Channel is primarily used to connect computer data storage to servers in storage area networks (SAN) in commercial data centers. Fibre Channel networks form a switched fabric because the switches in a network operate in unison as one big switch. Fibre Channel typically runs on optical fiber cables within and between data centers, but can also run on copper cabling. Supported data rates include 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 gigabit per second resulting from improvements in successive technology generations. The industry now notates this as Gigabit Fibre Channel (GFC). There are various upper-level protocols for Fibre Channel, including two for block storage. Fibre Channel Protocol (FCP) is a protocol that transports SCSI commands over Fibre Channel networks. FICON is a protocol that transports ESCON commands, used by IBM mainframe computers, over Fibre Channel. Fibre Channel can be used to transport data from storage systems that use solid-state flash memory storage medium by transporting NVMe protocol commands. Etymology When the technology was originally devised, it ran over optical fiber cables only and, as such, was called "Fiber Channel". Later, the ability to run over copper cabling was added to the specification. In order to avoid confusion and to create a unique name, the industry decided to change the spelling and use the British English fibre for the name of the standard. History Fibre Channel is standardized in the T11 Technical Committee of the International Committee for Information Technology Standards (INCITS), an American National Standards Institute (ANSI)-accredited standards committee. Fibre Channel started in 1988, with ANSI standard approval in 1994, to merge the benefits of multiple physical layer implementations including SCSI, HIPPI and ESCON. Fibre Channel was designed as a serial interface to overcome limitations of the SCSI and HIPPI physical-layer parallel-signal copper wire interfaces. Such interfaces face the challenge of, among other things, maintaining signal timing coherence across all the data-signal wires (8, 16 and finally 32 for SCSI, 50 for HIPPI) so that a receiver can determine when all the electrical signal values are "good" (stable and valid for simultaneous reception sampling). This challenge becomes evermore difficult in a mass-manufactured technology as data signal frequencies increase, with part of the technical compensation being ever reducing the supported connecting copper-parallel cable length. See Parallel SCSI. FC was developed with leading-edge multi-mode optical fiber technologies that overcame the speed limitations of the ESCON protocol. By appealing to the large base of SCSI disk drives and leveraging mainframe technologies, Fibre Channel developed economies of scale for advanced technologies and deployments became economical and widespread. Commercial products were released while the standard was still in draft. By the time the standard was ratified lower speed versions were already growing out of use. Fibre Channel was the first serial storage transport to achieve gigabit speeds where it saw wide adoption, and its success grew with each successive speed. Fibre Channel has doubled in speed every few years since 1996. In addition to a modern physical layer, Fibre Channel also added support for any number of "upper layer" protocols, including ATM, IP (IPFC) and FICON, with SCSI (FCP) being the predominant usage. Fibre Channel has seen active development since its inception, with numerous speed improvements on a variety of underlying transport media. The following tables shows the progression of native Fibre Channel speeds: Fibre Channel variants Name Line-rate (gigabaud) Line coding Nominal throughputper direction (MB/s) Market availability 133 Mbit/s 0.1328125 8b10b 12.5 1993 266 Mbit/s 0.265625 8b10b 25 1994 533 Mbit/s 0.53125 8b10b 50 ? 1GFC (Gen 1) 1.0625 8b10b 100 1997 2GFC (Gen 2) 2.125 8b10b 200 2001 4GFC (Gen 3) 4.25 8b10b 400 2004 8GFC (Gen 4) 8.5 8b10b 800 2008 16GFC (Gen 5) 14.025 64b66b 1,600 2011 32GFC (Gen 6) 28.05 256b257b 3,200 2016 64GFC (Gen 7) 28.9 256b257b (FC-FS-5) 6,400 2020 128GFC (Gen 8) 57.8 256b257b 12,800 Planned 2024 FC used throughout all applications for Fibre Channel infrastructure and devices, including edge and ISL interconnects. Each speed maintains backward compatibility at least two previous generations (I.e., 32GFC backward compatible to 16GFC and 8GFC) Inter-Switch Link variants Name Line-rate (gigabaud) Line coding Nominal throughputper direction (MB/s) Market availability 10GFC 10.51875 64b66b 1,200 2009 128GFC (Gen 6) 28.05 × 4 256b257b 12,800 2016 256GFC (Gen 7) 28.9 × 4 256b257b 25,600 2020 Inter-Switch Links, ISLs, are usually multi-lane interconnects used for non-edge, core connections, and other high speed applications demanding maximum bandwidth. ISL’s utilize high bit-rates to accommodate the funneling of edge connections. Some ISL solutions are vendor-proprietary. Characteristics Two major characteristics of Fibre Channel networks are in-order delivery and lossless delivery of raw block data. Lossless delivery of raw data block is achieved based on a credit mechanism. Topologies There are three major Fibre Channel topologies, describing how a number of ports are connected together. A port in Fibre Channel terminology is any entity that actively communicates over the network, not necessarily a hardware port. This port is usually implemented in a device such as disk storage, a Host Bus Adapter (HBA) network connection on a server or a Fibre Channel switch. Topology diagram of a Fibre Channel point-to-point connection Point-to-point (see FC-FS-3). Two devices are connected directly to each other using N_ports. This is the simplest topology, with limited connectivity. The bandwidth is dedicated. Arbitrated loop (see FC-AL-2). In this design, all devices are in a loop or ring, similar to Token Ring networking. Adding or removing a device from the loop causes all activity on the loop to be interrupted. The failure of one device causes a break in the ring. Fibre Channel hubs exist to connect multiple devices together and may bypass failed ports. A loop may also be made by cabling each port to the next in a ring. A minimal loop containing only two ports, while appearing to be similar to point-to-point, differs considerably in terms of the protocol. Only one pair of ports can communicate concurrently on a loop. Maximum speed of 8GFC. Arbitrated Loop has been rarely used after 2010 and its support is being discontinued for new gen switches. Switched Fabric (see FC-SW-6). In this design, all devices are connected to Fibre Channel switches, similar conceptually to modern Ethernet implementations. Advantages of this topology over point-to-point or Arbitrated Loop include: The Fabric can scale to tens of thousands of ports. The switches manage the state of the Fabric, providing optimized paths via Fabric Shortest Path First (FSPF) data routing protocol. The traffic between two ports flows through the switches and not through any other ports like in Arbitrated Loop. Failure of a port is isolated to a link and should not affect operation of other ports. Multiple pairs of ports may communicate simultaneously in a Fabric. Attribute Point-to-point Arbitrated loop Switched fabric Max ports 2 127 ~16777216 (224) Address size — 8-bit ALPA 24-bit port ID Side effect of port failure Link fails Loop fails (until port bypassed) — Access to medium Dedicated Arbitrated Dedicated Layers Fibre Channel does not follow the OSI model layering, and is split into five layers: Fibre Channel is a layered technology that starts at the physical layer and progresses through the protocols to the upper level protocols like SCSI and SBCCS. FC-4 – Protocol-mapping layer, in which upper level protocols such as NVM Express (NVMe), SCSI, IP, and FICON are encapsulated into Information Units (IUs) for delivery to FC-2. Current FC-4s include FCP-4, FC-SB-5, and FC-NVMe. FC-3 – Common services layer, a thin layer that could eventually implement functions like encryption or RAID redundancy algorithms; multiport connections; FC-2 – Signaling Protocol, defined by the Fibre Channel Framing and Signaling 4 (FC-FS-5) standard, consists of the low level Fibre Channel network protocols; port to port connections; FC-1 – Transmission Protocol, which implements line coding of signals; FC-0 – physical layer, includes cabling, connectors etc.; This diagram from FC-FS-4 defines the layers. Layers FC-0 are defined in Fibre Channel Physical Interfaces (FC-PI-6), the physical layers of Fibre Channel. Fibre Channel products are available at 1, 2, 4, 8, 10, 16 and 32 and 128 Gbit/s; these protocol flavors are called accordingly 1GFC, 2GFC, 4GFC, 8GFC, 10GFC, 16GFC, 32GFC or 128GFC. The 32GFC standard was approved by the INCITS T11 committee in 2013, and those products became available in 2016. The 1GFC, 2GFC, 4GFC, 8GFC designs all use 8b/10b encoding, while the 10GFC and 16GFC standard uses 64b/66b encoding. Unlike the 10GFC standards, 16GFC provides backward compatibility with 4GFC and 8GFC since it provides exactly twice the throughput of 8GFC or four times that of 4GFC. Ports FC topologies and port types: This diagram shows how N_Ports can be connected to a fabric or to another N_Port. A Loop Port (L_Port) communicates through a shared loop and is rarely used anymore. Fibre Channel ports come in a variety of logical configurations. The most common types of ports are: N_Port (Node port) An N_Port is typically an HBA port that connects to a switch's F_Port or another N_Port. Nx_Port communicating through a PN_Port that is not operating a Loop Port State Machine. F_Port (Fabric port) An F_Port is a switch port that is connected to an N_Port. E_Port (Expansion port) Switch port that attaches to another E_Port to create an Inter-Switch Link. Fibre Channel Loop protocols create multiple types of Loop Ports: L_Port (Loop port) FC_Port that contains Arbitrated Loop functions associated with the Arbitrated Loop topology. FL_Port (Fabric Loop port) L_Port that is able to perform the function of an F_Port, attached via a link to one or more NL_Ports in an Arbitrated Loop topology. NL_Port (Node Loop port) PN_Port that is operating a Loop port state machine. If a port can support loop and non-loop functionality, the port is known as: Fx_Port switch port capable of operating as an F_Port or FL_Port. Nx_Port end point for Fibre Channel frame communication, having a distinct address identifier and Name_Identifier,providing an independent set of FC-2V functions to higher levels, and having the ability to act as an Originator, a Responder, or both. A Port has a physical structure as well as logical or virtual structure. This diagram shows how a virtual port may have multiple physical ports and vice versa. Ports have virtual components and physical components and are described as: PN_Port entity that includes a Link_Control_Facility and one or more Nx_Ports. VF_Port (Virtual F_Port) instance of the FC-2V sublevel that connects to one or more VN_Ports. VN_Port (Virtual N_Port) instance of the FC-2V sublevel. VN_Port is used when it is desired to emphasize support for multiple Nx_Ports on a single Multiplexer (e.g., via a single PN_Port). VE_Port (Virtual E_Port) instance of the FC-2V sublevel that connects to another VE_Port or to a B_Port to create an Inter-Switch Link. The following types of ports are also used in Fibre Channel: A_Port (Adjacent port) combination of one PA_Port and one VA_Port operating together. B_Port (Bridge Port) Fabric inter-element port used to connect bridge devices with E_Ports on a Switch. D_Port (Diagnostic Port) A configured port used to perform diagnostic tests on a link with another D_Port. EX_Port A type of E_Port used to connect to an FC router fabric. G_Port (Generic Fabric port) Switch port that may function either as an E_Port, A_Port, or as an F_Port. GL_Port (Generic Fabric Loop port) Switch port that may function either as an E_Port, A_Port, or as an Fx_Port. PE_Port LCF within the Fabric that attaches to another PE_Port or to a B_Port through a link. PF_Port LCF within a Fabric that attaches to a PN_Port through a link. TE_Port (Trunking E_Port) A trunking expansion port that expands the functionality of E ports to support VSAN trunking, Transport quality of service (QoS) parameters, and Fibre Channel trace (fctrace) feature. U_Port (Universal port) A port waiting to become another port type VA_Port (Virtual A_Port) instance of the FC-2V sublevel of Fibre Channel that connects to another VA_Port. VEX_Port VEX_Ports are no different from EX_Ports, except underlying transport is IP rather than FC. Media and modules This section is missing information about legacy copper interfaces. Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (November 2023)This section appears to contradict itself. Please see the talk page for more information. (November 2023) Fibre Channel predominantly uses SFP/SFP+ modules with LC connector and duplex cabling, but 128GFC uses QSFP28 modules with MPO connectors and ribbon cabling. The Fibre Channel physical layer is based on serial connections that use fiber optics to copper between corresponding pluggable modules. The modules may have a single lane, dual lanes or quad lanes that correspond to the SFP, SFP-DD and QSFP form factors. Fibre Channel does not use 8- or 16-lane modules (like CFP8, QSFP-DD, or COBO used in 400GbE) and there are no plans to use these expensive and complex modules. The small form-factor pluggable transceiver (SFP) module and its enhanced version SFP+, SFP28 and SFP56 are common form factors for Fibre Channel ports. SFP modules support a variety of distances via multi-mode and single-mode optical fiber as shown in the table below. SFP modules use duplex fiber cabling with LC connectors. SFP-DD modules are used in high-density applications that need to double the throughput of traditional SFP ports. SFP-DD modules are used for high-density applications that need to double the throughput of an SFP Port. SFP-DD is defined by the SFP-DD MSA and enables breakout to two SFP ports. Two rows of electrical contacts enable doubling the throughput of SFP modules in a similar fashion as QSFP-DD. The quad small form-factor pluggable (QSFP) module began being used for switch inter-connectivity and was later adopted for use in 4-lane implementations of Gen-6 Fibre Channel supporting 128GFC. QSFP uses either LC connectors for 128GFC-CWDM4 or MPO connectors for 128GFC-SW4 or 128GFC-PSM4. MPO cabling uses 8- or 12-fiber cabling infrastructure that connects to another 128GFC port or may be broken out into four duplex LC connections to 32GFC SFP+ ports. Fibre Channel switches use either SFP or QSFP modules. Fiber type Speed (MB/s) Transmitter Medium variant Distance Single-modeFiber (SMF) 12,800 1,310 nm longwave light 128GFC-PSM4 0.5m - 0.5 km 1,270, 1,290, 1,310 and 1,330 nm longwave light 128GFC-CWDM4 0.5 m – 2 km 6,400 1,310 nm longwave light 64GFC-LW 0.5m - 10 km 3,200 1,310 nm longwave light 3200-SM-LC-L 0.5 m - 10 km 1,600 1,310 nm longwave light 1600-SM-LC-L 0.5 m – 10 km 1,490 nm longwave light 1600-SM-LZ-I 0.5 m – 2 km 800 1,310 nm longwave light 800-SM-LC-L 2 m – 10 km 800-SM-LC-I 2 m – 1.4 km 400 1,310 nm longwave light 400-SM-LC-L 2 m – 10 km 400-SM-LC-M 2 m – 4 km 400-SM-LL-I 2 m – 2 km 200 1,550 nm longwave light 200-SM-LL-V 2 m – 50 km 1,310 nm longwave light 200-SM-LC-L 2 m – 10 km 200-SM-LL-I 2 m – 2 km 100 1,550 nm longwave light 100-SM-LL-V 2 m – 50 km 1,310 nm longwave light 100-SM-LL-L100-SM-LC-L 2 m – 10 km 100-SM-LL-I 2 m – 2 km Multi-modeFiber (MMF) 12,800 850 nm shortwave light 128GFC-SW4 0 – 100 m 6,400 64GFC-SW 0 - 100m 3,200 3200-SN 0 – 100 m 1,600 1600-M5F-SN-I 0.5 m – 125 m 1600-M5E-SN-I 0.5–100 m 1600-M5-SN-S 0.5–35 m 1600-M6-SN-S 0.5–15 m 800 800-M5F-SN-I 0.5–190 m 800-M5E-SN-I 0.5–150 m 800-M5-SN-S 0.5–50 m 800-M6-SN-S 0.5–21 m 400 400-M5F-SN-I 0.5–400 m 400-M5E-SN-I 0.5–380 m 400-M5-SN-I 0.5–150 m 400-M6-SN-I 0.5–70 m 200 200-M5E-SN-I 0.5–500 m 200-M5-SN-I 0.5–300 m 200-M6-SN-I 0.5–150 m 100 100-M5E-SN-I 0.5–860 m 100-M5-SN-I 0.5–500 m 100-M6-SN-I 0.5–300 m 100-M5-SL-I 2–500 m 100-M6-SL-I 2–175 m Multi-mode fiber Fiber diameter FC media designation OM1 62.5 μm M6 OM2 50 μm M5 OM3 50 μm M5E OM4 50 μm M5F OM5 50 μm N/A Modern Fibre Channel devices support SFP+ transceiver, mainly with LC (Lucent Connector) fiber connector. Older 1GFC devices used GBIC transceiver, mainly with SC (Subscriber Connector) fiber connector. Storage area networks The Fibre Channel SAN connects servers to storage via Fibre Channel switches. The goal of Fibre Channel is to create a storage area network (SAN) to connect servers to storage. The SAN is a dedicated network that enables multiple servers to access data from one or more storage devices. Enterprise storage uses the SAN to backup to secondary storage devices including disk arrays, tape libraries, and other backup while the storage is still accessible to the server. Servers may access storage from multiple storage devices over the network as well. SANs are often designed with dual fabrics to increase fault tolerance. Two completely separate fabrics are operational and if the primary fabric fails, then the second fabric becomes the primary. Switches Fibre Channel director with SFP+ modules and LC optical fiber connectors with Optical Multimode 3 (OM3) fiber (aqua) Fibre Channel switches can be divided into two classes. These classes are not part of the standard, and the classification of every switch is a marketing decision of the manufacturer: Directors offer a high port-count in a modular (slot-based) chassis with no single point of failure (high availability). Switches are typically smaller, fixed-configuration (sometimes semi-modular), less redundant devices. A fabric consisting entirely of one vendors products is considered to be homogeneous. This is often referred to as operating in its "native mode" and allows the vendor to add proprietary features which may not be compliant with the Fibre Channel standard. If multiple switch vendors are used within the same fabric it is heterogeneous, the switches may only achieve adjacency if all switches are placed into their interoperability modes. This is called the "open fabric" mode as each vendor's switch may have to disable its proprietary features to comply with the Fibre Channel standard. Some switch manufacturers offer a variety of interoperability modes above and beyond the "native" and "open fabric" states. These "native interoperability" modes allow switches to operate in the native mode of another vendor and still maintain some of the proprietary behaviors of both. However, running in native interoperability mode may still disable some proprietary features and can produce fabrics of questionable stability. Host bus adapters Dual port 8 Gb FC host bus adapter card Dual port 16 Gb FC host bus adapter card Fibre Channel HBAs, as well as CNAs, are available for all major open systems, computer architectures, and buses, including PCI and SBus. HBAs connect servers to the Fibre Channel network and are part of a class of devices known as translation devices. Some are OS dependent. Each HBA has a unique World Wide Name (WWN), which is similar to an Ethernet MAC address in that it uses an Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI) assigned by the IEEE. However, WWNs are longer (8 bytes). There are two types of WWNs on an HBA; a World Wide Node Name (WWNN), which can be shared by some or all ports of a device, and a World Wide Port Name (WWPN), which is necessarily unique to each port. Adapters or routers can connect Fibre Channel networks to IP or Ethernet networks. See also Arbitrated loop 8b/10b encoding, 64b/66b encoding Converged network adapter (CNA) Fibre Channel electrical interface Fibre Channel fabric Fabric Application Interface Standard Fabric Shortest Path First – routing algorithm Fibre Channel zoning Registered State Change Notification Virtual Storage Area Network Fibre Channel frame Fibre Channel Logins (FLOGI) Fibre Channel network protocols Fibre Channel over Ethernet (FCoE) Fibre Channel over IP (FCIP), contrast with Internet Fibre Channel Protocol (iFCP) Fibre Channel switch Fibre Channel time-out values Gen 5 Fibre Channel Host Bus Adapter (HBA) Interconnect bottleneck FATA, IDE, ATA, SATA, SAS, AoE, SCSI, iSCSI, PCI Express IP over Fibre Channel (IPFC) List of Fibre Channel standards List of device bandwidths N_Port ID Virtualization Optical communication Optical fiber cable Parallel optical interface Serial Storage Architecture (SSA) Storage Area Network Storage Hypervisor World Wide Name References ^ a b "Fibre Channel Performance: Congestion, Slow Drain, and Over Utilization, Oh My!" (PDF). Fibre Channel Industry Association. February 6, 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-03-01. Retrieved 2018-02-28. ^ "Fibre Channel Basics" (PDF). Apple. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-29. Retrieved 2018-03-22. ^ a b c d e Preston, W. Curtis (2002). "Fibre Channel Architecture". Using SANs and NAS. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media. pp. 19–39. ISBN 978-0-596-00153-7. OCLC 472853124. ^ a b c Riabov, Vladmir V. (2004). "Storage Area Networks (SANs)". In Bidgoli, Hossein (ed.). The Internet Encyclopedia. Volume 3, P-Z. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 329–338. ISBN 978-0-471-68997-3. OCLC 55610291. ^ "Fibre Channel internals". Introduction to Storage Area Networks. IBM. 2016. p. 33. ^ a b IBM 7319 Model 100 Fibre Channel Switch 16/266 and IBM Fibre Channel Adapter/266 ^ Fibre Channel Physical and Signaling Interface (FC-PH) Rev 4.3, June 1, 1994 ^ Tom Clark, Designing Storage Area Networks: A Practical Reference for Implementing Fibre Channel and IP SANs ^ "Roadmaps". Fibre Channel Industry Association. Retrieved 2023-03-05. ^ Fibre Channel Speedmap ^ a b Brocade 32Gb platform released, Storagereview.com "Brocade G620 Gen 6 Fibre Channel Switch Released". March 2016. Archived from the original on 2016-04-04. Retrieved 2016-04-04. ^ Fibre Channel Speedmap ^ a b c d e f g Fibre Channel - Framing and Signaling - 4 (FC-FS-4) ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Fibre Channel - Switch Fabric 6 (FC-SW-6) ^ a b c d "BCFA in a Nutshell Study Guide for Exam" (PDF). Brocade Communications, Inc. February 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved June 28, 2016. ^ "Cisco MDS 9000 Family Fabric Manager Configuration Guide, Release 4.x". Cisco Systems, Inc. November 11, 2013. Archived from the original on August 21, 2016. Retrieved June 28, 2016. ^ Transmitter values listed are the currently specified values for the variant listed. Some older versions of the FC standards listed slightly different values (however, the values listed here fall within the +/− variance allowed). Individual variations for each specification are listed in the references associated with those entries in this table. FC-PH = X3T11 Project 755D; FC-PH-2 = X3T11 Project 901D; FC-PI-4 = INCITS Project 1647-D; FC-PI-5 = INCITS Project 2118D. Copies are available from INCITS Archived 2010-09-15 at the Wayback Machine. ^ "Hardware". 25 September 2012. INCITS standards ^ a b FC-PI-5 Clause 6.3 ^ a b FC-PI-5 Clause 8.1 ^ a b c d FC-PI-4 Clause 6.3 ^ a b c FC-PI-4 Clause 8.1 ^ a b FC-PH-2 lists 1300nm (see clause 6.1 and 8.1) ^ a b c FC-PI clause 8.1 ^ a b FC-PH-2 clause 8.1 ^ a b c d FC-PI-4 Clause 11 ^ FC-PH lists 1300nm (see clause 6.1 and 8.1) ^ a b FC-PH Clause 8.1 ^ FC-PI-5 Clause 6.4 ^ FC-PI-4 Clause 6.4 ^ The older FC-PH and FC-PH-2 list 850nm (for 62.5μm cables) and 780nm (for 50μm cables)(see clause 6.2, 8.2, and 8.3) ^ a b c d e FC-PI-5 Clause 8.2 ^ FC-PI-5 Annex A ^ a b c d e FC-PI-4 Clause 8.2 ^ a b c d FC-PI Clause 8.2 ^ PC-PI-4 Clause 8.2 ^ a b c PC-PI Clause 8.2 ^ FC-PH Annex C and Annex E Sources Clark, T. Designing Storage Area Networks, Addison-Wesley, 1999. ISBN 0-201-61584-3 Further reading RFC 2625 – IP and ARP over Fibre Channel RFC 2837 – Definitions of Managed Objects for the Fabric Element in Fibre Channel Standard RFC 3723 – Securing Block Storage Protocols over IP RFC 4044 – Fibre Channel Management MIB RFC 4625 – Fibre Channel Routing Information MIB RFC 4626 – MIB for Fibre Channel's Fabric Shortest Path First (FSPF) Protocol External links Fibre Channel Industry Association (FCIA) INCITS technical committee responsible for FC standards(T11) IBM SAN Survival Guide Introduction to Storage Area Networks Fibre Channel overview Fibre Channel tutorial (UNH-IOL) Storage Networking Industry Association (SNIA) Virtual fibre Channel in Hyper V FC Switch Configuration Tutorial vteTechnical and de facto standards for wired computer busesGeneral System bus Front-side bus Back-side bus Daisy chain Control bus Address bus Bus contention Bus mastering Network on a chip Plug and play List of bus bandwidths Standards SS-50 bus S-100 bus Multibus Unibus VAXBI MBus STD Bus SMBus Q-Bus Europe Card Bus ISA STEbus Zorro II Zorro III CAMAC FASTBUS LPC HP Precision Bus EISA VME VXI VXS NuBus TURBOchannel MCA SBus VLB HP GSC bus InfiniBand Ethernet UPA PCI PCI Extended (PCI-X) PXI PCI Express (PCIe) AGP Compute Express Link (CXL) Direct Media Interface (DMI) RapidIO Intel QuickPath Interconnect NVLink HyperTransport Infinity Fabric Intel Ultra Path Interconnect Coherent Accelerator Processor Interface (CAPI) SpaceWire Storage ST-506 ESDI IPI SMD Parallel ATA (PATA) Bus and Tag DSSI HIPPI Serial ATA (SATA) SCSI Parallel SAS ESCON Fibre Channel SSA SATAe PCI Express (via AHCI or NVMe logical device interface) Peripheral Apple Desktop Bus Atari SIO DCB Commodore bus HP-IL HIL MIDI RS-232 RS-422 RS-423 RS-485 Lightning DMX512-A IEEE-488 (GPIB) IEEE-1284 (parallel port) IEEE-1394 (FireWire) UNI/O 1-Wire I²C (ACCESS.bus, PMBus, SMBus) I3C SPI D²B Parallel SCSI Profibus USB Camera Link External PCIe Thunderbolt Audio ADAT Lightpipe AES3 Intel HD Audio I²S MADI McASP S/PDIF TOSLINK Portable PC Card ExpressCard Embedded Multidrop bus CoreConnect AMBA (AXI) Wishbone SLIMbus Interfaces are listed by their speed in the (roughly) ascending order, so the interface at the end of each section should be the fastest. Category vteSolid-state drivesKey terminology Encryption ECC Flash file system Flash memory SLC/MLC Flash memory controller Garbage collection IOPS MB/s Memory wear Open-channel SSD Over-provisioning Read disturb Secure erase Solid-state storage Trim command Wear leveling Write amplification Flash manufacturers Micron Samsung SK Hynix Bought Intel's NAND flash SSD business and renamed it Solidigm Flash Forward (joint venture between Western Digital and Kioxia) YMTC ControllersCaptive Western Digital SanDisk Fusion-io HGST sTec Kioxia OCZ (bankrupt, assets sold to Toshiba, which later spun off its SSD and flash business to Kioxia) Indilinx (bought by OCZ) Micron Samsung Seagate SandForce SK Hynix Bought Intel's NAND flash SSD business including controllers and renamed it Solidigm FADU Independent Greenliant Systems Goke Maxiotek Marvell Phison PMC-Sierra SMI SSD manufacturers List of solid-state drive manufacturers Interfaces Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI) Fibre Channel (FC) NVM Express (NVMe) PCI Express (PCIe) SATA Express Serial ATA (SATA) Serial attached SCSI (SAS) Universal Serial Bus (USB) Configurations HDD form factors mSATA M.2 PCI Express expansion card Thunderbolt USB Type-C U.2 U.3 EDSFF Related organizations INCITS JEDEC / JC-42, JC-64.8 ONFI NVMHCI Work Group USB-IF SATA-IO SFF Committee SNIA SSSI T10/SCSI T11/FC T13/ATA Category Authority control databases: National Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fibrechannel.org-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"computer data storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_storage"},{"link_name":"servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Preston-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Riabov-4"},{"link_name":"storage area networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_area_network"},{"link_name":"data centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_center"},{"link_name":"switched fabric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched_fabric"},{"link_name":"optical fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Preston-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Riabov-4"},{"link_name":"gigabit per second","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigabit_per_second"},{"link_name":"Fibre Channel Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_Protocol"},{"link_name":"SCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Computer_System_Interface"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Preston-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Riabov-4"},{"link_name":"FICON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FICON"},{"link_name":"ESCON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESCON"},{"link_name":"IBM mainframe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_mainframe"},{"link_name":"flash memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory"},{"link_name":"NVMe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NVM_Express"}],"text":"Fibre Channel (FC) is a high-speed data transfer protocol providing in-order, lossless[1] delivery of raw block data.[2] Fibre Channel is primarily used to connect computer data storage to servers[3][4] in storage area networks (SAN) in commercial data centers.Fibre Channel networks form a switched fabric because the switches in a network operate in unison as one big switch. Fibre Channel typically runs on optical fiber cables within and between data centers, but can also run on copper cabling.[3][4] Supported data rates include 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 gigabit per second resulting from improvements in successive technology generations. The industry now notates this as Gigabit Fibre Channel (GFC).There are various upper-level protocols for Fibre Channel, including two for block storage. Fibre Channel Protocol (FCP) is a protocol that transports SCSI commands over Fibre Channel networks.[3][4] FICON is a protocol that transports ESCON commands, used by IBM mainframe computers, over Fibre Channel. Fibre Channel can be used to transport data from storage systems that use solid-state flash memory storage medium by transporting NVMe protocol commands.","title":"Fibre Channel"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"British English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tate-5"}],"text":"When the technology was originally devised, it ran over optical fiber cables only and, as such, was called \"Fiber Channel\". Later, the ability to run over copper cabling was added to the specification. In order to avoid confusion and to create a unique name, the industry decided to change the spelling and use the British English fibre for the name of the standard.[5]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"T11 Technical Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_Committee_T11"},{"link_name":"INCITS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INCITS"},{"link_name":"American National Standards Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute"},{"link_name":"SCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSI_connector"},{"link_name":"HIPPI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIPPI"},{"link_name":"ESCON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESCON"},{"link_name":"serial interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_communication"},{"link_name":"Parallel SCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_SCSI"},{"link_name":"multi-mode optical fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-mode_optical_fiber"},{"link_name":"economies of scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economies_of_scale"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZG940168-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"ATM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode"},{"link_name":"IP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol"},{"link_name":"IPFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPFC"},{"link_name":"FICON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FICON"},{"link_name":"SCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSI"},{"link_name":"FCP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_Protocol"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Fibre Channel is standardized in the T11 Technical Committee of the International Committee for Information Technology Standards (INCITS), an American National Standards Institute (ANSI)-accredited standards committee. Fibre Channel started in 1988, with ANSI standard approval in 1994, to merge the benefits of multiple physical layer implementations including SCSI, HIPPI and ESCON.Fibre Channel was designed as a serial interface to overcome limitations of the SCSI and HIPPI physical-layer parallel-signal copper wire interfaces. Such interfaces face the challenge of, among other things, maintaining signal timing coherence across all the data-signal wires (8, 16 and finally 32 for SCSI, 50 for HIPPI) so that a receiver can determine when all the electrical signal values are \"good\" (stable and valid for simultaneous reception sampling). This challenge becomes evermore difficult in a mass-manufactured technology as data signal frequencies increase, with part of the technical compensation being ever reducing the supported connecting copper-parallel cable length. See Parallel SCSI. FC was developed with leading-edge multi-mode optical fiber technologies that overcame the speed limitations of the ESCON protocol. By appealing to the large base of SCSI disk drives and leveraging mainframe technologies, Fibre Channel developed economies of scale for advanced technologies and deployments became economical and widespread.Commercial products were released while the standard was still in draft.[6] By the time the standard was ratified lower speed versions were already growing out of use.[7] Fibre Channel was the first serial storage transport to achieve gigabit speeds[8] where it saw wide adoption, and its success grew with each successive speed. Fibre Channel has doubled in speed every few years since 1996.In addition to a modern physical layer, Fibre Channel also added support for any number of \"upper layer\" protocols, including ATM, IP (IPFC) and FICON, with SCSI (FCP) being the predominant usage.Fibre Channel has seen active development since its inception, with numerous speed improvements on a variety of underlying transport media. The following tables shows the progression of native Fibre Channel speeds:[9]FC used throughout all applications for Fibre Channel infrastructure and devices, including edge and ISL interconnects. Each speed maintains backward compatibility at least two previous generations (I.e., 32GFC backward compatible to 16GFC and 8GFC)Inter-Switch Links, ISLs, are usually multi-lane interconnects used for non-edge, core connections, and other high speed applications demanding maximum bandwidth. ISL’s utilize high bit-rates to accommodate the funneling of edge connections. Some ISL solutions are vendor-proprietary.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fibrechannel.org-1"}],"text":"Two major characteristics of Fibre Channel networks are in-order delivery and lossless delivery of raw block data. Lossless delivery of raw data block is achieved based on a credit mechanism.[1]","title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_port_(software)"},{"link_name":"hardware port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_port_(hardware)"},{"link_name":"HBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_bus_adapter"},{"link_name":"Fibre Channel switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_channel_switch"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Preston-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ben_ptpt.svg"},{"link_name":"N_ports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Ports"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Preston-3"},{"link_name":"Arbitrated loop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrated_loop"},{"link_name":"Token Ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Token_Ring"},{"link_name":"Switched Fabric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_fabric"},{"link_name":"Fibre Channel switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_channel_switch"},{"link_name":"Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"}],"text":"There are three major Fibre Channel topologies, describing how a number of ports are connected together. A port in Fibre Channel terminology is any entity that actively communicates over the network, not necessarily a hardware port. This port is usually implemented in a device such as disk storage, a Host Bus Adapter (HBA) network connection on a server or a Fibre Channel switch.[3]Topology diagram of a Fibre Channel point-to-point connectionPoint-to-point (see FC-FS-3). Two devices are connected directly to each other using N_ports. This is the simplest topology, with limited connectivity.[3] The bandwidth is dedicated.\nArbitrated loop (see FC-AL-2). In this design, all devices are in a loop or ring, similar to Token Ring networking. Adding or removing a device from the loop causes all activity on the loop to be interrupted. The failure of one device causes a break in the ring. Fibre Channel hubs exist to connect multiple devices together and may bypass failed ports. A loop may also be made by cabling each port to the next in a ring.\nA minimal loop containing only two ports, while appearing to be similar to point-to-point, differs considerably in terms of the protocol.\nOnly one pair of ports can communicate concurrently on a loop.\nMaximum speed of 8GFC.\nArbitrated Loop has been rarely used after 2010 and its support is being discontinued for new gen switches.\nSwitched Fabric (see FC-SW-6). In this design, all devices are connected to Fibre Channel switches, similar conceptually to modern Ethernet implementations. Advantages of this topology over point-to-point or Arbitrated Loop include:\nThe Fabric can scale to tens of thousands of ports.\nThe switches manage the state of the Fabric, providing optimized paths via Fabric Shortest Path First (FSPF) data routing protocol.\nThe traffic between two ports flows through the switches and not through any other ports like in Arbitrated Loop.\nFailure of a port is isolated to a link and should not affect operation of other ports.\nMultiple pairs of ports may communicate simultaneously in a Fabric.","title":"Topologies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OSI model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fibre_Channel_layers.svg"},{"link_name":"NVM Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NVM_Express"},{"link_name":"SCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSI"},{"link_name":"FICON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FICON"},{"link_name":"FC-NVMe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NVMe#NVMe-oF"},{"link_name":"encryption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encryption"},{"link_name":"RAID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAID"},{"link_name":"Fibre Channel network protocols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_network_protocols"},{"link_name":"line coding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_coding"},{"link_name":"physical layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_layer"},{"link_name":"connectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_channel_electrical_interface"},{"link_name":"8b/10b encoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8b/10b_encoding"},{"link_name":"64b/66b encoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64B/66B_encoding"}],"text":"Fibre Channel does not follow the OSI model layering, and is split into five layers:Fibre Channel is a layered technology that starts at the physical layer and progresses through the protocols to the upper level protocols like SCSI and SBCCS.FC-4 – Protocol-mapping layer, in which upper level protocols such as NVM Express (NVMe), SCSI, IP, and FICON are encapsulated into Information Units (IUs) for delivery to FC-2. Current FC-4s include FCP-4, FC-SB-5, and FC-NVMe.\nFC-3 – Common services layer, a thin layer that could eventually implement functions like encryption or RAID redundancy algorithms; multiport connections;\nFC-2 – Signaling Protocol, defined by the Fibre Channel Framing and Signaling 4 (FC-FS-5) standard, consists of the low level Fibre Channel network protocols; port to port connections;\nFC-1 – Transmission Protocol, which implements line coding of signals;\nFC-0 – physical layer, includes cabling, connectors etc.;This diagram from FC-FS-4 defines the layers.Layers FC-0 are defined in Fibre Channel Physical Interfaces (FC-PI-6), the physical layers of Fibre Channel.Fibre Channel products are available at 1, 2, 4, 8, 10, 16 and 32 and 128 Gbit/s; these protocol flavors are called accordingly 1GFC, 2GFC, 4GFC, 8GFC, 10GFC, 16GFC, 32GFC or 128GFC. The 32GFC standard was approved by the INCITS T11 committee in 2013, and those products became available in 2016. The 1GFC, 2GFC, 4GFC, 8GFC designs all use 8b/10b encoding, while the 10GFC and 16GFC standard uses 64b/66b encoding. Unlike the 10GFC standards, 16GFC provides backward compatibility with 4GFC and 8GFC since it provides exactly twice the throughput of 8GFC or four times that of 4GFC.","title":"Layers"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fibre_Channel_Topologies.svg"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-FS-4-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-SW-6-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-SW-6-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-SW-6-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-SW-6-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-SW-6-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-FS-4-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-FS-4-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Logical_Port_Structures.png"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-SW-6-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-SW-6-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-FS-4-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-SW-6-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-SW-6-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-FS-4-13"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCFA_Nutshell-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCFA_Nutshell-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-SW-6-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-SW-6-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-FS-4-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-FS-4-13"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCFA_Nutshell-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FC-SW-6-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCFA_Nutshell-15"}],"text":"FC topologies and port types: This diagram shows how N_Ports can be connected to a fabric or to another N_Port. A Loop Port (L_Port) communicates through a shared loop and is rarely used anymore.Fibre Channel ports come in a variety of logical configurations. The most common types of ports are:N_Port (Node port) An N_Port is typically an HBA port that connects to a switch's F_Port or another N_Port. Nx_Port communicating through a PN_Port that is not operating a Loop Port State Machine.[13]\nF_Port (Fabric port) An F_Port is a switch port that is connected to an N_Port.[14]\nE_Port (Expansion port) Switch port that attaches to another E_Port to create an Inter-Switch Link.[14]Fibre Channel Loop protocols create multiple types of Loop Ports:L_Port (Loop port) FC_Port that contains Arbitrated Loop functions associated with the Arbitrated Loop topology.[14]\nFL_Port (Fabric Loop port) L_Port that is able to perform the function of an F_Port, attached via a link to one or more NL_Ports in an Arbitrated Loop topology.[14]\nNL_Port (Node Loop port) PN_Port that is operating a Loop port state machine.[14]If a port can support loop and non-loop functionality, the port is known as:Fx_Port switch port capable of operating as an F_Port or FL_Port.[13]\nNx_Port end point for Fibre Channel frame communication, having a distinct address identifier and Name_Identifier,providing an independent set of FC-2V functions to higher levels, and having the ability to act as an Originator, a Responder, or both.[13]A Port has a physical structure as well as logical or virtual structure. This diagram shows how a virtual port may have multiple physical ports and vice versa.Ports have virtual components and physical components and are described as:PN_Port entity that includes a Link_Control_Facility and one or more Nx_Ports.[14]\nVF_Port (Virtual F_Port) instance of the FC-2V sublevel that connects to one or more VN_Ports.[14]\nVN_Port (Virtual N_Port) instance of the FC-2V sublevel. VN_Port is used when it is desired to emphasize support for multiple Nx_Ports on a single Multiplexer (e.g., via a single PN_Port).[13]\nVE_Port (Virtual E_Port) instance of the FC-2V sublevel that connects to another VE_Port or to a B_Port to create an Inter-Switch Link.[14]The following types of ports are also used in Fibre Channel:A_Port (Adjacent port) combination of one PA_Port and one VA_Port operating together.[14]\nB_Port (Bridge Port) Fabric inter-element port used to connect bridge devices with E_Ports on a Switch.[13]\nD_Port (Diagnostic Port) A configured port used to perform diagnostic tests on a link with another D_Port.[15]\nEX_Port A type of E_Port used to connect to an FC router fabric.[15]\nG_Port (Generic Fabric port) Switch port that may function either as an E_Port, A_Port, or as an F_Port.[14]\nGL_Port (Generic Fabric Loop port) Switch port that may function either as an E_Port, A_Port, or as an Fx_Port.[14]\nPE_Port LCF within the Fabric that attaches to another PE_Port or to a B_Port through a link.[13]\nPF_Port LCF within a Fabric that attaches to a PN_Port through a link.[13]\nTE_Port (Trunking E_Port) A trunking expansion port that expands the functionality of E ports to support VSAN trunking, Transport quality of service (QoS) parameters, and Fibre Channel trace (fctrace) feature.[16]\nU_Port (Universal port) A port waiting to become another port type[15]\nVA_Port (Virtual A_Port) instance of the FC-2V sublevel of Fibre Channel that connects to another VA_Port.[14]\nVEX_Port VEX_Ports are no different from EX_Ports, except underlying transport is IP rather than FC.[15]","title":"Ports"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fibre_Channel_Media_and_Modules.png"},{"link_name":"small form-factor pluggable transceiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_form-factor_pluggable_transceiver"},{"link_name":"single-mode optical fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-mode_optical_fiber"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SFP-DD_SMT_17c.png"},{"link_name":"quad small form-factor pluggable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QSFP"},{"link_name":"SFP+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_form-factor_pluggable_transceiver"},{"link_name":"LC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber_connector"},{"link_name":"GBIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GBIC"},{"link_name":"SC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber_connector"}],"text":"Fibre Channel predominantly uses SFP/SFP+ modules with LC connector and duplex cabling, but 128GFC uses QSFP28 modules with MPO connectors and ribbon cabling.The Fibre Channel physical layer is based on serial connections that use fiber optics to copper between corresponding pluggable modules. The modules may have a single lane, dual lanes or quad lanes that correspond to the SFP, SFP-DD and QSFP form factors. Fibre Channel does not use 8- or 16-lane modules (like CFP8, QSFP-DD, or COBO used in 400GbE) and there are no plans to use these expensive and complex modules.The small form-factor pluggable transceiver (SFP) module and its enhanced version SFP+, SFP28 and SFP56 are common form factors for Fibre Channel ports. SFP modules support a variety of distances via multi-mode and single-mode optical fiber as shown in the table below. SFP modules use duplex fiber cabling with LC connectors.SFP-DD modules are used in high-density applications that need to double the throughput of traditional SFP ports.SFP-DD modules are used for high-density applications that need to double the throughput of an SFP Port. SFP-DD is defined by the SFP-DD MSA and enables breakout to two SFP ports. Two rows of electrical contacts enable doubling the throughput of SFP modules in a similar fashion as QSFP-DD.The quad small form-factor pluggable (QSFP) module began being used for switch inter-connectivity and was later adopted for use in 4-lane implementations of Gen-6 Fibre Channel supporting 128GFC. QSFP uses either LC connectors for 128GFC-CWDM4 or MPO connectors for 128GFC-SW4 or 128GFC-PSM4. MPO cabling uses 8- or 12-fiber cabling infrastructure that connects to another 128GFC port or may be broken out into four duplex LC connections to 32GFC SFP+ ports. Fibre Channel switches use either SFP or QSFP modules.Modern Fibre Channel devices support SFP+ transceiver, mainly with LC (Lucent Connector) fiber connector. Older 1GFC devices used GBIC transceiver, mainly with SC (Subscriber Connector) fiber connector.","title":"Media and modules"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fibre_Channel_Storage_Area_Network.png"},{"link_name":"storage area network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_area_network"},{"link_name":"Enterprise storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_storage"},{"link_name":"disk arrays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_arrays"},{"link_name":"tape libraries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_library"}],"text":"The Fibre Channel SAN connects servers to storage via Fibre Channel switches.The goal of Fibre Channel is to create a storage area network (SAN) to connect servers to storage.The SAN is a dedicated network that enables multiple servers to access data from one or more storage devices. Enterprise storage uses the SAN to backup to secondary storage devices including disk arrays, tape libraries, and other backup while the storage is still accessible to the server. Servers may access storage from multiple storage devices over the network as well.SANs are often designed with dual fabrics to increase fault tolerance. Two completely separate fabrics are operational and if the primary fabric fails, then the second fabric becomes the primary.","title":"Storage area networks"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fibre_Channel_Director.jpg"},{"link_name":"optical fiber connectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber_connector"}],"text":"Fibre Channel director with SFP+ modules and LC optical fiber connectors with Optical Multimode 3 (OM3) fiber (aqua)Fibre Channel switches can be divided into two classes. These classes are not part of the standard, and the classification of every switch is a marketing decision of the manufacturer:Directors offer a high port-count in a modular (slot-based) chassis with no single point of failure (high availability).\nSwitches are typically smaller, fixed-configuration (sometimes semi-modular), less redundant devices.A fabric consisting entirely of one vendors products is considered to be homogeneous. This is often referred to as operating in its \"native mode\" and allows the vendor to add proprietary features which may not be compliant with the Fibre Channel standard.If multiple switch vendors are used within the same fabric it is heterogeneous, the switches may only achieve adjacency if all switches are placed into their interoperability modes. This is called the \"open fabric\" mode as each vendor's switch may have to disable its proprietary features to comply with the Fibre Channel standard.Some switch manufacturers offer a variety of interoperability modes above and beyond the \"native\" and \"open fabric\" states. These \"native interoperability\" modes allow switches to operate in the native mode of another vendor and still maintain some of the proprietary behaviors of both. However, running in native interoperability mode may still disable some proprietary features and can produce fabrics of questionable stability.","title":"Switches"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:QLogic_QLE2562_8Gb_FC_HBA.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Qlogic_qle2672-ck.jpg"},{"link_name":"HBAs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_adapter"},{"link_name":"CNAs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Converged_network_adapter"},{"link_name":"open systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_system_(computing)"},{"link_name":"PCI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_Component_Interconnect"},{"link_name":"SBus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SBus"},{"link_name":"World Wide Name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Name"},{"link_name":"MAC address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAC_address"},{"link_name":"Organizationally Unique Identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizationally_Unique_Identifier"},{"link_name":"IEEE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE"},{"link_name":"bytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"},{"link_name":"World Wide Node Name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Node_Name"},{"link_name":"World Wide Port Name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Port_Name"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"Dual port 8 Gb FC host bus adapter cardDual port 16 Gb FC host bus adapter cardFibre Channel HBAs, as well as CNAs, are available for all major open systems, computer architectures, and buses, including PCI and SBus. HBAs connect servers to the Fibre Channel network and are part of a class of devices known as translation devices. Some are OS dependent. Each HBA has a unique World Wide Name (WWN), which is similar to an Ethernet MAC address in that it uses an Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI) assigned by the IEEE. However, WWNs are longer (8 bytes). There are two types of WWNs on an HBA; a World Wide Node Name (WWNN), which can be shared by some or all ports of a device, and a World Wide Port Name (WWPN), which is necessarily unique to each port. Adapters or routers can connect Fibre Channel networks to IP or Ethernet networks.[18]","title":"Host bus adapters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-201-61584-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-61584-3"}],"text":"Clark, T. Designing Storage Area Networks, Addison-Wesley, 1999. ISBN 0-201-61584-3","title":"Sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2625","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2625"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2837","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2837"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3723","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3723"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"4044","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4044"},{"link_name":"MIB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_base"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"4625","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4625"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"4626","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4626"}],"text":"RFC 2625 – IP and ARP over Fibre Channel\nRFC 2837 – Definitions of Managed Objects for the Fabric Element in Fibre Channel Standard\nRFC 3723 – Securing Block Storage Protocols over IP\nRFC 4044 – Fibre Channel Management MIB\nRFC 4625 – Fibre Channel Routing Information MIB\nRFC 4626 – MIB for Fibre Channel's Fabric Shortest Path First (FSPF) Protocol","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Topology diagram of a Fibre Channel point-to-point connection","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Ben_ptpt.svg/320px-Ben_ptpt.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Fibre Channel is a layered technology that starts at the physical layer and progresses through the protocols to the upper level protocols like SCSI and SBCCS.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Fibre_Channel_layers.svg/220px-Fibre_Channel_layers.svg.png"},{"image_text":"FC topologies and port types: This diagram shows how N_Ports can be connected to a fabric or to another N_Port. A Loop Port (L_Port) communicates through a shared loop and is rarely used anymore.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Fibre_Channel_Topologies.svg/220px-Fibre_Channel_Topologies.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A Port has a physical structure as well as logical or virtual structure. This diagram shows how a virtual port may have multiple physical ports and vice versa.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Logical_Port_Structures.png/220px-Logical_Port_Structures.png"},{"image_text":"Fibre Channel predominantly uses SFP/SFP+ modules with LC connector and duplex cabling, but 128GFC uses QSFP28 modules with MPO connectors and ribbon cabling.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Fibre_Channel_Media_and_Modules.png/220px-Fibre_Channel_Media_and_Modules.png"},{"image_text":"SFP-DD modules are used in high-density applications that need to double the throughput of traditional SFP ports.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/SFP-DD_SMT_17c.png/220px-SFP-DD_SMT_17c.png"},{"image_text":"The Fibre Channel SAN connects servers to storage via Fibre Channel switches.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Fibre_Channel_Storage_Area_Network.png/220px-Fibre_Channel_Storage_Area_Network.png"},{"image_text":"Fibre Channel director with SFP+ modules and LC optical fiber connectors with Optical Multimode 3 (OM3) fiber (aqua)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Fibre_Channel_Director.jpg/200px-Fibre_Channel_Director.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dual port 8 Gb FC host bus adapter card","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/QLogic_QLE2562_8Gb_FC_HBA.jpg/200px-QLogic_QLE2562_8Gb_FC_HBA.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dual port 16 Gb FC host bus adapter card","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Qlogic_qle2672-ck.jpg/200px-Qlogic_qle2672-ck.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Arbitrated loop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrated_loop"},{"title":"8b/10b encoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8b/10b_encoding"},{"title":"64b/66b encoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64b/66b_encoding"},{"title":"Converged network adapter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Converged_network_adapter"},{"title":"Fibre Channel electrical interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_electrical_interface"},{"title":"Fibre Channel fabric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_fabric"},{"title":"Fabric Application Interface Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabric_Application_Interface_Standard"},{"title":"Fabric Shortest Path First","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FSPF"},{"title":"Fibre Channel zoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_zoning"},{"title":"Registered State Change Notification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registered_State_Change_Notification"},{"title":"Virtual Storage Area Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vsan"},{"title":"Fibre Channel frame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_frame"},{"title":"Fibre Channel network protocols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_network_protocols"},{"title":"Fibre Channel over Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FCoE"},{"title":"Fibre Channel over IP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_over_IP"},{"title":"Internet Fibre Channel Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Fibre_Channel_Protocol"},{"title":"Fibre Channel switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_switch"},{"title":"Fibre Channel time-out values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel_time-out_values"},{"title":"Gen 5 Fibre Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen_5_Fibre_Channel"},{"title":"Host Bus Adapter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_Bus_Adapter"},{"title":"Interconnect bottleneck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interconnect_bottleneck"},{"title":"FATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FATA_(hard_drive)"},{"title":"IDE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Drive_Electronics"},{"title":"ATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Technology_Attachment"},{"title":"SATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SATA"},{"title":"SAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Attached_SCSI"},{"title":"AoE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATA_over_Ethernet"},{"title":"SCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSI"},{"title":"iSCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISCSI"},{"title":"PCI Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI_Express"},{"title":"IP over Fibre Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPFC"},{"title":"List of Fibre Channel standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Fibre_Channel_standards"},{"title":"List of device bandwidths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_device_bandwidths"},{"title":"N_Port ID Virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPIV"},{"title":"Optical communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_communication"},{"title":"Optical fiber cable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber_cable"},{"title":"Parallel optical interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_optical_interface"},{"title":"Serial Storage Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Storage_Architecture"},{"title":"Storage Area Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_area_network"},{"title":"Storage Hypervisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_Hypervisor"},{"title":"World Wide Name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Name"}]

[{"reference":"\"Fibre Channel Performance: Congestion, Slow Drain, and Over Utilization, Oh My!\" (PDF). Fibre Channel Industry Association. February 6, 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-03-01. Retrieved 2018-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://fibrechannel.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/FCIA_Fibre_Channel_Performance_Congestion_Slowdrain_and_Over_Utilization_Final.pdf","url_text":"\"Fibre Channel Performance: Congestion, Slow Drain, and Over Utilization, Oh My!\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180301164420/http://fibrechannel.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/FCIA_Fibre_Channel_Performance_Congestion_Slowdrain_and_Over_Utilization_Final.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Fibre Channel Basics\" (PDF). Apple. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-29. Retrieved 2018-03-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://images.apple.com/server/docs/Fibre_Channel_Basics_TB_v10.4.pdf","url_text":"\"Fibre Channel Basics\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170829075557/http://images.apple.com/server/docs/Fibre_Channel_Basics_TB_v10.4.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Preston, W. Curtis (2002). \"Fibre Channel Architecture\". Using SANs and NAS. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media. pp. 19–39. ISBN 978-0-596-00153-7. OCLC 472853124.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JUodwAQdMGcC&pg=PA19","url_text":"\"Fibre Channel Architecture\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27Reilly_Media","url_text":"O'Reilly Media"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-596-00153-7","url_text":"978-0-596-00153-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/472853124","url_text":"472853124"}]},{"reference":"Riabov, Vladmir V. (2004). \"Storage Area Networks (SANs)\". In Bidgoli, Hossein (ed.). The Internet Encyclopedia. Volume 3, P-Z. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 329–338. ISBN 978-0-471-68997-3. OCLC 55610291.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5W3f6IyIBQcC&pg=PA329","url_text":"\"Storage Area Networks (SANs)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-68997-3","url_text":"978-0-471-68997-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55610291","url_text":"55610291"}]},{"reference":"\"Fibre Channel internals\". Introduction to Storage Area Networks. IBM. 2016. p. 33.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM","url_text":"IBM"}]},{"reference":"\"Roadmaps\". Fibre Channel Industry Association. Retrieved 2023-03-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://fibrechannel.org/roadmap/","url_text":"\"Roadmaps\""}]},{"reference":"\"Brocade G620 Gen 6 Fibre Channel Switch Released\". March 2016. Archived from the original on 2016-04-04. Retrieved 2016-04-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.storagereview.com/brocade_g620_gen_6_fibre_channel_switch_released","url_text":"\"Brocade G620 Gen 6 Fibre Channel Switch Released\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160404014046/http://www.storagereview.com/brocade_g620_gen_6_fibre_channel_switch_released","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"BCFA in a Nutshell Study Guide for Exam\" (PDF). Brocade Communications, Inc. February 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved June 28, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.brocade.com/content/dam/common/documents/content-types/education-study-tools/brocade-bcfa-nutshell-certification-study-tools.pdf","url_text":"\"BCFA in a Nutshell Study Guide for Exam\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150907185312/http://www.brocade.com/content/dam/common/documents/content-types/education-study-tools/brocade-bcfa-nutshell-certification-study-tools.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Cisco MDS 9000 Family Fabric Manager Configuration Guide, Release 4.x\". Cisco Systems, Inc. November 11, 2013. Archived from the original on August 21, 2016. Retrieved June 28, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/switches/datacenter/mds9000/sw/4_1/configuration/guides/fm_4_1/fmguide.html","url_text":"\"Cisco MDS 9000 Family Fabric Manager Configuration Guide, Release 4.x\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160821064642/https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/switches/datacenter/mds9000/sw/4_1/configuration/guides/fm_4_1/fmguide.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Hardware\". 25 September 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://fibrechannel.org/hardware/","url_text":"\"Hardware\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffer_(computer_science)

Data buffer

["1 Applications","2 Telecommunication buffer","3 Examples","4 History","5 See also","6 References"]

Memory used temporarily in data transfers "Memory buffer" redirects here. Not to be confused with memory buffer register. In computer science, a data buffer (or just buffer) is a region of memory used to store data temporarily while it is being moved from one place to another. Typically, the data is stored in a buffer as it is retrieved from an input device (such as a microphone) or just before it is sent to an output device (such as speakers); however, a buffer may be used when data is moved between processes within a computer, comparable to buffers in telecommunication. Buffers can be implemented in a fixed memory location in hardware or by using a virtual data buffer in software that points at a location in the physical memory. In all cases, the data stored in a data buffer is stored on a physical storage medium. The majority of buffers are implemented in software, which typically use RAM to store temporary data because of its much faster access time when compared with hard disk drives. Buffers are typically used when there is a difference between the rate at which data is received and the rate at which it can be processed, or in the case that these rates are variable, for example in a printer spooler or in online video streaming. In a distributed computing environment, data buffers are often implemented in the form of burst buffers, which provides distributed buffering services. A buffer often adjusts timing by implementing a queue (or FIFO) algorithm in memory, simultaneously writing data into the queue at one rate and reading it at another rate. Applications Buffers are often used in conjunction with I/O to hardware, such as disk drives, sending or receiving data to or from a network, or playing sound on a speaker. A line to a rollercoaster in an amusement park shares many similarities. People who ride the coaster come in at an unknown and often variable pace, but the roller coaster will be able to load people in bursts (as a coaster arrives and is loaded). The queue area acts as a buffer—a temporary space where those wishing to ride wait until the ride is available. Buffers are usually used in a FIFO (first in, first out) method, outputting data in the order it arrived. Buffers can increase application performance by allowing synchronous operations such as file reads or writes to complete quickly instead of blocking while waiting for hardware interrupts to access a physical disk subsystem; instead, an operating system can immediately return a successful result from an API call, allowing an application to continue processing while the kernel completes the disk operation in the background. Further benefits can be achieved if the application is reading or writing small blocks of data that do not correspond to the block size of the disk subsystem, which allows a buffer to be used to aggregate many smaller read or write operations into block sizes that are more efficient for the disk subsystem, or in the case of a read, sometimes to completely avoid having to physically access a disk. Telecommunication buffer A buffer routine or storage medium used in telecommunications compensates for a difference in rate of flow of data or time of occurrence of events when data is transferred from one device to another. Buffers are used for many purposes, including: Interconnecting two digital circuits operating at different rates. Holding data for later use. Allowing timing corrections to be made on a data stream. Collecting binary data bits into groups that can then be operated on as a unit. Delaying the transit time of a signal in order to allow other operations to occur. Examples The BUFFERS command/statement in CONFIG.SYS of DOS. The buffer between a serial port (UART) and a modem. The COM port speed may be 38400 bit/s while the modem may have only a 14400 bit/s carrier. The integrated disk buffer on a hard disk drive, solid state drive or BD/DVD/CD drive. The integrated SRAM buffer on an Ethernet adapter. The framebuffer on a video card. History An early mention of a print buffer is the "Outscriber" devised by image processing pioneer Russel A. Kirsch for the SEAC computer in 1952: One of the most important problems in the design of automatic digital computers is that of getting the calculated results out of the machine rapidly enough to avoid delaying the further progress of the calculations. In many of the problems to which a general-purpose computer is applied the amount of output data is relatively big — so big that serious inefficiency would result from forcing the computer to wait for these data to be typed on existing printing devices. This difficulty has been solved in the SEAC by providing magnetic recording devices as output units. These devices are able to receive information from the machine at rates up to 100 times as fast as an electric typewriter can be operated. Thus, better efficiency is achieved in recording the output data; transcription can be made later from the magnetic recording device to a printing device without tying up the main computer. See also Buffer overflow Buffer underrun Circular buffer Disk buffer Streaming media Frame buffer for use in graphical display Double buffering and Triple buffering for techniques mainly in graphics Depth buffer, Stencil buffer, for different parts of image information Variable length buffer Optical buffer MissingNo., the result of buffer data not being cleared properly in Pokémon Red and Blue UART buffer ENOBUFS, POSIX error caused by lack of memory in buffers Write buffer, a type of memory buffer Zero-copy 512k day References ^ https://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/datasheets/82576eb-gigabit-ethernet-controller-datasheet.pdf ^ "SEAC Maintenance Manual: The Outscriber" (PDF). National Bureau of Standards Report. 2794. July 1953. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-02-15. Retrieved 2017-07-13. Authority control databases: National Germany Israel United States

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Not to be confused with memory buffer register.In computer science, a data buffer (or just buffer) is a region of memory used to store data temporarily while it is being moved from one place to another. Typically, the data is stored in a buffer as it is retrieved from an input device (such as a microphone) or just before it is sent to an output device (such as speakers); however, a buffer may be used when data is moved between processes within a computer, comparable to buffers in telecommunication. Buffers can be implemented in a fixed memory location in hardware or by using a virtual data buffer in software that points at a location in the physical memory.In all cases, the data stored in a data buffer is stored on a physical storage medium. The majority of buffers are implemented in software, which typically use RAM to store temporary data because of its much faster access time when compared with hard disk drives. Buffers are typically used when there is a difference between the rate at which data is received and the rate at which it can be processed, or in the case that these rates are variable, for example in a printer spooler or in online video streaming. In a distributed computing environment, data buffers are often implemented in the form of burst buffers, which provides distributed buffering services.A buffer often adjusts timing by implementing a queue (or FIFO) algorithm in memory, simultaneously writing data into the queue at one rate and reading it at another rate.","title":"Data buffer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"I/O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I/O"},{"link_name":"hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware"},{"link_name":"disk drives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_drives"},{"link_name":"network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network"},{"link_name":"rollercoaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollercoaster"},{"link_name":"queue area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queue_area"},{"link_name":"FIFO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFO_(computing_and_electronics)"},{"link_name":"synchronous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous"}],"text":"Buffers are often used in conjunction with I/O to hardware, such as disk drives, sending or receiving data to or from a network, or playing sound on a speaker. A line to a rollercoaster in an amusement park shares many similarities. People who ride the coaster come in at an unknown and often variable pace, but the roller coaster will be able to load people in bursts (as a coaster arrives and is loaded). The queue area acts as a buffer—a temporary space where those wishing to ride wait until the ride is available. Buffers are usually used in a FIFO (first in, first out) method, outputting data in the order it arrived.Buffers can increase application performance by allowing synchronous operations such as file reads or writes to complete quickly instead of blocking while waiting for hardware interrupts to access a physical disk subsystem; instead, an operating system can immediately return a successful result from an API call, allowing an application to continue processing while the kernel completes the disk operation in the background. Further benefits can be achieved if the application is reading or writing small blocks of data that do not correspond to the block size of the disk subsystem, which allows a buffer to be used to aggregate many smaller read or write operations into block sizes that are more efficient for the disk subsystem, or in the case of a read, sometimes to completely avoid having to physically access a disk.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"routine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subroutine"},{"link_name":"storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_device"},{"link_name":"medium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recording_medium"},{"link_name":"data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data"},{"link_name":"time of occurrence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_of_occurrence"},{"link_name":"digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_data"},{"link_name":"data stream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_stream"},{"link_name":"binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system"},{"link_name":"signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalling_(telecommunication)"}],"text":"A buffer routine or storage medium used in telecommunications compensates for a difference in rate of flow of data or time of occurrence of events when data is transferred from one device to another.Buffers are used for many purposes, including:Interconnecting two digital circuits operating at different rates.\nHolding data for later use.\nAllowing timing corrections to be made on a data stream.\nCollecting binary data bits into groups that can then be operated on as a unit.\nDelaying the transit time of a signal in order to allow other operations to occur.","title":"Telecommunication buffer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BUFFERS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BUFFERS_(CONFIG.SYS_directive)"},{"link_name":"CONFIG.SYS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CONFIG.SYS"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"UART","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_asynchronous_receiver-transmitter"},{"link_name":"modem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"COM port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COM_port"},{"link_name":"carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_wave"},{"link_name":"disk buffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_buffer"},{"link_name":"SRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRAM"},{"link_name":"Ethernet adapter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_adapter"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"framebuffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framebuffer"}],"text":"The BUFFERS command/statement in CONFIG.SYS of DOS.\nThe buffer between a serial port (UART) and a modem. The COM port speed may be 38400 bit/s while the modem may have only a 14400 bit/s carrier.\nThe integrated disk buffer on a hard disk drive, solid state drive or BD/DVD/CD drive.\nThe integrated SRAM buffer on an Ethernet adapter.[1]\nThe framebuffer on a video card.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SEAC computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SEAC_(computer)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"An early mention of a print buffer is the \"Outscriber\" devised by image processing pioneer Russel A. Kirsch for the SEAC computer in 1952:[2]One of the most important\n problems in the design of automatic digital computers is that of getting the calculated results out of the machine rapidly enough to avoid delaying the further progress of the calculations. In many of the problems to which a general-purpose computer is applied the amount of output data is relatively big — so big that serious inefficiency would result from forcing the computer to wait for these data to be typed on existing printing devices. This difficulty has been solved in the SEAC by providing magnetic recording devices as output units. These devices are able to receive information from the machine at rates up to 100 times as fast as an electric typewriter can be operated. Thus, better efficiency is achieved in recording the output data; transcription can be made later from the magnetic recording device to a printing device without tying up the main computer.","title":"History"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packed_decimal

Binary-coded decimal

["1 Background","2 Packed BCD","2.1 Fixed-point packed decimal","2.2 Higher-density encodings","3 Zoned decimal","3.1 EBCDIC zoned decimal conversion table","3.2 Fixed-point zoned decimal","4 Operations with BCD","4.1 Addition","4.2 Subtraction","5 BCD in computers","5.1 IBM","5.2 Other computers","6 BCD in electronics","7 Comparison with pure binary","7.1 Advantages","7.2 Disadvantages","8 Representational variations","8.1 Signed variations","8.2 Telephony binary-coded decimal (TBCD)","9 Alternative encodings","10 Application","11 Legal history","12 See also","13 Notes","14 References","15 Further reading","16 External links"]

System of digitally encoding numbers "BCD code" redirects here. For BCD character sets, see BCD (character encoding). A binary clock might use LEDs to express binary values. In this clock, each column of LEDs shows a binary-coded decimal numeral of the traditional sexagesimal time. In computing and electronic systems, binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a class of binary encodings of decimal numbers where each digit is represented by a fixed number of bits, usually four or eight. Sometimes, special bit patterns are used for a sign or other indications (e.g. error or overflow). In byte-oriented systems (i.e. most modern computers), the term unpacked BCD usually implies a full byte for each digit (often including a sign), whereas packed BCD typically encodes two digits within a single byte by taking advantage of the fact that four bits are enough to represent the range 0 to 9. The precise four-bit encoding, however, may vary for technical reasons (e.g. Excess-3). The ten states representing a BCD digit are sometimes called tetrades (the nibble typically needed to hold them is also known as a tetrade) while the unused, don't care-states are named pseudo-tetrad(e)s , pseudo-decimals or pseudo-decimal digits. BCD's main virtue, in comparison to binary positional systems, is its more accurate representation and rounding of decimal quantities, as well as its ease of conversion into conventional human-readable representations. Its principal drawbacks are a slight increase in the complexity of the circuits needed to implement basic arithmetic as well as slightly less dense storage. BCD was used in many early decimal computers, and is implemented in the instruction set of machines such as the IBM System/360 series and its descendants, Digital Equipment Corporation's VAX, the Burroughs B1700, and the Motorola 68000-series processors. BCD per se is not as widely used as in the past, and is unavailable or limited in newer instruction sets (e.g., ARM; x86 in long mode). However, decimal fixed-point and decimal floating-point formats are still important and continue to be used in financial, commercial, and industrial computing, where the subtle conversion and fractional rounding errors that are inherent in binary floating point formats cannot be tolerated. Background BCD takes advantage of the fact that any one decimal numeral can be represented by a four-bit pattern. An obvious way of encoding digits is Natural BCD (NBCD), where each decimal digit is represented by its corresponding four-bit binary value, as shown in the following table. This is also called "8421" encoding. Decimal digit BCD 8 4 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 1 1 4 0 1 0 0 5 0 1 0 1 6 0 1 1 0 7 0 1 1 1 8 1 0 0 0 9 1 0 0 1 This scheme can also be referred to as Simple Binary-Coded Decimal (SBCD) or BCD 8421, and is the most common encoding. Others include the so-called "4221" and "7421" encoding – named after the weighting used for the bits – and "Excess-3". For example, the BCD digit 6, 0110'b in 8421 notation, is 1100'b in 4221 (two encodings are possible), 0110'b in 7421, while in Excess-3 it is 1001'b ( 6 + 3 = 9 {\displaystyle 6+3=9} ). 4-bit BCD codes and pseudo-tetrades Bit Weight  0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14 15         Comment         4 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Binary 3 4 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Name 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Decimal 8 4 2 1 (XS-0) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 4 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6   7 8 9           Aiken (2 4 2 1) 0 1 2 3 4             5 6 7 8 9 Excess-3 (XS-3) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Excess-6 (XS-6) -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Jump-at-2 (2 4 2 1) 0 1             2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Jump-at-8 (2 4 2 1) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7             8 9 4 2 2 1 (I) 0 1 2 3     4 5         6 7 8 9 4 2 2 1 (II) 0 1 2 3     4 5     6 7     8 9 5 4 2 1 0 1 2 3 4       5 6 7 8 9       5 2 2 1 0 1 2 3     4   5 6 7 8     9   5 1 2 1 0 1 2 3       4 5 6 7 8       9 5 3 1 1 0 1   2 3 4     5 6   7 8 9     White (5 2 1 1) 0 1   2   3   4 5 6   7   8   9 5 2 1 1 0 1   2   3   4 5   6   7   8 9   0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Magnetic tape   1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0           Paul   1 3 2 6 7 5 4   0     8 9     Gray 0 1 3 2 6 7 5 4 15 14 12 13 8 9 11 10 Glixon 0 1 3 2 6 7 5 4 9       8       Ledley 0 1 3 2 7 6 4 5         8   9   4 3 1 1 0 1   2 3     5 4     6 7   8 9 LARC 0 1   2     4 3 5 6   7     9 8 Klar 0 1   2     4 3 9 8   7     5 6 Petherick (RAE)   1 3 2   0 4     8 6 7   9 5   O'Brien I (Watts) 0 1 3 2     4   9 8 6 7     5   5-cyclic 0 1 3 2     4   5 6 8 7     9   Tompkins I 0 1 3 2     4     9     8 7 5 6 Lippel 0 1 2 3     4     9     8 7 6 5 O'Brien II   0 2 1 4   3     9 7 8 5   6   Tompkins II     0 1 4 3   2   7 9 8 5 6     Excess-3 Gray -3 -2 0 -1 4 3 1 2 12 11 9 10 5 6 8 7 6 3 −2 −1 (I)         3 2 1 0   5 4 8 9   7 6 6 3 −2 −1 (II) 0       3 2 1   6 5 4   9 8 7   8 4 −2 −1 0       4 3 2 1 8 7 6 5       9 Lucal 0 15 14 1 12 3 2 13 8 7 6 9 4 11 10 5 Kautz I 0     2   5 1 3   7 9   8 6   4 Kautz II   9 4   1   3 2 8   6 7   0 5   Susskind I   0   1   4 3 2   9   8 5   6 7 Susskind II   0   1   9   8 4   3 2 5   6 7   0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 The following table represents decimal digits from 0 to 9 in various BCD encoding systems. In the headers, the "8 4 2 1" indicates the weight of each bit. In the fifth column ("BCD 8 4 −2 −1"), two of the weights are negative. Both ASCII and EBCDIC character codes for the digits, which are examples of zoned BCD, are also shown.  Digit BCD8 4 2 1 Stibitz code or Excess-3 Aiken-Code or BCD2 4 2 1 BCD8 4 −2 −1 IBM 702, IBM 705, IBM 7080, IBM 1401 8 4 2 1 ASCII 0000 8421 EBCDIC 0000 8421 0 0000 0011 0000 0000 1010 0011 0000 1111 0000 1 0001 0100 0001 0111 0001 0011 0001 1111 0001 2 0010 0101 0010 0110 0010 0011 0010 1111 0010 3 0011 0110 0011 0101 0011 0011 0011 1111 0011 4 0100 0111 0100 0100 0100 0011 0100 1111 0100 5 0101 1000 1011 1011 0101 0011 0101 1111 0101 6 0110 1001 1100 1010 0110 0011 0110 1111 0110 7 0111 1010 1101 1001 0111 0011 0111 1111 0111 8 1000 1011 1110 1000 1000 0011 1000 1111 1000 9 1001 1100 1111 1111 1001 0011 1001 1111 1001 As most computers deal with data in 8-bit bytes, it is possible to use one of the following methods to encode a BCD number: Unpacked: Each decimal digit is encoded into one byte, with four bits representing the number and the remaining bits having no significance. Packed: Two decimal digits are encoded into a single byte, with one digit in the least significant nibble (bits 0 through 3) and the other numeral in the most significant nibble (bits 4 through 7). As an example, encoding the decimal number 91 using unpacked BCD results in the following binary pattern of two bytes: Decimal: 9 1 Binary : 0000 1001 0000 0001 In packed BCD, the same number would fit into a single byte: Decimal: 9 1 Binary : 1001 0001 Hence the numerical range for one unpacked BCD byte is zero through nine inclusive, whereas the range for one packed BCD byte is zero through ninety-nine inclusive. To represent numbers larger than the range of a single byte any number of contiguous bytes may be used. For example, to represent the decimal number 12345 in packed BCD, using big-endian format, a program would encode as follows: Decimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 Binary : 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 Here, the most significant nibble of the most significant byte has been encoded as zero, so the number is stored as 012345 (but formatting routines might replace or remove leading zeros). Packed BCD is more efficient in storage usage than unpacked BCD; encoding the same number (with the leading zero) in unpacked format would consume twice the storage. Shifting and masking operations are used to pack or unpack a packed BCD digit. Other bitwise operations are used to convert a numeral to its equivalent bit pattern or reverse the process. Packed BCD In packed BCD (or packed decimal), each nibble represents a decimal digit. Packed BCD has been in use since at least the 1960s and is implemented in all IBM mainframe hardware since then. Most implementations are big endian, i.e. with the more significant digit in the upper half of each byte, and with the leftmost byte (residing at the lowest memory address) containing the most significant digits of the packed decimal value. The lower nibble of the rightmost byte is usually used as the sign flag, although some unsigned representations lack a sign flag. As an example, a 4-byte value consists of 8 nibbles, wherein the upper 7 nibbles store the digits of a 7-digit decimal value, and the lowest nibble indicates the sign of the decimal integer value. Standard sign values are 1100 (hex C) for positive (+) and 1101 (D) for negative (−). This convention comes from the zone field for EBCDIC characters and the signed overpunch representation. Other allowed signs are 1010 (A) and 1110 (E) for positive and 1011 (B) for negative. IBM System/360 processors will use the 1010 (A) and 1011 (B) signs if the A bit is set in the PSW, for the ASCII-8 standard that never passed. Most implementations also provide unsigned BCD values with a sign nibble of 1111 (F). ILE RPG uses 1111 (F) for positive and 1101 (D) for negative. These match the EBCDIC zone for digits without a sign overpunch. In packed BCD, the number 127 is represented by 0001 0010 0111 1100 (127C) and −127 is represented by 0001 0010 0111 1101 (127D). Burroughs systems used 1101 (D) for negative, and any other value is considered a positive sign value (the processors will normalize a positive sign to 1100 (C)). Signdigit BCD8 4 2 1 Sign Notes A 1 0 1 0 +   B 1 0 1 1 −   C 1 1 0 0 + Preferred D 1 1 0 1 − Preferred E 1 1 1 0 +   F 1 1 1 1 + Unsigned No matter how many bytes wide a word is, there is always an even number of nibbles because each byte has two of them. Therefore, a word of n bytes can contain up to (2n)−1 decimal digits, which is always an odd number of digits. A decimal number with d digits requires 1/2(d+1) bytes of storage space. For example, a 4-byte (32-bit) word can hold seven decimal digits plus a sign and can represent values ranging from ±9,999,999. Thus the number −1,234,567 is 7 digits wide and is encoded as: 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1101 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 − Like character strings, the first byte of the packed decimal – that with the most significant two digits – is usually stored in the lowest address in memory, independent of the endianness of the machine. In contrast, a 4-byte binary two's complement integer can represent values from −2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647. While packed BCD does not make optimal use of storage (using about 20% more memory than binary notation to store the same numbers), conversion to ASCII, EBCDIC, or the various encodings of Unicode is made trivial, as no arithmetic operations are required. The extra storage requirements are usually offset by the need for the accuracy and compatibility with calculator or hand calculation that fixed-point decimal arithmetic provides. Denser packings of BCD exist which avoid the storage penalty and also need no arithmetic operations for common conversions. Packed BCD is supported in the COBOL programming language as the "COMPUTATIONAL-3" (an IBM extension adopted by many other compiler vendors) or "PACKED-DECIMAL" (part of the 1985 COBOL standard) data type. It is supported in PL/I as "FIXED DECIMAL". Beside the IBM System/360 and later compatible mainframes, packed BCD is implemented in the native instruction set of the original VAX processors from Digital Equipment Corporation and some models of the SDS Sigma series mainframes, and is the native format for the Burroughs Medium Systems line of mainframes (descended from the 1950s Electrodata 200 series). Ten's complement representations for negative numbers offer an alternative approach to encoding the sign of packed (and other) BCD numbers. In this case, positive numbers always have a most significant digit between 0 and 4 (inclusive), while negative numbers are represented by the 10's complement of the corresponding positive number. As a result, this system allows for 32-bit packed BCD numbers to range from −50,000,000 to +49,999,999, and −1 is represented as 99999999. (As with two's complement binary numbers, the range is not symmetric about zero.) Fixed-point packed decimal Fixed-point decimal numbers are supported by some programming languages (such as COBOL and PL/I). These languages allow the programmer to specify an implicit decimal point in front of one of the digits. For example, a packed decimal value encoded with the bytes 12 34 56 7C represents the fixed-point value +1,234.567 when the implied decimal point is located between the fourth and fifth digits: 12 34 56 7C 12 34.56 7+ The decimal point is not actually stored in memory, as the packed BCD storage format does not provide for it. Its location is simply known to the compiler, and the generated code acts accordingly for the various arithmetic operations. Higher-density encodings If a decimal digit requires four bits, then three decimal digits require 12 bits. However, since 210 (1,024) is greater than 103 (1,000), if three decimal digits are encoded together, only 10 bits are needed. Two such encodings are Chen–Ho encoding and densely packed decimal (DPD). The latter has the advantage that subsets of the encoding encode two digits in the optimal seven bits and one digit in four bits, as in regular BCD. Zoned decimal Some implementations, for example IBM mainframe systems, support zoned decimal numeric representations. Each decimal digit is stored in one byte, with the lower four bits encoding the digit in BCD form. The upper four bits, called the "zone" bits, are usually set to a fixed value so that the byte holds a character value corresponding to the digit. EBCDIC systems use a zone value of 1111 (hex F); this yields bytes in the range F0 to F9 (hex), which are the EBCDIC codes for the characters "0" through "9". Similarly, ASCII systems use a zone value of 0011 (hex 3), giving character codes 30 to 39 (hex). For signed zoned decimal values, the rightmost (least significant) zone nibble holds the sign digit, which is the same set of values that are used for signed packed decimal numbers (see above). Thus a zoned decimal value encoded as the hex bytes F1 F2 D3 represents the signed decimal value −123: F1 F2 D3 1 2 −3 EBCDIC zoned decimal conversion table BCD digit Hexadecimal EBCDIC character 0+ C0 A0 E0 F0 { (*)   \ (*) 0 1+ C1 A1 E1 F1 A ~ (*)   1 2+ C2 A2 E2 F2 B s S 2 3+ C3 A3 E3 F3 C t T 3 4+ C4 A4 E4 F4 D u U 4 5+ C5 A5 E5 F5 E v V 5 6+ C6 A6 E6 F6 F w W 6 7+ C7 A7 E7 F7 G x X 7 8+ C8 A8 E8 F8 H y Y 8 9+ C9 A9 E9 F9 I z Z 9 0− D0 B0     }  (*) ^  (*)     1− D1 B1     J       2− D2 B2     K       3− D3 B3     L       4− D4 B4     M       5− D5 B5     N       6− D6 B6     O       7− D7 B7     P       8− D8 B8     Q       9− D9 B9     R       (*) Note: These characters vary depending on the local character code page setting. Fixed-point zoned decimal Some languages (such as COBOL and PL/I) directly support fixed-point zoned decimal values, assigning an implicit decimal point at some location between the decimal digits of a number. For example, given a six-byte signed zoned decimal value with an implied decimal point to the right of the fourth digit, the hex bytes F1 F2 F7 F9 F5 C0 represent the value +1,279.50: F1 F2 F7 F9 F5 C0 1 2 7 9. 5 +0 Operations with BCD Addition It is possible to perform addition by first adding in binary, and then converting to BCD afterwards. Conversion of the simple sum of two digits can be done by adding 6 (that is, 16 − 10) when the five-bit result of adding a pair of digits has a value greater than 9. The reason for adding 6 is that there are 16 possible 4-bit BCD values (since 24 = 16), but only 10 values are valid (0000 through 1001). For example: 1001 + 1000 = 10001 9 + 8 = 17 10001 is the binary, not decimal, representation of the desired result, but the most significant 1 (the "carry") cannot fit in a 4-bit binary number. In BCD as in decimal, there cannot exist a value greater than 9 (1001) per digit. To correct this, 6 (0110) is added to the total, and then the result is treated as two nibbles: 10001 + 0110 = 00010111 => 0001 0111 17 + 6 = 23 1 7 The two nibbles of the result, 0001 and 0111, correspond to the digits "1" and "7". This yields "17" in BCD, which is the correct result. This technique can be extended to adding multiple digits by adding in groups from right to left, propagating the second digit as a carry, always comparing the 5-bit result of each digit-pair sum to 9. Some CPUs provide a half-carry flag to facilitate BCD arithmetic adjustments following binary addition and subtraction operations. The Intel 8080, the Zilog Z80 and the CPUs of the x86 family provide the opcode DAA (Decimal Adjust Accumulator). Subtraction Subtraction is done by adding the ten's complement of the subtrahend to the minuend. To represent the sign of a number in BCD, the number 0000 is used to represent a positive number, and 1001 is used to represent a negative number. The remaining 14 combinations are invalid signs. To illustrate signed BCD subtraction, consider the following problem: 357 − 432. In signed BCD, 357 is 0000 0011 0101 0111. The ten's complement of 432 can be obtained by taking the nine's complement of 432, and then adding one. So, 999 − 432 = 567, and 567 + 1 = 568. By preceding 568 in BCD by the negative sign code, the number −432 can be represented. So, −432 in signed BCD is 1001 0101 0110 1000. Now that both numbers are represented in signed BCD, they can be added together: 0000 0011 0101 0111 0 3 5 7 + 1001 0101 0110 1000 9 5 6 8 = 1001 1000 1011 1111 9 8 11 15 Since BCD is a form of decimal representation, several of the digit sums above are invalid. In the event that an invalid entry (any BCD digit greater than 1001) exists, 6 is added to generate a carry bit and cause the sum to become a valid entry. So, adding 6 to the invalid entries results in the following: 1001 1000 1011 1111 9 8 11 15 + 0000 0000 0110 0110 0 0 6 6 = 1001 1001 0010 0101 9 9 2 5 Thus the result of the subtraction is 1001 1001 0010 0101 (−925). To confirm the result, note that the first digit is 9, which means negative. This seems to be correct since 357 − 432 should result in a negative number. The remaining nibbles are BCD, so 1001 0010 0101 is 925. The ten's complement of 925 is 1000 − 925 = 75, so the calculated answer is −75. If there are a different number of nibbles being added together (such as 1053 − 2), the number with the fewer digits must first be prefixed with zeros before taking the ten's complement or subtracting. So, with 1053 − 2, 2 would have to first be represented as 0002 in BCD, and the ten's complement of 0002 would have to be calculated. BCD in computers IBM Main article: BCDIC IBM used the terms Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (BCDIC, sometimes just called BCD), for 6-bit alphanumeric codes that represented numbers, upper-case letters and special characters. Some variation of BCDIC alphamerics is used in most early IBM computers, including the IBM 1620 (introduced in 1959), IBM 1400 series, and non-decimal architecture members of the IBM 700/7000 series. The IBM 1400 series are character-addressable machines, each location being six bits labeled B, A, 8, 4, 2 and 1, plus an odd parity check bit (C) and a word mark bit (M). For encoding digits 1 through 9, B and A are zero and the digit value represented by standard 4-bit BCD in bits 8 through 1. For most other characters bits B and A are derived simply from the "12", "11", and "0" "zone punches" in the punched card character code, and bits 8 through 1 from the 1 through 9 punches. A "12 zone" punch set both B and A, an "11 zone" set B, and a "0 zone" (a 0 punch combined with any others) set A. Thus the letter A, which is (12,1) in the punched card format, is encoded (B,A,1). The currency symbol $, (11,8,3) in the punched card, was encoded in memory as (B,8,2,1). This allows the circuitry to convert between the punched card format and the internal storage format to be very simple with only a few special cases. One important special case is digit 0, represented by a lone 0 punch in the card, and (8,2) in core memory. The memory of the IBM 1620 is organized into 6-bit addressable digits, the usual 8, 4, 2, 1 plus F, used as a flag bit and C, an odd parity check bit. BCD alphamerics are encoded using digit pairs, with the "zone" in the even-addressed digit and the "digit" in the odd-addressed digit, the "zone" being related to the 12, 11, and 0 "zone punches" as in the 1400 series. Input/output translation hardware converted between the internal digit pairs and the external standard 6-bit BCD codes. In the decimal architecture IBM 7070, IBM 7072, and IBM 7074 alphamerics are encoded using digit pairs (using two-out-of-five code in the digits, not BCD) of the 10-digit word, with the "zone" in the left digit and the "digit" in the right digit. Input/output translation hardware converted between the internal digit pairs and the external standard 6-bit BCD codes. With the introduction of System/360, IBM expanded 6-bit BCD alphamerics to 8-bit EBCDIC, allowing the addition of many more characters (e.g., lowercase letters). A variable length packed BCD numeric data type is also implemented, providing machine instructions that perform arithmetic directly on packed decimal data. On the IBM 1130 and 1800, packed BCD is supported in software by IBM's Commercial Subroutine Package. Today, BCD data is still heavily used in IBM databases such as IBM Db2 and processors such as z/Architecture and POWER6 and later Power ISA processors. In these products, the BCD is usually zoned BCD (as in EBCDIC or ASCII), packed BCD (two decimal digits per byte), or "pure" BCD encoding (one decimal digit stored as BCD in the low four bits of each byte). All of these are used within hardware registers and processing units, and in software. Other computers The Digital Equipment Corporation VAX series includes instructions that can perform arithmetic directly on packed BCD data and convert between packed BCD data and other integer representations. The VAX's packed BCD format is compatible with that on IBM System/360 and IBM's later compatible processors. The MicroVAX and later VAX implementations dropped this ability from the CPU but retained code compatibility with earlier machines by implementing the missing instructions in an operating system-supplied software library. This is invoked automatically via exception handling when the defunct instructions are encountered, so that programs using them can execute without modification on the newer machines. The Intel x86 architecture supports a unique 18-digit (ten-byte) BCD format that can be loaded into and stored from the floating point registers, from where computations can be performed. The Motorola 68000 series had BCD instructions. In more recent computers such capabilities are almost always implemented in software rather than the CPU's instruction set, but BCD numeric data are still extremely common in commercial and financial applications. There are tricks for implementing packed BCD and zoned decimal add–or–subtract operations using short but difficult to understand sequences of word-parallel logic and binary arithmetic operations. For example, the following code (written in C) computes an unsigned 8-digit packed BCD addition using 32-bit binary operations: uint32_t BCDadd(uint32_t a, uint32_t b) { uint32_t t1, t2; // unsigned 32-bit intermediate values t1 = a + 0x06666666; t2 = t1 ^ b; // sum without carry propagation t1 = t1 + b; // provisional sum t2 = t1 ^ t2; // all the binary carry bits t2 = ~t2 & 0x11111110; // just the BCD carry bits t2 = (t2 >> 2) | (t2 >> 3); // correction return t1 - t2; // corrected BCD sum } BCD in electronics This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)This section relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this section by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "Binary-coded decimal" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) BCD is common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic, and not containing a microprocessor. By employing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical seven-segment displays to build a metering circuit, for example. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing with such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple, working throughout with BCD can lead to an overall simpler system than converting to and from binary. Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in BCD. The same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded microcontroller or other small processor. Often, representing numbers internally in BCD format results in smaller code, since a conversion from or to binary representation can be expensive on such limited processors. For these applications, some small processors feature dedicated arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities. Comparison with pure binary Advantages Scaling by a power of 10 is simple. Rounding at a decimal digit boundary is simpler. Addition and subtraction in decimal do not require rounding. The alignment of two decimal numbers (for example 1.3 + 27.08) is a simple, exact shift. Conversion to a character form or for display (e.g., to a text-based format such as XML, or to drive signals for a seven-segment display) is a simple per-digit mapping, and can be done in linear (O(n)) time. Conversion from pure binary involves relatively complex logic that spans digits, and for large numbers, no linear-time conversion algorithm is known (see Binary numeral system § Conversion to and from other numeral systems). Many non-integral values, such as decimal 0.2, have an infinite place-value representation in binary (.001100110011...) but have a finite place-value in binary-coded decimal (0.0010). Consequently, a system based on binary-coded decimal representations of decimal fractions avoids errors representing and calculating such values. This is useful in financial calculations. Disadvantages Practical existing implementations of BCD are typically slower than operations on binary representations, especially on embedded systems, due to limited processor support for native BCD operations. Some operations are more complex to implement. Adders require extra logic to cause them to wrap and generate a carry early. Also, 15 to 20 per cent more circuitry is needed for BCD add compared to pure binary. Multiplication requires the use of algorithms that are somewhat more complex than shift-mask-add (a binary multiplication, requiring binary shifts and adds or the equivalent, per-digit or group of digits is required). Standard BCD requires four bits per digit, roughly 20 per cent more space than a binary encoding (the ratio of 4 bits to log210 bits is 1.204). When packed so that three digits are encoded in ten bits, the storage overhead is greatly reduced, at the expense of an encoding that is unaligned with the 8-bit byte boundaries common on existing hardware, resulting in slower implementations on these systems. Representational variations Various BCD implementations exist that employ other representations for numbers. Programmable calculators manufactured by Texas Instruments, Hewlett-Packard, and others typically employ a floating-point BCD format, typically with two or three digits for the (decimal) exponent. The extra bits of the sign digit may be used to indicate special numeric values, such as infinity, underflow/overflow, and error (a blinking display). Signed variations Signed decimal values may be represented in several ways. The COBOL programming language, for example, supports five zoned decimal formats, with each one encoding the numeric sign in a different way: Type Description Example Unsigned No sign nibble F1 F2 F3 Signed trailing (canonical format) Sign nibble in the last (least significant) byte F1 F2 C3 Signed leading (overpunch) Sign nibble in the first (most significant) byte C1 F2 F3 Signed trailing separate Separate sign character byte ('+' or '−') following the digit bytes F1 F2 F3 2B Signed leading separate Separate sign character byte ('+' or '−') preceding the digit bytes 2B F1 F2 F3 Telephony binary-coded decimal (TBCD) 3GPP developed TBCD, an expansion to BCD where the remaining (unused) bit combinations are used to add specific telephony characters, with digits similar to those found in telephone keypads original design. Decimaldigit TBCD8 4 2 1 * 1 0 1 0 # 1 0 1 1 a 1 1 0 0 b 1 1 0 1 c 1 1 1 0 Used as filler when there is an odd number of digits 1 1 1 1 The mentioned 3GPP document defines TBCD-STRING with swapped nibbles in each byte. Bits, octets and digits indexed from 1, bits from the right, digits and octets from the left. bits 8765 of octet n encoding digit 2n bits 4321 of octet n encoding digit 2(n – 1) + 1 Meaning number 1234, would become 21 43 in TBCD. Alternative encodings If errors in representation and computation are more important than the speed of conversion to and from display, a scaled binary representation may be used, which stores a decimal number as a binary-encoded integer and a binary-encoded signed decimal exponent. For example, 0.2 can be represented as 2×10−1. This representation allows rapid multiplication and division, but may require shifting by a power of 10 during addition and subtraction to align the decimal points. It is appropriate for applications with a fixed number of decimal places that do not then require this adjustment—particularly financial applications where 2 or 4 digits after the decimal point are usually enough. Indeed, this is almost a form of fixed point arithmetic since the position of the radix point is implied. The Hertz and Chen–Ho encodings provide Boolean transformations for converting groups of three BCD-encoded digits to and from 10-bit values that can be efficiently encoded in hardware with only 2 or 3 gate delays. Densely packed decimal (DPD) is a similar scheme that is used for most of the significand, except the lead digit, for one of the two alternative decimal encodings specified in the IEEE 754-2008 floating-point standard. Application The BIOS in many personal computers stores the date and time in BCD because the MC6818 real-time clock chip used in the original IBM PC AT motherboard provided the time encoded in BCD. This form is easily converted into ASCII for display. The Atari 8-bit computers use a BCD format for floating point numbers. The MOS Technology 6502 processor has a BCD mode for the addition and subtraction instructions. The Psion Organiser 1 handheld computer's manufacturer-supplied software also uses BCD to implement floating point; later Psion models use binary exclusively. Early models of the PlayStation 3 store the date and time in BCD. This led to a worldwide outage of the console on 1 March 2010. The last two digits of the year stored as BCD were misinterpreted as 16 causing an error in the unit's date, rendering most functions inoperable. This has been referred to as the Year 2010 problem. Legal history In the 1972 case Gottschalk v. Benson, the U.S. Supreme Court overturned a lower court's decision that had allowed a patent for converting BCD-encoded numbers to binary on a computer. The decision noted that a patent "would wholly pre-empt the mathematical formula and in practical effect would be a patent on the algorithm itself". This was a landmark judgement that determined the patentability of software and algorithms. See also Bi-quinary coded decimal Binary-coded ternary (BCT) Binary integer decimal (BID) Bitmask Chen–Ho encoding Decimal computer Densely packed decimal (DPD) Double dabble, an algorithm for converting binary numbers to BCD Year 2000 problem Notes ^ a b c In a standard packed 4-bit representation, there are 16 states (four bits for each digit) with 10 tetrades and 6 pseudo-tetrades, whereas in more densely packed schemes such as Hertz, Chen–Ho or DPD encodings there are fewer—e.g., only 24 unused states in 1024 states (10 bits for three digits). ^ a b c d e Code states (shown in black) outside the decimal range 0–9 indicate additional states of the non-BCD variant of the code. In the BCD code variant discussed here, they are pseudo-tetrades. ^ The Aiken code is one of several 2 4 2 1 codes. It is also known as 2* 4 2 1 code. ^ The Jump-at-8 code is also known as unsymmetrical 2 4 2 1 code. ^ The Petherick code is also known as Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) code. ^ The O'Brien code type I is also known as Watts code or Watts reflected decimal (WRD) code. ^ The Excess-3 Gray code is also known as Gray–Stibitz code. ^ a b In a similar fashion, multiple characters were often packed into machine words on minicomputers, see IBM SQUOZE and DEC RADIX 50. References ^ Intel. "ia32 architecture manual" (PDF). Intel. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2015-07-01. ^ a b Klar, Rainer (1970-02-01). "1.5.3 Konvertierung binär verschlüsselter Dezimalzahlen" . Digitale Rechenautomaten – Eine Einführung . Sammlung Göschen (in German). Vol. 1241/1241a (1 ed.). Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter & Co. / G. J. Göschen'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung . pp. 17, 21. ISBN 3-11-083160-0. . Archiv-Nr. 7990709. Archived from the original on 2020-04-18. Retrieved 2020-04-13. (205 pages) (NB. A 2019 reprint of the first edition is available under ISBN 3-11002793-3, 978-3-11002793-8. A reworked and expanded 4th edition exists as well.) ^ a b c Klar, Rainer (1989) . "1.4 Codes: Binär verschlüsselte Dezimalzahlen" . Digitale Rechenautomaten – Eine Einführung in die Struktur von Computerhardware . Sammlung Göschen (in German). Vol. 2050 (4th reworked ed.). Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter & Co. pp. 25, 28, 38–39. ISBN 3-11011700-2. p. 25: Die nicht erlaubten 0/1-Muster nennt man auch Pseudodezimalen. (320 pages) ^ Schneider, Hans-Jochen (1986). Lexikon der Informatik und Datenverarbeitung (in German) (2 ed.). R. Oldenbourg Verlag München Wien. ISBN 3-486-22662-2. ^ Tafel, Hans Jörg (1971). Einführung in die digitale Datenverarbeitung (in German). Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag. ISBN 3-446-10569-7. ^ Steinbuch, Karl W.; Weber, Wolfgang; Heinemann, Traute, eds. (1974) . Taschenbuch der Informatik - Band II - Struktur und Programmierung von EDV-Systemen. Taschenbuch der Nachrichtenverarbeitung (in German). Vol. 2 (3 ed.). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-06241-6. LCCN 73-80607. ^ Tietze, Ulrich; Schenk, Christoph (2012-12-06). Advanced Electronic Circuits. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3642812415. 9783642812415. Retrieved 2015-08-05. ^ Kowalski, Emil (2013-03-08) . Nuclear Electronics. Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-87663-9. ISBN 978-3642876639. 9783642876639, 978-3-642-87664-6. Retrieved 2015-08-05. ^ Ferretti, Vittorio (2013-03-13). Wörterbuch der Elektronik, Datentechnik und Telekommunikation / Dictionary of Electronics, Computing and Telecommunications: Teil 1: Deutsch-Englisch / Part 1: German-English. Vol. 1 (2 ed.). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3642980886. 9783642980886. Retrieved 2015-08-05. ^ Speiser, Ambrosius Paul (1965) . Digitale Rechenanlagen - Grundlagen / Schaltungstechnik / Arbeitsweise / Betriebssicherheit (in German) (2 ed.). ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland: Springer-Verlag / IBM. p. 209. LCCN 65-14624. 0978. ^ Cowlishaw, Mike F. (2015) . "General Decimal Arithmetic". Retrieved 2016-01-02. ^ Evans, David Silvester (March 1961). "Chapter Four: Ancillary Equipment: Output-drive and parity-check relays for digitizers". Digital Data: Their derivation and reduction for analysis and process control (1 ed.). London, UK: Hilger & Watts Ltd / Interscience Publishers. pp. 46–64 . Retrieved 2020-05-24. (8+82 pages) (NB. The 4-bit 8421 BCD code with an extra parity bit applied as least significant bit to achieve odd parity of the resulting 5-bit code is also known as Ferranti code.) ^ Lala, Parag K. (2007). Principles of Modern Digital Design. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 20–25. ISBN 978-0-470-07296-7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Berger, Erich R. (1962). "1.3.3. Die Codierung von Zahlen". Written at Karlsruhe, Germany. In Steinbuch, Karl W. (ed.). Taschenbuch der Nachrichtenverarbeitung (in German) (1 ed.). Berlin / Göttingen / New York: Springer-Verlag OHG. pp. 68–75. LCCN 62-14511. (NB. The shown Kautz code (II), containing all eight available binary states with an odd count of 1s, is a slight modification of the original Kautz code (I), containing all eight states with an even count of 1s, so that inversion of the most-significant bits will create a 9s complement.) ^ a b c d e f Kämmerer, Wilhelm (May 1969). "II.15. Struktur: Informationsdarstellung im Automaten". Written at Jena, Germany. In Frühauf, Hans ; Kämmerer, Wilhelm; Schröder, Kurz; Winkler, Helmut (eds.). Digitale Automaten – Theorie, Struktur, Technik, Programmieren. Elektronisches Rechnen und Regeln (in German). Vol. 5 (1 ed.). Berlin, Germany: Akademie-Verlag GmbH. p. 161. License no. 202-100/416/69. Order no. 4666 ES 20 K 3. (NB. A second edition 1973 exists as well.) ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Dokter, Folkert; Steinhauer, Jürgen (1973-06-18). Digital Electronics. Philips Technical Library (PTL) / Macmillan Education (Reprint of 1st English ed.). Eindhoven, Netherlands: The Macmillan Press Ltd. / N. V. Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-01417-0. ISBN 978-1-349-01419-4. SBN 333-13360-9. Archived from the original on 2020-07-16. Retrieved 2020-05-11. (270 pages) (NB. This is based on a translation of volume I of the two-volume German edition.) ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Dokter, Folkert; Steinhauer, Jürgen (1975) . Digitale Elektronik in der Meßtechnik und Datenverarbeitung: Theoretische Grundlagen und Schaltungstechnik. Philips Fachbücher (in German). Vol. I (improved and extended 5th ed.). Hamburg, Germany: Deutsche Philips GmbH. p. 50. ISBN 3-87145-272-6. (xii+327+3 pages) (NB. The German edition of volume I was published in 1969, 1971, two editions in 1972, and 1975. Volume II was published in 1970, 1972, 1973, and 1975.) ^ a b c d e f Kautz, William H. (June 1954). "IV. Examples A. Binary Codes for Decimals, n = 4". Optimized Data Encoding for Digital Computers. Convention Record of the I.R.E., 1954 National Convention, Part 4 - Electronic Computers and Information Theory. Session 19: Information Theory III - Speed and Computation. Stanford Research Institute, Stanford, California, USA: I.R.E. pp. 47–57 . Archived from the original on 2020-07-03. Retrieved 2020-07-03. p. 52: The last column , labeled "Best," gives the maximum fraction possible with any code—namely 0.60—half again better than any conventional code. This extremal is reached with the ten Fig. 4 Minimum-confusion code for decimals. δ1=2   Δ1=15 (11 pages) (NB. Besides the combinatorial set of 4-bit BCD "minimum-confusion codes for decimals", of which the author illustrates only one explicitly (here reproduced as code I) in form of a 4-bit graph, the author also shows a 16-state 4-bit "binary code for analog data" in form of a code table, which, however, is not discussed here. The code II shown here is a modification of code I discussed by Berger.) ^ a b c Chinal, Jean P. (January 1973). "Codes". Written at Paris, France. Design Methods for Digital Systems. Translated by Preston, Alan; Summer, Arthur (1st English ed.). Berlin, Germany: Akademie-Verlag / Springer-Verlag. p. 46. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-86187-1_3. ISBN 978-0-387-05871-9. License No. 202-100/542/73. Order No. 7617470(6047) ES 19 B 1 / 20 K 3. Retrieved 2020-06-21. (xviii+506 pages) (NB. The French 1967 original book was named "Techniques Booléennes et Calculateurs Arithmétiques", published by Éditions Dunod .) ^ a b Military Handbook: Encoders - Shaft Angle To Digital (PDF). United States Department of Defense. 1991-09-30. MIL-HDBK-231A. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-07-25. Retrieved 2020-07-25. (NB. Supersedes MIL-HDBK-231(AS) (1970-07-01).) ^ a b Stopper, Herbert (March 1960). Written at Litzelstetten, Germany. Runge, Wilhelm Tolmé (ed.). "Ermittlung des Codes und der logischen Schaltung einer Zähldekade". Telefunken-Zeitung (TZ) - Technisch-Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen der Telefunken GMBH (in German). 33 (127). Berlin, Germany: Telefunken: 13–19. (7 pages) ^ a b Borucki, Lorenz; Dittmann, Joachim (1971) . "2.3 Gebräuchliche Codes in der digitalen Meßtechnik". Written at Krefeld / Karlsruhe, Germany. Digitale Meßtechnik: Eine Einführung (in German) (2 ed.). Berlin / Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag. pp. 10–23 . doi:10.1007/978-3-642-80560-8. ISBN 3-540-05058-2. LCCN 75-131547. ISBN 978-3-642-80561-5. (viii+252 pages) 1st edition ^ White, Garland S. (October 1953). "Coded Decimal Number Systems for Digital Computers". Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers. 41 (10). Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE): 1450–1452. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1953.274330. eISSN 2162-6634. ISSN 0096-8390. S2CID 51674710. (3 pages) ^ "Different Types of Binary Codes". Electronic Hub. 2019-05-01 . Section 2.4 5211 Code. Archived from the original on 2020-05-18. Retrieved 2020-08-04. ^ Paul, Matthias R. (1995-08-10) . "Unterbrechungsfreier Schleifencode" . 1.02 (in German). Retrieved 2008-02-11. (NB. The author called this code Schleifencode (English: "loop code"). It differs from Gray BCD code only in the encoding of state 0 to make it a cyclic unit-distance code for full-circle rotatory slip ring applications. Avoiding the all-zero code pattern allows for loop self-testing and to use the data lines for uninterrupted power distribution.) ^ Gray, Frank (1953-03-17) . Pulse Code Communication (PDF). New York, USA: Bell Telephone Laboratories, Incorporated. U.S. patent 2,632,058. Serial No. 785697. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-08-05. Retrieved 2020-08-05. (13 pages) ^ Glixon, Harry Robert (March 1957). "Can You Take Advantage of the Cyclic Binary-Decimal Code?". Control Engineering. 4 (3). Technical Publishing Company, a division of Dun-Donnelley Publishing Corporation, Dun & Bradstreet Corp.: 87–91. ISSN 0010-8049. (5 pages) ^ a b Ledley, Robert Steven; Rotolo, Louis S.; Wilson, James Bruce (1960). "Part 4. Logical Design of Digital-Computer Circuitry; Chapter 15. Serial Arithmetic Operations; Chapter 15-7. Additional Topics". Digital Computer and Control Engineering (PDF). McGraw-Hill Electrical and Electronic Engineering Series (1 ed.). New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. (printer: The Maple Press Company, York, Pennsylvania, USA). pp. 517–518. ISBN 0-07036981-X. ISSN 2574-7916. LCCN 59015055. OCLC 1033638267. OL 5776493M. SBN 07036981-X. . ark:/13960/t72v3b312. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-19. Retrieved 2021-02-19. p. 517: The cyclic code is advantageous mainly in the use of relay circuits, for then a sticky relay will not give a false state as it is delayed in going from one cyclic number to the next. There are many other cyclic codes that have this property. (xxiv+835+1 pages) (NB. Ledley classified the described cyclic code as a cyclic decimal-coded binary code.) ^ a b c d Savard, John J. G. (2018) . "Decimal Representations". quadibloc. Archived from the original on 2018-07-16. Retrieved 2018-07-16. ^ Petherick, Edward John (October 1953). A Cyclic Progressive Binary-coded-decimal System of Representing Numbers (Technical Note MS15). Farnborough, UK: Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE). (4 pages) (NB. Sometimes referred to as A Cyclic-Coded Binary-Coded-Decimal System of Representing Numbers.) ^ Petherick, Edward John; Hopkins, A. J. (1958). Some Recently Developed Digital Devices for Encoding the Rotations of Shafts (Technical Note MS21). Farnborough, UK: Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE). ^ a b O'Brien, Joseph A. (May 1956) . "Cyclic Decimal Codes for Analogue to Digital Converters". Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Part I: Communication and Electronics. 75 (2). Bell Telephone Laboratories, Whippany, New Jersey, USA: 120–122. doi:10.1109/TCE.1956.6372498. ISSN 0097-2452. S2CID 51657314. Paper 56-21. Retrieved 2020-05-18. (3 pages) (NB. This paper was prepared for presentation at the AIEE Winter General Meeting, New York, USA, 1956-01-30 to 1956-02-03.) ^ a b Tompkins, Howard E. (September 1956) . "Unit-Distance Binary-Decimal Codes for Two-Track Commutation". IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers. Correspondence. EC-5 (3). Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA: 139. doi:10.1109/TEC.1956.5219934. ISSN 0367-9950. Retrieved 2020-05-18. (1 page) ^ Lippel, Bernhard (December 1955). "A Decimal Code for Analog-to-Digital Conversion". IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers. EC-4 (4): 158–159. doi:10.1109/TEC.1955.5219487. ISSN 0367-9950. (2 pages) ^ a b c Susskind, Alfred Kriss; Ward, John Erwin (1958-03-28) . "III.F. Unit-Distance Codes / VI.E.2. Reflected Binary Codes". Written at Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. In Susskind, Alfred Kriss (ed.). Notes on Analog-Digital Conversion Techniques. Technology Books in Science and Engineering. Vol. 1 (3 ed.). New York, USA: Technology Press of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology / John Wiley & Sons, Inc. / Chapman & Hall, Ltd. pp. 3-7–3-8 , 3-10–3-16 , 6-65–6-60 . (x+416+2 pages) (NB. The contents of the book was originally prepared by staff members of the Servomechanisms Laboraratory, Department of Electrical Engineering, MIT, for Special Summer Programs held in 1956 and 1957. The code Susskind actually presented in his work as "reading-type code" is shown as code type II here, whereas the type I code is a minor derivation with the two most significant bit columns swapped to better illustrate symmetries.) ^ a b Yuen, Chun-Kwong (December 1977). "A New Representation for Decimal Numbers". IEEE Transactions on Computers. C-26 (12): 1286–1288. doi:10.1109/TC.1977.1674792. S2CID 40879271. Archived from the original on 2020-08-08. Retrieved 2020-08-08. ^ Lucal, Harold M. (December 1959). "Arithmetic Operations for Digital Computers Using a Modified Reflected Binary". IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers. EC-8 (4): 449–458. doi:10.1109/TEC.1959.5222057. ISSN 0367-9950. S2CID 206673385. (10 pages) ^ Dewar, Robert Berriedale Keith; Smosna, Matthew (1990). Microprocessors - A Programmer's View (1 ed.). Courant Institute, New York University, New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. p. 14. ISBN 0-07-016638-2. LCCN 89-77320. (xviii+462 pages) ^ "Chapter 8: Decimal Instructions". IBM System/370 Principles of Operation. IBM. March 1980. ^ "Chapter 3: Data Representation". PDP-11 Architecture Handbook. Digital Equipment Corporation. 1983. ^ a b VAX-11 Architecture Handbook. Digital Equipment Corporation. 1985. ^ "ILE RPG Reference". ^ IBM BM 1401/1440/1460/1410/7010 Character Code Chart in BCD Order ^ "4.7 BCD and packed BCD integers". Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual, Volume 1: Basic Architecture (PDF). Version 072. Vol. 1. Intel Corporation. 2020-05-27 . pp. 3–2, 4-9–4-11 . 253665-072US. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2020-08-06. p. 4-10: When operating on BCD integers in general-purpose registers, the BCD values can be unpacked (one BCD digit per byte) or packed (two BCD digits per byte). The value of an unpacked BCD integer is the binary value of the low halfbyte (bits 0 through 3). The high half-byte (bits 4 through 7) can be any value during addition and subtraction, but must be zero during multiplication and division. Packed BCD integers allow two BCD digits to be contained in one byte. Here, the digit in the high half-byte is more significant than the digit in the low half-byte. When operating on BCD integers in x87 FPU data registers, BCD values are packed in an 80-bit format and referred to as decimal integers. In this format, the first 9 bytes hold 18 BCD digits, 2 digits per byte. The least-significant digit is contained in the lower half-byte of byte 0 and the most-significant digit is contained in the upper half-byte of byte 9. The most significant bit of byte 10 contains the sign bit (0 = positive and 1 = negative; bits 0 through 6 of byte 10 are don't care bits). Negative decimal integers are not stored in two's complement form; they are distinguished from positive decimal integers only by the sign bit. The range of decimal integers that can be encoded in this format is −1018 + 1 to 1018 − 1. The decimal integer format exists in memory only. When a decimal integer is loaded in an x87 FPU data register, it is automatically converted to the double-extended-precision floating-point format. All decimal integers are exactly representable in double extended-precision format. ^ "The 68000's Instruction Set" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-11-20. Retrieved 2023-11-21. (58 pages) ^ Jones, Douglas W. (2015-11-25) . "BCD Arithmetic, a tutorial". Arithmetic Tutorials. Iowa City, Iowa, USA: The University of Iowa, Department of Computer Science. Retrieved 2016-01-03. ^ University of Alicante. "A Cordic-based Architecture for High Performance Decimal Calculations" (PDF). IEEE. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2010-01-05. Retrieved 2015-08-15. ^ "Decimal CORDIC Rotation based on Selection by Rounding: Algorithm and Architecture" (PDF). British Computer Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2015-08-14. ^ Mathur, Aditya P. (1989). Introduction to Microprocessors (3 ed.). Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. ISBN 978-0-07-460222-5. ^ 3GPP TS 29.002: Mobile Application Part (MAP) specification (Technical report). 2013. sec. 17.7.8 Common data types. ^ "Signalling Protocols and Switching (SPS) Guidelines for using Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1) in telecommunication application protocols" (PDF). p. 15. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-12-04. ^ "XOM Mobile Application Part (XMAP) Specification" (PDF). p. 93. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-02-21. Retrieved 2013-06-27. ^ "Timer Counter Circuits in an IBM PC" (PDF). www.se.ecu.edu.au. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-10. Retrieved 2022-05-22. (7 pages) ^ MC6818 datasheet ^ Gottschalk v. Benson, 409 U.S. 63, 72 (1972). Further reading Mackenzie, Charles E. (1980). Coded Character Sets, History and Development (PDF). The Systems Programming Series (1 ed.). Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-201-14460-4. LCCN 77-90165. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 26, 2016. Retrieved August 25, 2019. Richards, Richard Kohler (1955). Arithmetic Operations in Digital Computers. New York, USA: van Nostrand. pp. 397–. Schmid, Hermann (1974). Decimal Computation (1 ed.). Binghamton, New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-76180-X. and Schmid, Hermann (1983) . Decimal Computation (1 (reprint) ed.). Malabar, Florida, USA: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN 0-89874-318-4. (NB. At least some batches of the Krieger reprint edition were misprints with defective pages 115–146.) Massalin, Henry (October 1987). Katz, Randy (ed.). "Superoptimizer: A look at the smallest program" (PDF). ACM Sigops Operating Systems Review. 21 (4): 122–126. doi:10.1145/36204.36194. ISBN 0-8186-0805-6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-07-04. Retrieved 2012-04-25. (Also: ACM SIGPLAN Notices, Vol. 22 #10, IEEE Computer Society Press #87CH2440-6, October 1987) "GNU Superoptimizer". HP-UX. Shirazi, Behrooz; Yun, David Y. Y.; Zhang, Chang N. (March 1988). VLSI designs for redundant binary-coded decimal addition. IEEE Seventh Annual International Phoenix Conference on Computers and Communications, 1988. IEEE. pp. 52–56. Brown; Vranesic (2003). Fundamentals of Digital Logic. Thapliyal, Himanshu; Arabnia, Hamid R. (November 2006). Modified Carry Look Ahead BCD Adder With CMOS and Reversible Logic Implementation. Proceedings of the 2006 International Conference on Computer Design (CDES'06). CSREA Press. pp. 64–69. ISBN 1-60132-009-4. Kaivani, A.; Alhosseini, A. Zaker; Gorgin, S.; Fazlali, M. (December 2006). Reversible Implementation of Densely-Packed-Decimal Converter to and from Binary-Coded-Decimal Format Using in IEEE-754R. 9th International Conference on Information Technology (ICIT'06). IEEE. pp. 273–276. Cowlishaw, Mike F. (2009) . "Bibliography of material on Decimal Arithmetic – by category". General Decimal Arithmetic. IBM. Retrieved 2016-01-02. External links Cowlishaw, Mike F. (2014) . "A Summary of Chen-Ho Decimal Data encoding". General Decimal Arithmetic. IBM. Retrieved 2016-01-02. Cowlishaw, Mike F. (2007) . "A Summary of Densely Packed Decimal encoding". General Decimal Arithmetic. IBM. Retrieved 2016-01-02. Convert BCD to decimal, binary and hexadecimal and vice versa BCD for Java

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BCD (character encoding)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCD_(character_encoding)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Binary_clock.svg"},{"link_name":"binary clock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_clock"},{"link_name":"LEDs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode"},{"link_name":"sexagesimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexagesimal"},{"link_name":"computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing"},{"link_name":"electronic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics"},{"link_name":"binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system"},{"link_name":"decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal"},{"link_name":"digit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_digit"},{"link_name":"bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit"},{"link_name":"sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"byte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Intel_IA32-1"},{"link_name":"Excess-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excess-3"},{"link_name":"tetrades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrade_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Klar_1970-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Klar_1989-3"},{"link_name":"nibble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibble"},{"link_name":"don't care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t_care"},{"link_name":"pseudo-tetrad(e)s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-tetrade"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudotetrade"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schneider_1986-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tafel_1971-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Steinbuch-Weber-Heinemann_1974-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tietze-Schenk_2013-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kowalski_1070-8"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Klar_1989-3"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ferretti_2013-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Speiser_1965-10"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pseudo-tetrades-11"},{"link_name":"positional systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positional_system"},{"link_name":"decimal computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_computer"},{"link_name":"IBM System/360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360"},{"link_name":"Digital Equipment Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"VAX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAX"},{"link_name":"Burroughs B1700","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burroughs_B1700"},{"link_name":"68000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/68000"},{"link_name":"ARM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_architecture_family"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"long mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode"},{"link_name":"fixed-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-point_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"floating-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point"},{"link_name":"rounding errors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-off_error"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cowlishaw_GDA-12"}],"text":"\"BCD code\" redirects here. For BCD character sets, see BCD (character encoding).A binary clock might use LEDs to express binary values. In this clock, each column of LEDs shows a binary-coded decimal numeral of the traditional sexagesimal time.In computing and electronic systems, binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a class of binary encodings of decimal numbers where each digit is represented by a fixed number of bits, usually four or eight. Sometimes, special bit patterns are used for a sign or other indications (e.g. error or overflow).In byte-oriented systems (i.e. most modern computers), the term unpacked BCD[1] usually implies a full byte for each digit (often including a sign), whereas packed BCD typically encodes two digits within a single byte by taking advantage of the fact that four bits are enough to represent the range 0 to 9. The precise four-bit encoding, however, may vary for technical reasons (e.g. Excess-3).The ten states representing a BCD digit are sometimes called tetrades[2][3] (the nibble typically needed to hold them is also known as a tetrade) while the unused, don't care-states are named pseudo-tetrad(e)s [de],[4][5][6][7][8] pseudo-decimals[3] or pseudo-decimal digits.[9][10][nb 1]BCD's main virtue, in comparison to binary positional systems, is its more accurate representation and rounding of decimal quantities, as well as its ease of conversion into conventional human-readable representations. Its principal drawbacks are a slight increase in the complexity of the circuits needed to implement basic arithmetic as well as slightly less dense storage.BCD was used in many early decimal computers, and is implemented in the instruction set of machines such as the IBM System/360 series and its descendants, Digital Equipment Corporation's VAX, the Burroughs B1700, and the Motorola 68000-series processors.BCD per se is not as widely used as in the past, and is unavailable or limited in newer instruction sets (e.g., ARM; x86 in long mode). However, decimal fixed-point and decimal floating-point formats are still important and continue to be used in financial, commercial, and industrial computing, where the subtle conversion and fractional rounding errors that are inherent in binary floating point formats cannot be tolerated.[11]","title":"Binary-coded decimal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evans_1961-13"},{"link_name":"Excess-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excess-3"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lala_2007-14"},{"link_name":"decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal"},{"link_name":"bytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"},{"link_name":"nibble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibble"},{"link_name":"bits 0 through 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_numbering#Most-_vs_least-significant_bit_first"},{"link_name":"[nb 8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Packed_chars-45"},{"link_name":"big-endian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big-endian"},{"link_name":"Shifting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_shift"},{"link_name":"masking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mask_(computing)"},{"link_name":"bitwise operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitwise_operation"}],"text":"BCD takes advantage of the fact that any one decimal numeral can be represented by a four-bit pattern. An obvious way of encoding digits is Natural BCD (NBCD), where each decimal digit is represented by its corresponding four-bit binary value, as shown in the following table. This is also called \"8421\" encoding.This scheme can also be referred to as Simple Binary-Coded Decimal (SBCD) or BCD 8421, and is the most common encoding.[12] Others include the so-called \"4221\" and \"7421\" encoding – named after the weighting used for the bits – and \"Excess-3\".[13] For example, the BCD digit 6, 0110'b in 8421 notation, is 1100'b in 4221 (two encodings are possible), 0110'b in 7421, while in Excess-3 it is 1001'b (\n \n \n \n 6\n +\n 3\n =\n 9\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 6+3=9}\n \n).The following table represents decimal digits from 0 to 9 in various BCD encoding systems. In the headers, the \"8 4 2 1\" indicates the weight of each bit. In the fifth column (\"BCD 8 4 −2 −1\"), two of the weights are negative. Both ASCII and EBCDIC character codes for the digits, which are examples of zoned BCD, are also shown.As most computers deal with data in 8-bit bytes, it is possible to use one of the following methods to encode a BCD number:Unpacked: Each decimal digit is encoded into one byte, with four bits representing the number and the remaining bits having no significance.\nPacked: Two decimal digits are encoded into a single byte, with one digit in the least significant nibble (bits 0 through 3) and the other numeral in the most significant nibble (bits 4 through 7).[nb 8]As an example, encoding the decimal number 91 using unpacked BCD results in the following binary pattern of two bytes:Decimal: 9 1\nBinary : 0000 1001 0000 0001In packed BCD, the same number would fit into a single byte:Decimal: 9 1\nBinary : 1001 0001Hence the numerical range for one unpacked BCD byte is zero through nine inclusive, whereas the range for one packed BCD byte is zero through ninety-nine inclusive.To represent numbers larger than the range of a single byte any number of contiguous bytes may be used. For example, to represent the decimal number 12345 in packed BCD, using big-endian format, a program would encode as follows:Decimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5\nBinary : 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101Here, the most significant nibble of the most significant byte has been encoded as zero, so the number is stored as 012345 (but formatting routines might replace or remove leading zeros). Packed BCD is more efficient in storage usage than unpacked BCD; encoding the same number (with the leading zero) in unpacked format would consume twice the storage.Shifting and masking operations are used to pack or unpack a packed BCD digit. Other bitwise operations are used to convert a numeral to its equivalent bit pattern or reverse the process.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dewar-Smosna_1990-46"},{"link_name":"nibble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibble"},{"link_name":"[nb 8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Packed_chars-45"},{"link_name":"big endian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_endian"},{"link_name":"hex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal"},{"link_name":"EBCDIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBCDIC"},{"link_name":"signed overpunch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signed_overpunch"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IBM_1980_POP-47"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DEC_1983_PDP11-48"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DEC_1985_VAX11-49"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ILE-RPG-50"},{"link_name":"word","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_(data_type)"},{"link_name":"endianness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness"},{"link_name":"two's complement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%27s_complement"},{"link_name":"binary notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_notation"},{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII"},{"link_name":"Unicode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode"},{"link_name":"BCD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCD_(character_encoding)"},{"link_name":"COBOL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COBOL"},{"link_name":"PL/I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PL/I"},{"link_name":"VAX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAX"},{"link_name":"Digital Equipment Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"SDS Sigma series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDS_Sigma_series"},{"link_name":"Burroughs Medium Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burroughs_Medium_Systems"},{"link_name":"Electrodata 200 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Burroughs_205&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ten's complement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten%27s_complement"}],"text":"In packed BCD (or packed decimal[38]), each nibble represents a decimal digit.[nb 8] Packed BCD has been in use since at least the 1960s and is implemented in all IBM mainframe hardware since then. Most implementations are big endian, i.e. with the more significant digit in the upper half of each byte, and with the leftmost byte (residing at the lowest memory address) containing the most significant digits of the packed decimal value. The lower nibble of the rightmost byte is usually used as the sign flag, although some unsigned representations lack a sign flag.As an example, a 4-byte value consists of 8 nibbles, wherein the upper 7 nibbles store the digits of a 7-digit decimal value, and the lowest nibble indicates the sign of the decimal integer value. Standard sign values are 1100 (hex C) for positive (+) and 1101 (D) for negative (−). This convention comes from the zone field for EBCDIC characters and the signed overpunch representation.Other allowed signs are 1010 (A) and 1110 (E) for positive and 1011 (B) for negative. IBM System/360 processors will use the 1010 (A) and 1011 (B) signs if the A bit is set in the PSW, for the ASCII-8 standard that never passed. Most implementations also provide unsigned BCD values with a sign nibble of 1111 (F).[39][40][41] ILE RPG uses 1111 (F) for positive and 1101 (D) for negative.[42] These match the EBCDIC zone for digits without a sign overpunch. In packed BCD, the number 127 is represented by 0001 0010 0111 1100 (127C) and −127 is represented by 0001 0010 0111 1101 (127D). Burroughs systems used 1101 (D) for negative, and any other value is considered a positive sign value (the processors will normalize a positive sign to 1100 (C)).No matter how many bytes wide a word is, there is always an even number of nibbles because each byte has two of them. Therefore, a word of n bytes can contain up to (2n)−1 decimal digits, which is always an odd number of digits. A decimal number with d digits requires 1/2(d+1) bytes of storage space.For example, a 4-byte (32-bit) word can hold seven decimal digits plus a sign and can represent values ranging from ±9,999,999. Thus the number −1,234,567 is 7 digits wide and is encoded as:0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1101\n1 2 3 4 5 6 7 −Like character strings, the first byte of the packed decimal – that with the most significant two digits – is usually stored in the lowest address in memory, independent of the endianness of the machine.In contrast, a 4-byte binary two's complement integer can represent values from −2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647.While packed BCD does not make optimal use of storage (using about 20% more memory than binary notation to store the same numbers), conversion to ASCII, EBCDIC, or the various encodings of Unicode is made trivial, as no arithmetic operations are required. The extra storage requirements are usually offset by the need for the accuracy and compatibility with calculator or hand calculation that fixed-point decimal arithmetic provides. Denser packings of BCD exist which avoid the storage penalty and also need no arithmetic operations for common conversions.Packed BCD is supported in the COBOL programming language as the \"COMPUTATIONAL-3\" (an IBM extension adopted by many other compiler vendors) or \"PACKED-DECIMAL\" (part of the 1985 COBOL standard) data type. It is supported in PL/I as \"FIXED DECIMAL\". Beside the IBM System/360 and later compatible mainframes, packed BCD is implemented in the native instruction set of the original VAX processors from Digital Equipment Corporation and some models of the SDS Sigma series mainframes, and is the native format for the Burroughs Medium Systems line of mainframes (descended from the 1950s Electrodata 200 series).Ten's complement representations for negative numbers offer an alternative approach to encoding the sign of packed (and other) BCD numbers. In this case, positive numbers always have a most significant digit between 0 and 4 (inclusive), while negative numbers are represented by the 10's complement of the corresponding positive number.As a result, this system allows for 32-bit packed BCD numbers to range from −50,000,000 to +49,999,999, and −1 is represented as 99999999. (As with two's complement binary numbers, the range is not symmetric about zero.)","title":"Packed BCD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fixed-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-point_arithmetic"}],"sub_title":"Fixed-point packed decimal","text":"Fixed-point decimal numbers are supported by some programming languages (such as COBOL and PL/I). These languages allow the programmer to specify an implicit decimal point in front of one of the digits.For example, a packed decimal value encoded with the bytes 12 34 56 7C represents the fixed-point value +1,234.567 when the implied decimal point is located between the fourth and fifth digits:12 34 56 7C\n12 34.56 7+The decimal point is not actually stored in memory, as the packed BCD storage format does not provide for it. Its location is simply known to the compiler, and the generated code acts accordingly for the various arithmetic operations.","title":"Packed BCD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chen–Ho encoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen%E2%80%93Ho_encoding"},{"link_name":"densely packed decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Densely_packed_decimal"}],"sub_title":"Higher-density encodings","text":"If a decimal digit requires four bits, then three decimal digits require 12 bits. However, since 210 (1,024) is greater than 103 (1,000), if three decimal digits are encoded together, only 10 bits are needed. Two such encodings are Chen–Ho encoding and densely packed decimal (DPD). The latter has the advantage that subsets of the encoding encode two digits in the optimal seven bits and one digit in four bits, as in regular BCD.","title":"Packed BCD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"}],"text":"Some implementations, for example IBM mainframe systems, support zoned decimal numeric representations. Each decimal digit is stored in one byte, with the lower four bits encoding the digit in BCD form. The upper four bits, called the \"zone\" bits, are usually set to a fixed value so that the byte holds a character value corresponding to the digit. EBCDIC systems use a zone value of 1111 (hex F); this yields bytes in the range F0 to F9 (hex), which are the EBCDIC codes for the characters \"0\" through \"9\". Similarly, ASCII systems use a zone value of 0011 (hex 3), giving character codes 30 to 39 (hex).For signed zoned decimal values, the rightmost (least significant) zone nibble holds the sign digit, which is the same set of values that are used for signed packed decimal numbers (see above). Thus a zoned decimal value encoded as the hex bytes F1 F2 D3 represents the signed decimal value −123:F1 F2 D3\n1 2 −3","title":"Zoned decimal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"code page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page"}],"sub_title":"EBCDIC zoned decimal conversion table","text":"(*) Note: These characters vary depending on the local character code page setting.","title":"Zoned decimal"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Fixed-point zoned decimal","text":"Some languages (such as COBOL and PL/I) directly support fixed-point zoned decimal values, assigning an implicit decimal point at some location between the decimal digits of a number.For example, given a six-byte signed zoned decimal value with an implied decimal point to the right of the fourth digit, the hex bytes F1 F2 F7 F9 F5 C0 represent the value +1,279.50:F1 F2 F7 F9 F5 C0\n1 2 7 9. 5 +0","title":"Zoned decimal"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Operations with BCD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"addition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition"},{"link_name":"half-carry flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-carry_flag"},{"link_name":"Intel 8080","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8080"},{"link_name":"Zilog Z80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilog_Z80"}],"sub_title":"Addition","text":"It is possible to perform addition by first adding in binary, and then converting to BCD afterwards. Conversion of the simple sum of two digits can be done by adding 6 (that is, 16 − 10) when the five-bit result of adding a pair of digits has a value greater than 9. The reason for adding 6 is that there are 16 possible 4-bit BCD values (since 24 = 16), but only 10 values are valid (0000 through 1001). For example:1001 + 1000 = 10001\n 9 + 8 = 1710001 is the binary, not decimal, representation of the desired result, but the most significant 1 (the \"carry\") cannot fit in a 4-bit binary number. In BCD as in decimal, there cannot exist a value greater than 9 (1001) per digit. To correct this, 6 (0110) is added to the total, and then the result is treated as two nibbles:10001 + 0110 = 00010111 => 0001 0111\n 17 + 6 = 23 1 7The two nibbles of the result, 0001 and 0111, correspond to the digits \"1\" and \"7\". This yields \"17\" in BCD, which is the correct result.This technique can be extended to adding multiple digits by adding in groups from right to left, propagating the second digit as a carry, always comparing the 5-bit result of each digit-pair sum to 9. Some CPUs provide a half-carry flag to facilitate BCD arithmetic adjustments following binary addition and subtraction operations. The Intel 8080, the Zilog Z80 and the CPUs of the x86 family provide the opcode DAA (Decimal Adjust Accumulator).","title":"Operations with BCD"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"subtrahend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtrahend"},{"link_name":"minuend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minuend"},{"link_name":"positive number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_number"},{"link_name":"negative number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_number"},{"link_name":"nine's complement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine%27s_complement"}],"sub_title":"Subtraction","text":"Subtraction is done by adding the ten's complement of the subtrahend to the minuend. To represent the sign of a number in BCD, the number 0000 is used to represent a positive number, and 1001 is used to represent a negative number. The remaining 14 combinations are invalid signs. To illustrate signed BCD subtraction, consider the following problem: 357 − 432.In signed BCD, 357 is 0000 0011 0101 0111. The ten's complement of 432 can be obtained by taking the nine's complement of 432, and then adding one. So, 999 − 432 = 567, and 567 + 1 = 568. By preceding 568 in BCD by the negative sign code, the number −432 can be represented. So, −432 in signed BCD is 1001 0101 0110 1000.Now that both numbers are represented in signed BCD, they can be added together:0000 0011 0101 0111\n 0 3 5 7\n+ 1001 0101 0110 1000\n 9 5 6 8\n= 1001 1000 1011 1111\n 9 8 11 15Since BCD is a form of decimal representation, several of the digit sums above are invalid. In the event that an invalid entry (any BCD digit greater than 1001) exists, 6 is added to generate a carry bit and cause the sum to become a valid entry. So, adding 6 to the invalid entries results in the following:1001 1000 1011 1111\n 9 8 11 15\n+ 0000 0000 0110 0110\n 0 0 6 6\n= 1001 1001 0010 0101\n 9 9 2 5Thus the result of the subtraction is 1001 1001 0010 0101 (−925). To confirm the result, note that the first digit is 9, which means negative. This seems to be correct since 357 − 432 should result in a negative number. The remaining nibbles are BCD, so 1001 0010 0101 is 925. The ten's complement of 925 is 1000 − 925 = 75, so the calculated answer is −75.If there are a different number of nibbles being added together (such as 1053 − 2), the number with the fewer digits must first be prefixed with zeros before taking the ten's complement or subtracting. So, with 1053 − 2, 2 would have to first be represented as 0002 in BCD, and the ten's complement of 0002 would have to be calculated.","title":"Operations with BCD"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"BCD in computers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-Coded_Decimal_Interchange_Code"},{"link_name":"alphanumeric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphanumeric"},{"link_name":"IBM 1620","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1620"},{"link_name":"IBM 1400 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1400_series"},{"link_name":"decimal architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_700/7000_series#Decimal_architecture_(7070/7072/7074)"},{"link_name":"IBM 700/7000 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_700/7000_series"},{"link_name":"punched card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thelen_Van1401-51"},{"link_name":"IBM 7070","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_7070"},{"link_name":"IBM 7072","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_7072"},{"link_name":"IBM 7074","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_7074"},{"link_name":"two-out-of-five code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-out-of-five_code"},{"link_name":"System/360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System/360"},{"link_name":"IBM 1130","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1130"},{"link_name":"1800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1800"},{"link_name":"IBM Db2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Db2"},{"link_name":"z/Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z/Architecture"},{"link_name":"POWER6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POWER6"},{"link_name":"Power ISA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_ISA"}],"sub_title":"IBM","text":"IBM used the terms Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (BCDIC, sometimes just called BCD), for 6-bit alphanumeric codes that represented numbers, upper-case letters and special characters. Some variation of BCDIC alphamerics is used in most early IBM computers, including the IBM 1620 (introduced in 1959), IBM 1400 series, and non-decimal architecture members of the IBM 700/7000 series.The IBM 1400 series are character-addressable machines, each location being six bits labeled B, A, 8, 4, 2 and 1, plus an odd parity check bit (C) and a word mark bit (M). For encoding digits 1 through 9, B and A are zero and the digit value represented by standard 4-bit BCD in bits 8 through 1. For most other characters bits B and A are derived simply from the \"12\", \"11\", and \"0\" \"zone punches\" in the punched card character code, and bits 8 through 1 from the 1 through 9 punches. A \"12 zone\" punch set both B and A, an \"11 zone\" set B, and a \"0 zone\" (a 0 punch combined with any others) set A. Thus the letter A, which is (12,1) in the punched card format, is encoded (B,A,1). The currency symbol $, (11,8,3) in the punched card, was encoded in memory as (B,8,2,1). This allows the circuitry to convert between the punched card format and the internal storage format to be very simple with only a few special cases. One important special case is digit 0, represented by a lone 0 punch in the card, and (8,2) in core memory.[43]The memory of the IBM 1620 is organized into 6-bit addressable digits, the usual 8, 4, 2, 1 plus F, used as a flag bit and C, an odd parity check bit. BCD alphamerics are encoded using digit pairs, with the \"zone\" in the even-addressed digit and the \"digit\" in the odd-addressed digit, the \"zone\" being related to the 12, 11, and 0 \"zone punches\" as in the 1400 series. Input/output translation hardware converted between the internal digit pairs and the external standard 6-bit BCD codes.In the decimal architecture IBM 7070, IBM 7072, and IBM 7074 alphamerics are encoded using digit pairs (using two-out-of-five code in the digits, not BCD) of the 10-digit word, with the \"zone\" in the left digit and the \"digit\" in the right digit. Input/output translation hardware converted between the internal digit pairs and the external standard 6-bit BCD codes.With the introduction of System/360, IBM expanded 6-bit BCD alphamerics to 8-bit EBCDIC, allowing the addition of many more characters (e.g., lowercase letters). A variable length packed BCD numeric data type is also implemented, providing machine instructions that perform arithmetic directly on packed decimal data.On the IBM 1130 and 1800, packed BCD is supported in software by IBM's Commercial Subroutine Package.Today, BCD data is still heavily used in IBM databases such as IBM Db2 and processors such as z/Architecture and POWER6 and later Power ISA processors. In these products, the BCD is usually zoned BCD (as in EBCDIC or ASCII), packed BCD (two decimal digits per byte), or \"pure\" BCD encoding (one decimal digit stored as BCD in the low four bits of each byte). All of these are used within hardware registers and processing units, and in software.","title":"BCD in computers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"VAX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAX"},{"link_name":"instructions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_set"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DEC_1985_VAX11-49"},{"link_name":"exception handling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exception_handling"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"unique 18-digit (ten-byte) BCD format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_BCD_opcodes"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Intel_2020_V1-52"},{"link_name":"Motorola 68000 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_68000_series"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Motorola_m68k-53"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jones_1999_AT-54"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"}],"sub_title":"Other computers","text":"The Digital Equipment Corporation VAX series includes instructions that can perform arithmetic directly on packed BCD data and convert between packed BCD data and other integer representations.[41] The VAX's packed BCD format is compatible with that on IBM System/360 and IBM's later compatible processors. The MicroVAX and later VAX implementations dropped this ability from the CPU but retained code compatibility with earlier machines by implementing the missing instructions in an operating system-supplied software library. This is invoked automatically via exception handling when the defunct instructions are encountered, so that programs using them can execute without modification on the newer machines.The Intel x86 architecture supports a unique 18-digit (ten-byte) BCD format that can be loaded into and stored from the floating point registers, from where computations can be performed.[44]The Motorola 68000 series had BCD instructions.[45]In more recent computers such capabilities are almost always implemented in software rather than the CPU's instruction set, but BCD numeric data are still extremely common in commercial and financial applications.There are tricks for implementing packed BCD and zoned decimal add–or–subtract operations using short but difficult to understand sequences of word-parallel logic and binary arithmetic operations.[46] For example, the following code (written in C) computes an unsigned 8-digit packed BCD addition using 32-bit binary operations:uint32_t BCDadd(uint32_t a, uint32_t b)\n{\n uint32_t t1, t2; // unsigned 32-bit intermediate values\n\n t1 = a + 0x06666666;\n t2 = t1 ^ b; // sum without carry propagation\n t1 = t1 + b; // provisional sum\n t2 = t1 ^ t2; // all the binary carry bits\n t2 = ~t2 & 0x11111110; // just the BCD carry bits\n t2 = (t2 >> 2) | (t2 >> 3); // correction\n return t1 - t2; // corrected BCD sum\n}","title":"BCD in computers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"seven-segment displays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven-segment_display"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IEEE_CORDIC-55"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCS_CORDIC-56"}],"text":"BCD is common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of digital logic, and not containing a microprocessor. By employing BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit.This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical seven-segment displays to build a metering circuit, for example. If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing with such a display would require complex circuitry. Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple, working throughout with BCD can lead to an overall simpler system than converting to and from binary. Most pocket calculators do all their calculations in BCD.The same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded microcontroller or other small processor. Often, representing numbers internally in BCD format results in smaller code, since a conversion from or to binary representation can be expensive on such limited processors. For these applications, some small processors feature dedicated arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities.[47][48]","title":"BCD in electronics"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Comparison with pure binary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rounding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rounding"},{"link_name":"dubious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement"},{"link_name":"discuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Binary-coded_decimal#Rounding"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"link_name":"seven-segment display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven-segment_display"},{"link_name":"O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big-O_notation"},{"link_name":"binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system"},{"link_name":"Binary numeral system § Conversion to and from other numeral systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system#Conversion_to_and_from_other_numeral_systems"}],"sub_title":"Advantages","text":"Scaling by a power of 10 is simple.\nRounding at a decimal digit boundary is simpler. Addition and subtraction in decimal do not require rounding.[dubious – discuss]\nThe alignment of two decimal numbers (for example 1.3 + 27.08) is a simple, exact shift.\nConversion to a character form or for display (e.g., to a text-based format such as XML, or to drive signals for a seven-segment display) is a simple per-digit mapping, and can be done in linear (O(n)) time. Conversion from pure binary involves relatively complex logic that spans digits, and for large numbers, no linear-time conversion algorithm is known (see Binary numeral system § Conversion to and from other numeral systems).\nMany non-integral values, such as decimal 0.2, have an infinite place-value representation in binary (.001100110011...) but have a finite place-value in binary-coded decimal (0.0010). Consequently, a system based on binary-coded decimal representations of decimal fractions avoids errors representing and calculating such values. This is useful in financial calculations.","title":"Comparison with pure binary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mathur_1989-57"},{"link_name":"Adders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adder_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"binary multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system#Multiplication"}],"sub_title":"Disadvantages","text":"Practical existing implementations of BCD are typically slower than operations on binary representations, especially on embedded systems, due to limited processor support for native BCD operations.[49]\nSome operations are more complex to implement. Adders require extra logic to cause them to wrap and generate a carry early. Also, 15 to 20 per cent more circuitry is needed for BCD add compared to pure binary.[citation needed] Multiplication requires the use of algorithms that are somewhat more complex than shift-mask-add (a binary multiplication, requiring binary shifts and adds or the equivalent, per-digit or group of digits is required).\nStandard BCD requires four bits per digit, roughly 20 per cent more space than a binary encoding (the ratio of 4 bits to log210 bits is 1.204). When packed so that three digits are encoded in ten bits, the storage overhead is greatly reduced, at the expense of an encoding that is unaligned with the 8-bit byte boundaries common on existing hardware, resulting in slower implementations on these systems.","title":"Comparison with pure binary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Programmable calculators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_calculator"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"link_name":"Hewlett-Packard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"floating-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point"},{"link_name":"infinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinity"},{"link_name":"underflow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_underflow"},{"link_name":"overflow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_overflow"},{"link_name":"error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defined_and_undefined"}],"text":"Various BCD implementations exist that employ other representations for numbers. Programmable calculators manufactured by Texas Instruments, Hewlett-Packard, and others typically employ a floating-point BCD format, typically with two or three digits for the (decimal) exponent. The extra bits of the sign digit may be used to indicate special numeric values, such as infinity, underflow/overflow, and error (a blinking display).","title":"Representational variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COBOL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COBOL"}],"sub_title":"Signed variations","text":"Signed decimal values may be represented in several ways. The COBOL programming language, for example, supports five zoned decimal formats, with each one encoding the numeric sign in a different way:","title":"Representational variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"3GPP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3GPP"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3GPP_2013_TS29002-58"},{"link_name":"telephony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephony"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ETSI_SPS-59"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OpenSS_XMAP-60"},{"link_name":"telephone keypads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-tone_multi-frequency_signaling"}],"sub_title":"Telephony binary-coded decimal (TBCD)","text":"3GPP developed TBCD,[50] an expansion to BCD where the remaining (unused) bit combinations are used to add specific telephony characters,[51][52] with digits similar to those found in telephone keypads original design.The mentioned 3GPP document defines TBCD-STRING with swapped nibbles in each byte. Bits, octets and digits indexed from 1, bits from the right, digits and octets from the left.bits 8765 of octet n encoding digit 2n\nbits 4321 of octet n encoding digit 2(n – 1) + 1Meaning number 1234, would become 21 43 in TBCD.","title":"Representational variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fixed point arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_point_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"radix point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radix_point"},{"link_name":"Hertz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertz_encoding"},{"link_name":"Chen–Ho encodings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen%E2%80%93Ho_encoding"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pseudo-tetrades-11"},{"link_name":"Densely packed decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Densely_packed_decimal"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pseudo-tetrades-11"},{"link_name":"significand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significand"},{"link_name":"IEEE 754-2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754-2008"}],"text":"If errors in representation and computation are more important than the speed of conversion to and from display, a scaled binary representation may be used, which stores a decimal number as a binary-encoded integer and a binary-encoded signed decimal exponent. For example, 0.2 can be represented as 2×10−1.This representation allows rapid multiplication and division, but may require shifting by a power of 10 during addition and subtraction to align the decimal points. It is appropriate for applications with a fixed number of decimal places that do not then require this adjustment—particularly financial applications where 2 or 4 digits after the decimal point are usually enough. Indeed, this is almost a form of fixed point arithmetic since the position of the radix point is implied.The Hertz and Chen–Ho encodings provide Boolean transformations for converting groups of three BCD-encoded digits to and from 10-bit values[nb 1] that can be efficiently encoded in hardware with only 2 or 3 gate delays. Densely packed decimal (DPD) is a similar scheme[nb 1] that is used for most of the significand, except the lead digit, for one of the two alternative decimal encodings specified in the IEEE 754-2008 floating-point standard.","title":"Alternative encodings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"personal computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"MC6818","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MC6818"},{"link_name":"IBM PC AT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_AT"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Units_ENS-61"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MC6818-62"},{"link_name":"Atari 8-bit computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computers"},{"link_name":"MOS Technology 6502","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502"},{"link_name":"Psion Organiser 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psion_Organiser"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_3"},{"link_name":"were misinterpreted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_formatting_and_storage_bugs"},{"link_name":"Year 2010 problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_2010_problem"}],"text":"The BIOS in many personal computers stores the date and time in BCD because the MC6818 real-time clock chip used in the original IBM PC AT motherboard provided the time encoded in BCD. This form is easily converted into ASCII for display.[53][54]The Atari 8-bit computers use a BCD format for floating point numbers. The MOS Technology 6502 processor has a BCD mode for the addition and subtraction instructions. The Psion Organiser 1 handheld computer's manufacturer-supplied software also uses BCD to implement floating point; later Psion models use binary exclusively.Early models of the PlayStation 3 store the date and time in BCD. This led to a worldwide outage of the console on 1 March 2010. The last two digits of the year stored as BCD were misinterpreted as 16 causing an error in the unit's date, rendering most functions inoperable. This has been referred to as the Year 2010 problem.","title":"Application"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gottschalk v. Benson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottschalk_v._Benson"},{"link_name":"U.S. Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court"},{"link_name":"lower court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Customs_and_Patent_Appeals"},{"link_name":"patent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent"},{"link_name":"algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gottschalk-Benson_1972-63"},{"link_name":"patentability of software and algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_patents_under_United_States_patent_law"}],"text":"In the 1972 case Gottschalk v. Benson, the U.S. Supreme Court overturned a lower court's decision that had allowed a patent for converting BCD-encoded numbers to binary on a computer.The decision noted that a patent \"would wholly pre-empt the mathematical formula and in practical effect would be a patent on the algorithm itself\".[55] This was a landmark judgement that determined the patentability of software and algorithms.","title":"Legal history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Pseudo-tetrades_11-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Pseudo-tetrades_11-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Pseudo-tetrades_11-2"},{"link_name":"tetrades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrade_(computing)"},{"link_name":"pseudo-tetrades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-tetrade"},{"link_name":"Hertz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertz_encoding"},{"link_name":"Chen–Ho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen%E2%80%93Ho_encoding"},{"link_name":"DPD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Densely_packed_decimal"},{"link_name":"unused states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unused_state_(logic)"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Non-BCD_19-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Non-BCD_19-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Non-BCD_19-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Non-BCD_19-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Non-BCD_19-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Aiken_2421_23-0"},{"link_name":"Aiken code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aiken_code"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Unsymmetrical_2421_26-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Petherick_RAE_36-0"},{"link_name":"Petherick code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petherick_code"},{"link_name":"Royal Aircraft Establishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Establishment"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-O'Brien-I_WRD_38-0"},{"link_name":"O'Brien code type I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27Brien_code_type_I"},{"link_name":"Watts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilger_%26_Watts"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Gray_Stibitz_42-0"},{"link_name":"Excess-3 Gray code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excess-3_Gray_code"},{"link_name":"Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Gray_(researcher)"},{"link_name":"Stibitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Robert_Stibitz"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Packed_chars_45-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Packed_chars_45-1"},{"link_name":"words","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_(computer_architecture)"},{"link_name":"minicomputers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputer"},{"link_name":"IBM SQUOZE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_SQUOZE"},{"link_name":"DEC RADIX 50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEC_RADIX_50"}],"text":"^ a b c In a standard packed 4-bit representation, there are 16 states (four bits for each digit) with 10 tetrades and 6 pseudo-tetrades, whereas in more densely packed schemes such as Hertz, Chen–Ho or DPD encodings there are fewer—e.g., only 24 unused states in 1024 states (10 bits for three digits).\n\n^ a b c d e Code states (shown in black) outside the decimal range 0–9 indicate additional states of the non-BCD variant of the code. In the BCD code variant discussed here, they are pseudo-tetrades.\n\n^ The Aiken code is one of several 2 4 2 1 codes. It is also known as 2* 4 2 1 code.\n\n^ The Jump-at-8 code is also known as unsymmetrical 2 4 2 1 code.\n\n^ The Petherick code is also known as Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) code.\n\n^ The O'Brien code type I is also known as Watts code or Watts reflected decimal (WRD) code.\n\n^ The Excess-3 Gray code is also known as Gray–Stibitz code.\n\n^ a b In a similar fashion, multiple characters were often packed into machine words on minicomputers, see IBM SQUOZE and DEC RADIX 50.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Coded Character Sets, History and Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//textfiles.meulie.net/bitsaved/Books/Mackenzie_CodedCharSets.pdf"},{"link_name":"Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison-Wesley_Publishing_Company,_Inc."},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-201-14460-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-14460-4"},{"link_name":"LCCN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"77-90165","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//lccn.loc.gov/77-90165"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160526172151/https://textfiles.meulie.net/bitsaved/Books/Mackenzie_CodedCharSets.pdf"},{"link_name":"van Nostrand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Nostrand_(publisher)"},{"link_name":"Schmid, Hermann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Schmid_(computer_scientist)"},{"link_name":"Decimal Computation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/decimalcomputati0000schm"},{"link_name":"John Wiley & Sons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-471-76180-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-76180-X"},{"link_name":"Schmid, Hermann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Schmid_(computer_scientist)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-89874-318-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89874-318-4"},{"link_name":"misprints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misprint"},{"link_name":"Massalin, Henry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Massalin"},{"link_name":"Katz, Randy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randy_Katz"},{"link_name":"\"Superoptimizer: A look at the smallest program\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.stanford.edu/class/cs343/resources/superoptimizer.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1145/36204.36194","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1145%2F36204.36194"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8186-0805-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8186-0805-6"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170704123738/https://web.stanford.edu/class/cs343/resources/superoptimizer.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"GNU Superoptimizer\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//hpux.connect.org.uk/hppd/hpux/Gnu/superopt-2.5/readme.html"},{"link_name":"IEEE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-60132-009-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-60132-009-4"},{"link_name":"IEEE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE"},{"link_name":"Cowlishaw, Mike F.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_F._Cowlishaw"},{"link_name":"\"Bibliography of material on Decimal Arithmetic – by category\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//speleotrove.com/decimal/decbibindex.html"}],"text":"Mackenzie, Charles E. (1980). Coded Character Sets, History and Development (PDF). The Systems Programming Series (1 ed.). Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 978-0-201-14460-4. LCCN 77-90165. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 26, 2016. Retrieved August 25, 2019.\nRichards, Richard Kohler (1955). Arithmetic Operations in Digital Computers. New York, USA: van Nostrand. pp. 397–.\nSchmid, Hermann (1974). Decimal Computation (1 ed.). Binghamton, New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-76180-X. and Schmid, Hermann (1983) [1974]. Decimal Computation (1 (reprint) ed.). Malabar, Florida, USA: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN 0-89874-318-4. (NB. At least some batches of the Krieger reprint edition were misprints with defective pages 115–146.)\nMassalin, Henry (October 1987). Katz, Randy (ed.). \"Superoptimizer: A look at the smallest program\" (PDF). ACM Sigops Operating Systems Review. 21 (4): 122–126. doi:10.1145/36204.36194. ISBN 0-8186-0805-6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-07-04. Retrieved 2012-04-25. (Also: ACM SIGPLAN Notices, Vol. 22 #10, IEEE Computer Society Press #87CH2440-6, October 1987)\n\"GNU Superoptimizer\". HP-UX.\nShirazi, Behrooz; Yun, David Y. Y.; Zhang, Chang N. (March 1988). VLSI designs for redundant binary-coded decimal addition. IEEE Seventh Annual International Phoenix Conference on Computers and Communications, 1988. IEEE. pp. 52–56.\nBrown; Vranesic (2003). Fundamentals of Digital Logic.\nThapliyal, Himanshu; Arabnia, Hamid R. (November 2006). Modified Carry Look Ahead BCD Adder With CMOS and Reversible Logic Implementation. Proceedings of the 2006 International Conference on Computer Design (CDES'06). CSREA Press. pp. 64–69. ISBN 1-60132-009-4.\nKaivani, A.; Alhosseini, A. Zaker; Gorgin, S.; Fazlali, M. (December 2006). Reversible Implementation of Densely-Packed-Decimal Converter to and from Binary-Coded-Decimal Format Using in IEEE-754R. 9th International Conference on Information Technology (ICIT'06). IEEE. pp. 273–276.\nCowlishaw, Mike F. (2009) [2002, 2008]. \"Bibliography of material on Decimal Arithmetic – by category\". General Decimal Arithmetic. IBM. Retrieved 2016-01-02.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"A binary clock might use LEDs to express binary values. In this clock, each column of LEDs shows a binary-coded decimal numeral of the traditional sexagesimal time.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Binary_clock.svg/250px-Binary_clock.svg.png"}]

[{"title":"Bi-quinary coded decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi-quinary_coded_decimal"},{"title":"Binary-coded ternary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_ternary"},{"title":"Binary integer decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_integer_decimal"},{"title":"Bitmask","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitmask"},{"title":"Chen–Ho encoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen%E2%80%93Ho_encoding"},{"title":"Decimal computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_computer"},{"title":"Densely packed decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Densely_packed_decimal"},{"title":"Double dabble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_dabble"},{"title":"Year 2000 problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year_2000_problem"}]

[{"reference":"Intel. \"ia32 architecture manual\" (PDF). Intel. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2015-07-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/manuals/64-ia-32-architectures-software-developers-manual.pdf","url_text":"\"ia32 architecture manual\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel","url_text":"Intel"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/manuals/64-ia-32-architectures-software-developers-manual.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Klar, Rainer (1970-02-01). \"1.5.3 Konvertierung binär verschlüsselter Dezimalzahlen\" [1.5.3 Conversion of binary coded decimal numbers]. Digitale Rechenautomaten – Eine Einführung [Digital Computers – An Introduction]. Sammlung Göschen (in German). Vol. 1241/1241a (1 ed.). Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter & Co. / G. J. Göschen'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung [de]. pp. 17, 21. ISBN 3-11-083160-0. . Archiv-Nr. 7990709. Archived from the original on 2020-04-18. Retrieved 2020-04-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QnqVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21","url_text":"Digitale Rechenautomaten – Eine Einführung"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter_%26_Co.","url_text":"Walter de Gruyter & Co."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._J._G%C3%B6schen%27sche_Verlagsbuchhandlung","url_text":"G. J. Göschen'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung"},{"url":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._J._G%C3%B6schen%27sche_Verlagsbuchhandlung","url_text":"de"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-083160-0","url_text":"3-11-083160-0"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200418220658/https://books.google.de/books?id=QnqVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21&lpg=PA21&focus=viewport&vq=tetrade&hl=de#v=onepage&q=tetrade&f=false","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Klar, Rainer (1989) [1988-10-01]. \"1.4 Codes: Binär verschlüsselte Dezimalzahlen\" [1.4 Codes: Binary coded decimal numbers]. Digitale Rechenautomaten – Eine Einführung in die Struktur von Computerhardware [Digital Computers – An Introduction into the structure of computer hardware]. Sammlung Göschen (in German). Vol. 2050 (4th reworked ed.). Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter & Co. pp. 25, 28, 38–39. ISBN 3-11011700-2. p. 25: […] Die nicht erlaubten 0/1-Muster nennt man auch Pseudodezimalen. […]","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter_%26_Co.","url_text":"Walter de Gruyter & Co."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11011700-2","url_text":"3-11011700-2"}]},{"reference":"Schneider, Hans-Jochen (1986). Lexikon der Informatik und Datenverarbeitung (in German) (2 ed.). R. Oldenbourg Verlag München Wien. ISBN 3-486-22662-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-486-22662-2","url_text":"3-486-22662-2"}]},{"reference":"Tafel, Hans Jörg (1971). Einführung in die digitale Datenverarbeitung [Introduction to digital information processing] (in German). Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag. ISBN 3-446-10569-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Hanser_Verlag","url_text":"Carl Hanser Verlag"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-446-10569-7","url_text":"3-446-10569-7"}]},{"reference":"Steinbuch, Karl W.; Weber, Wolfgang; Heinemann, Traute, eds. (1974) [1967]. Taschenbuch der Informatik - Band II - Struktur und Programmierung von EDV-Systemen. Taschenbuch der Nachrichtenverarbeitung (in German). Vol. 2 (3 ed.). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-06241-6. LCCN 73-80607.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_W._Steinbuch","url_text":"Steinbuch, Karl W."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer-Verlag","url_text":"Springer-Verlag"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-06241-6","url_text":"3-540-06241-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/73-80607","url_text":"73-80607"}]},{"reference":"Tietze, Ulrich; Schenk, Christoph (2012-12-06). Advanced Electronic Circuits. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3642812415. 9783642812415. Retrieved 2015-08-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dYruCAAAQBAJ","url_text":"Advanced Electronic Circuits"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media","url_text":"Springer Science & Business Media"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3642812415","url_text":"978-3642812415"}]},{"reference":"Kowalski, Emil (2013-03-08) [1970]. Nuclear Electronics. Springer-Verlag. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-87663-9. ISBN 978-3642876639. 9783642876639, 978-3-642-87664-6. Retrieved 2015-08-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Xr-IBwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Nuclear Electronics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer-Verlag","url_text":"Springer-Verlag"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-87663-9","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-642-87663-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3642876639","url_text":"978-3642876639"}]},{"reference":"Ferretti, Vittorio (2013-03-13). Wörterbuch der Elektronik, Datentechnik und Telekommunikation / Dictionary of Electronics, Computing and Telecommunications: Teil 1: Deutsch-Englisch / Part 1: German-English. Vol. 1 (2 ed.). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3642980886. 9783642980886. Retrieved 2015-08-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=gtHzBQAAQBAJ","url_text":"Wörterbuch der Elektronik, Datentechnik und Telekommunikation / Dictionary of Electronics, Computing and Telecommunications: Teil 1: Deutsch-Englisch / Part 1: German-English"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3642980886","url_text":"978-3642980886"}]},{"reference":"Speiser, Ambrosius Paul (1965) [1961]. Digitale Rechenanlagen - Grundlagen / Schaltungstechnik / Arbeitsweise / Betriebssicherheit [Digital computers - Basics / Circuits / Operation / Reliability] (in German) (2 ed.). ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland: Springer-Verlag / IBM. p. 209. LCCN 65-14624. 0978.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosius_Paul_Speiser","url_text":"Speiser, Ambrosius Paul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eidgen%C3%B6ssische_Technische_Hochschule_Z%C3%BCrich","url_text":"ETH Zürich"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer-Verlag","url_text":"Springer-Verlag"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM","url_text":"IBM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/65-14624","url_text":"65-14624"}]},{"reference":"Cowlishaw, Mike F. (2015) [1981, 2008]. \"General Decimal Arithmetic\". Retrieved 2016-01-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_F._Cowlishaw","url_text":"Cowlishaw, Mike F."},{"url":"http://speleotrove.com/decimal/","url_text":"\"General Decimal Arithmetic\""}]},{"reference":"Evans, David Silvester (March 1961). \"Chapter Four: Ancillary Equipment: Output-drive and parity-check relays for digitizers\". Digital Data: Their derivation and reduction for analysis and process control (1 ed.). London, UK: Hilger & Watts Ltd / Interscience Publishers. pp. 46–64 [56–57]. Retrieved 2020-05-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WOIJAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Digital Data: Their derivation and reduction for analysis and process control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilger_%26_Watts_Ltd","url_text":"Hilger & Watts Ltd"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interscience_Publishers","url_text":"Interscience Publishers"}]},{"reference":"Lala, Parag K. (2007). Principles of Modern Digital Design. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 20–25. ISBN 978-0-470-07296-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=doNGOrHUyCoC&pg=PA20","url_text":"Principles of Modern Digital Design"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-07296-7","url_text":"978-0-470-07296-7"}]},{"reference":"Berger, Erich R. (1962). \"1.3.3. Die Codierung von Zahlen\". Written at Karlsruhe, Germany. In Steinbuch, Karl W. (ed.). Taschenbuch der Nachrichtenverarbeitung (in German) (1 ed.). Berlin / Göttingen / New York: Springer-Verlag OHG. pp. 68–75. LCCN 62-14511.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_W._Steinbuch","url_text":"Steinbuch, Karl W."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer-Verlag_OHG","url_text":"Springer-Verlag OHG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/62-14511","url_text":"62-14511"}]},{"reference":"Kämmerer, Wilhelm [in German] (May 1969). \"II.15. Struktur: Informationsdarstellung im Automaten\". Written at Jena, Germany. In Frühauf, Hans [in German]; Kämmerer, Wilhelm; Schröder, Kurz; Winkler, Helmut (eds.). Digitale Automaten – Theorie, Struktur, Technik, Programmieren. Elektronisches Rechnen und Regeln (in German). Vol. 5 (1 ed.). Berlin, Germany: Akademie-Verlag GmbH. p. 161. License no. 202-100/416/69. Order no. 4666 ES 20 K 3.","urls":[{"url":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_K%C3%A4mmerer","url_text":"Kämmerer, Wilhelm"},{"url":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Fr%C3%BChauf","url_text":"Frühauf, Hans"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jkcgAQAAIAAJ","url_text":"Digitale Automaten – Theorie, Struktur, Technik, Programmieren"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademie-Verlag_GmbH","url_text":"Akademie-Verlag GmbH"}]},{"reference":"Dokter, Folkert; Steinhauer, Jürgen (1973-06-18). Digital Electronics. Philips Technical Library (PTL) / Macmillan Education (Reprint of 1st English ed.). Eindhoven, Netherlands: The Macmillan Press Ltd. / N. V. Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-01417-0. ISBN 978-1-349-01419-4. SBN 333-13360-9. Archived from the original on 2020-07-16. Retrieved 2020-05-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200716231044/https://books.google.com/books?id=hlRdDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Digital Electronics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Macmillan_Press_Ltd.","url_text":"The Macmillan Press Ltd."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N._V._Philips%27_Gloeilampenfabrieken","url_text":"N. V. Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-01417-0","url_text":"10.1007/978-1-349-01417-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-01419-4","url_text":"978-1-349-01419-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SBN_(identifier)","url_text":"SBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-13360-9","url_text":"333-13360-9"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hlRdDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Dokter, Folkert; Steinhauer, Jürgen (1975) [1969]. Digitale Elektronik in der Meßtechnik und Datenverarbeitung: Theoretische Grundlagen und Schaltungstechnik. Philips Fachbücher (in German). Vol. I (improved and extended 5th ed.). Hamburg, Germany: Deutsche Philips GmbH. p. 50. ISBN 3-87145-272-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Philips_GmbH","url_text":"Deutsche Philips GmbH"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-87145-272-6","url_text":"3-87145-272-6"}]},{"reference":"Kautz, William H. (June 1954). \"IV. Examples A. Binary Codes for Decimals, n = 4\". Optimized Data Encoding for Digital Computers. Convention Record of the I.R.E., 1954 National Convention, Part 4 - Electronic Computers and Information Theory. Session 19: Information Theory III - Speed and Computation. Stanford Research Institute, Stanford, California, USA: I.R.E. pp. 47–57 [49, 51–52, 57]. Archived from the original on 2020-07-03. Retrieved 2020-07-03. p. 52: […] The last column [of Table II], labeled \"Best,\" gives the maximum fraction possible with any code—namely 0.60—half again better than any conventional code. This extremal is reached with the ten [heavily-marked vertices of the graph of Fig. 4 for n = 4, or, in fact, with any set of ten code combinations which include all eight with an even (or all eight with an odd) number of \"1's.\" The second and third rows of Table II list the average and peak decimal change per undetected single binary error, and have been derived using the equations of Sec. II for Δ1 and δ1. The confusion index for decimals using the criterion of \"decimal change,\" is taken to be cij = |i − j|   i,j = 0, 1, … 9. Again, the \"Best\" arrangement possible (the same for average and peak), one of which is shown in Fig. 4, is substantially better than the conventional codes. […] Fig. 4 Minimum-confusion code for decimals. […] δ1=2   Δ1=15 […]","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_H._Kautz","url_text":"Kautz, William H."},{"url":"https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-IRE/50s/IRE-1954-Part-4-Electronic-Computers-&-Information%20pdf","url_text":"Optimized Data Encoding for Digital Computers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I.R.E.","url_text":"I.R.E."},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200703180632/https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-IRE/50s/IRE-1954-Part-4-Electronic-Computers-%26-Information%20pdf","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Kautz","url_text":"Fig. 4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Kautz","url_text":"Minimum-confusion code for decimals"}]},{"reference":"Chinal, Jean P. (January 1973). \"Codes\". Written at Paris, France. Design Methods for Digital Systems. Translated by Preston, Alan; Summer, Arthur (1st English ed.). Berlin, Germany: Akademie-Verlag / Springer-Verlag. p. 46. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-86187-1_3. ISBN 978-0-387-05871-9. License No. 202-100/542/73. Order No. 7617470(6047) ES 19 B 1 / 20 K 3. Retrieved 2020-06-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8FnxCAAAQBAJ","url_text":"Design Methods for Digital Systems"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademie-Verlag","url_text":"Akademie-Verlag"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer-Verlag","url_text":"Springer-Verlag"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-86187-1_3","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-642-86187-1_3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-05871-9","url_text":"978-0-387-05871-9"}]},{"reference":"Military Handbook: Encoders - Shaft Angle To Digital (PDF). United States Department of Defense. 1991-09-30. MIL-HDBK-231A. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-07-25. Retrieved 2020-07-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://everyspec.com/MIL-HDBK/MIL-HDBK-0200-0299/download.php?spec=MIL_HDBK_231A.1809.pdf","url_text":"Military Handbook: Encoders - Shaft Angle To Digital"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense","url_text":"United States Department of Defense"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200725051128/http://everyspec.com/MIL-HDBK/MIL-HDBK-0200-0299/download.php?spec=MIL_HDBK_231A.1809.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Stopper, Herbert (March 1960). Written at Litzelstetten, Germany. Runge, Wilhelm Tolmé (ed.). \"Ermittlung des Codes und der logischen Schaltung einer Zähldekade\". Telefunken-Zeitung (TZ) - Technisch-Wissenschaftliche Mitteilungen der Telefunken GMBH (in German). 33 (127). Berlin, Germany: Telefunken: 13–19.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Tolm%C3%A9_Runge","url_text":"Runge, Wilhelm Tolmé"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telefunken","url_text":"Telefunken"}]},{"reference":"Borucki, Lorenz; Dittmann, Joachim (1971) [July 1970, 1966, Autumn 1965]. \"2.3 Gebräuchliche Codes in der digitalen Meßtechnik\". Written at Krefeld / Karlsruhe, Germany. Digitale Meßtechnik: Eine Einführung (in German) (2 ed.). Berlin / Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag. pp. 10–23 [12–14]. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-80560-8. ISBN 3-540-05058-2. LCCN 75-131547. ISBN 978-3-642-80561-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer-Verlag","url_text":"Springer-Verlag"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-80560-8","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-642-80560-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-05058-2","url_text":"3-540-05058-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/75-131547","url_text":"75-131547"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-80561-5","url_text":"978-3-642-80561-5"}]},{"reference":"White, Garland S. (October 1953). \"Coded Decimal Number Systems for Digital Computers\". Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers. 41 (10). Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE): 1450–1452. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1953.274330. eISSN 2162-6634. ISSN 0096-8390. S2CID 51674710.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Institute_of_Radio_Engineers","url_text":"Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Radio_Engineers","url_text":"Institute of Radio Engineers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJRPROC.1953.274330","url_text":"10.1109/JRPROC.1953.274330"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"eISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2162-6634","url_text":"2162-6634"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0096-8390","url_text":"0096-8390"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51674710","url_text":"51674710"}]},{"reference":"\"Different Types of Binary Codes\". Electronic Hub. 2019-05-01 [2015-01-28]. Section 2.4 5211 Code. Archived from the original on 2020-05-18. Retrieved 2020-08-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.electronicshub.org/disclaimer/","url_text":"\"Different Types of Binary Codes\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200518203953/https://www.electronicshub.org/disclaimer/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Paul, Matthias R. (1995-08-10) [1994]. \"Unterbrechungsfreier Schleifencode\" [Continuous loop code]. 1.02 (in German). Retrieved 2008-02-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.uni-bonn.de/~uzs180/download/mpbcd102.zip","url_text":"\"Unterbrechungsfreier Schleifencode\""}]},{"reference":"Gray, Frank (1953-03-17) [1947-11-13]. Pulse Code Communication (PDF). New York, USA: Bell Telephone Laboratories, Incorporated. U.S. patent 2,632,058. Serial No. 785697. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-08-05. Retrieved 2020-08-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Gray_(researcher)","url_text":"Gray, Frank"},{"url":"https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/a3/d7/f2/0343f5f2c0cf50/US2632058.pdf","url_text":"Pulse Code Communication"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Telephone_Laboratories,_Incorporated","url_text":"Bell Telephone Laboratories, Incorporated"},{"url":"https://patents.google.com/patent/US2632058","url_text":"U.S. patent 2,632,058"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200805094312/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/a3/d7/f2/0343f5f2c0cf50/US2632058.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Glixon, Harry Robert (March 1957). \"Can You Take Advantage of the Cyclic Binary-Decimal Code?\". Control Engineering. 4 (3). Technical Publishing Company, a division of Dun-Donnelley Publishing Corporation, Dun & Bradstreet Corp.: 87–91. ISSN 0010-8049.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-_5IAQAAIAAJ","url_text":"\"Can You Take Advantage of the Cyclic Binary-Decimal Code?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_Engineering_(magazine)","url_text":"Control Engineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_Publishing_Company","url_text":"Technical Publishing Company"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dun_%26_Bradstreet_Corp.","url_text":"Dun & Bradstreet Corp."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0010-8049","url_text":"0010-8049"}]},{"reference":"Ledley, Robert Steven; Rotolo, Louis S.; Wilson, James Bruce (1960). \"Part 4. Logical Design of Digital-Computer Circuitry; Chapter 15. Serial Arithmetic Operations; Chapter 15-7. Additional Topics\". Digital Computer and Control Engineering (PDF). McGraw-Hill Electrical and Electronic Engineering Series (1 ed.). New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. (printer: The Maple Press Company, York, Pennsylvania, USA). pp. 517–518. ISBN 0-07036981-X. ISSN 2574-7916. LCCN 59015055. OCLC 1033638267. OL 5776493M. SBN 07036981-X. . ark:/13960/t72v3b312. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-19. Retrieved 2021-02-19. p. 517: […] The cyclic code is advantageous mainly in the use of relay circuits, for then a sticky relay will not give a false state as it is delayed in going from one cyclic number to the next. There are many other cyclic codes that have this property. […]","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Steven_Ledley","url_text":"Ledley, Robert Steven"},{"url":"http://bitsavers.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/pdf/columbiaUniv/Ledley_Digital_Computer_and_Control_Engineering_1960.pdf","url_text":"Digital Computer and Control Engineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Book_Company,_Inc.","url_text":"McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07036981-X","url_text":"0-07036981-X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2574-7916","url_text":"2574-7916"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/59015055","url_text":"59015055"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1033638267","url_text":"1033638267"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OL_(identifier)","url_text":"OL"},{"url":"https://openlibrary.org/books/OL5776493M","url_text":"5776493M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SBN_(identifier)","url_text":"SBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07036981-X","url_text":"07036981-X"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210219203314/http://bitsavers.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/pdf/columbiaUniv/Ledley_Digital_Computer_and_Control_Engineering_1960.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Savard, John J. G. (2018) [2006]. \"Decimal Representations\". quadibloc. Archived from the original on 2018-07-16. Retrieved 2018-07-16.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.quadibloc.com/comp/cp0203.htm","url_text":"\"Decimal Representations\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180716101321/http://www.quadibloc.com/comp/cp0203.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Petherick, Edward John (October 1953). A Cyclic Progressive Binary-coded-decimal System of Representing Numbers (Technical Note MS15). Farnborough, UK: Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Establishment","url_text":"Royal Aircraft Establishment"}]},{"reference":"Petherick, Edward John; Hopkins, A. J. (1958). Some Recently Developed Digital Devices for Encoding the Rotations of Shafts (Technical Note MS21). Farnborough, UK: Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Aircraft_Establishment","url_text":"Royal Aircraft Establishment"}]},{"reference":"O'Brien, Joseph A. (May 1956) [1955-11-15, 1955-06-23]. \"Cyclic Decimal Codes for Analogue to Digital Converters\". Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Part I: Communication and Electronics. 75 (2). Bell Telephone Laboratories, Whippany, New Jersey, USA: 120–122. doi:10.1109/TCE.1956.6372498. ISSN 0097-2452. S2CID 51657314. Paper 56-21. Retrieved 2020-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://pdfslide.net/documents/cyclic-decimal-codes-for-analogue-to-digital-converters.html","url_text":"\"Cyclic Decimal Codes for Analogue to Digital Converters\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactions_of_the_American_Institute_of_Electrical_Engineers,_Part_I:_Communication_and_Electronics","url_text":"Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Part I: Communication and Electronics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTCE.1956.6372498","url_text":"10.1109/TCE.1956.6372498"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0097-2452","url_text":"0097-2452"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51657314","url_text":"51657314"}]},{"reference":"Tompkins, Howard E. (September 1956) [1956-07-16]. \"Unit-Distance Binary-Decimal Codes for Two-Track Commutation\". IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers. Correspondence. EC-5 (3). Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA: 139. doi:10.1109/TEC.1956.5219934. ISSN 0367-9950. Retrieved 2020-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://dokumen.tips/documents/unit-distance-binary-decimal-codes-for-two-track-commutation.html","url_text":"\"Unit-Distance Binary-Decimal Codes for Two-Track Commutation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRE_Transactions_on_Electronic_Computers","url_text":"IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore_School_of_Electrical_Engineering","url_text":"Moore School of Electrical Engineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania","url_text":"University of Pennsylvania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTEC.1956.5219934","url_text":"10.1109/TEC.1956.5219934"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0367-9950","url_text":"0367-9950"}]},{"reference":"Lippel, Bernhard (December 1955). \"A Decimal Code for Analog-to-Digital Conversion\". IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers. EC-4 (4): 158–159. doi:10.1109/TEC.1955.5219487. ISSN 0367-9950.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRE_Transactions_on_Electronic_Computers","url_text":"IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTEC.1955.5219487","url_text":"10.1109/TEC.1955.5219487"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0367-9950","url_text":"0367-9950"}]},{"reference":"Susskind, Alfred Kriss; Ward, John Erwin (1958-03-28) [1957, 1956]. \"III.F. Unit-Distance Codes / VI.E.2. Reflected Binary Codes\". Written at Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. In Susskind, Alfred Kriss (ed.). Notes on Analog-Digital Conversion Techniques. Technology Books in Science and Engineering. Vol. 1 (3 ed.). 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ISBN 0-07-016638-2. LCCN 89-77320.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Berriedale_Keith_Dewar","url_text":"Dewar, Robert Berriedale Keith"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courant_Institute","url_text":"Courant Institute"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University","url_text":"New York University"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Publishing_Company","url_text":"McGraw-Hill Publishing Company"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-016638-2","url_text":"0-07-016638-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/89-77320","url_text":"89-77320"}]},{"reference":"\"Chapter 8: Decimal Instructions\". IBM System/370 Principles of Operation. IBM. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_speakers_in_Plato%27s_dialogues

List of speakers in Plato's dialogues

["1 List","2 Notes","3 Bibliography"]

The following is a list of the speakers found in the dialogues traditionally ascribed to Plato, including extensively quoted, indirect and conjured speakers. Dialogues, as well as Platonic Epistles and Epigrams, in which these individuals appear dramatically but do not speak are listed separately. List Name Speaker Mentioned Adeimantus of Collytus, son of Ariston Parmenides, Republic Apology Agathon of Athens, son of Tisamenus Symposium Protagoras; Epigram 6 Alcibiades of Scambonidae, son of Clinias Alcibiades, II Alcibiades, Protagoras, Symposium Euthydemus, Gorgias Antiphon of Athens, son of Pyrilampes Parmenides Anytus of Euonymon, son of Anthemion Meno Apology Apollodorus of Phalerum Symposium Apology, Phaedo Aristides of Alopece, son of Lysimachus Laches, Theages Theaetetus Aristodemus of Cydathenaeum Symposium Aristophanes of Cydathenaeum, son of Philippus Symposium Apology; Epigram 18 Aristotle of Thorae, son of Timocrates Parmenides Aspasia of Miletus, daughter of Axiochus Menexenus Axiochus of Scambonidae, son of Alcibiades Axiochus Euthydemus Callias of Alopece, son of Hipponicus Apology, Protagoras Axiochus, Cratylus, Eryxias, Philebus, Protagoras, Theaetetus Callicles of Acharnae Gorgias Cebes of Thebes Phaedo Crito; Epistle XIII Cephalus of Clazomenae Parmenides Cephalus of Syracuse, son of Lysanias Republic Phaedrus Chaerephon of Sphettus Charmides, Gorgias, Halcyon Apology Charmides of Athens, son of Glaucon Charmides, Theages Axiochus, Protagoras, Symposium Clinias of Cnossos Epinomis, Laws Clinias of Scambonidae, son of Axiochus Axiochus, Euthydemus Clitophon of Athens, son of Aristonymus Clitophon, Republic Cratylus of Athens, son of Smicrion Cratylus Critias of Athens, son of Callaeschrus Charmides, Protagoras Eryxias Critias of Athens, son of Leaides Critias, Timaeus Crito of Alopece Crito, Euthydemus, Phaedo Apology Ctesippus of Paeania Euthydemus, Lysis Phaedo Demodocus of Anagyrus Theages Apology, Demodocus Dionysodorus of Chios and Thurii Euthydemus Diotima of Mantinea Symposium Echecrates of Phlius Phaedo Erasistratus of Athens Eryxias Eryxias of Steiria Eryxias Eryximachus of Athens, son of Acumenus Symposium Phaedrus, Protagoras Euclides of Megara Theaetetus Phaedo Eudicus of Athens, son of Apemantus (Lesser) Hippias (Greater) Hippias Euthydemus of Chios and Thurii Euthydemus Cratylus Euthyphro of Prospalta Euthyphro Cratylus Glaucon of Collytus, son of Ariston Parmenides, Republic, Symposium Gorgias of Leontini, son of Charmantides Gorgias Apology, (Greater) Hippias, Meno, Phaedrus, Philebus, Symposium, Theages Hermocrates of Syracuse, son of Hermon Critias, Timaeus Hermogenes of Alopece, son of Hipponicus Cratylus Phaedo Hippias of Elis, son of Diopeithes (Greater) Hippias, (Lesser) Hippias, Protagoras Apology, Phaedrus, Protagoras Hippocrates of Athens, son of Apollodorus Protagoras Hippothales of Athens, son of Hieronymus Lysis Ion of Ephesus Ion Laches of Aexone, son of Melanopus Laches Symposium Lysias of Thurii and Athens, son of Cephalus Phaedrus Clitophon, Phaedrus, Republic Lysimachus of Alopece, son of Aristides Laches Meno, On Virtue, Theaetetus, Theages Lysis of Aexone, son of Democrates Lysis Megillus of Sparta Laws Epinomis Melesias of Alopece, son of Thucydides Laches Meno, On Virtue, Theages Meletus of Pithus, son of Meletus Apology Euthyphro, Theaetetus Menexenus of Athens, son of Demophon Lysis, Menexenus Phaedo Meno of Pharsalus, son of Alexidemus Meno Nicias of Cydantidae, son of Niceratus Laches Gorgias, Republic, Theages Parmenides of Elea, son of Pyres Parmenides Sophist, Symposium, Theaetetus Pausanias of Cerameis Symposium Protagoras Phaedo of Elis Phaedo Phaedrus of Myrrhinus, son of Pythocles Phaedrus, Symposium Protagoras; Epigram 4 Philebus Philebus Polemarchus of Thurii, son of Cephalus Republic Phaedrus Polus of Acragas Gorgias Phaedrus, Theages Prodicus of Ceos Eryxias, Protagoras Apology, Axiochus, Charmides, Cratylus, Eryxias, Euthydemus, (Greater) Hippias, Laches, Phaedrus, Protagoras, Republic, Symposium, Theaetetus, Theages Protagoras of Abdera Protagoras, Theaetetus Cratylus, Euthydemus, (Greater) Hippias, Laws, Phaedrus, Republic, Sophist, Theaetetus Protarchus of Athens, son of Callias Philebus Pythodorus of Athens, son of Isolochus Parmenides Alcibiades Simmias of Thebes Phaedo Crito, Phaedrus; Epistle XIII Sisyphus of Pharsalus Sisyphus Socrates of Alopece, son of Sophroniscus Dialogues of Plato Epistles II, VII, XIII Socrates of Athens Statesman Sophist, Theaetetus; Epistle XI Terpsion of Megara Theaetetus Phaedo Theaetetus of Sunium, son of Euphronius Sophist, Theaetetus Statesman Theages of Anagyrus, son of Demodocus Theages Apology, Republic Theodorus of Cyrene Sophist, Statesman, Theaetetus Thrasymachus of Chalcedon Republic Clitophon, Phaedrus Thucydides of Alopece, son of Melesias Laches Theages Timaeus of Locri Epizephyrii Critias, Timaeus Timarchus Theages Xanthippe, wife of Socrates of Alopece Phaedo Halcyon; Epigram 8 Zeno of Elea Parmenides Alcibiades, Sophist Unnamed speakers Name Mentioned Callias' slave Protagoras Euclides' slave Theaetetus Meno's slave of Pharsalus Meno Polemarchus' slave Republic Public slave Phaedo Stranger from Athens Epinomis, Laws Stranger from Elea Sophist, Statesman Unnamed friends Eryxias, Hipparchus, Minos, On Justice, On Virtue, Protagoras, Rival Lovers, Symposium Notes ^ a b A small minority of manuscript traditions name Clinias as the anonymous speaker in On Justice: D. S. Hutchinson in Cooper, p. 1689. ^ a b Scholars are divided as to whether the Critias depicted in the Timaeus and Critias dialogues is the future member of the Thirty Tyrants who appears elsewhere in Plato's writing (Critias IV), or rather his grandfather (Critias III): Nails, 106–7. ^ Not all scholars are convinced that the Glaucon mentioned in Symposium is Plato's brother. ^ a b A small minority of manuscript traditions name either Meno or the otherwise unknown Hippotrophus as the anonymous speaker in On Virtue: D. S. Hutchinson in Cooper, p. 1694. ^ Sisyphus of Pharsalus lived in the time of Plato, and thus is to be distinguished from the Sisyphus of Corinth in mythology: Cooper, p. 1707. ^ The identity of the Socrates named in Epistle XI is unknown, but is considered by some scholars to be that of the young Socrates of the Statesman trilogy: Cooper, p. 1672. ^ Scholars are unsure as to whether Epigram 8 is intended to reference Socrates' wife Xanthippe or another individual by the same name: Cooper, p. 1742. Bibliography Debra Nails. The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics. Hackett Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0-87220-564-9. Plato. Complete Works. Ed: John M. Cooper. Hackett Publishing, 1997. vtePlatoWorks Apology Charmides Clitophon Cratylus Critias Crito Euthydemus Euthyphro First Alcibiades Gorgias Hippias Major Hippias Minor Ion Laches Laws Lysis Menexenus Meno Parmenides Phaedo Phaedrus Philebus Protagoras Republic Sophist Statesman Symposium Theaetetus Timaeus Of doubtfulauthenticity Axiochus Definitions Demodocus Epigrams Epinomis Epistles Seventh Letter Eryxias Halcyon Hipparchus Minos On Justice On Virtue Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Theages Philosophy Euthyphro dilemma Platonic love Cardinal virtues Sophrosyne Platonic epistemology Amanesis Peritrope Theia mania Theory of Forms Form of the Good Theory of soul Plato's political philosophy Philosopher king Platonic solid Anima mundi Demiurge Hyperuranion Allegoriesand metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er Life The Academy in Athens Socratic problem List of speakers in Plato's dialogues Legacy Unwritten doctrines List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues Cultural influence of Plato's Republic Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Platonism in the Renaissance Middle Platonism Commentaries Neoplatonism and Christianity Oxyrhynchus Papyri 23 24 228 229 Plato's Dream Poitier Meets Plato vteSocrates Bibliography Cultural depictions Life Trial of Socrates Socratic problem Concepts Social gadfly Socratic dialogue Socratic intellectualism Socratic irony Socratic method Socratic paradox Socratic questioning Phrases "I know that I know nothing" "The unexamined life is not worth living" Family Sophroniscus (father) Phaenarete (mother) Xanthippe (wife) Lamprocles (son) Menexenus (son) Myrto (wife) WorksthatincludeSocratesArt Double Herm of Socrates and Seneca (3rd-century sculpture) The Death of Socrates (1787 painting) Socrates (1950 sculpture) Stage The Clouds (423 BC play) Der geduldige Socrates (1721 opera) Socrates (1759 play) Socrate (1919 oratorio) Socrates on Trial (2007 play) Literature De genio Socratis (1st-century essay) On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates (1841 thesis) The Plot to Save Socrates (2006 novel) Other Serenade after Plato's "Symposium" (1954 serenade) Barefoot in Athens (1966 film) Socrates (1971 film) DialoguesPlato Apology Axiochus Charmides Clitophon Cratylus Critias Crito Demodocus Epinomis Eryxias Euthydemus Euthyphro First Alcibiades Gorgias Hipparchus Hippias Major Hippias Minor Ion Laches Lysis Menexenus Meno Minos On Justice On Virtue Parmenides Phaedo Phaedrus Philebus Protagoras Republic Rival Lovers Second Alcibiades Sisyphus Sophist Statesman Symposium Theaetetus Theages Timaeus Xenophon Apology Memorabilia Oeconomicus Symposium Other Halcyon Socratic Letters Related Euthyphro dilemma Form of the Good Peritrope Religious skepticism Category

[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of speakers in Plato's dialogues"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Unnamed speakers","title":"List"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-jus_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-jus_1-1"},{"link_name":"On Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Justice"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-crit_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-crit_2-1"},{"link_name":"Critias IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critias"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Symposium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symposium"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-virt_4-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-virt_4-1"},{"link_name":"Meno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meno_(general)"},{"link_name":"On Virtue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Virtue"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Sisyphus_5-0"},{"link_name":"Sisyphus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisyphus"},{"link_name":"Corinth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corinth"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Epistle XI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistles_(Plato)#Eleventh_Letter"},{"link_name":"young Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_the_Younger"},{"link_name":"Statesman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statesman_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Epigram 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrams_(Plato)"},{"link_name":"Xanthippe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanthippe"}],"text":"^ a b A small minority of manuscript traditions name Clinias as the anonymous speaker in On Justice: D. S. Hutchinson in Cooper, p. 1689.\n\n^ a b Scholars are divided as to whether the Critias depicted in the Timaeus and Critias dialogues is the future member of the Thirty Tyrants who appears elsewhere in Plato's writing (Critias IV), or rather his grandfather (Critias III): Nails, 106–7.\n\n^ Not all scholars are convinced that the Glaucon mentioned in Symposium is Plato's brother.\n\n^ a b A small minority of manuscript traditions name either Meno or the otherwise unknown Hippotrophus as the anonymous speaker in On Virtue: D. S. Hutchinson in Cooper, p. 1694.\n\n^ Sisyphus of Pharsalus lived in the time of Plato, and thus is to be distinguished from the Sisyphus of Corinth in mythology: Cooper, p. 1707.\n\n^ The identity of the Socrates named in Epistle XI is unknown, but is considered by some scholars to be that of the young Socrates of the Statesman trilogy: Cooper, p. 1672.\n\n^ Scholars are unsure as to whether Epigram 8 is intended to reference Socrates' wife Xanthippe or another individual by the same name: Cooper, p. 1742.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Debra Nails","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debra_Nails"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-87220-564-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87220-564-9"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"John M. Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_M._Cooper_(philosopher)"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Plato_navbox"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Plato_navbox"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plato_navbox"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Apology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apology_(Plato)"},{"link_name":"Charmides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charmides_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Clitophon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitophon_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Cratylus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Critias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critias_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Crito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crito"},{"link_name":"Euthydemus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthydemus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Euthyphro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthyphro"},{"link_name":"First Alcibiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Alcibiades"},{"link_name":"Gorgias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Hippias Major","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippias_Major"},{"link_name":"Hippias Minor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippias_Minor"},{"link_name":"Ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Laches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laches_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Lysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysis_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Menexenus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menexenus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Meno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meno"},{"link_name":"Parmenides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmenides_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Phaedo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedo"},{"link_name":"Phaedrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Philebus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philebus"},{"link_name":"Protagoras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagoras_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_(Plato)"},{"link_name":"Sophist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Statesman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statesman_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Symposium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symposium_(Plato)"},{"link_name":"Theaetetus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Timaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Axiochus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiochus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Definitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definitions_(Plato)"},{"link_name":"Demodocus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demodocus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Epigrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigrams_(Plato)"},{"link_name":"Epinomis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinomis"},{"link_name":"Epistles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistles_(Plato)"},{"link_name":"Seventh Letter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh_Letter"},{"link_name":"Eryxias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eryxias_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Halcyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halcyon_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Hipparchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Minos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"On Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Justice"},{"link_name":"On Virtue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Virtue"},{"link_name":"Rival Lovers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rival_Lovers"},{"link_name":"Second Alcibiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Alcibiades"},{"link_name":"Sisyphus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisyphus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Theages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theages"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plato_Silanion_Musei_Capitolini_MC1377.jpg"},{"link_name":"Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonism"},{"link_name":"Euthyphro dilemma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma"},{"link_name":"Platonic love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_love"},{"link_name":"Cardinal virtues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_virtues"},{"link_name":"Sophrosyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophrosyne"},{"link_name":"Platonic epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_epistemology"},{"link_name":"Amanesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anamnesis_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"Peritrope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritrope"},{"link_name":"Theia mania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divine_madness"},{"link_name":"Theory of Forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_forms"},{"link_name":"Form of the Good","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_of_the_Good"},{"link_name":"Theory of soul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato%27s_theory_of_soul"},{"link_name":"Plato's political philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy"},{"link_name":"Philosopher king","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosopher_king"},{"link_name":"Platonic solid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_solid"},{"link_name":"Anima mundi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anima_mundi"},{"link_name":"Demiurge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demiurge"},{"link_name":"Hyperuranion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperuranion"},{"link_name":"Allegoriesand metaphors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegorical_interpretations_of_Plato"},{"link_name":"Atlantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantis"},{"link_name":"Ring of Gyges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_of_Gyges"},{"link_name":"The Cave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegory_of_the_cave"},{"link_name":"The Divided Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogy_of_the_divided_line"},{"link_name":"The Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analogy_of_the_Sun"},{"link_name":"Ship of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_of_State"},{"link_name":"Myth of Er","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myth_of_Er"},{"link_name":"Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_of_Plato"},{"link_name":"The Academy in Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic_Academy"},{"link_name":"Socratic problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_problem"},{"link_name":"List of speakers in Plato's dialogues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Unwritten doctrines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato%27s_unwritten_doctrines"},{"link_name":"List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_of_Plato%27s_dialogues"},{"link_name":"Cultural influence of Plato's Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_influence_of_Plato%27s_Republic"},{"link_name":"Neoplatonism and Gnosticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Gnosticism"},{"link_name":"Platonism in the Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonism_in_the_Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Middle Platonism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Platonism"},{"link_name":"Commentaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentaries_on_Plato"},{"link_name":"Neoplatonism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonism"},{"link_name":"and Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Christianity"},{"link_name":"Oxyrhynchus Papyri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxyrhynchus_Papyri#Greek"},{"link_name":"23","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_23"},{"link_name":"24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_24"},{"link_name":"228","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_228"},{"link_name":"229","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus_Oxyrhynchus_229"},{"link_name":"Plato's Dream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato%27s_Dream"},{"link_name":"Poitier Meets Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poitier_Meets_Plato"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Socrates_navbox"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Socrates_navbox"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Socrates_navbox"},{"link_name":"Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates"},{"link_name":"Bibliography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_Socrates"},{"link_name":"Cultural depictions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cultural_depictions_of_Socrates"},{"link_name":"Trial of Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_of_Socrates"},{"link_name":"Socratic problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_problem"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg"},{"link_name":"Social gadfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadfly_(philosophy_and_social_science)"},{"link_name":"Socratic dialogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_dialogue"},{"link_name":"Socratic intellectualism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_intellectualism"},{"link_name":"Socratic irony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irony"},{"link_name":"Socratic method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method"},{"link_name":"Socratic paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_know_that_I_know_nothing"},{"link_name":"Socratic questioning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_questioning"},{"link_name":"I know that I know nothing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_know_that_I_know_nothing"},{"link_name":"The unexamined life is not worth living","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_unexamined_life_is_not_worth_living"},{"link_name":"Sophroniscus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophroniscus"},{"link_name":"Phaenarete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaenarete"},{"link_name":"Xanthippe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanthippe"},{"link_name":"Lamprocles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamprocles"},{"link_name":"Menexenus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menexenus"},{"link_name":"Myrto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrto"},{"link_name":"Double Herm of Socrates and Seneca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Herm_of_Socrates_and_Seneca"},{"link_name":"The Death of Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Death_of_Socrates"},{"link_name":"Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_(sculpture)"},{"link_name":"The Clouds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Clouds"},{"link_name":"Der geduldige Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_geduldige_Socrates"},{"link_name":"Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_(Voltaire)"},{"link_name":"Socrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrate"},{"link_name":"Socrates on Trial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_on_Trial"},{"link_name":"De genio Socratis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_genio_Socratis"},{"link_name":"On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Concept_of_Irony_with_Continual_Reference_to_Socrates"},{"link_name":"The Plot to Save Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Plot_to_Save_Socrates"},{"link_name":"Serenade after Plato's \"Symposium\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serenade_after_Plato%27s_%22Symposium%22"},{"link_name":"Barefoot in Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barefoot_in_Athens"},{"link_name":"Socrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates_(film)"},{"link_name":"Dialogues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Apology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apology_(Plato)"},{"link_name":"Axiochus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiochus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Charmides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charmides_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Clitophon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitophon_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Cratylus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cratylus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Critias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critias_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Crito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crito"},{"link_name":"Demodocus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demodocus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Epinomis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epinomis"},{"link_name":"Eryxias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eryxias_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Euthydemus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthydemus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Euthyphro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthyphro"},{"link_name":"First Alcibiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Alcibiades"},{"link_name":"Gorgias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Hipparchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Hippias Major","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippias_Major"},{"link_name":"Hippias Minor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippias_Minor"},{"link_name":"Ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Laches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laches_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Lysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysis_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Menexenus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menexenus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Meno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meno"},{"link_name":"Minos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"On Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Justice"},{"link_name":"On Virtue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Virtue"},{"link_name":"Parmenides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmenides_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Phaedo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedo"},{"link_name":"Phaedrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Philebus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philebus"},{"link_name":"Protagoras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagoras_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_(Plato)"},{"link_name":"Rival Lovers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rival_Lovers"},{"link_name":"Second Alcibiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Alcibiades"},{"link_name":"Sisyphus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisyphus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Sophist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Statesman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statesman_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Symposium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symposium_(Plato)"},{"link_name":"Theaetetus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theaetetus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Theages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theages"},{"link_name":"Timaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Apology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apology_(Xenophon)"},{"link_name":"Memorabilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorabilia_(Xenophon)"},{"link_name":"Oeconomicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oeconomicus"},{"link_name":"Symposium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symposium_(Xenophon)"},{"link_name":"Halcyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halcyon_(dialogue)"},{"link_name":"Socratic Letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Vaticanus_Graecus_64"},{"link_name":"Euthyphro dilemma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma"},{"link_name":"Form of the Good","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_of_the_Good"},{"link_name":"Peritrope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritrope"},{"link_name":"Religious skepticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_skepticism"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Socrates"}],"text":"Debra Nails. The People of Plato: A Prosopography of Plato and Other Socratics. Hackett Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0-87220-564-9.\nPlato. Complete Works. Ed: John M. Cooper. Hackett Publishing, 1997.vtePlatoWorks\nApology\nCharmides\nClitophon\nCratylus\nCritias\nCrito\nEuthydemus\nEuthyphro\nFirst Alcibiades\nGorgias\nHippias Major\nHippias Minor\nIon\nLaches\nLaws\nLysis\nMenexenus\nMeno\nParmenides\nPhaedo\nPhaedrus\nPhilebus\nProtagoras\nRepublic\nSophist\nStatesman\nSymposium\nTheaetetus\nTimaeus\nOf doubtfulauthenticity\nAxiochus\nDefinitions\nDemodocus\nEpigrams\nEpinomis\nEpistles\nSeventh Letter\nEryxias\nHalcyon\nHipparchus\nMinos\nOn Justice\nOn Virtue\nRival Lovers\nSecond Alcibiades\nSisyphus\nTheages\n\nPhilosophy\nEuthyphro dilemma\nPlatonic love\nCardinal virtues\nSophrosyne\nPlatonic epistemology\nAmanesis\nPeritrope\nTheia mania\nTheory of Forms\nForm of the Good\nTheory of soul\nPlato's political philosophy\nPhilosopher king\nPlatonic solid\nAnima mundi\nDemiurge\nHyperuranion\nAllegoriesand metaphors\nAtlantis\nRing of Gyges\nThe Cave\nThe Divided Line\nThe Sun\nShip of State\nMyth of Er\nLife\nThe Academy in Athens\nSocratic problem\nList of speakers in Plato's dialogues\nLegacy\nUnwritten doctrines\nList of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues\nCultural influence of Plato's Republic\nNeoplatonism and Gnosticism\nPlatonism in the Renaissance\nMiddle Platonism\nCommentaries\nNeoplatonism\nand Christianity\nOxyrhynchus Papyri\n23\n24\n228\n229\nPlato's Dream\nPoitier Meets PlatovteSocrates\nBibliography\nCultural depictions\nLife\nTrial of Socrates\nSocratic problem\nConcepts\nSocial gadfly\nSocratic dialogue\nSocratic intellectualism\nSocratic irony\nSocratic method\nSocratic paradox\nSocratic questioning\nPhrases\n\"I know that I know nothing\"\n\"The unexamined life is not worth living\"\nFamily\nSophroniscus (father)\nPhaenarete (mother)\nXanthippe (wife)\nLamprocles (son)\nMenexenus (son)\nMyrto (wife)\nWorksthatincludeSocratesArt\nDouble Herm of Socrates and Seneca (3rd-century sculpture)\nThe Death of Socrates (1787 painting)\nSocrates (1950 sculpture)\nStage\nThe Clouds (423 BC play)\nDer geduldige Socrates (1721 opera)\nSocrates (1759 play)\nSocrate (1919 oratorio)\nSocrates on Trial (2007 play)\nLiterature\nDe genio Socratis (1st-century essay)\nOn the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates (1841 thesis)\nThe Plot to Save Socrates (2006 novel)\nOther\nSerenade after Plato's \"Symposium\" (1954 serenade)\nBarefoot in Athens (1966 film)\nSocrates (1971 film)\nDialoguesPlato\nApology\nAxiochus\nCharmides\nClitophon\nCratylus\nCritias\nCrito\nDemodocus\nEpinomis\nEryxias\nEuthydemus\nEuthyphro\nFirst Alcibiades\nGorgias\nHipparchus\nHippias Major\nHippias Minor\nIon\nLaches\nLysis\nMenexenus\nMeno\nMinos\nOn Justice\nOn Virtue\nParmenides\nPhaedo\nPhaedrus\nPhilebus\nProtagoras\nRepublic\nRival Lovers\nSecond Alcibiades\nSisyphus\nSophist\nStatesman\nSymposium\nTheaetetus\nTheages\nTimaeus\nXenophon\nApology\nMemorabilia\nOeconomicus\nSymposium\nOther\nHalcyon\nSocratic Letters\nRelated\nEuthyphro dilemma\nForm of the Good\nPeritrope\nReligious skepticism\n Category","title":"Bibliography"}]

[]

[]

[]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borders_of_the_United_States

Borders of the United States

["1 List","2 Custom territories","3 Border disputes","4 Disputed occupation","5 Enforcement","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

Political boundaries between the United States and neighboring territories The United States has land borders with only Canada and Mexico, both of them long. It has maritime boundaries with many countries due to its extensive exclusive economic zone (EEZ). All of its maritime borders with Canada are at least partially disputed, and its territorial claims on three Caribbean islands are disputed. List Exclusive economic zone maritime boundaries in the Caribbean Sea and equatorial Atlantic Ocean EEZ maritime boundaries in the Pacific Ocean Maritime borders that are not delineated by bilateral treaty are defined by United States acceptance of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which includes the convention's exclusive economic zone boundary definitions but does not extend to mineral rights in international waters. United States Minor Outlying Islands (USMOI) are mostly uninhabited, unorganized, and unincorporated. Part of the United States Foreign entity Type Notes Contiguous United States Mexico Land, near-shore, and EEZ Mexico–United States border, including Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. Land boundaries defined by the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty (with Spain), 1828 Treaty of Limits, 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 1854 Gadsden Purchase, and Boundary Treaty of 1970. Ocean boundaries defined by bilateral treaties in 1970, 1978, and 2001. Contiguous United States Canada Land, near-shore, and EEZ Canada–United States border - Partially disputed in the Atlantic Ocean (Maine-New Brunswick) and Pacific Ocean (Washington State-British Columbia). Passamaquoddy Bay border defined by 1910 treaty. Gulf of Maine partial border defined by 1984 ruling of the International Court of Justice. Land and Great Lakes border defined by the 1783 Treaty of Paris, 1794 Jay Treaty, Treaty of 1818, 1842 Webster–Ashburton Treaty and 1846 Oregon Treaty (all with the United Kingdom). Alaska Canada Land, near-shore, and EEZ Canada–United States border - disputed in the Arctic Ocean (Yukon) and Pacific Ocean (British Columbia). Land border defined by Anglo-Russian Convention of 1825, and 1903 Hay–Herbert Treaty (with the United Kingdom). Alaska Russia EEZ The de facto boundary between the United States and Russia is defined by the USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement, negotiated with the Soviet Union in 1990, covering the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Arctic Ocean. The agreement was never ratified by the Soviet Union before it dissolved, and it has never been ratified by the Russian State Duma. It has been ratified by the United States Senate, respected in practices by both governments, and defended against encroachment by fishing vessels. The boundary line generally follows the line agreed to during the 1867 Alaska Purchase, though this could not be entirely determined because neither country could produce maps agreed to at that time. Contiguous United States Bahamas EEZ, Atlantic Ocean UNCLOS Contiguous United States Cuba EEZ, Gulf of Mexico 1977 Cuba–United States Maritime Boundary Agreement Puerto Rico and United States Virgin Islands Dominican Republic, British Virgin Islands and Anguilla (dependencies of the United Kingdom), Sint Maarten (dependency of the Netherlands), Venezuela EEZ, Caribbean Sea 1993 United Kingdom–United States Maritime Boundary Treaties, 1980 United States–Venezuela Maritime Boundary Treaty, others UNCLOS Northern Mariana Islands Japan (Volcano Islands) EEZ, Pacific Ocean UNCLOS Guam Federated States of Micronesia (freely associated state) EEZ, Pacific Ocean Defined by 2019 treaty. American Samoa Tonga, Samoa, and New Zealand dependencies: Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau EEZ, Pacific Ocean Cook Islands and Tokelau borders defined by three treaties in 1980, 1980, and 1997, respectively; others UNCLOS Baker Island and Howland Island, Johnston Atoll and Kingman Reef, and Jarvis Island (USMOI) Kiribati (three discontinuous extents) EEZ, Pacific Ocean Defined by 2019 treaty. Wake Island (disputed USMOI) Marshall Islands (freely associated state) EEZ, Pacific Ocean Claimed by Marshall Islands, administered by the United States Bajo Nuevo Bank and Serranilla Bank (disputed USMOI) Colombia, Jamaica, Honduras, Nicaragua EEZ, Caribbean Sea Claimed by Colombia (other neighbors recognize Colombian claim) Navassa Island (disputed USMOI) Jamaica, Haiti, Cuba EEZ, Caribbean Sea Claimed by Haiti Custom territories Insular areas in the Pacific and the U.S. Virgin Islands are not included in the main domestic customs territory which is limited to the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Further information: Foreign trade of the United States § Customs territory Border disputes Further information: List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States Canada New Brunswick-Maine maritime border and islands: While the 1984 Gulf of Maine Case submitted to the International Court of Justice established most of Atlantic maritime boundary between the United States and Canada, the parties agreed to exclude from that case Machias Seal Island and North Rock and nearby portions of the maritime boundary. This created a "grey zone" of overlapping claims near the disputed islands (and has contributed to "grey-zone conflict). Machias Seal Island is occupied by Canada, and the disputed waters are patrolled by both nations. The strength of near-shore maritime claims depend on how the island sovereignty dispute is resolved. Strait of Juan de Fuca between Washington State and British Columbia Beaufort Sea - Yukon–Alaska dispute Dixon Entrance, southern Alaska and coastal British Columbia - Dispute stems from the ambiguity of the Hay–Herbert Treaty in 1903 between the United States and the United Kingdom signed to settle the Alaska boundary dispute, an agreement opposed by Canadian leaders. Haiti Navassa Island - The US claimed the Navassa island via the Guano Islands Act of 1856. Haiti claimed sovereignty over the island in 1801, but was occupied by the US through gunboat diplomacy. Colombia Bajo Nuevo Bank - Administered by Colombia, claimed by the US as an unorganized, unincorporated territory. Serranilla Bank - Administered by Colombia, claimed by the US as an unorganized, unincorporated territory. Tokelau Swains Island has been administered by the United States as part of American Samoa since 1925. New Zealand, of which Tokelau is a dependency, recognized U.S. sovereignty in a 1980 treaty. The uninhabited island was claimed for Tokelau in the constitution that was almost adopted in the 2006 Tokelauan self-determination referendum. Disputed occupation The United States administers Guantanamo Bay Naval Base on what both countries agree is the sovereign territory of Cuba under a permanent lease obtained under the Cuban–American Treaty of Relations (1903), while Cuba was under American military occupation after the 1898 Spanish–American War. After the Cuban Revolution in the 1950s, Cuba disputed the validity of this lease and ceased cooperating with the base. The boundary is highly militarized, but the United States has maintained control without active fighting. Enforcement Three agencies in the federal Department of Homeland Security split border-related responsibilities. U.S. Customs and Border Protection staffs official border checkpoints, collects tariff duties, and inspects arriving people, and inspects goods being imported by land, sea, and air. U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement polices borders away from official points of entry. United States Citizenship and Immigration Services administers immigration procedures. The United States Coast Guard actively patrols the nation's extensive maritime borders, acting as a law enforcement agency in peacetime. The United States Armed Forces are generally prohibited from domestic law enforcement (including arresting smugglers and illegal immigrants) under the Posse Comitatus Act, but can be activated to secure the border in an emergency or respond to an attack. State and federal National Guard troops and even active-duty military personnel have been used in support roles at the border, which has been controversial and limited by legal complexities. The border search exception to the guarantees in the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution against unreasonable search and seizure and requirement for search warrants apply to border checkpoints and areas within 100 miles (160 km) of the border. See also Border irregularities of the United States References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "U.S. Maritime Boundaries: Agreements and Treaties". Office of Ocean and Polar Affairs, United States Department of State. Retrieved February 3, 2024. ^ a b "Bajo Nueva Bank – De Facto". defactoborders.org. Retrieved October 6, 2020. ^ "Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United States of America)". International Court of Justice. ^ Robin Matthewman (April 28, 2021). "Mark B. Feldman " (PDF). Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Foreign Oral History Collection. ^ Treaty Between the United States of America and New Zealand on the Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary Between Tokelau and the United States of America ^ Ryan Burke (May 10, 2023). "Active Duty Military Forces Are Heading to the Border: What Can They Legally Do There?". United States Military Academy. ^ Diana Roy; Amelia Cheatham; Claire Klobucista (July 26, 2023). "How the U.S. Patrols Its Borders". Council on Foreign Relations. vteUnited States articlesHistoryBy period 1776–1789 1789–1815 1815–1849 1849–1865 1865–1917 1917–1945 1945–1964 1964–1980 1980–1991 1991–2008 2008–present By event Pre-colonial era Colonial era Stamp Act Congress Thirteen Colonies Continental Congress Continental Association United Colonies military history Founding Fathers Halifax Resolves Lee Resolution Declaration of Independence American Revolution War Treaty of Paris Articles of Confederation Perpetual Union Confederation period American frontier Constitution drafting and ratification Bill of Rights Federalist Era War of 1812 Territorial evolution Mexican–American War Civil War Reconstruction era Indian Wars Native genocide Gilded Age Progressive Era Women's suffrage Civil rights movement 1865–1896 1896–1954 1954–1968 Spanish–American War Imperialism World War I Roaring Twenties Great Depression World War II home front American Century Cold War Korean War Space Race Feminist Movement LGBT Movement Vietnam War Post-Cold War (1991–2008) September 11 attacks War on Terror War in Afghanistan Iraq War Great Recession COVID-19 pandemic By topic Outline of U.S. history Demographic Discoveries Economic debt ceiling Inventions before 1890 1890–1945 after 1991 Military Postal Technological and industrial Geography Territory Contiguous United States counties federal district federal enclaves Indian reservations insular zones minor outlying islands populated places states Earthquakes Extreme points Islands Mountains peaks ranges Appalachian Rocky Sierra Nevada National Park Service National Parks Regions East Coast West Coast Great Plains Gulf Mid-Atlantic Midwestern New England Pacific Central Eastern Northern Northeastern Northwestern Southern Southeastern Southwestern Western Longest rivers Arkansas Colorado Columbia Mississippi Missouri Red (South) Rio Grande Yukon Time Water supply and sanitation World Heritage Sites PoliticsFederalExecutive President of the United States powers Executive Office Vice President Cabinet Executive departments Independent agencies Intelligence Community Director of National Intelligence Central Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Law enforcement ATF CBP Diplomatic Security DEA FBI ICE Marshals Secret Service TSA Inspector generals Civil service Public policy Legislative House of Representatives current members Speaker Sergeant at Arms Senate current members President pro tempore President Sergeant at Arms Capitol Police Library of Congress Congressional Budget Office Government Accountability Office Government Publishing Office Judicial Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices list Marshal Police Courts of appeals list of judges District courts/Territorial courts list of courts list of judges Other tribunals U.S. attorney Law Bill of Rights civil liberties Code of Federal Regulations Constitution federalism preemption separation of powers civil rights Federal Reporter United States Code United States Reports Uniformed Armed Forces Army Marine Corps Navy Air Force Space Force Coast Guard National Guard NOAA Corps Public Health Service Corps State,Federal District,and TerritorialExecutive Governor list Lieutenant governor list Secretary of state Attorney general Treasurer Auditor/Comptroller Agriculture commissioner Insurance commissioner Public utilities commission State police list Legislative List of legislatures List of legislators Judicial Supreme courts Chief justices District attorney list Law State constitutions Statutory codes Uniform act Comparison of governments Tribal Tribal sovereignty Native American recognition in the United States Federally recognized tribes Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes State-recognized tribes Indian reservation list Hawaiian home land LocalCounty List of counties and county equivalents County executive Sheriff Clerk Cities Consolidated city-county Independent city Coterminous municipality Charter Mayor–council government Council–manager government City commission government Mayor City manager City council Minor divisions Township Town meeting Special district School district list Corruption Elections Electoral College Red states and blue states Foreign relations foreign policy Imperial presidency Ideologies Anti-Americanism exceptionalism nationalism Parties Democratic Republican Third parties Scandals Economy By sector Agriculture Banking Communications Companies Energy Insurance Manufacturing Mining Science and technology Tourism Trade by state Currency Exports Federal budget Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Federal Reserve System Financial position Labor unions Public debt Social welfare programs Taxation Unemployment Wall Street Transport Aviation Driving Public transportation Rail transportation Transportation policy Transportation safety Trucking industry SocietyCulture Americana Architecture Cinema Crime Cuisine Dance Death care Women Demographics Economic issues affluence eviction homeownership household income income inequality middle class personal income poverty standard of living wealth working class Education attainment literacy Family Fashion Flag Folklore Great American Novel Holidays Homelessness Housing Human rights Languages American English Indigenous languages ASL Black American Sign Language HSL Plains Sign Talk Arabic Chinese French German Italian Russian Spanish Literature Media journalism internet newspapers radio television Music Names National symbols Columbia Mount Rushmore Statue of Liberty Uncle Sam People Philosophy Political ideologies Race Religion Sexuality adolescent Social class Society Sports Theater Transportation Video games Visual art Social class Affluence American Dream Educational attainment Homelessness Homeownership Household income Income inequality Middle class Personal income Poverty Standard of living Health Aging Healthcare Abortion Birth control Prenatal care Hospice care Immigrant health care Rationing Health care finance Health insurance costs Health care prices Prescription drug prices Disability Health insurance Food safety Physician shortage Poverty and health Race and health Race and maternal health Medical racism Obesity Medical deserts Women's reproductive health Maternal mortality Life expectancy Issues Ages of consent Capital punishment Crime incarceration Criticism of government Discrimination affirmative action antisemitism hair texture intersex rights Islamophobia LGBT rights racism Native American African American same-sex marriage Drug policy Energy policy Environmental issues Environmental movement Climate change Environmental education Gun politics Mass shootings hunger obesity smoking Human rights Immigration illegal International rankings National security Mass surveillance Terrorism Separation of church and state Xenophobia OutlineIndex Category Portal vteBorders of North AmericaSovereign states Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados Belize Canada Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago United States Dependencies andother territories Anguilla Aruba Bermuda Bonaire British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Curaçao Greenland Guadeloupe Martinique Montserrat Puerto Rico Saint Barthélemy Saint Martin Saint Pierre and Miquelon Saba Sint Eustatius Sint Maarten Turks and Caicos Islands United States Virgin Islands External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to International borders of the United States.

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All of its maritime borders with Canada are at least partially disputed, and its territorial claims on three Caribbean islands are disputed.","title":"Borders of the United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Territorial_Waters_in_the_Caribbean.png"},{"link_name":"Exclusive economic zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_economic_zone"},{"link_name":"Caribbean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_Sea"},{"link_name":"Atlantic Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Exclusive_Economic_Zones_of_the_Pacific_Ocean.png"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"United States acceptance of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_and_the_United_Nations_Convention_on_the_Law_of_the_Sea"},{"link_name":"United States Minor Outlying Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands"},{"link_name":"unincorporated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unincorporated_territories_of_the_United_States"}],"text":"Exclusive economic zone maritime boundaries in the Caribbean Sea and equatorial Atlantic OceanEEZ maritime boundaries in the Pacific OceanMaritime borders that are not delineated by bilateral treaty are defined by United States acceptance of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which includes the convention's exclusive economic zone boundary definitions but does not extend to mineral rights in international waters. United States Minor Outlying Islands (USMOI) are mostly uninhabited, unorganized, and unincorporated.","title":"List"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Insular areas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_area"},{"link_name":"U.S. Virgin Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Virgin_Islands"},{"link_name":"customs territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customs_territory"},{"link_name":"50 states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_and_territories_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"District of Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Foreign trade of the United States § Customs territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States#Customs_territory"}],"text":"Insular areas in the Pacific and the U.S. Virgin Islands are not included in the main domestic customs territory which is limited to the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico.Further information: Foreign trade of the United States § Customs territory","title":"Custom territories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_areas_disputed_by_Canada_and_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"New Brunswick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Brunswick"},{"link_name":"Maine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maine"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Maine Case","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gulf_of_Maine_Case&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"International Court of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Machias Seal Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machias_Seal_Island"},{"link_name":"North Rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Rock"},{"link_name":"grey-zone conflict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey-zone_(international_relations)"},{"link_name":"Strait of Juan de Fuca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Juan_de_Fuca"},{"link_name":"Washington State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_(state)"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Beaufort Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaufort_Sea"},{"link_name":"Yukon–Alaska dispute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_claims_in_the_Arctic#Beaufort_Sea"},{"link_name":"Dixon Entrance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dixon_Entrance"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Alaska boundary dispute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_boundary_dispute"},{"link_name":"Haiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiti"},{"link_name":"Navassa Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navassa_Island"},{"link_name":"Guano Islands Act of 1856","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guano_Islands_Act_of_1856"},{"link_name":"gunboat diplomacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunboat_diplomacy"},{"link_name":"Colombia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia"},{"link_name":"Bajo Nuevo Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bajo_Nuevo_Bank"},{"link_name":"unincorporated territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unincorporated_territories_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bajo_Nueva_Bank-2"},{"link_name":"Serranilla Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serranilla_Bank"},{"link_name":"unincorporated territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unincorporated_territories_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Tokelau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokelau"},{"link_name":"Swains Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swains_Island"},{"link_name":"American Samoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Samoa"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"2006 Tokelauan self-determination referendum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_Tokelauan_self-determination_referendum"}],"text":"Further information: List of areas disputed by Canada and the United StatesCanada\nNew Brunswick-Maine maritime border and islands: While the 1984 Gulf of Maine Case submitted to the International Court of Justice[3] established most of Atlantic maritime boundary between the United States and Canada,[4] the parties agreed to exclude from that case Machias Seal Island and North Rock and nearby portions of the maritime boundary. This created a \"grey zone\" of overlapping claims near the disputed islands (and has contributed to \"grey-zone conflict). Machias Seal Island is occupied by Canada, and the disputed waters are patrolled by both nations. The strength of near-shore maritime claims depend on how the island sovereignty dispute is resolved.\nStrait of Juan de Fuca between Washington State and British Columbia\nBeaufort Sea - Yukon–Alaska dispute\nDixon Entrance, southern Alaska and coastal British Columbia - Dispute stems from the ambiguity of the Hay–Herbert Treaty in 1903 between the United States and the United Kingdom signed to settle the Alaska boundary dispute, an agreement opposed by Canadian leaders.\nHaiti\nNavassa Island - The US claimed the Navassa island via the Guano Islands Act of 1856. Haiti claimed sovereignty over the island in 1801, but was occupied by the US through gunboat diplomacy.\nColombia\nBajo Nuevo Bank - Administered by Colombia, claimed by the US as an unorganized, unincorporated territory.[2]\nSerranilla Bank - Administered by Colombia, claimed by the US as an unorganized, unincorporated territory.\nTokelau\nSwains Island has been administered by the United States as part of American Samoa since 1925. New Zealand, of which Tokelau is a dependency, recognized U.S. sovereignty in a 1980 treaty.[5] The uninhabited island was claimed for Tokelau in the constitution that was almost adopted in the 2006 Tokelauan self-determination referendum.","title":"Border disputes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Guantanamo Bay Naval Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base"},{"link_name":"Cuba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba"},{"link_name":"Cuban–American Treaty of Relations (1903)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban%E2%80%93American_Treaty_of_Relations_(1903)"},{"link_name":"military occupation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_occupation"},{"link_name":"Spanish–American War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War"},{"link_name":"Cuban Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Revolution"}],"text":"The United States administers Guantanamo Bay Naval Base on what both countries agree is the sovereign territory of Cuba under a permanent lease obtained under the Cuban–American Treaty of Relations (1903), while Cuba was under American military occupation after the 1898 Spanish–American War. After the Cuban Revolution in the 1950s, Cuba disputed the validity of this lease and ceased cooperating with the base. The boundary is highly militarized, but the United States has maintained control without active fighting.","title":"Disputed occupation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Department of Homeland Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Homeland_Security"},{"link_name":"U.S. Customs and Border Protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection"},{"link_name":"U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement"},{"link_name":"United States Citizenship and Immigration Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Citizenship_and_Immigration_Services"},{"link_name":"United States Coast Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard"},{"link_name":"United States Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"Posse Comitatus Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posse_Comitatus_Act"},{"link_name":"National Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Guard"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"border search exception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_search_exception"},{"link_name":"Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution"},{"link_name":"search and seizure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_and_seizure"},{"link_name":"search warrants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_warrant"}],"text":"Three agencies in the federal Department of Homeland Security split border-related responsibilities. U.S. Customs and Border Protection staffs official border checkpoints, collects tariff duties, and inspects arriving people, and inspects goods being imported by land, sea, and air. U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement polices borders away from official points of entry. United States Citizenship and Immigration Services administers immigration procedures.The United States Coast Guard actively patrols the nation's extensive maritime borders, acting as a law enforcement agency in peacetime. The United States Armed Forces are generally prohibited from domestic law enforcement (including arresting smugglers and illegal immigrants) under the Posse Comitatus Act, but can be activated to secure the border in an emergency or respond to an attack. State and federal National Guard troops and even active-duty military personnel have been used in support roles at the border, which has been controversial and limited by legal complexities.[6][7]The border search exception to the guarantees in the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution against unreasonable search and seizure and requirement for search warrants apply to border checkpoints and areas within 100 miles (160 km) of the border.","title":"Enforcement"}]

[{"image_text":"Exclusive economic zone maritime boundaries in the Caribbean Sea and equatorial Atlantic Ocean","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Map_of_the_Territorial_Waters_in_the_Caribbean.png/220px-Map_of_the_Territorial_Waters_in_the_Caribbean.png"},{"image_text":"EEZ maritime boundaries in the Pacific Ocean","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Map_of_the_Exclusive_Economic_Zones_of_the_Pacific_Ocean.png/220px-Map_of_the_Exclusive_Economic_Zones_of_the_Pacific_Ocean.png"}]

[{"title":"Border irregularities of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_irregularities_of_the_United_States"}]

[{"reference":"\"U.S. Maritime Boundaries: Agreements and Treaties\". Office of Ocean and Polar Affairs, United States Department of State. Retrieved February 3, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.state.gov/u-s-maritime-boundaries-agreements-and-treaties/","url_text":"\"U.S. Maritime Boundaries: Agreements and Treaties\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State","url_text":"United States Department of State"}]},{"reference":"\"Bajo Nueva Bank – De Facto\". defactoborders.org. Retrieved October 6, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://defactoborders.org/places/bajo-nueva-bank","url_text":"\"Bajo Nueva Bank – De Facto\""}]},{"reference":"\"Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United States of America)\". International Court of Justice.","urls":[{"url":"https://icj-cij.org/case/67","url_text":"\"Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United States of America)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice","url_text":"International Court of Justice"}]},{"reference":"Robin Matthewman (April 28, 2021). \"Mark B. Feldman [Interview]\" (PDF). Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Foreign Oral History Collection.","urls":[{"url":"https://adst.org/OH%20TOCs/Feldman.Mark.pdf","url_text":"\"Mark B. Feldman [Interview]\""}]},{"reference":"Ryan Burke (May 10, 2023). \"Active Duty Military Forces Are Heading to the Border: What Can They Legally Do There?\". United States Military Academy.","urls":[{"url":"https://mwi.westpoint.edu/active-duty-military-forces-are-heading-to-the-border-what-can-they-legally-do-there/","url_text":"\"Active Duty Military Forces Are Heading to the Border: What Can They Legally Do There?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy","url_text":"United States Military Academy"}]},{"reference":"Diana Roy; Amelia Cheatham; Claire Klobucista (July 26, 2023). \"How the U.S. Patrols Its Borders\". Council on Foreign Relations.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/how-us-patrols-its-borders","url_text":"\"How the U.S. Patrols Its Borders\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations","url_text":"Council on Foreign Relations"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodical_literature

Periodical literature

["1 Volumes and issues","1.1 Frequency","2 Popular and scholarly","3 Indefinite vs. part-publication","4 Standard numbers","5 Distribution","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

Regularly scheduled published work "Periodical" redirects here. For other uses, see Periodicity (disambiguation). The cover of an issue of the open-access journal PLOS Biology, published monthly by the Public Library of Science A periodical literature (also called a periodical publication or simply a periodical) is a published work that appears in a new edition on a regular schedule. The most familiar example is a newspaper, but a magazine or a journal are also examples of periodicals. These publications cover a wide variety of topics, from academic, technical, trade, and general interest to leisure and entertainment. Articles within a periodical are usually organized around a single main subject or theme and include a title, date of publication, author(s), and brief summary of the article. A periodical typically contains an editorial section that comments on subjects of interest to its readers. Other common features are reviews of recently published books and films, columns that express the author's opinions about various topics, and advertisements. A periodical is a serial publication. A book series is also a serial publication, but is not typically called a periodical. An encyclopedia or dictionary is also a book, and might be called a serial publication if it is published in many different editions over time. Volumes and issues Periodicals are typically published and referenced by volume and issue (also known as issue number or number). Volume typically refers to the number of years the publication has been circulated, and issue refers to how many times that periodical has been published during that year. For example, the April 2011 publication of a monthly magazine first published in 2002 would be listed as, "volume 10, issue 4". Roman numerals are sometimes used in reference to the volume number. When citing a work in a periodical, there are standardized formats such as The Chicago Manual of Style. In the latest edition of this style, a work with volume number 17 and issue number 3 may be written as follows: James M. Heilman, and Andrew G. West. "Wikipedia and Medicine: Quantifying Readership, Editors, and the Significance of Natural Language." Journal of Medical Internet Research 17, no. 3 (2015). doi:10.2196/jmir.4069. Sometimes, periodicals are numbered in absolute numbers instead of volume-relative numbers, typically since the start of the publication. In rare cases, periodicals even provide both: a relative issue number and an absolute number. There is no universal standard for indicating absolute numbers, but often a '#' is used. The first issue of a periodical is sometimes also called a premiere issue or charter issue. The first issue may be preceded by dummy or zero issues. A last issue is sometimes called the final issue. In comic books, a first issue will often include a first appearance by a new character, although a first appearance can happen in other issues as well. Frequency Periodicals are often characterized by their period (or frequency) of publication. This information often helps librarians make decisions about whether or not to include certain periodicals in their collection. It also helps scholars decide which journal to submit their paper to. Period Meaning Frequency Quinquennially Once per 5 years 1⁄5 per year Quadriennially Once per 4 years 1⁄4 per year Triennially Once per 3 years 1⁄3 per year Biennially Once per 2 years 1⁄2 per year Annually Once per year 1 per year Semiannually, Biannually Twice per year 2 per year Triannually Thrice per year 3 per year Quarterly Every quarter 4 per year Bimonthly Every 2 months 6 per year Semi-quarterly Twice per quarter 8 per year Monthly Every month 12 per year Semi-monthly Twice per month 24 per year Biweekly, Fortnightly Every two weeks 26 per year Weekly Every week 52 per year Semi-weekly Twice per week 104 per year Daily Once per business day Varies Popular and scholarly Cover of Science in School magazine Periodicals are often classified as either popular or scholarly. Popular periodicals are usually magazines (e.g., Ebony and Esquire). Scholarly journals are most commonly found in libraries and databases. Examples are The Journal of Psychology and the Journal of Social Work. Trade magazines are also examples of periodicals. They are written for an audience of professionals in the world. As of the early 1990s, there were over 6,000 academic, business, scientific, technical, and trade publications in the United States alone. Indefinite vs. part-publication These examples are related to the idea of an indefinitely continuing cycle of production and publication: magazines plan to continue publishing, not to stop after a predetermined number of editions. By contrast, a novel might be published in monthly parts, a method revived after the success of The Pickwick Papers by Charles Dickens. This approach is called part-publication, particularly when each part is from a whole work, or a serial, for example in comic books. It flourished during the nineteenth century, for example with Abraham John Valpy's Delphin Classics, and was not restricted to fiction. Standard numbers The International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) is to serial publications (and by extension, periodicals) what the International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is to books: a standardized reference number. Distribution Postal services often carry periodicals at a preferential rate; for example, Second Class Mail in the United States only applies to publications issued at least quarterly. See also Partwork Part References ^ "Periodical". ODLIS — Online Dictionary for Library and Information Science. ABC-Clio. Retrieved 2012-08-06. ^ "Front matter". Dr. Dobb's Journal of Computer Calisthenics & Orthodontia. Vol. 3, no. 2. People's Computer Company. February 1978. ISBN 0-8104-5490-4. #22. Retrieved 2020-02-10. ^ "PC: The Independent Guide To IBM Computers". PC. Vol. 1, no. 1. Software Communications, Inc. February–March 1982. pp. front matter, 9. Premiere/Charter issue. Retrieved 2020-02-10. ^ Thompson, David J., ed. (May 1990). "Micro Cornucopia - The Micro Technical Journal" (PDF). Micro Cornucopia. Around the bend. No. 53. Bend, Oregon, US: Micro Cornucopia Inc. pp. front matter. ISSN 0747-587X. Retrieved 2020-02-11. ^ "Frequency of Publication codes". www.libraries.rutgers.edu. ^ "Frequencies". www.oclc.org. ^ Dickinson, Kelly; Boyd, Bryanna; Gunningham, Regan (29 November 2010). "Reference Analysis as an Aid in Collection Development: A Study of Master of Architecture Theses at Dalhousie University". Dalhousie Journal of Interdisciplinary Management. 5 (1). doi:10.5931/djim.v5i1.48. ^ "Where to submit your manuscript". How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (7th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 7 June 2012. p. 33. ISBN 9781107670747. ^ "Cover of Science in School 32". Retrieved 13 July 2015. ^ Blake, Gary & Bly, Robert W. (1993). The Elements of Technical Writing. New York: Macmillan Publishers. p. 113. ISBN 0020130856. ^ "The Novel". Aspects of the Victorian Book – via The British Library. ^ Eliot, Simon & Rose, Jonathan (2007). A Companion to the History of the Book. p. 297. ISBN 9781405127653. ^ "Second Class Mail". Barron's Business Dictionary – via Answers.com. External links Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Periodicals". Authority control databases: National Germany Israel United States Latvia 2 Czech Republic

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_B._Kouwenhoven

William B. Kouwenhoven

["1 Biography","1.1 Early life and education","1.2 Career at Johns Hopkins","1.3 Personal life","2 Electric cardiac defibrillator","2.1 Open-chest defibrillator","2.2 Closed-chest defibrillator","3 First successful case","4 Awards and accomplishments","5 Publications","6 References","7 External links"]

William B. KouwenhovenBorn(1886-01-03)3 January 1886Brooklyn, New York, U.S.Died10 November 1975(1975-11-10) (aged 89)Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.Alma materPolytechnic Institute of BrooklynKnown forInventing the Electric Cardiac DefibrillatorAwardsIEEE Edison Medal (1961) Lasker-DeBakey Award - Clinical Medical Research (1973)Scientific careerFieldsElectrical EngineeringInstitutionsJohns Hopkins University William Bennet Kouwenhoven (13 January 1886 – 10 November 1975), also known as the "Father of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation," is famous for his contributions to the development of the closed-chest cardiac massage and his invention of the cardiac defibrillator. After obtaining his doctorate degree in engineering from the Karlsruhe Technische Hochschule in Germany, Kouwenhoven began his career as the dean at the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. Kouwenhoven focused his research mainly on improving and saving lives of patients through the application of electricity. With the help and cooperation of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine's Department of Surgery and an Edison Electric Institute grant, Kouwenhoven was able to develop a closed-chest defibrillator. For his contributions to the field of medical science, he became the first ever recipient of an honorary degree conferred by the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. Two years before his death, Kouwenhoven was also awarded the Albert Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research. Biography Early life and education William Bennet Kouwenhoven was born in Brooklyn, NY, on January 13, 1886. Kouwenhoven attended the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn beginning in 1903. As a college freshman, Kouwenhoven was intrigued by the relationship between electricity and medicine, which later became the topics for his English thesis. Three years later, he graduated with a BA in electrical engineering. Then in 1907, he earned his MS in mechanical engineering and began teaching physics and electrical engineering at the institute. In 1910, Kouwenhoven married Abigail Baxter Remsen and traveled to Germany to study at the Karlsruhe Technische Hochschule. Kouwenhoven had only one child, whom he named William G. Kouwenhoven. After obtaining his doctorate in engineering in 1913, Kouwenhoven moved back to the United States. He then taught engineering at Washington University in St. Louis for a year. Career at Johns Hopkins In 1914, William Kouwenhoven was hired as a professor at Johns Hopkins University's School of Engineering. His research interests consisted of the effects of electricity on the human body and cardiac arrest. By 1919, he worked as an associate professor at Johns Hopkins and was later promoted to full professor in 1930. Kouwenhoven was able to hold that position for 24 years during his tenure at Johns Hopkins. Due to the success of his research, Kouwenhoven was promoted to an administrative position as the Dean of Johns Hopkins University's School of Engineering from 1938 to 1954. During his tenure as dean, Kouwenhoven developed and perfected his most famous project on the electric cardiac defibrillator. At the age of 68, William Kouwenhoven retired as dean but continued to focus on his medical research at Hopkins after retirement. By the end of his career at Hopkins, Kouwenhoven was awarded two awards for his work at the institution: the Edison Medal (1961) and the Albert Lasker Clinical Medical Research Award. Personal life Kouwenhoven's colleagues and family members recall him as a "fascinating guy. According to Guy Knickerbocker, one of Kouwenhoven's electrical engineering students, Kouwenhoven's nickname 'Wild Bill' "carried some credibility. Being brought up in Brooklyn, he was colorful. On the other hand, he had a generous side." One of Kouwenhoven's grandchildren, Nick Kouwenhoven who currently works for Tessco Technologies in Baltimore, remembers his grandfather to be "an extremely intense and competitive man. As a teacher, he was known for being demanding, but...he secretly paid for kids who showed promise to go to school." Further statements by Nick reveal that William Kouwenhoven "was a complicated man; he could be charming and then reveal his underlying stubborn nature. was always trying to improve upon his work. Many family dinners included his graduate students, and the conversation frequently turned to the subject of their work." Gil Kaisler was one of these graduate students and had helped design the original portable AC generator used to build the closed-chest defibrillator. According to Kaisler, Kouwenhoven was a "tinkerer, a builder of things from the ground up. He also excelled as a teacher and administrator, but in the far grander scale, he did something to help countless people." Electric cardiac defibrillator Open-chest defibrillator By the 20th century, electricity was gradually integrated into society. Due to his interest in the field, William Kouwenhoven began to rewire old houses with electricity when he was a college graduate. However, a problem arose when utility linemen, who were setting up electricity lines, started to die from ventricular fibrillation (VF).James Jude, William Kouwenhoven, and Guy Knickerbocker William Kouwenhoven's research focused on the effects of electricity on the heart, and he wanted to develop an instrument that would revive or shock the heart without invasive surgery. The first procedures were done on rats and dogs, but both investigations failed to produce groundbreaking results. Then, in 1925, the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health was offered a $10,000 award by the Consolidated Edison of New York in collaboration with Simon Flexner and the Rockefeller Institute to investigate and examine the effects of electricity on the human body. The principal investigator of this Consolidated Edison study, Johns Hopkins neurologist Othello Langworthy, brought William Kouwenhoven, who was currently the professor of electrical engineering, to this team. By 1928, Kouwenhoven and his team were able to observe the effects of DC and AC shock on the heart. They noticed that when low-voltage shocks were applied to the heart, ventricular fibrillation was induced. Kouwenhoven also discovered that high voltage shocks from the electrodes placed on the rats' heads caused the heart to stop pumping blood because the lungs had shut down completely. Another method Kouwenhoven used to revive the hearts of rats was by giving CPR and massaging their chests. However, this failed because massaging the chests resulted in the paralysis of the rats due to their crushed cervical spines. By the year 1933, Kouwenhoven switched his research focus onto dogs. He detected that delivering a second surge of electricity, also known as a countershock, led to the restoration of the sinus rhythm and normal heart contraction. The dog's heart originally went through ventricular fibrillation, which occurs when the heart goes through rapid, electric impulses. However, through a process called defibrillation, the heart was able to be revived. The news of Kouwenhoven's finding began altering the approach to cardiac care. Despite the high risks of the procedure, it was used by doctors at Case Western School of Medicine. In 1947, Claude Beck, M.D., became the first surgeon ever to place electrodes directly on a heart that was in ventricular fibrillation during a surgery. Kouwenhoven's studies also influenced the Division of Anesthesiology at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. In the 1940s, researchers James Elam and Peter Safir perfected the emergency mouth-to-mouth method of lung ventilation, which is essential for oxygenating the blood when the heart is no longer functioning. Defibrillator used by Claude Beck in 1947. Closed-chest defibrillator In 1950, Kouwenhoven began his research on a closed-chest defibrillator. Alfred Blalock, the Chief of Surgery at the time, was dubious at first regarding Kouwenhoven's ideas. However, he soon agreed to provide laboratory space and equipment for Kouwenhoven's studies. At first, Kouwenhoven and his team monitored the effect of electrodes on the opposite sides of the chest. They noted that a brief AC current of 20 amperes was able to jolt a heart from ventricular fibrillation back into a normal sinus rhythm. Samuel Talbot, a surgeon who was studying heart arrhythmias in dogs at the time, asked Kouwenhoven to merge his research on a defibrillator with Talbot's studies. Afterward, Kouwenhoven observed that the current flowed best vertically instead of horizontally when passed through a dog's heart. By noticing this, he was able to decrease the shock's intensity by 50 percent. By 1957, Kouwenhoven and his team had designed a prototype specifically to work on humans. This novel device weighed approximately 200 pounds and consisted of a small box with two insulated cables with copper electrodes, which administered an AC current. One electrode was to be placed over the suprasternal notch, and the other electrode was to be placed over the apex of the heart. In 1961, Kouwenhoven and his team were able to launch the first truly portable defibrillator with the help and support of Mine Safety Appliance Company of Pittsburg. This new portable device weighed 45 pounds, and it could fit in a small plastic suitcase. Guy Knickerbocker, an electrical engineer working at Kouwenhoven's laboratory, discovered that the copper electrodes caused a rise in blood pressure in the rest of the body when they were pressed down onto a dog's chest even before the current was passed through them. He hypothesized that massaging the chest in a rhythmical manner causes the blood to circulate. This observation paved the path for the third major discovery by Kouwenhoven's team: cardiopulmonary resuscitation also known as CPR. Closed-Chest Defibrillator developed at Johns Hopkins University. First successful case In the year 1957, the defibrillator was used for the first time to save the life of a patient suffering from ventricular fibrillation in an operating room at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Around 2 a.m., a patient entered the Hopkins emergency room complaining of indigestion. While undressing for his examination, the patient collapsed when his heart went into ventricular fibrillation. The resident at the time, Gottlieb Friesinger, M.D., had assisted Kouwenhoven in his studies dealing with the closed-chest defibrillator. As the intern performed CPR on the patient's chest, Friesinger rushed to the laboratory located on the hospital's 11th floor. He managed to persuade the security officer to let him take the defibrillator, which was mounted on a wheeled cart. After returning to the ER, Friesinger administered the first shock, which failed to restart the patient's heart. However, the second shock was able to revive the patient's heart back to a normal sinus rhythm. It was later discovered that the patient had suffered an anterior myocardial infarction. This case became known as the world's first emergency defibrillation for a cardiac arrest. Friesinger later remarked that "he was quite a dramatic Saturday morning Grand Rounds presentation." Awards and accomplishments After being appointed as the Associate Dean of the School of Engineering at Johns Hopkins University, Kouwenhoven was also offered the position of vice-president of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE). He served as the vice-president from 1931 to 1933 and two years later became a member of the AIEE Board of Directors. In 1961, Kouwenhoven received the IEEE Edison Medal presented by the AIEE (now IEEE) "for his inspiring leadership in education, for his contributions in the fields of electrical insulation, electrical measurements, and electrical science applied to medicine." In 1969, Kouwenhoven became the first-ever recipient of an honorary degree presented by the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine for his contributions to medical science. Two years before his death, in 1973, Kouwenhoven was presented with one of the most prestigious biomedical prizes in America: the Albert Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research. When he died in 1975, the New York Times obituary recognized Kouwenhoven's accomplishments and contributions by stating that he had "helped develop basic cardiac treatment devices and procedures used around the world." In Kouwenhoven's honor and memory, the Whiting School of Engineering at Johns Hopkins University established the William B. Kouwenhoven Professorship in Electrical Engineering in 1981. The current holder of this Kouwenhoven Professorship is Jerry L. Prince, the associate director for research at the Center of Computer Integrated Surgical Systems and Technology. Prince has worked on co-developing HARP MRI, which provides doctors with the ability to assess the condition of heart muscles within seconds. He is also currently researching image processing and computer vision with primary application to medical imaging. Publications Hooker DR, Kouwenhoven WB, Langworthy OR. "The effect of alternating electrical currents on the heart." American Journal of Physiology 1933; 103:444–454 Jude JR, Kouwenhoven WB, Knickerbocker GG. External cardiac resuscitation. Monographs in Surgical Science 1964; I:65 Kouwenhoven WB, Jude JR, Knickerbocker GG. "Closed-chest cardiac massage." Journal of the American Medical Association 1960; 173:94–97. References ^ a b c d e f Beaudouin, Dave. "Reviving the Body Electric" (PDF). JHU Engineering. Retrieved 10 March 2017. ^ Brittain, James E. (2009). "Electrical Engineering Hall of Fame: William B. Kouwenhoven ". Proceedings of the IEEE. 97 (12): 2109–2110. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2009.2032865. ^ a b c "William B. Kouwenhoven". New Netherland Institute. ^ a b c Field, John (2009). The Textbook of Emergency Cardiovascular Care and CPR. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 197–199. ^ a b c d Worthington, Janet. "The Engineer Who Could". Hopkins Medical News. Retrieved 1 April 2017. ^ a b c Kouwenhoven, William (1933). "The Effect of Alternating Electrical Currents on the Heart" (PDF). American Journal of Physiology. 103 (2): 444–454. ^ Cavagnaro, Louise, and Barbara J. Kiviat. "Simply CPR." Johns Hopkins Magazine Apr. 2000: n. pag. Print. ^ Associated Press. "Dr. William Kouwenhoven Dies; Helped Develop Cardiac Devices". New York Times. Retrieved 9 August 2023. External links IEEE History Center biography Part of his biography of electrobiologists vteIEEE Edison Medal1951–1975 Charles F. Wagner (1951) Vladimir K. Zworykin (1952) John F. Peters (1953) Oliver E. Buckley (1954) Leonid A. Umansky (1955) Comfort A. Adams (1956) John K. Hodnette (1957) Charles F. Kettering (1958) James F. Fairman (1959) Harold S. Osborne (1960) William B. Kouwenhoven (1961) Alexander C. Monteith (1962) John R. Pierce (1963) Walker Lee Cisler (1965) Wilmer L. Barrow (1966) George Harold Brown (1967) Charles F. Avila (1968) Hendrik Wade Bode (1969) Howard H. Aiken (1970) John Wistar Simpson (1971) William Hayward Pickering (1972) Bernard D. H. Tellegen (1973) Jan A. Rajchman (1974) Sidney Darlington (1975) Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany United States Other SNAC

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Then in 1907, he earned his MS in mechanical engineering and began teaching physics and electrical engineering at the institute. In 1910, Kouwenhoven married Abigail Baxter Remsen and traveled to Germany to study at the Karlsruhe Technische Hochschule.[1] Kouwenhoven had only one child, whom he named William G. Kouwenhoven. After obtaining his doctorate in engineering in 1913, Kouwenhoven moved back to the United States. He then taught engineering at Washington University in St. Louis for a year.[2]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-3"},{"link_name":"Edison Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Edison_Medal"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"sub_title":"Career at Johns Hopkins","text":"In 1914, William Kouwenhoven was hired as a professor at Johns Hopkins University's School of Engineering. His research interests consisted of the effects of electricity on the human body and cardiac arrest. By 1919, he worked as an associate professor at Johns Hopkins and was later promoted to full professor in 1930. Kouwenhoven was able to hold that position for 24 years during his tenure at Johns Hopkins.[3] Due to the success of his research, Kouwenhoven was promoted to an administrative position as the Dean of Johns Hopkins University's School of Engineering from 1938 to 1954. During his tenure as dean, Kouwenhoven developed and perfected his most famous project on the electric cardiac defibrillator. At the age of 68, William Kouwenhoven retired as dean but continued to focus on his medical research at Hopkins after retirement. By the end of his career at Hopkins, Kouwenhoven was awarded two awards for his work at the institution: the Edison Medal (1961) and the Albert Lasker Clinical Medical Research Award.[1]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"sub_title":"Personal life","text":"Kouwenhoven's colleagues and family members recall him as a \"fascinating guy. According to Guy Knickerbocker, one of Kouwenhoven's electrical engineering students, Kouwenhoven's nickname 'Wild Bill' \"carried some credibility. Being brought up in Brooklyn, he was colorful. 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He also excelled as a teacher and administrator, but in the far grander scale, he did something to help countless people.\"[1]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Electric cardiac defibrillator"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ventricular fibrillation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventricular_fibrillation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:James_Jude,_William_Kouwenhoven,_and_Guy_Knickerbocker.png"},{"link_name":"James Jude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Jude"},{"link_name":"Consolidated Edison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidated_Edison"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"Case Western School of Medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_Western_School_of_Medicine"},{"link_name":"Claude Beck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Beck"},{"link_name":"Johns Hopkins School of Medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_School_of_Medicine"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Defibrillator.png"}],"sub_title":"Open-chest defibrillator","text":"By the 20th century, electricity was gradually integrated into society. Due to his interest in the field, William Kouwenhoven began to rewire old houses with electricity when he was a college graduate. However, a problem arose when utility linemen, who were setting up electricity lines, started to die from ventricular fibrillation (VF).[1]James Jude, William Kouwenhoven, and Guy KnickerbockerWilliam Kouwenhoven's research focused on the effects of electricity on the heart, and he wanted to develop an instrument that would revive or shock the heart without invasive surgery. The first procedures were done on rats and dogs, but both investigations failed to produce groundbreaking results. Then, in 1925, the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health was offered a $10,000 award by the Consolidated Edison of New York in collaboration with Simon Flexner and the Rockefeller Institute to investigate and examine the effects of electricity on the human body.[4] The principal investigator of this Consolidated Edison study, Johns Hopkins neurologist Othello Langworthy, brought William Kouwenhoven, who was currently the professor of electrical engineering, to this team. By 1928, Kouwenhoven and his team were able to observe the effects of DC and AC shock on the heart. They noticed that when low-voltage shocks were applied to the heart, ventricular fibrillation was induced.[5] Kouwenhoven also discovered that high voltage shocks from the electrodes placed on the rats' heads caused the heart to stop pumping blood because the lungs had shut down completely.[6]Another method Kouwenhoven used to revive the hearts of rats was by giving CPR and massaging their chests. However, this failed because massaging the chests resulted in the paralysis of the rats due to their crushed cervical spines. By the year 1933, Kouwenhoven switched his research focus onto dogs. He detected that delivering a second surge of electricity, also known as a countershock, led to the restoration of the sinus rhythm and normal heart contraction.[6] The dog's heart originally went through ventricular fibrillation, which occurs when the heart goes through rapid, electric impulses. However, through a process called defibrillation, the heart was able to be revived.[6]The news of Kouwenhoven's finding began altering the approach to cardiac care. Despite the high risks of the procedure, it was used by doctors at Case Western School of Medicine. In 1947, Claude Beck, M.D., became the first surgeon ever to place electrodes directly on a heart that was in ventricular fibrillation during a surgery. Kouwenhoven's studies also influenced the Division of Anesthesiology at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. In the 1940s, researchers James Elam and Peter Safir perfected the emergency mouth-to-mouth method of lung ventilation, which is essential for oxygenating the blood when the heart is no longer functioning.[4]Defibrillator used by Claude Beck in 1947.","title":"Electric cardiac defibrillator"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alfred Blalock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Blalock"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"CPR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hopkins_Closed-Chest_AC_Defibrillator.png"}],"sub_title":"Closed-chest defibrillator","text":"In 1950, Kouwenhoven began his research on a closed-chest defibrillator. Alfred Blalock, the Chief of Surgery at the time, was dubious at first regarding Kouwenhoven's ideas. However, he soon agreed to provide laboratory space and equipment for Kouwenhoven's studies. At first, Kouwenhoven and his team monitored the effect of electrodes on the opposite sides of the chest. They noted that a brief AC current of 20 amperes was able to jolt a heart from ventricular fibrillation back into a normal sinus rhythm. Samuel Talbot, a surgeon who was studying heart arrhythmias in dogs at the time, asked Kouwenhoven to merge his research on a defibrillator with Talbot's studies. Afterward, Kouwenhoven observed that the current flowed best vertically instead of horizontally when passed through a dog's heart. By noticing this, he was able to decrease the shock's intensity by 50 percent.[5]By 1957, Kouwenhoven and his team had designed a prototype specifically to work on humans. This novel device weighed approximately 200 pounds and consisted of a small box with two insulated cables with copper electrodes, which administered an AC current. One electrode was to be placed over the suprasternal notch, and the other electrode was to be placed over the apex of the heart.[4] In 1961, Kouwenhoven and his team were able to launch the first truly portable defibrillator with the help and support of Mine Safety Appliance Company of Pittsburg. This new portable device weighed 45 pounds, and it could fit in a small plastic suitcase.Guy Knickerbocker, an electrical engineer working at Kouwenhoven's laboratory, discovered that the copper electrodes caused a rise in blood pressure in the rest of the body when they were pressed down onto a dog's chest even before the current was passed through them. He hypothesized that massaging the chest in a rhythmical manner causes the blood to circulate. This observation paved the path for the third major discovery by Kouwenhoven's team: cardiopulmonary resuscitation also known as CPR.[7]Closed-Chest Defibrillator developed at Johns Hopkins University.","title":"Electric cardiac defibrillator"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Johns Hopkins Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"}],"text":"In the year 1957, the defibrillator was used for the first time to save the life of a patient suffering from ventricular fibrillation in an operating room at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Around 2 a.m., a patient entered the Hopkins emergency room complaining of indigestion. While undressing for his examination, the patient collapsed when his heart went into ventricular fibrillation. The resident at the time, Gottlieb Friesinger, M.D., had assisted Kouwenhoven in his studies dealing with the closed-chest defibrillator. As the intern performed CPR on the patient's chest, Friesinger rushed to the laboratory located on the hospital's 11th floor. He managed to persuade the security officer to let him take the defibrillator, which was mounted on a wheeled cart. After returning to the ER, Friesinger administered the first shock, which failed to restart the patient's heart. However, the second shock was able to revive the patient's heart back to a normal sinus rhythm. It was later discovered that the patient had suffered an anterior myocardial infarction. This case became known as the world's first emergency defibrillation for a cardiac arrest. Friesinger later remarked that \"he was quite a dramatic Saturday morning Grand Rounds presentation.\"[5]","title":"First successful case"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Institute of Electrical Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Electrical_Engineers"},{"link_name":"IEEE Edison Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Edison_Medal"},{"link_name":"IEEE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"Johns Hopkins School of Medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_School_of_Medicine"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:8-8"},{"link_name":"Jerry L. Prince","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_L._Prince"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"text":"After being appointed as the Associate Dean of the School of Engineering at Johns Hopkins University, Kouwenhoven was also offered the position of vice-president of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE). He served as the vice-president from 1931 to 1933 and two years later became a member of the AIEE Board of Directors. In 1961, Kouwenhoven received the IEEE Edison Medal presented by the AIEE (now IEEE) \"for his inspiring leadership in education, for his contributions in the fields of electrical insulation, electrical measurements, and electrical science applied to medicine.\"[5] In 1969, Kouwenhoven became the first-ever recipient of an honorary degree presented by the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine for his contributions to medical science. Two years before his death, in 1973, Kouwenhoven was presented with one of the most prestigious biomedical prizes in America: the Albert Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research. When he died in 1975, the New York Times obituary recognized Kouwenhoven's accomplishments and contributions by stating that he had \"helped develop basic cardiac treatment devices and procedures used around the world.\"[8]In Kouwenhoven's honor and memory, the Whiting School of Engineering at Johns Hopkins University established the William B. Kouwenhoven Professorship in Electrical Engineering in 1981. The current holder of this Kouwenhoven Professorship is Jerry L. Prince, the associate director for research at the Center of Computer Integrated Surgical Systems and Technology. Prince has worked on co-developing HARP MRI, which provides doctors with the ability to assess the condition of heart muscles within seconds. He is also currently researching image processing and computer vision with primary application to medical imaging.[1]","title":"Awards and accomplishments"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Hooker DR, Kouwenhoven WB, Langworthy OR. \"The effect of alternating electrical currents on the heart.\" American Journal of Physiology 1933; 103:444–454Jude JR, Kouwenhoven WB, Knickerbocker GG. External cardiac resuscitation. Monographs in Surgical Science 1964; I:65Kouwenhoven WB, Jude JR, Knickerbocker GG. \"Closed-chest cardiac massage.\" Journal of the American Medical Association 1960; 173:94–97.","title":"Publications"}]

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[{"reference":"Beaudouin, Dave. \"Reviving the Body Electric\" (PDF). JHU Engineering. Retrieved 10 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://engineering.jhu.edu/include/content/pdf/engmag02/27_32.pdf","url_text":"\"Reviving the Body Electric\""}]},{"reference":"Brittain, James E. (2009). \"Electrical Engineering Hall of Fame: William B. Kouwenhoven [Scanning our Past]\". Proceedings of the IEEE. 97 (12): 2109–2110. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2009.2032865.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJPROC.2009.2032865","url_text":"10.1109/JPROC.2009.2032865"}]},{"reference":"\"William B. Kouwenhoven\". New Netherland Institute.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newnetherlandinstitute.org/history-and-heritage/dutch_americans/william-b-kouwenhoven/","url_text":"\"William B. Kouwenhoven\""}]},{"reference":"Field, John (2009). The Textbook of Emergency Cardiovascular Care and CPR. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 197–199.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Worthington, Janet. \"The Engineer Who Could\". Hopkins Medical News. Retrieved 1 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/hmn/W98/engr.html","url_text":"\"The Engineer Who Could\""}]},{"reference":"Kouwenhoven, William (1933). \"The Effect of Alternating Electrical Currents on the Heart\" (PDF). American Journal of Physiology. 103 (2): 444–454.","urls":[{"url":"http://ajplegacy.physiology.org/content/ajplegacy/103/2/444.full.pdf","url_text":"\"The Effect of Alternating Electrical Currents on the Heart\""}]},{"reference":"Associated Press. \"Dr. William Kouwenhoven Dies; Helped Develop Cardiac Devices\". New York Times. Retrieved 9 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1975/11/12/archives/dr-william-kouwenhoven-dies-helped-develop-cardiac-devices.html","url_text":"\"Dr. William Kouwenhoven Dies; Helped Develop Cardiac Devices\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset

Sunset

["1 Occurrence","2 Location on the horizon","3 Colors","4 Names of compass points","5 Historical view","6 Planets","6.1 Mars","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]

Daily falling of the Sun below the horizon For other uses, see Sunset (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Dusk. Actual sunset: Two minutes before the Sun disappears below the horizon. Sunset (or sundown) is the disappearance of the Sun below the horizon of the Earth (or any other astronomical object in the Solar System) due to its rotation. As viewed from everywhere on Earth, it is a phenomenon that happens approximately once every 24 hours, except in areas close to the poles. The equinox Sun sets due west at the moment of both the spring and autumn equinoxes. As viewed from the Northern Hemisphere, the Sun sets to the northwest (or not at all) in the spring and summer, and to the southwest in the autumn and winter; these seasons are reversed for the Southern Hemisphere. The time of actual sunset is defined in astronomy as two minutes before the upper limb of the Sun disappears below the horizon. Near the horizon, atmospheric refraction causes sunlight rays to be distorted to such an extent that geometrically the solar disk is already about one diameter below the horizon when a sunset is observed. Sunset over the Delaware Bay at Sunset Beach, New Jersey, U.S., seen through cirrus cloudsSunset is distinct from twilight, which is divided into three stages. The first one is civil twilight, which begins once the Sun has disappeared below the horizon, and continues until it descends to 6 degrees below the horizon. The early to intermediate stages of twilight coincide with predusk. The second phase is nautical twilight, between 6 and 12 degrees below the horizon. The third phase is astronomical twilight, which is the period when the Sun is between 12 and 18 degrees below the horizon. Dusk is at the very end of astronomical twilight, and is the darkest moment of twilight just before night. Finally, night occurs when the Sun reaches 18 degrees below the horizon and no longer illuminates the sky. Locations further north than the Arctic Circle and further south than the Antarctic Circle experience no full sunset or sunrise on at least one day of the year, when the polar day or the polar night persists continuously for 24 hours. At latitudes greater than within half a degree of either pole, the sun cannot rise or set on the same date on any day of the year, since the sun's angular elevation between solar noon and midnight is less than one degree. Occurrence See also: Analemma Stages of the twilight period The time of sunset varies throughout the year and is determined by the viewer's position on Earth, specified by latitude and longitude, altitude, and time zone. Small daily changes and noticeable semi-annual changes in the timing of sunsets are driven by the axial tilt of the Earth, daily rotation of the Earth, the planet's movement in its annual elliptical orbit around the Sun, and the Earth and Moon's paired revolutions around each other. During winter and spring, the days get longer and sunsets occur later every day until the day of the latest sunset, which occurs after the summer solstice. In the Northern Hemisphere, the latest sunset occurs late in June or in early July, but not on the summer solstice of June 21. This date depends on the viewer's latitude (connected with the Earth's slower movement around the aphelion around July 4). Likewise, the earliest sunset does not occur on the winter solstice, but rather about two weeks earlier, again depending on the viewer's latitude. In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs in early December or late November (influenced by the Earth's faster movement near its perihelion, which occurs around January 3). Likewise, the same phenomenon exists in the Southern Hemisphere, but with the respective dates reversed, with the earliest sunsets occurring some time before June 21 in winter, and latest sunsets occurring some time after December 21 in summer, again depending on one's southern latitude. For a few weeks surrounding both solstices, both sunrise and sunset get slightly later each day. Even on the equator, sunrise and sunset shift several minutes back and forth through the year, along with solar noon. These effects are plotted by an analemma. Neglecting atmospheric refraction and the Sun's non-zero size, whenever and wherever sunset occurs, it is always in the northwest quadrant from the March equinox to the September equinox, and in the southwest quadrant from the September equinox to the March equinox. Sunsets occur almost exactly due west on the equinoxes for all viewers on Earth. Exact calculations of the azimuths of sunset on other dates are complex, but they can be estimated with reasonable accuracy by using the analemma. As sunrise and sunset are calculated from the leading and trailing edges of the Sun, respectively, and not the center, the duration of a daytime is slightly longer than nighttime (by about 10 minutes, as seen from temperate latitudes). Further, because the light from the Sun is refracted as it passes through the Earth's atmosphere, the Sun is still visible after it is geometrically below the horizon. Refraction also affects the apparent shape of the Sun when it is very close to the horizon. It makes things appear higher in the sky than they really are. Light from the bottom edge of the Sun's disk is refracted more than light from the top, since refraction increases as the angle of elevation decreases. This raises the apparent position of the bottom edge more than the top, reducing the apparent height of the solar disk. Its width is unaltered, so the disk appears wider than it is high. (In reality, the Sun is almost exactly spherical.) The Sun also appears larger on the horizon, an optical illusion, similar to the moon illusion. Locations north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle experience no sunset or sunrise at least one day of the year, when the polar day or the polar night persist continuously for 24 hours. Location on the horizon Further information: Solar azimuth angle A video time lapse of a sunset in Tokyo Approximate locations of sunset on the horizon (azimuth) as described above can be found in Refs. The figure on the right is calculated using the solar geometry routine as follows: For a given latitude and a given date, calculate the declination of the Sun using 0 ∘ {\displaystyle 0^{\circ }} longitude and solar noon time as inputs to the routine; Calculate the sunset hour angle using the sunset equation; Calculate the sunset time, which is the solar noon time plus the sunset hour angle in degree divided by 15; Use the sunset time as input to the solar geometry routine to get the solar azimuth angle at sunset. An interesting feature in the figure on the right is apparent hemispheric symmetry in regions where daily sunrise and sunset actually occur. This symmetry becomes clear if the hemispheric relation in sunrise equation is applied to the x- and y-components of the solar vector presented in Ref. Colors See also: Sunrise § Colors Further information: Atmospheric optics Evening twilight in Joshua Tree, California, displaying the separation of yellow colors in the direction from the Sun below the horizon to the observer, and the blue components scattered from the surrounding sky As a ray of white sunlight travels through the atmosphere to an observer, some of the colors are scattered out of the beam by air molecules and airborne particles, changing the final color of the beam the viewer sees. Because the shorter wavelength components, such as blue and green, scatter more strongly, these colors are preferentially removed from the beam. At sunrise and sunset, when the path through the atmosphere is longer, the blue and green components are removed almost completely, leaving the longer wavelength orange and red hues we see at those times. The remaining reddened sunlight can then be scattered by cloud droplets and other relatively large particles to light up the horizon red and orange. The removal of the shorter wavelengths of light is due to Rayleigh scattering by air molecules and particles much smaller than the wavelength of visible light (less than 50 nm in diameter). The scattering by cloud droplets and other particles with diameters comparable to or larger than the sunlight's wavelengths (> 600 nm) is due to Mie scattering and is not strongly wavelength-dependent. Mie scattering is responsible for the light scattered by clouds, and also for the daytime halo of white light around the Sun (forward scattering of white light). Sunset colors are typically more brilliant than sunrise colors, because the evening air contains more particles than morning air. Sometimes just before sunrise or after sunset a green flash can be seen. Ash from volcanic eruptions, trapped within the troposphere, tends to mute sunset and sunrise colors, while volcanic ejecta that is instead lofted into the stratosphere (as thin clouds of tiny sulfuric acid droplets), can yield beautiful post-sunset colors called afterglows and pre-sunrise glows. A number of eruptions, including those of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 and Krakatoa in 1883, have produced sufficiently high stratus clouds containing sulfuric acid to yield remarkable sunset afterglows (and pre-sunrise glows) around the world. The high altitude clouds serve to reflect strongly reddened sunlight still striking the stratosphere after sunset, down to the surface. Some of the most varied colors at sunset can be found in the opposite or eastern sky after the Sun has set during twilight. Depending on weather conditions and the types of clouds present, these colors have a wide spectrum, and can produce unusual results. Names of compass points In some languages, points of the compass bear names etymologically derived from words for sunrise and sunset. The English words "orient" and "occident", meaning "east" and "west", respectively, are descended from Latin words meaning "sunrise" and "sunset". The word "levant", related e.g. to French "(se) lever" meaning "lift" or "rise" (and also to English "elevate"), is also used to describe the east. In Polish, the word for east wschód (vskhud), is derived from the morpheme "ws" – meaning "up", and "chód" – signifying "move" (from the verb chodzić – meaning "walk, move"), due to the act of the Sun coming up from behind the horizon. The Polish word for west, zachód (zakhud), is similar but with the word "za" at the start, meaning "behind", from the act of the Sun going behind the horizon. In Russian, the word for west, запад (zapad), is derived from the words за – meaning "behind", and пад – signifying "fall" (from the verb падать – padat'), due to the act of the Sun falling behind the horizon. In Hebrew, the word for east is 'מזרח', which derives from the word for rising, and the word for west is 'מערב', which derives from the word for setting. Historical view See also: History of astronomy The 16th-century astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to present to the world a detailed and eventually widely accepted mathematical model supporting the premise that the Earth is moving and the Sun actually stays still, despite the impression from our point of view of a moving Sun. Planets Sunsets on other planets appear different because of differences in the distance of the planet from the Sun and non-existent or differing atmospheric compositions. Mars See also: Astronomy on Mars Sunset on Mars On Mars, the setting Sun appears about two-thirds the size it does from Earth, due to the greater distance between Mars and the Sun. The colors are typically hues of blue, but some Martian sunsets last significantly longer and appear far redder than is typical on Earth. The colors of the Martian sunset differ from those on Earth. Mars has a thin atmosphere, lacking oxygen and nitrogen, so the light scattering is not dominated by a Rayleigh Scattering process. Instead, the air is full of red dust, blown into the atmosphere by high winds, so its sky color is mainly determined by a Mie Scattering process, resulting in more blue hues than an Earth sunset. One study also reported that Martian dust high in the atmosphere can reflect sunlight up to two hours after the Sun has set, casting a diffuse glow across the surface of Mars. See also Dawn Diffuse sky radiation Earth's shadow, visible at sunset Golden hour (photography) Sundown town References ^ Ridpath, Ian (2012-01-01), "sunset", A Dictionary of Astronomy, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199609055.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-960905-5, retrieved 2021-10-05 ^ "Definitions from the US Astronomical Applications Dept (USNO)". Archived from the original on 2015-08-14. Retrieved 2016-06-17. ^ "Full definition of Dusk". ^ "Sunset vs Dusk ". Astronomy Scope. 2020-12-03. Retrieved 2021-10-03. ^ Starry Night Times – January 2007 (explains why Sun appears to cross slow before early January) ^ The analemma Archived 2006-10-18 at the Wayback Machine, elliptical orbit effect. 'July 3rd to October 2nd the sun continues to drift to the west until it reaches its maximum "offset" in the west. Then from October 2 until January 21, the sun drifts back toward the east' ^ Karen Masters (October 2004). "Curious About Astronomy: How does the position of Moonrise and Moonset change?". Curious About Astronomy? Ask an Astronomer. Cornell University Astronomy Department. Retrieved 2016-08-11. ^ "Where Do the Sun and Stars Rise?". Stanford Solar Center. Retrieved 2012-03-20. ^ a b Zhang, T., Stackhouse, P.W., Macpherson, B., and Mikovitz, J.C., 2021. A solar azimuth formula that renders circumstantial treatment unnecessary without compromising mathematical rigor: Mathematical setup, application and extension of a formula based on the subsolar point and atan2 function. Renewable Energy, 172, 1333-1340. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.03.047 ^ a b K. Saha (2008). The Earth's Atmosphere – Its Physics and Dynamics. Springer. p. 107. ISBN 978-3-540-78426-5. ^ a b B. Guenther, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Modern Optics. Vol. 1. Elsevier. p. 186. ^ "Hyperphysics, Georgia State University". Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 2012-04-07. ^ a b Craig Bohren (ed.), Selected Papers on Scattering in the Atmosphere, SPIE Optical Engineering Press, Bellingham, WA, 1989 ^ Corfidi, Stephen F. (February 2009). "The Colors of Twilight and Sunset". Norman, OK: NOAA/NWS Storm Prediction Center. ^ "Atmospheric Aerosols: What Are They, and Why Are They So Important?". nasa.gov. August 1996. ^ a b E. Hecht (2002). Optics (4th ed.). Addison Wesley. p. 88. ISBN 0-321-18878-0. ^ "Red Sunset, Green Flash". ^ "The Earth Is the Center of the Universe: Top 10 Science Mistakes". Science.discovery.com. 2012-01-23. Archived from the original on 2012-11-18. Retrieved 2012-04-07. ^ "A Moment Frozen in Time". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. June 10, 2005. Retrieved September 7, 2011. ^ a b c Nemiroff, R.; Bonnell, J., eds. (June 20, 2005). "Sunset Over Gusev Crater". Astronomy Picture of the Day. NASA. Retrieved September 6, 2011. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Sunset. Look up sunset in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sunset. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sunsets. Full physical explanation in simple terms The colors of twilight and sunset The physics of Sunsets - more detailed explanation including the role of clouds Geolocation service to calculate the time of sunrise and sunset vteParts of a dayDaytime Morning Noon Afternoon Evening Twilight Dawn Sunrise Sunset Dusk Blue hour Night Midnight Witching hour Brahmamuhurtha Related Belt of Venus Golden hour Terminator Daylight Moonlight Midnight sun Polar night Zodiacal light Authority control databases: National Germany

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sunset (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Dusk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dusk"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anatomy_of_a_Sunset-2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"},{"link_name":"horizon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizon"},{"link_name":"Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth"},{"link_name":"astronomical object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_object"},{"link_name":"Solar System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System"},{"link_name":"rotation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation"},{"link_name":"poles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_pole"},{"link_name":"equinox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equinox"},{"link_name":"Northern Hemisphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere"},{"link_name":"Southern Hemisphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere"},{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"atmospheric refraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_refraction"},{"link_name":"sunlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlight"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cape_may.jpg"},{"link_name":"Delaware Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware_Bay"},{"link_name":"Sunset Beach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset_Beach,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"cirrus clouds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirrus_cloud"},{"link_name":"twilight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twilight"},{"link_name":"civil twilight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twilight#Civil_twilight"},{"link_name":"predusk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dusk"},{"link_name":"nautical twilight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twilight#Nautical_twilight"},{"link_name":"astronomical twilight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twilight#Astronomical_twilight"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USNO-2"},{"link_name":"Dusk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dusk"},{"link_name":"night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Arctic Circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Circle"},{"link_name":"Antarctic Circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_Circle"},{"link_name":"sunrise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunrise"},{"link_name":"polar day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_day"},{"link_name":"polar night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_night"}],"text":"For other uses, see Sunset (disambiguation).Not to be confused with Dusk.Actual sunset: Two minutes before the Sun disappears below the horizon.Sunset (or sundown) is the disappearance of the Sun below the horizon of the Earth (or any other astronomical object in the Solar System) due to its rotation. As viewed from everywhere on Earth, it is a phenomenon that happens approximately once every 24 hours, except in areas close to the poles. The equinox Sun sets due west at the moment of both the spring and autumn equinoxes. As viewed from the Northern Hemisphere, the Sun sets to the northwest (or not at all) in the spring and summer, and to the southwest in the autumn and winter; these seasons are reversed for the Southern Hemisphere.The time of actual sunset is defined in astronomy as two minutes before the upper limb of the Sun disappears below the horizon.[1] Near the horizon, atmospheric refraction causes sunlight rays to be distorted to such an extent that geometrically the solar disk is already about one diameter below the horizon when a sunset is observed.Sunset over the Delaware Bay at Sunset Beach, New Jersey, U.S., seen through cirrus cloudsSunset is distinct from twilight, which is divided into three stages. The first one is civil twilight, which begins once the Sun has disappeared below the horizon, and continues until it descends to 6 degrees below the horizon. The early to intermediate stages of twilight coincide with predusk. The second phase is nautical twilight, between 6 and 12 degrees below the horizon. The third phase is astronomical twilight, which is the period when the Sun is between 12 and 18 degrees below the horizon.[2] Dusk is at the very end of astronomical twilight, and is the darkest moment of twilight just before night.[3] Finally, night occurs when the Sun reaches 18 degrees below the horizon and no longer illuminates the sky.[4]Locations further north than the Arctic Circle and further south than the Antarctic Circle experience no full sunset or sunrise on at least one day of the year, when the polar day or the polar night persists continuously for 24 hours. At latitudes greater than within half a degree of either pole, the sun cannot rise or set on the same date on any day of the year, since the sun's angular elevation between solar noon and midnight is less than one degree.","title":"Sunset"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Analemma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analemma"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Twilight_subcategories.svg"},{"link_name":"latitude and longitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude_and_longitude"},{"link_name":"altitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altitude"},{"link_name":"time zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_zone"},{"link_name":"axial tilt of the Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_tilt"},{"link_name":"Northern Hemisphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere"},{"link_name":"aphelion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphelion"},{"link_name":"perihelion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perihelion"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Southern Hemisphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere"},{"link_name":"analemma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analemma"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"March equinox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_equinox"},{"link_name":"September equinox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_equinox"},{"link_name":"azimuths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azimuth"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"daytime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daytime"},{"link_name":"moon illusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon_illusion"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Arctic Circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Circle"},{"link_name":"Antarctic Circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_Circle"},{"link_name":"polar day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_day"},{"link_name":"polar night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_night"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"See also: AnalemmaStages of the twilight periodThe time of sunset varies throughout the year and is determined by the viewer's position on Earth, specified by latitude and longitude, altitude, and time zone. Small daily changes and noticeable semi-annual changes in the timing of sunsets are driven by the axial tilt of the Earth, daily rotation of the Earth, the planet's movement in its annual elliptical orbit around the Sun, and the Earth and Moon's paired revolutions around each other. During winter and spring, the days get longer and sunsets occur later every day until the day of the latest sunset, which occurs after the summer solstice. In the Northern Hemisphere, the latest sunset occurs late in June or in early July, but not on the summer solstice of June 21. This date depends on the viewer's latitude (connected with the Earth's slower movement around the aphelion around July 4). Likewise, the earliest sunset does not occur on the winter solstice, but rather about two weeks earlier, again depending on the viewer's latitude. In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs in early December or late November (influenced by the Earth's faster movement near its perihelion, which occurs around January 3).[citation needed]Likewise, the same phenomenon exists in the Southern Hemisphere, but with the respective dates reversed, with the earliest sunsets occurring some time before June 21 in winter, and latest sunsets occurring some time after December 21 in summer, again depending on one's southern latitude. For a few weeks surrounding both solstices, both sunrise and sunset get slightly later each day. Even on the equator, sunrise and sunset shift several minutes back and forth through the year, along with solar noon. These effects are plotted by an analemma.[5][6]Neglecting atmospheric refraction and the Sun's non-zero size, whenever and wherever sunset occurs, it is always in the northwest quadrant from the March equinox to the September equinox, and in the southwest quadrant from the September equinox to the March equinox. Sunsets occur almost exactly due west on the equinoxes for all viewers on Earth. Exact calculations of the azimuths of sunset on other dates are complex, but they can be estimated with reasonable accuracy by using the analemma.[citation needed]As sunrise and sunset are calculated from the leading and trailing edges of the Sun, respectively, and not the center, the duration of a daytime is slightly longer than nighttime (by about 10 minutes, as seen from temperate latitudes). Further, because the light from the Sun is refracted as it passes through the Earth's atmosphere, the Sun is still visible after it is geometrically below the horizon. Refraction also affects the apparent shape of the Sun when it is very close to the horizon. It makes things appear higher in the sky than they really are. Light from the bottom edge of the Sun's disk is refracted more than light from the top, since refraction increases as the angle of elevation decreases. This raises the apparent position of the bottom edge more than the top, reducing the apparent height of the solar disk. Its width is unaltered, so the disk appears wider than it is high. (In reality, the Sun is almost exactly spherical.) The Sun also appears larger on the horizon, an optical illusion, similar to the moon illusion.[citation needed]Locations north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle experience no sunset or sunrise at least one day of the year, when the polar day or the polar night persist continuously for 24 hours.[citation needed]","title":"Occurrence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Solar azimuth angle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_azimuth_angle"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"azimuth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azimuth"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhangetal-9"},{"link_name":"solar noon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_noon"},{"link_name":"sunset equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset_equation"},{"link_name":"sunrise equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunrise_equation"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhangetal-9"}],"text":"Further information: Solar azimuth angleA video time lapse of a sunset in TokyoApproximate locations of sunset on the horizon (azimuth) as described above can be found in Refs.[7][8]\nThe figure on the right is calculated using the solar geometry routine as follows:[9]For a given latitude and a given date, calculate the declination of the Sun using \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n ∘\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0^{\\circ }}\n \n longitude and solar noon time as inputs to the routine;\nCalculate the sunset hour angle using the sunset equation;\nCalculate the sunset time, which is the solar noon time plus the sunset hour angle in degree divided by 15;\nUse the sunset time as input to the solar geometry routine to get the solar azimuth angle at sunset.An interesting feature in the figure on the right is apparent hemispheric symmetry in regions where daily sunrise and sunset actually occur. This symmetry becomes clear if the hemispheric relation in sunrise equation is applied to the x- and y-components of the solar vector presented in Ref.[9]","title":"Location on the horizon"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sunrise § Colors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunrise#Colors"},{"link_name":"Atmospheric optics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Majestic_Twilight.jpg"},{"link_name":"twilight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twilight"},{"link_name":"Joshua Tree, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Tree,_California"},{"link_name":"horizon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizon"},{"link_name":"airborne particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_particulate_matter"},{"link_name":"wavelength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-saha-10"},{"link_name":"hues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hue"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guenther-11"},{"link_name":"Rayleigh scattering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bohren-13"},{"link_name":"Mie scattering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mie_theory"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hecht-16"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-saha-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guenther-11"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bohren-13"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hecht-16"},{"link_name":"green flash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_flash"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"troposphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troposphere"},{"link_name":"stratosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratosphere"},{"link_name":"afterglows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterglow"},{"link_name":"Mount Pinatubo in 1991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_eruption_of_Mount_Pinatubo"},{"link_name":"Krakatoa in 1883","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1883_eruption_of_Krakatoa"},{"link_name":"stratus clouds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratus_clouds"},{"link_name":"sulfuric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"},{"link_name":"clouds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"See also: Sunrise § ColorsFurther information: Atmospheric opticsEvening twilight in Joshua Tree, California, displaying the separation of yellow colors in the direction from the Sun below the horizon to the observer, and the blue components scattered from the surrounding skyAs a ray of white sunlight travels through the atmosphere to an observer, some of the colors are scattered out of the beam by air molecules and airborne particles, changing the final color of the beam the viewer sees.\nBecause the shorter wavelength components, such as blue and green, scatter more strongly, these colors are preferentially removed from the beam.[10] At sunrise and sunset, when the path through the atmosphere is longer, the blue and green components are removed almost completely, leaving the longer wavelength orange and red hues we see at those times. The remaining reddened sunlight can then be scattered by cloud droplets and other relatively large particles to light up the horizon red and orange.[11] The removal of the shorter wavelengths of light is due to Rayleigh scattering by air molecules and particles much smaller than the wavelength of visible light (less than 50 nm in diameter).[12][13] The scattering by cloud droplets and other particles with diameters comparable to or larger than the sunlight's wavelengths (> 600 nm) is due to Mie scattering and is not strongly wavelength-dependent. Mie scattering is responsible for the light scattered by clouds, and also for the daytime halo of white light around the Sun (forward scattering of white light).[14][15][16]Sunset colors are typically more brilliant than sunrise colors, because the evening air contains more particles than morning air.[10][11][13][16] Sometimes just before sunrise or after sunset a green flash can be seen.[17]Ash from volcanic eruptions, trapped within the troposphere, tends to mute sunset and sunrise colors, while volcanic ejecta that is instead lofted into the stratosphere (as thin clouds of tiny sulfuric acid droplets), can yield beautiful post-sunset colors called afterglows and pre-sunrise glows. A number of eruptions, including those of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 and Krakatoa in 1883, have produced sufficiently high stratus clouds containing sulfuric acid to yield remarkable sunset afterglows (and pre-sunrise glows) around the world. The high altitude clouds serve to reflect strongly reddened sunlight still striking the stratosphere after sunset, down to the surface.Some of the most varied colors at sunset can be found in the opposite or eastern sky after the Sun has set during twilight. Depending on weather conditions and the types of clouds present, these colors have a wide spectrum, and can produce unusual results.[citation needed]","title":"Colors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"points of the compass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Points_of_the_compass"},{"link_name":"orient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient"},{"link_name":"occident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"east","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East"},{"link_name":"morpheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morpheme"},{"link_name":"west","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"}],"text":"In some languages, points of the compass bear names etymologically derived from words for sunrise and sunset. The English words \"orient\" and \"occident\", meaning \"east\" and \"west\", respectively, are descended from Latin words meaning \"sunrise\" and \"sunset\". The word \"levant\", related e.g. to French \"(se) lever\" meaning \"lift\" or \"rise\" (and also to English \"elevate\"), is also used to describe the east. In Polish, the word for east wschód (vskhud), is derived from the morpheme \"ws\" – meaning \"up\", and \"chód\" – signifying \"move\" (from the verb chodzić – meaning \"walk, move\"), due to the act of the Sun coming up from behind the horizon. The Polish word for west, zachód (zakhud), is similar but with the word \"za\" at the start, meaning \"behind\", from the act of the Sun going behind the horizon. In Russian, the word for west, запад (zapad), is derived from the words за – meaning \"behind\", and пад – signifying \"fall\" (from the verb падать – padat'), due to the act of the Sun falling behind the horizon. In Hebrew, the word for east is 'מזרח', which derives from the word for rising, and the word for west is 'מערב', which derives from the word for setting.","title":"Names of compass points"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy"},{"link_name":"astronomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer"},{"link_name":"Nicolaus Copernicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"See also: History of astronomyThe 16th-century astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to present to the world a detailed and eventually widely accepted mathematical model supporting the premise that the Earth is moving and the Sun actually stays still, despite the impression from our point of view of a moving Sun.[18]","title":"Historical view"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"}],"text":"Sunsets on other planets appear different because of differences in the distance of the planet from the Sun and non-existent or differing atmospheric compositions.","title":"Planets"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Astronomy on Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_on_Mars"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MarsSunset.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars"},{"link_name":"Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars"},{"link_name":"Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-apod-20"},{"link_name":"atmosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere"},{"link_name":"oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"nitrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen"},{"link_name":"Rayleigh Scattering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering"},{"link_name":"red dust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martian_soil"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-apod-20"},{"link_name":"Mie Scattering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mie_theory"},{"link_name":"Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-apod-20"}],"sub_title":"Mars","text":"See also: Astronomy on MarsSunset on MarsOn Mars, the setting Sun appears about two-thirds the size it does from Earth,[19] due to the greater distance between Mars and the Sun. The colors are typically hues of blue, but some Martian sunsets last significantly longer and appear far redder than is typical on Earth.[20]\nThe colors of the Martian sunset differ from those on Earth. Mars has a thin atmosphere, lacking oxygen and nitrogen, so the light scattering is not dominated by a Rayleigh Scattering process. Instead, the air is full of red dust, blown into the atmosphere by high winds,[20] so its sky color is mainly determined by a Mie Scattering process, resulting in more blue hues than an Earth sunset. One study also reported that Martian dust high in the atmosphere can reflect sunlight up to two hours after the Sun has set, casting a diffuse glow across the surface of Mars.[20]","title":"Planets"}]

[{"image_text":"Actual sunset: Two minutes before the Sun disappears below the horizon.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Anatomy_of_a_Sunset-2.jpg/300px-Anatomy_of_a_Sunset-2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sunset over the Delaware Bay at Sunset Beach, New Jersey, U.S., seen through cirrus clouds","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Cape_may.jpg/300px-Cape_may.jpg"},{"image_text":"Stages of the twilight period","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Twilight_subcategories.svg/220px-Twilight_subcategories.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A video time lapse of a sunset in Tokyo"},{"image_text":"Evening twilight in Joshua Tree, California, displaying the separation of yellow colors in the direction from the Sun below the horizon to the observer, and the blue components scattered from the surrounding sky","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Majestic_Twilight.jpg/170px-Majestic_Twilight.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sunset on Mars","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/MarsSunset.jpg/220px-MarsSunset.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Dawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawn"},{"title":"Diffuse sky radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_sky_radiation"},{"title":"Earth's shadow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_shadow"},{"title":"Golden hour (photography)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_hour_(photography)"},{"title":"Sundown town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundown_town"}]

[{"reference":"Ridpath, Ian (2012-01-01), \"sunset\", A Dictionary of Astronomy, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199609055.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-960905-5, retrieved 2021-10-05","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199609055.001.0001/acref-9780199609055-e-3625","url_text":"\"sunset\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780199609055.001.0001","url_text":"10.1093/acref/9780199609055.001.0001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960905-5","url_text":"978-0-19-960905-5"}]},{"reference":"\"Definitions from the US Astronomical Applications Dept (USNO)\". Archived from the original on 2015-08-14. Retrieved 2016-06-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150814180458/http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/RST_defs.php","url_text":"\"Definitions from the US Astronomical Applications Dept (USNO)\""},{"url":"http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/RST_defs.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Full definition of Dusk\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dusk","url_text":"\"Full definition of Dusk\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sunset vs Dusk [What Is The Difference Between The Two?]\". Astronomy Scope. 2020-12-03. Retrieved 2021-10-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.astronomyscope.com/sunset-vs-dusk/","url_text":"\"Sunset vs Dusk [What Is The Difference Between The Two?]\""}]},{"reference":"Karen Masters (October 2004). \"Curious About Astronomy: How does the position of Moonrise and Moonset change?\". Curious About Astronomy? Ask an Astronomer. Cornell University Astronomy Department. Retrieved 2016-08-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/our-solar-system/the-moon/46-our-solar-system/the-moon/observing-the-moon/128-how-does-the-position-of-moonrise-and-moonset-change-intermediate","url_text":"\"Curious About Astronomy: How does the position of Moonrise and Moonset change?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Where Do the Sun and Stars Rise?\". Stanford Solar Center. Retrieved 2012-03-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://solar-center.stanford.edu/AO/sunrise.html","url_text":"\"Where Do the Sun and Stars Rise?\""}]},{"reference":"K. Saha (2008). The Earth's Atmosphere – Its Physics and Dynamics. Springer. p. 107. 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Norman, OK: NOAA/NWS Storm Prediction Center.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.spc.noaa.gov/publications/corfidi/sunset/","url_text":"\"The Colors of Twilight and Sunset\""}]},{"reference":"\"Atmospheric Aerosols: What Are They, and Why Are They So Important?\". nasa.gov. August 1996.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/Aerosols.html","url_text":"\"Atmospheric Aerosols: What Are They, and Why Are They So Important?\""}]},{"reference":"E. Hecht (2002). Optics (4th ed.). Addison Wesley. p. 88. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_software

Numerical analysis

["1 Applications","2 History","3 Key concepts","3.1 Direct and iterative methods","3.2 Conditioning","3.3 Discretization","4 Generation and propagation of errors","4.1 Round-off","4.2 Truncation and discretization error","4.3 Numerical stability and well-posed problems","5 Areas of study","5.1 Computing values of functions","5.2 Interpolation, extrapolation, and regression","5.3 Solving equations and systems of equations","5.4 Solving eigenvalue or singular value problems","5.5 Optimization","5.6 Evaluating integrals","5.7 Differential equations","6 Software","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References","9.1 Citations","9.2 Sources","10 External links","10.1 Journals","10.2 Online texts","10.3 Online course material"]

Study of algorithms using numerical approximation Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289 (c. 1800–1600 BCE) with annotations. The approximation of the square root of 2 is four sexagesimal figures, which is about six decimal figures. 1 + 24/60 + 51/602 + 10/603 = 1.41421296... Numerical analysis is the study of algorithms that use numerical approximation (as opposed to symbolic manipulations) for the problems of mathematical analysis (as distinguished from discrete mathematics). It is the study of numerical methods that attempt to find approximate solutions of problems rather than the exact ones. Numerical analysis finds application in all fields of engineering and the physical sciences, and in the 21st century also the life and social sciences, medicine, business and even the arts. Current growth in computing power has enabled the use of more complex numerical analysis, providing detailed and realistic mathematical models in science and engineering. Examples of numerical analysis include: ordinary differential equations as found in celestial mechanics (predicting the motions of planets, stars and galaxies), numerical linear algebra in data analysis, and stochastic differential equations and Markov chains for simulating living cells in medicine and biology. Before modern computers, numerical methods often relied on hand interpolation formulas, using data from large printed tables. Since the mid 20th century, computers calculate the required functions instead, but many of the same formulas continue to be used in software algorithms. The numerical point of view goes back to the earliest mathematical writings. A tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection (YBC 7289), gives a sexagesimal numerical approximation of the square root of 2, the length of the diagonal in a unit square. Numerical analysis continues this long tradition: rather than giving exact symbolic answers translated into digits and applicable only to real-world measurements, approximate solutions within specified error bounds are used. Applications The overall goal of the field of numerical analysis is the design and analysis of techniques to give approximate but accurate solutions to a wide variety of hard problems, many of which are infeasible to solve symbolically: Advanced numerical methods are essential in making numerical weather prediction feasible. Computing the trajectory of a spacecraft requires the accurate numerical solution of a system of ordinary differential equations. Car companies can improve the crash safety of their vehicles by using computer simulations of car crashes. Such simulations essentially consist of solving partial differential equations numerically. In the financial field, (private investment funds) and other financial institutions use quantitative finance tools from numerical analysis to attempt to calculate the value of stocks and derivatives more precisely than other market participants. Airlines use sophisticated optimization algorithms to decide ticket prices, airplane and crew assignments and fuel needs. Historically, such algorithms were developed within the overlapping field of operations research. Insurance companies use numerical programs for actuarial analysis. History The field of numerical analysis predates the invention of modern computers by many centuries. Linear interpolation was already in use more than 2000 years ago. Many great mathematicians of the past were preoccupied by numerical analysis, as is obvious from the names of important algorithms like Newton's method, Lagrange interpolation polynomial, Gaussian elimination, or Euler's method. The origins of modern numerical analysis are often linked to a 1947 paper by John von Neumann and Herman Goldstine, but others consider modern numerical analysis to go back to work by E. T. Whittaker in 1912. NIST publication To facilitate computations by hand, large books were produced with formulas and tables of data such as interpolation points and function coefficients. Using these tables, often calculated out to 16 decimal places or more for some functions, one could look up values to plug into the formulas given and achieve very good numerical estimates of some functions. The canonical work in the field is the NIST publication edited by Abramowitz and Stegun, a 1000-plus page book of a very large number of commonly used formulas and functions and their values at many points. The function values are no longer very useful when a computer is available, but the large listing of formulas can still be very handy. The mechanical calculator was also developed as a tool for hand computation. These calculators evolved into electronic computers in the 1940s, and it was then found that these computers were also useful for administrative purposes. But the invention of the computer also influenced the field of numerical analysis, since now longer and more complicated calculations could be done. The Leslie Fox Prize for Numerical Analysis was initiated in 1985 by the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications. Key concepts Direct and iterative methods Direct methods compute the solution to a problem in a finite number of steps. These methods would give the precise answer if they were performed in infinite precision arithmetic. Examples include Gaussian elimination, the QR factorization method for solving systems of linear equations, and the simplex method of linear programming. In practice, finite precision is used and the result is an approximation of the true solution (assuming stability). In contrast to direct methods, iterative methods are not expected to terminate in a finite number of steps, even if infinite precision were possible. Starting from an initial guess, iterative methods form successive approximations that converge to the exact solution only in the limit. A convergence test, often involving the residual, is specified in order to decide when a sufficiently accurate solution has (hopefully) been found. Even using infinite precision arithmetic these methods would not reach the solution within a finite number of steps (in general). Examples include Newton's method, the bisection method, and Jacobi iteration. In computational matrix algebra, iterative methods are generally needed for large problems. Iterative methods are more common than direct methods in numerical analysis. Some methods are direct in principle but are usually used as though they were not, e.g. GMRES and the conjugate gradient method. For these methods the number of steps needed to obtain the exact solution is so large that an approximation is accepted in the same manner as for an iterative method. As an example, consider the problem of solving 3x3 + 4 = 28 for the unknown quantity x. Direct method 3x3 + 4 = 28. Subtract 4 3x3 = 24. Divide by 3 x3 =  8. Take cube roots x =  2. For the iterative method, apply the bisection method to f(x) = 3x3 − 24. The initial values are a = 0, b = 3, f(a) = −24, f(b) = 57. Iterative method a b mid f(mid) 0 3 1.5 −13.875 1.5 3 2.25 10.17... 1.5 2.25 1.875 −4.22... 1.875 2.25 2.0625 2.32... From this table it can be concluded that the solution is between 1.875 and 2.0625. The algorithm might return any number in that range with an error less than 0.2. Conditioning Ill-conditioned problem: Take the function f(x) = 1/(x − 1). Note that f(1.1) = 10 and f(1.001) = 1000: a change in x of less than 0.1 turns into a change in f(x) of nearly 1000. Evaluating f(x) near x = 1 is an ill-conditioned problem. Well-conditioned problem: By contrast, evaluating the same function f(x) = 1/(x − 1) near x = 10 is a well-conditioned problem. For instance, f(10) = 1/9 ≈ 0.111 and f(11) = 0.1: a modest change in x leads to a modest change in f(x). Discretization Furthermore, continuous problems must sometimes be replaced by a discrete problem whose solution is known to approximate that of the continuous problem; this process is called 'discretization'. For example, the solution of a differential equation is a function. This function must be represented by a finite amount of data, for instance by its value at a finite number of points at its domain, even though this domain is a continuum. Generation and propagation of errors Further information: Error propagation The study of errors forms an important part of numerical analysis. There are several ways in which error can be introduced in the solution of the problem. Round-off Round-off errors arise because it is impossible to represent all real numbers exactly on a machine with finite memory (which is what all practical digital computers are). Truncation and discretization error Truncation errors are committed when an iterative method is terminated or a mathematical procedure is approximated and the approximate solution differs from the exact solution. Similarly, discretization induces a discretization error because the solution of the discrete problem does not coincide with the solution of the continuous problem. In the example above to compute the solution of 3 x 3 + 4 = 28 {\displaystyle 3x^{3}+4=28} , after ten iterations, the calculated root is roughly 1.99. Therefore, the truncation error is roughly 0.01. Once an error is generated, it propagates through the calculation. For example, the operation + on a computer is inexact. A calculation of the type a + b + c + d + e {\displaystyle a+b+c+d+e} is even more inexact. A truncation error is created when a mathematical procedure is approximated. To integrate a function exactly, an infinite sum of regions must be found, but numerically only a finite sum of regions can be found, and hence the approximation of the exact solution. Similarly, to differentiate a function, the differential element approaches zero, but numerically only a nonzero value of the differential element can be chosen. Numerical stability and well-posed problems An algorithm is called numerically stable if an error, whatever its cause, does not grow to be much larger during the calculation. This happens if the problem is well-conditioned, meaning that the solution changes by only a small amount if the problem data are changed by a small amount. To the contrary, if a problem is 'ill-conditioned', then any small error in the data will grow to be a large error. Both the original problem and the algorithm used to solve that problem can be well-conditioned or ill-conditioned, and any combination is possible. So an algorithm that solves a well-conditioned problem may be either numerically stable or numerically unstable. An art of numerical analysis is to find a stable algorithm for solving a well-posed mathematical problem. Areas of study The field of numerical analysis includes many sub-disciplines. Some of the major ones are: Computing values of functions Interpolation: Observing that the temperature varies from 20 degrees Celsius at 1:00 to 14 degrees at 3:00, a linear interpolation of this data would conclude that it was 17 degrees at 2:00 and 18.5 degrees at 1:30pm. Extrapolation: If the gross domestic product of a country has been growing an average of 5% per year and was 100 billion last year, it might extrapolated that it will be 105 billion this year. A line through 20 points Regression: In linear regression, given n points, a line is computed that passes as close as possible to those n points. How much for a glass of lemonade? Optimization: Suppose lemonade is sold at a lemonade stand, at $1.00 per glass, that 197 glasses of lemonade can be sold per day, and that for each increase of $0.01, one less glass of lemonade will be sold per day. If $1.485 could be charged, profit would be maximized, but due to the constraint of having to charge a whole-cent amount, charging $1.48 or $1.49 per glass will both yield the maximum income of $220.52 per day. Wind direction in blue, true trajectory in black, Euler method in red Differential equation: If 100 fans are set up to blow air from one end of the room to the other and then a feather is dropped into the wind, what happens? The feather will follow the air currents, which may be very complex. One approximation is to measure the speed at which the air is blowing near the feather every second, and advance the simulated feather as if it were moving in a straight line at that same speed for one second, before measuring the wind speed again. This is called the Euler method for solving an ordinary differential equation. One of the simplest problems is the evaluation of a function at a given point. The most straightforward approach, of just plugging in the number in the formula is sometimes not very efficient. For polynomials, a better approach is using the Horner scheme, since it reduces the necessary number of multiplications and additions. Generally, it is important to estimate and control round-off errors arising from the use of floating-point arithmetic. Interpolation, extrapolation, and regression Interpolation solves the following problem: given the value of some unknown function at a number of points, what value does that function have at some other point between the given points? Extrapolation is very similar to interpolation, except that now the value of the unknown function at a point which is outside the given points must be found. Regression is also similar, but it takes into account that the data are imprecise. Given some points, and a measurement of the value of some function at these points (with an error), the unknown function can be found. The least squares-method is one way to achieve this. Solving equations and systems of equations Another fundamental problem is computing the solution of some given equation. Two cases are commonly distinguished, depending on whether the equation is linear or not. For instance, the equation 2 x + 5 = 3 {\displaystyle 2x+5=3} is linear while 2 x 2 + 5 = 3 {\displaystyle 2x^{2}+5=3} is not. Much effort has been put in the development of methods for solving systems of linear equations. Standard direct methods, i.e., methods that use some matrix decomposition are Gaussian elimination, LU decomposition, Cholesky decomposition for symmetric (or hermitian) and positive-definite matrix, and QR decomposition for non-square matrices. Iterative methods such as the Jacobi method, Gauss–Seidel method, successive over-relaxation and conjugate gradient method are usually preferred for large systems. General iterative methods can be developed using a matrix splitting. Root-finding algorithms are used to solve nonlinear equations (they are so named since a root of a function is an argument for which the function yields zero). If the function is differentiable and the derivative is known, then Newton's method is a popular choice. Linearization is another technique for solving nonlinear equations. Solving eigenvalue or singular value problems Several important problems can be phrased in terms of eigenvalue decompositions or singular value decompositions. For instance, the spectral image compression algorithm is based on the singular value decomposition. The corresponding tool in statistics is called principal component analysis. Optimization Main article: Mathematical optimization Optimization problems ask for the point at which a given function is maximized (or minimized). Often, the point also has to satisfy some constraints. The field of optimization is further split in several subfields, depending on the form of the objective function and the constraint. For instance, linear programming deals with the case that both the objective function and the constraints are linear. A famous method in linear programming is the simplex method. The method of Lagrange multipliers can be used to reduce optimization problems with constraints to unconstrained optimization problems. Evaluating integrals Main article: Numerical integration Numerical integration, in some instances also known as numerical quadrature, asks for the value of a definite integral. Popular methods use one of the Newton–Cotes formulas (like the midpoint rule or Simpson's rule) or Gaussian quadrature. These methods rely on a "divide and conquer" strategy, whereby an integral on a relatively large set is broken down into integrals on smaller sets. In higher dimensions, where these methods become prohibitively expensive in terms of computational effort, one may use Monte Carlo or quasi-Monte Carlo methods (see Monte Carlo integration), or, in modestly large dimensions, the method of sparse grids. Differential equations Main articles: Numerical ordinary differential equations and Numerical partial differential equations Numerical analysis is also concerned with computing (in an approximate way) the solution of differential equations, both ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. Partial differential equations are solved by first discretizing the equation, bringing it into a finite-dimensional subspace. This can be done by a finite element method, a finite difference method, or (particularly in engineering) a finite volume method. The theoretical justification of these methods often involves theorems from functional analysis. This reduces the problem to the solution of an algebraic equation. Software Main articles: List of numerical-analysis software and Comparison of numerical-analysis software Since the late twentieth century, most algorithms are implemented in a variety of programming languages. The Netlib repository contains various collections of software routines for numerical problems, mostly in Fortran and C. Commercial products implementing many different numerical algorithms include the IMSL and NAG libraries; a free-software alternative is the GNU Scientific Library. Over the years the Royal Statistical Society published numerous algorithms in its Applied Statistics (code for these "AS" functions is here); ACM similarly, in its Transactions on Mathematical Software ("TOMS" code is here). The Naval Surface Warfare Center several times published its Library of Mathematics Subroutines (code here). There are several popular numerical computing applications such as MATLAB, TK Solver, S-PLUS, and IDL as well as free and open-source alternatives such as FreeMat, Scilab, GNU Octave (similar to Matlab), and IT++ (a C++ library). There are also programming languages such as R (similar to S-PLUS), Julia, and Python with libraries such as NumPy, SciPy and SymPy. Performance varies widely: while vector and matrix operations are usually fast, scalar loops may vary in speed by more than an order of magnitude. Many computer algebra systems such as Mathematica also benefit from the availability of arbitrary-precision arithmetic which can provide more accurate results. Also, any spreadsheet software can be used to solve simple problems relating to numerical analysis. Excel, for example, has hundreds of available functions, including for matrices, which may be used in conjunction with its built in "solver". See also Category:Numerical analysts Analysis of algorithms Computational science Computational physics Gordon Bell Prize Interval arithmetic List of numerical analysis topics Local linearization method Numerical differentiation Numerical Recipes Probabilistic numerics Symbolic-numeric computation Validated numerics Notes References Citations ^ "Photograph, illustration, and description of the root(2) tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection". Archived from the original on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 2 October 2006. ^ Demmel, J.W. (1997). Applied numerical linear algebra. SIAM. doi:10.1137/1.9781611971446. ISBN 978-1-61197-144-6. ^ Ciarlet, P.G.; Miara, B.; Thomas, J.M. (1989). Introduction to numerical linear algebra and optimization. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521327886. OCLC 877155729. ^ Trefethen, Lloyd; Bau III, David (1997). Numerical Linear Algebra. SIAM. ISBN 978-0-89871-361-9. ^ a b c Brezinski, C.; Wuytack, L. (2012). Numerical analysis: Historical developments in the 20th century. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-59858-5. ^ Stephen Blyth. "An Introduction to Quantitative Finance". 2013. page VII. ^ a b Watson, G.A. (2010). "The history and development of numerical analysis in Scotland: a personal perspective" (PDF). The Birth of Numerical Analysis. World Scientific. pp. 161–177. ISBN 9789814469456. ^ Bultheel, Adhemar; Cools, Ronald, eds. (2010). The Birth of Numerical Analysis. Vol. 10. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-283-625-0. ^ Saad, Y. (2003). Iterative methods for sparse linear systems. SIAM. ISBN 978-0-89871-534-7. ^ Hageman, L.A.; Young, D.M. (2012). Applied iterative methods (2nd ed.). Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-8284-0312-2. ^ Traub, J.F. (1982). Iterative methods for the solution of equations (2nd ed.). American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8284-0312-2. ^ Greenbaum, A. (1997). Iterative methods for solving linear systems. SIAM. ISBN 978-0-89871-396-1. ^ a b c Higham 2002 ^ Brezinski, C.; Zaglia, M.R. (2013). Extrapolation methods: theory and practice. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-050622-7. ^ Hestenes, Magnus R.; Stiefel, Eduard (December 1952). "Methods of Conjugate Gradients for Solving Linear Systems" (PDF). Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. 49 (6): 409–. doi:10.6028/jres.049.044. ^ Ezquerro Fernández, J.A.; Hernández Verón, M.Á. (2017). Newton's method: An updated approach of Kantorovich's theory. Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-3-319-55976-6. ^ Deuflhard, Peter (2006). Newton Methods for Nonlinear Problems. Affine Invariance and Adaptive Algorithms. Computational Mathematics. Vol. 35 (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-21099-3. ^ Ogden, C.J.; Huff, T. (1997). "The Singular Value Decomposition and Its Applications in Image Compression" (PDF). Math 45. College of the Redwoods. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2006. ^ Davis, P.J.; Rabinowitz, P. (2007). Methods of numerical integration. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-45339-2. ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Gaussian Quadrature". MathWorld. ^ Geweke, John (1996). "15. Monte carlo simulation and numerical integration". Handbook of Computational Economics. Vol. 1. Elsevier. pp. 731–800. doi:10.1016/S1574-0021(96)01017-9. ISBN 9780444898579. ^ Iserles, A. (2009). A first course in the numerical analysis of differential equations (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-73490-5. ^ Ames, W.F. (2014). Numerical methods for partial differential equations (3rd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-08-057130-0. ^ Johnson, C. (2012). Numerical solution of partial differential equations by the finite element method. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-46900-3. ^ Brenner, S.; Scott, R. (2013). The mathematical theory of finite element methods (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-1-4757-3658-8. ^ Strang, G.; Fix, G.J. (2018) . An analysis of the finite element method (2nd ed.). Wellesley-Cambridge Press. ISBN 9780980232783. OCLC 1145780513. ^ Strikwerda, J.C. (2004). Finite difference schemes and partial differential equations (2nd ed.). SIAM. ISBN 978-0-89871-793-8. ^ LeVeque, Randall (2002). Finite Volume Methods for Hyperbolic Problems. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-43418-8. ^ Quarteroni, A.; Saleri, F.; Gervasio, P. (2014). Scientific computing with MATLAB and Octave (4th ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-45367-0. ^ Gander, W.; Hrebicek, J., eds. (2011). Solving problems in scientific computing using Maple and Matlab®. Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-18873-2. ^ Barnes, B.; Fulford, G.R. (2011). Mathematical modelling with case studies: a differential equations approach using Maple and MATLAB (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-8350-7. OCLC 1058138488. ^ Gumley, L.E. (2001). Practical IDL programming. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-051444-4. ^ Bunks, C.; Chancelier, J.P.; Delebecque, F.; Goursat, M.; Nikoukhah, R.; Steer, S. (2012). Engineering and scientific computing with Scilab. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4612-7204-5. ^ Thanki, R.M.; Kothari, A.M. (2019). Digital image processing using SCILAB. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-89533-8. ^ Ihaka, R.; Gentleman, R. (1996). "R: a language for data analysis and graphics" (PDF). Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics. 5 (3): 299–314. doi:10.1080/10618600.1996.10474713. S2CID 60206680. ^ Bezanson, Jeff; Edelman, Alan; Karpinski, Stefan; Shah, Viral B. (1 January 2017). "Julia: A Fresh Approach to Numerical Computing". SIAM Review. 59 (1): 65–98. doi:10.1137/141000671. hdl:1721.1/110125. ISSN 0036-1445. S2CID 13026838. ^ Jones, E., Oliphant, T., & Peterson, P. (2001). SciPy: Open source scientific tools for Python. ^ Bressert, E. (2012). SciPy and NumPy: an overview for developers. O'Reilly. ISBN 9781306810395. ^ Blanco-Silva, F.J. (2013). Learning SciPy for numerical and scientific computing. Packt. ISBN 9781782161639. ^ Speed comparison of various number crunching packages Archived 5 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine ^ Comparison of mathematical programs for data analysis Archived 18 May 2016 at the Portuguese Web Archive Stefan Steinhaus, ScientificWeb.com ^ Maeder, R.E. (1997). Programming in mathematica (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 9780201854497. OCLC 1311056676. ^ Wolfram, Stephen (1999). The MATHEMATICA® book, version 4. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781579550042. ^ Shaw, W.T.; Tigg, J. (1993). Applied Mathematica: getting started, getting it done (PDF). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-54217-2. OCLC 28149048. ^ Marasco, A.; Romano, A. (2001). Scientific Computing with Mathematica: Mathematical Problems for Ordinary Differential Equations. Springer. ISBN 978-0-8176-4205-1. Sources Golub, Gene H.; Charles F. Van Loan (1986). Matrix Computations (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5413-X. Ralston Anthony; Rabinowitz Philips (2001). A First Course in Numerical Analysis (2nd ed.). Dover publications. ISBN 978-0486414546. Higham, Nicholas J. (2002) . Accuracy and Stability of Numerical Algorithms. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. ISBN 0-89871-355-2. Hildebrand, F. B. (1974). Introduction to Numerical Analysis (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-028761-9. Leader, Jeffery J. (2004). Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computation. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-73499-0. Wilkinson, J.H. (1988) . The Algebraic Eigenvalue Problem. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-853418-1. Kahan, W. (1972). A survey of error-analysis. Proc. IFIP Congress 71 in Ljubljana. Info. Processing 71. Vol. 2. North-Holland. pp. 1214–39. ISBN 978-0-7204-2063-0. OCLC 25116949. (examples of the importance of accurate arithmetic). Trefethen, Lloyd N. (2008). "IV.21 Numerical analysis" (PDF). In Leader, I.; Gowers, T.; Barrow-Green, J. (eds.). Princeton Companion of Mathematics. Princeton University Press. pp. 604–614. ISBN 978-0-691-11880-2. External links Numerical analysis at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from CommonsQuotations from WikiquoteTextbooks from Wikibooks Journals Numerische Mathematik, volumes 1–..., Springer, 1959– volumes 1–66, 1959–1994 (searchable; pages are images). (in English and German) Journal on Numerical Analysis (SINUM), volumes 1–..., SIAM, 1964– Online texts "Numerical analysis", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 Numerical Recipes, William H. Press (free, downloadable previous editions) First Steps in Numerical Analysis (archived), R.J.Hosking, S.Joe, D.C.Joyce, and J.C.Turner CSEP (Computational Science Education Project), U.S. Department of Energy (archived 2017-08-01) Numerical Methods, ch 3. in the Digital Library of Mathematical Functions Numerical Interpolation, Differentiation and Integration, ch 25. in the Handbook of Mathematical Functions (Abramowitz and Stegun) Online course material Numerical Methods (Archived 28 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine), Stuart Dalziel University of Cambridge Lectures on Numerical Analysis, Dennis Deturck and Herbert S. Wilf University of Pennsylvania Numerical methods, John D. Fenton University of Karlsruhe Numerical Methods for Physicists, Anthony O’Hare Oxford University Lectures in Numerical Analysis (archived), R. Radok Mahidol University Introduction to Numerical Analysis for Engineering, Henrik Schmidt Massachusetts Institute of Technology Numerical Analysis for Engineering, D. W. Harder University of Waterloo Introduction to Numerical Analysis, Doron Levy University of Maryland Numerical Analysis - Numerical Methods (archived), John H. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ybc7289-bw.jpg"},{"link_name":"YBC 7289","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YBC_7289"},{"link_name":"square root of 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root_of_2"},{"link_name":"sexagesimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexagesimal"},{"link_name":"decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"approximation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximation"},{"link_name":"symbolic manipulations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_computation"},{"link_name":"mathematical analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_analysis"},{"link_name":"discrete mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_mathematics"},{"link_name":"ordinary differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinary_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"celestial mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_mechanics"},{"link_name":"numerical linear algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_linear_algebra"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"stochastic differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"Markov chains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markov_chain"},{"link_name":"numerical methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_method"},{"link_name":"interpolation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpolation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20c-5"},{"link_name":"Yale Babylonian Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_Babylonian_Collection"},{"link_name":"YBC 7289","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YBC_7289"},{"link_name":"sexagesimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexagesimal"},{"link_name":"square root of 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root_of_2"},{"link_name":"diagonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagonal"},{"link_name":"unit square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_square"}],"text":"Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289 (c. 1800–1600 BCE) with annotations. The approximation of the square root of 2 is four sexagesimal figures, which is about six decimal figures. 1 + 24/60 + 51/602 + 10/603 = 1.41421296...[1]Numerical analysis is the study of algorithms that use numerical approximation (as opposed to symbolic manipulations) for the problems of mathematical analysis (as distinguished from discrete mathematics). It is the study of numerical methods that attempt to find approximate solutions of problems rather than the exact ones. Numerical analysis finds application in all fields of engineering and the physical sciences, and in the 21st century also the life and social sciences, medicine, business and even the arts. Current growth in computing power has enabled the use of more complex numerical analysis, providing detailed and realistic mathematical models in science and engineering. Examples of numerical analysis include: ordinary differential equations as found in celestial mechanics (predicting the motions of planets, stars and galaxies), numerical linear algebra in data analysis,[2][3][4] and stochastic differential equations and Markov chains for simulating living cells in medicine and biology.Before modern computers, numerical methods often relied on hand interpolation formulas, using data from large printed tables. Since the mid 20th century, computers calculate the required functions instead, but many of the same formulas continue to be used in software algorithms.[5]The numerical point of view goes back to the earliest mathematical writings. A tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection (YBC 7289), gives a sexagesimal numerical approximation of the square root of 2, the length of the diagonal in a unit square.Numerical analysis continues this long tradition: rather than giving exact symbolic answers translated into digits and applicable only to real-world measurements, approximate solutions within specified error bounds are used.","title":"Numerical analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"numerical weather prediction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_weather_prediction"},{"link_name":"partial differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"quantitative finance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_finance"},{"link_name":"stocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Share_capital"},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative_(finance)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"operations research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_research"},{"link_name":"actuarial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuary"}],"text":"The overall goal of the field of numerical analysis is the design and analysis of techniques to give approximate but accurate solutions to a wide variety of hard problems, many of which are infeasible to solve symbolically:Advanced numerical methods are essential in making numerical weather prediction feasible.\nComputing the trajectory of a spacecraft requires the accurate numerical solution of a system of ordinary differential equations.\nCar companies can improve the crash safety of their vehicles by using computer simulations of car crashes. Such simulations essentially consist of solving partial differential equations numerically.\nIn the financial field, (private investment funds) and other financial institutions use quantitative finance tools from numerical analysis to attempt to calculate the value of stocks and derivatives more precisely than other market participants.[6]\nAirlines use sophisticated optimization algorithms to decide ticket prices, airplane and crew assignments and fuel needs. Historically, such algorithms were developed within the overlapping field of operations research.\nInsurance companies use numerical programs for actuarial analysis.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Linear interpolation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_interpolation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20c-5"},{"link_name":"Newton's method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_method"},{"link_name":"Lagrange interpolation polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_polynomial"},{"link_name":"Gaussian elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_elimination"},{"link_name":"Euler's method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_method"},{"link_name":"John von Neumann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_von_Neumann"},{"link_name":"Herman Goldstine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Goldstine"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-watson-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"E. T. Whittaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._T._Whittaker"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-watson-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Handbook_of_Mathematical_Functions,_by_Abramowitz_and_Stegun,_cover.jpg"},{"link_name":"NIST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIST"},{"link_name":"Abramowitz and Stegun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abramowitz_and_Stegun"},{"link_name":"mechanical calculator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_calculator"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20c-5"},{"link_name":"Leslie Fox Prize for Numerical Analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Fox_Prize_for_Numerical_Analysis"},{"link_name":"Institute of Mathematics and its Applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Mathematics_and_its_Applications"}],"text":"The field of numerical analysis predates the invention of modern computers by many centuries. Linear interpolation was already in use more than 2000 years ago. Many great mathematicians of the past were preoccupied by numerical analysis,[5] as is obvious from the names of important algorithms like Newton's method, Lagrange interpolation polynomial, Gaussian elimination, or Euler's method. The origins of modern numerical analysis are often linked to a 1947 paper by John von Neumann and Herman Goldstine,[7][8]\nbut others consider modern numerical analysis to go back to work by E. T. Whittaker in 1912.[7]NIST publicationTo facilitate computations by hand, large books were produced with formulas and tables of data such as interpolation points and function coefficients. Using these tables, often calculated out to 16 decimal places or more for some functions, one could look up values to plug into the formulas given and achieve very good numerical estimates of some functions. The canonical work in the field is the NIST publication edited by Abramowitz and Stegun, a 1000-plus page book of a very large number of commonly used formulas and functions and their values at many points. The function values are no longer very useful when a computer is available, but the large listing of formulas can still be very handy.The mechanical calculator was also developed as a tool for hand computation. These calculators evolved into electronic computers in the 1940s, and it was then found that these computers were also useful for administrative purposes. But the invention of the computer also influenced the field of numerical analysis,[5] since now longer and more complicated calculations could be done.The Leslie Fox Prize for Numerical Analysis was initiated in 1985 by the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Key concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"infinite precision arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrary-precision_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"Gaussian elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_elimination"},{"link_name":"QR factorization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_decomposition"},{"link_name":"systems of linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_linear_equations"},{"link_name":"simplex method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplex_method"},{"link_name":"linear programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming"},{"link_name":"finite precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"stability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerically_stable"},{"link_name":"iterative methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterative_method"},{"link_name":"converge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_of_a_sequence"},{"link_name":"the residual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residual_(numerical_analysis)"},{"link_name":"bisection method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisection_method"},{"link_name":"Jacobi iteration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobi_iteration"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"GMRES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMRES"},{"link_name":"conjugate gradient method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_gradient_method"},{"link_name":"bisection method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisection_method"}],"sub_title":"Direct and iterative methods","text":"Direct methods compute the solution to a problem in a finite number of steps. These methods would give the precise answer if they were performed in infinite precision arithmetic. Examples include Gaussian elimination, the QR factorization method for solving systems of linear equations, and the simplex method of linear programming. In practice, finite precision is used and the result is an approximation of the true solution (assuming stability).In contrast to direct methods, iterative methods are not expected to terminate in a finite number of steps, even if infinite precision were possible. Starting from an initial guess, iterative methods form successive approximations that converge to the exact solution only in the limit. A convergence test, often involving the residual, is specified in order to decide when a sufficiently accurate solution has (hopefully) been found. Even using infinite precision arithmetic these methods would not reach the solution within a finite number of steps (in general). Examples include Newton's method, the bisection method, and Jacobi iteration. In computational matrix algebra, iterative methods are generally needed for large problems.[9][10][11][12]Iterative methods are more common than direct methods in numerical analysis. Some methods are direct in principle but are usually used as though they were not, e.g. GMRES and the conjugate gradient method. For these methods the number of steps needed to obtain the exact solution is so large that an approximation is accepted in the same manner as for an iterative method.As an example, consider the problem of solving3x3 + 4 = 28for the unknown quantity x.For the iterative method, apply the bisection method to f(x) = 3x3 − 24. The initial values are a = 0, b = 3, f(a) = −24, f(b) = 57.From this table it can be concluded that the solution is between 1.875 and 2.0625. The algorithm might return any number in that range with an error less than 0.2.","title":"Key concepts"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Conditioning","text":"Ill-conditioned problem: Take the function f(x) = 1/(x − 1). Note that f(1.1) = 10 and f(1.001) = 1000: a change in x of less than 0.1 turns into a change in f(x) of nearly 1000. Evaluating f(x) near x = 1 is an ill-conditioned problem.Well-conditioned problem: By contrast, evaluating the same function f(x) = 1/(x − 1) near x = 10 is a well-conditioned problem. For instance, f(10) = 1/9 ≈ 0.111 and f(11) = 0.1: a modest change in x leads to a modest change in f(x).","title":"Key concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"discretization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discretization"},{"link_name":"differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"continuum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_(set_theory)"}],"sub_title":"Discretization","text":"Furthermore, continuous problems must sometimes be replaced by a discrete problem whose solution is known to approximate that of the continuous problem; this process is called 'discretization'. For example, the solution of a differential equation is a function. This function must be represented by a finite amount of data, for instance by its value at a finite number of points at its domain, even though this domain is a continuum.","title":"Key concepts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Error propagation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_propagation"}],"text":"Further information: Error propagationThe study of errors forms an important part of numerical analysis. There are several ways in which error can be introduced in the solution of the problem.","title":"Generation and propagation of errors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Round-off errors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-off_error"},{"link_name":"real numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"digital computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_computer"}],"sub_title":"Round-off","text":"Round-off errors arise because it is impossible to represent all real numbers exactly on a machine with finite memory (which is what all practical digital computers are).","title":"Generation and propagation of errors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Truncation errors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truncation_error"},{"link_name":"discretization error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discretization_error"}],"sub_title":"Truncation and discretization error","text":"Truncation errors are committed when an iterative method is terminated or a mathematical procedure is approximated and the approximate solution differs from the exact solution. Similarly, discretization induces a discretization error because the solution of the discrete problem does not coincide with the solution of the continuous problem. In the example above to compute the solution of \n \n \n \n 3\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n +\n 4\n =\n 28\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 3x^{3}+4=28}\n \n, after ten iterations, the calculated root is roughly 1.99. Therefore, the truncation error is roughly 0.01.Once an error is generated, it propagates through the calculation. For example, the operation + on a computer is inexact. A calculation of the type \n \n \n \n a\n +\n b\n +\n c\n +\n d\n +\n e\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a+b+c+d+e}\n \n is even more inexact.A truncation error is created when a mathematical procedure is approximated. To integrate a function exactly, an infinite sum of regions must be found, but numerically only a finite sum of regions can be found, and hence the approximation of the exact solution. Similarly, to differentiate a function, the differential element approaches zero, but numerically only a nonzero value of the differential element can be chosen.","title":"Generation and propagation of errors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"numerically stable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerically_stable"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stab-13"},{"link_name":"well-conditioned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-conditioned"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stab-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stab-13"}],"sub_title":"Numerical stability and well-posed problems","text":"An algorithm is called numerically stable if an error, whatever its cause, does not grow to be much larger during the calculation.[13] This happens if the problem is well-conditioned, meaning that the solution changes by only a small amount if the problem data are changed by a small amount.[13] To the contrary, if a problem is 'ill-conditioned', then any small error in the data will grow to be a large error.[13]\nBoth the original problem and the algorithm used to solve that problem can be well-conditioned or ill-conditioned, and any combination is possible.\nSo an algorithm that solves a well-conditioned problem may be either numerically stable or numerically unstable. An art of numerical analysis is to find a stable algorithm for solving a well-posed mathematical problem.","title":"Generation and propagation of errors"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The field of numerical analysis includes many sub-disciplines. Some of the major ones are:","title":"Areas of study"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Horner scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horner_scheme"},{"link_name":"round-off errors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-off_error"},{"link_name":"floating-point arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic"}],"sub_title":"Computing values of functions","text":"One of the simplest problems is the evaluation of a function at a given point. The most straightforward approach, of just plugging in the number in the formula is sometimes not very efficient. For polynomials, a better approach is using the Horner scheme, since it reduces the necessary number of multiplications and additions. Generally, it is important to estimate and control round-off errors arising from the use of floating-point arithmetic.","title":"Areas of study"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Interpolation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpolation"},{"link_name":"Extrapolation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrapolation"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Regression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_analysis"},{"link_name":"least squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_methods_for_linear_least_squares"}],"sub_title":"Interpolation, extrapolation, and regression","text":"Interpolation solves the following problem: given the value of some unknown function at a number of points, what value does that function have at some other point between the given points?Extrapolation is very similar to interpolation, except that now the value of the unknown function at a point which is outside the given points must be found.[14]Regression is also similar, but it takes into account that the data are imprecise. Given some points, and a measurement of the value of some function at these points (with an error), the unknown function can be found. The least squares-method is one way to achieve this.","title":"Areas of study"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"systems of linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_of_linear_equations"},{"link_name":"matrix decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_decomposition"},{"link_name":"Gaussian elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_elimination"},{"link_name":"LU decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LU_decomposition"},{"link_name":"Cholesky decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholesky_decomposition"},{"link_name":"symmetric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_matrix"},{"link_name":"hermitian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitian_matrix"},{"link_name":"positive-definite matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive-definite_matrix"},{"link_name":"QR decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_decomposition"},{"link_name":"Jacobi method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobi_method"},{"link_name":"Gauss–Seidel method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Seidel_method"},{"link_name":"successive over-relaxation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Successive_over-relaxation"},{"link_name":"conjugate gradient method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_gradient_method"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"matrix splitting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_splitting"},{"link_name":"Root-finding algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root-finding_algorithm"},{"link_name":"differentiable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Linearization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linearization"}],"sub_title":"Solving equations and systems of equations","text":"Another fundamental problem is computing the solution of some given equation. Two cases are commonly distinguished, depending on whether the equation is linear or not. For instance, the equation \n \n \n \n 2\n x\n +\n 5\n =\n 3\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2x+5=3}\n \n is linear while \n \n \n \n 2\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 5\n =\n 3\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2x^{2}+5=3}\n \n is not.Much effort has been put in the development of methods for solving systems of linear equations. Standard direct methods, i.e., methods that use some matrix decomposition are Gaussian elimination, LU decomposition, Cholesky decomposition for symmetric (or hermitian) and positive-definite matrix, and QR decomposition for non-square matrices. Iterative methods such as the Jacobi method, Gauss–Seidel method, successive over-relaxation and conjugate gradient method[15] are usually preferred for large systems. General iterative methods can be developed using a matrix splitting.Root-finding algorithms are used to solve nonlinear equations (they are so named since a root of a function is an argument for which the function yields zero). If the function is differentiable and the derivative is known, then Newton's method is a popular choice.[16][17] Linearization is another technique for solving nonlinear equations.","title":"Areas of study"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"eigenvalue decompositions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvalue_decomposition"},{"link_name":"singular value decompositions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_value_decomposition"},{"link_name":"spectral image compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_compression"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"principal component analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_component_analysis"}],"sub_title":"Solving eigenvalue or singular value problems","text":"Several important problems can be phrased in terms of eigenvalue decompositions or singular value decompositions. For instance, the spectral image compression algorithm[18] is based on the singular value decomposition. The corresponding tool in statistics is called principal component analysis.","title":"Areas of study"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"constraints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constraint_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"objective function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objective_function"},{"link_name":"linear programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_programming"},{"link_name":"simplex method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplex_algorithm"},{"link_name":"Lagrange multipliers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_multipliers"}],"sub_title":"Optimization","text":"Optimization problems ask for the point at which a given function is maximized (or minimized). Often, the point also has to satisfy some constraints.The field of optimization is further split in several subfields, depending on the form of the objective function and the constraint. For instance, linear programming deals with the case that both the objective function and the constraints are linear. A famous method in linear programming is the simplex method.The method of Lagrange multipliers can be used to reduce optimization problems with constraints to unconstrained optimization problems.","title":"Areas of study"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"quadrature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrature_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"integral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Newton–Cotes formulas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%E2%80%93Cotes_formulas"},{"link_name":"Simpson's rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simpson%27s_rule"},{"link_name":"Gaussian quadrature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_quadrature"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Monte Carlo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method"},{"link_name":"quasi-Monte Carlo methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-Monte_Carlo_method"},{"link_name":"Monte Carlo integration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_integration"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"sparse grids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparse_grid"}],"sub_title":"Evaluating integrals","text":"Numerical integration, in some instances also known as numerical quadrature, asks for the value of a definite integral.[19] Popular methods use one of the Newton–Cotes formulas (like the midpoint rule or Simpson's rule) or Gaussian quadrature.[20] These methods rely on a \"divide and conquer\" strategy, whereby an integral on a relatively large set is broken down into integrals on smaller sets. In higher dimensions, where these methods become prohibitively expensive in terms of computational effort, one may use Monte Carlo or quasi-Monte Carlo methods (see Monte Carlo integration[21]), or, in modestly large dimensions, the method of sparse grids.","title":"Areas of study"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equations"},{"link_name":"ordinary differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinary_differential_equations"},{"link_name":"partial differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential_equations"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"finite element method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_element_method"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"finite difference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_difference"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"finite volume method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_volume_method"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"functional analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_analysis"}],"sub_title":"Differential equations","text":"Numerical analysis is also concerned with computing (in an approximate way) the solution of differential equations, both ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations.[22]Partial differential equations are solved by first discretizing the equation, bringing it into a finite-dimensional subspace.[23] This can be done by a finite element method,[24][25][26] a finite difference method,[27] or (particularly in engineering) a finite volume method.[28] The theoretical justification of these methods often involves theorems from functional analysis. This reduces the problem to the solution of an algebraic equation.","title":"Areas of study"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Netlib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netlib"},{"link_name":"Fortran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"IMSL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMSL_Numerical_Libraries"},{"link_name":"NAG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_Algorithms_Group"},{"link_name":"free-software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software"},{"link_name":"GNU Scientific Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Scientific_Library"},{"link_name":"Royal Statistical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Statistical_Society"},{"link_name":"Applied Statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Statistical_Society,_Series_C_(Applied_Statistics)"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//jblevins.org/mirror/amiller/#apstat"},{"link_name":"ACM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery"},{"link_name":"Transactions on Mathematical Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactions_on_Mathematical_Software"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//jblevins.org/mirror/amiller/#toms"},{"link_name":"Naval Surface Warfare Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Surface_Warfare_Center"},{"link_name":"Library of Mathematics Subroutines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA476840.pdf"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//jblevins.org/mirror/amiller/#nswc"},{"link_name":"MATLAB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MATLAB"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gh-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bf-31"},{"link_name":"TK Solver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TK_Solver"},{"link_name":"S-PLUS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-PLUS"},{"link_name":"IDL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDL_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"FreeMat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeMat"},{"link_name":"Scilab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scilab"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"GNU Octave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Octave"},{"link_name":"IT++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Julia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"NumPy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NumPy"},{"link_name":"SciPy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SciPy"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"SymPy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SymPy"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"computer algebra systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_algebra_system"},{"link_name":"Mathematica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematica"},{"link_name":"arbitrary-precision arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrary-precision_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"spreadsheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"Excel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Excel"},{"link_name":"available functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Excel#Functions"},{"link_name":"built in \"solver\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Excel#Add-ins"}],"text":"Since the late twentieth century, most algorithms are implemented in a variety of programming languages. The Netlib repository contains various collections of software routines for numerical problems, mostly in Fortran and C. Commercial products implementing many different numerical algorithms include the IMSL and NAG libraries; a free-software alternative is the GNU Scientific Library.Over the years the Royal Statistical Society published numerous algorithms in its Applied Statistics (code for these \"AS\" functions is here); \nACM similarly, in its Transactions on Mathematical Software (\"TOMS\" code is here).\nThe Naval Surface Warfare Center several times published its Library of Mathematics Subroutines (code here).There are several popular numerical computing applications such as MATLAB,[29][30][31] TK Solver, S-PLUS, and IDL[32] as well as free and open-source alternatives such as FreeMat, Scilab,[33][34] GNU Octave (similar to Matlab), and IT++ (a C++ library). There are also programming languages such as R[35] (similar to S-PLUS), Julia,[36] and Python with libraries such as NumPy, SciPy[37][38][39] and SymPy. Performance varies widely: while vector and matrix operations are usually fast, scalar loops may vary in speed by more than an order of magnitude.[40][41]Many computer algebra systems such as Mathematica also benefit from the availability of arbitrary-precision arithmetic which can provide more accurate results.[42][43][44][45]Also, any spreadsheet software can be used to solve simple problems relating to numerical analysis. \nExcel, for example, has hundreds of available functions, including for matrices, which may be used in conjunction with its built in \"solver\".","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notes"}]

[{"image_text":"Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289 (c. 1800–1600 BCE) with annotations. The approximation of the square root of 2 is four sexagesimal figures, which is about six decimal figures. 1 + 24/60 + 51/602 + 10/603 = 1.41421296...[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Ybc7289-bw.jpg/250px-Ybc7289-bw.jpg"},{"image_text":"NIST publication","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Handbook_of_Mathematical_Functions%2C_by_Abramowitz_and_Stegun%2C_cover.jpg/128px-Handbook_of_Mathematical_Functions%2C_by_Abramowitz_and_Stegun%2C_cover.jpg"},{"image_text":"A line through 20 points","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Linear-regression.svg/100px-Linear-regression.svg.png"},{"image_text":"How much for a glass of lemonade?","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/LemonadeJuly2006.JPG/100px-LemonadeJuly2006.JPG"},{"image_text":"Wind direction in blue, true trajectory in black, Euler method in red","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Wind-particle.png"}]

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[{"reference":"\"Photograph, illustration, and description of the root(2) tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection\". Archived from the original on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 2 October 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120813054036/http://it.stlawu.edu/%7Edmelvill/mesomath/tablets/YBC7289.html","url_text":"\"Photograph, illustration, and description of the root(2) tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection\""},{"url":"http://it.stlawu.edu/%7Edmelvill/mesomath/tablets/YBC7289.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Demmel, J.W. (1997). Applied numerical linear algebra. SIAM. doi:10.1137/1.9781611971446. ISBN 978-1-61197-144-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://epubs.siam.org/doi/epdf/10.1137/1.9781611971446.fm","url_text":"Applied numerical linear algebra"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Industrial_and_Applied_Mathematics","url_text":"SIAM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1137%2F1.9781611971446","url_text":"10.1137/1.9781611971446"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61197-144-6","url_text":"978-1-61197-144-6"}]},{"reference":"Ciarlet, P.G.; Miara, B.; Thomas, J.M. (1989). Introduction to numerical linear algebra and optimization. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521327886. OCLC 877155729.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521327886","url_text":"9780521327886"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/877155729","url_text":"877155729"}]},{"reference":"Trefethen, Lloyd; Bau III, David (1997). Numerical Linear Algebra. SIAM. ISBN 978-0-89871-361-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4Mou5YpRD_kC&pg=PR7","url_text":"Numerical Linear Algebra"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89871-361-9","url_text":"978-0-89871-361-9"}]},{"reference":"Brezinski, C.; Wuytack, L. (2012). Numerical analysis: Historical developments in the 20th century. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-59858-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dt3Z1yu2VxwC&pg=PP6","url_text":"Numerical analysis: Historical developments in the 20th century"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-59858-5","url_text":"978-0-444-59858-5"}]},{"reference":"Watson, G.A. (2010). \"The history and development of numerical analysis in Scotland: a personal perspective\" (PDF). The Birth of Numerical Analysis. World Scientific. pp. 161–177. ISBN 9789814469456.","urls":[{"url":"https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/206717434.pdf","url_text":"\"The history and development of numerical analysis in Scotland: a personal perspective\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789814469456","url_text":"9789814469456"}]},{"reference":"Bultheel, Adhemar; Cools, Ronald, eds. (2010). The Birth of Numerical Analysis. Vol. 10. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-283-625-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhemar_Bultheel","url_text":"Bultheel, Adhemar"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=pKZpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PR17","url_text":"The Birth of Numerical Analysis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-283-625-0","url_text":"978-981-283-625-0"}]},{"reference":"Saad, Y. (2003). Iterative methods for sparse linear systems. SIAM. ISBN 978-0-89871-534-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qtzmkzzqFmcC&pg=PR5","url_text":"Iterative methods for sparse linear systems"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89871-534-7","url_text":"978-0-89871-534-7"}]},{"reference":"Hageman, L.A.; Young, D.M. (2012). Applied iterative methods (2nd ed.). Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-8284-0312-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=se3YdgFgz4YC&pg=PR4","url_text":"Applied iterative methods"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8284-0312-2","url_text":"978-0-8284-0312-2"}]},{"reference":"Traub, J.F. (1982). Iterative methods for the solution of equations (2nd ed.). American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-8284-0312-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=se3YdgFgz4YC&pg=PR4","url_text":"Iterative methods for the solution of equations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8284-0312-2","url_text":"978-0-8284-0312-2"}]},{"reference":"Greenbaum, A. (1997). Iterative methods for solving linear systems. SIAM. ISBN 978-0-89871-396-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QpVpvE4gWZwC&pg=PP6","url_text":"Iterative methods for solving linear systems"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89871-396-1","url_text":"978-0-89871-396-1"}]},{"reference":"Brezinski, C.; Zaglia, M.R. (2013). Extrapolation methods: theory and practice. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-050622-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WGviBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR7","url_text":"Extrapolation methods: theory and practice"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-050622-7","url_text":"978-0-08-050622-7"}]},{"reference":"Hestenes, Magnus R.; Stiefel, Eduard (December 1952). \"Methods of Conjugate Gradients for Solving Linear Systems\" (PDF). Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards. 49 (6): 409–. doi:10.6028/jres.049.044.","urls":[{"url":"https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/jres/049/jresv49n6p409_A1b.pdf","url_text":"\"Methods of Conjugate Gradients for Solving Linear Systems\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.6028%2Fjres.049.044","url_text":"10.6028/jres.049.044"}]},{"reference":"Ezquerro Fernández, J.A.; Hernández Verón, M.Á. (2017). Newton's method: An updated approach of Kantorovich's theory. Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-3-319-55976-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=A3orDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR11","url_text":"Newton's method: An updated approach of Kantorovich's theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-55976-6","url_text":"978-3-319-55976-6"}]},{"reference":"Deuflhard, Peter (2006). Newton Methods for Nonlinear Problems. Affine Invariance and Adaptive Algorithms. Computational Mathematics. Vol. 35 (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-21099-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=l20xK__HG_kC&pg=PP1","url_text":"Newton Methods for Nonlinear Problems. Affine Invariance and Adaptive Algorithms"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-21099-3","url_text":"978-3-540-21099-3"}]},{"reference":"Ogden, C.J.; Huff, T. (1997). \"The Singular Value Decomposition and Its Applications in Image Compression\" (PDF). Math 45. College of the Redwoods. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060925193348/http://online.redwoods.cc.ca.us/instruct/darnold/laproj/Fall97/Tammie/tammie.pdf","url_text":"\"The Singular Value Decomposition and Its Applications in Image Compression\""},{"url":"http://online.redwoods.cc.ca.us/instruct/darnold/laproj/Fall97/Tammie/tammie.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Davis, P.J.; Rabinowitz, P. (2007). Methods of numerical integration. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-45339-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=gGCKdqka0HAC&pg=PR5","url_text":"Methods of numerical integration"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-45339-2","url_text":"978-0-486-45339-2"}]},{"reference":"Weisstein, Eric W. \"Gaussian Quadrature\". MathWorld.","urls":[{"url":"https://mathworld.wolfram.com/GaussianQuadrature.html","url_text":"\"Gaussian Quadrature\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathWorld","url_text":"MathWorld"}]},{"reference":"Geweke, John (1996). \"15. Monte carlo simulation and numerical integration\". Handbook of Computational Economics. Vol. 1. Elsevier. pp. 731–800. doi:10.1016/S1574-0021(96)01017-9. ISBN 9780444898579.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1574002196010179)","url_text":"\"15. Monte carlo simulation and numerical integration\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1574-0021%2896%2901017-9","url_text":"10.1016/S1574-0021(96)01017-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780444898579","url_text":"9780444898579"}]},{"reference":"Iserles, A. (2009). A first course in the numerical analysis of differential equations (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-73490-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=M0tkw4oUucoC&pg=PR5","url_text":"A first course in the numerical analysis of differential equations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-73490-5","url_text":"978-0-521-73490-5"}]},{"reference":"Ames, W.F. (2014). Numerical methods for partial differential equations (3rd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-08-057130-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KmjiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PP7","url_text":"Numerical methods for partial differential equations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-057130-0","url_text":"978-0-08-057130-0"}]},{"reference":"Johnson, C. (2012). Numerical solution of partial differential equations by the finite element method. Courier Corporation. ISBN 978-0-486-46900-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0IFCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2","url_text":"Numerical solution of partial differential equations by the finite element method"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-46900-3","url_text":"978-0-486-46900-3"}]},{"reference":"Brenner, S.; Scott, R. (2013). The mathematical theory of finite element methods (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-1-4757-3658-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ServBwAAQBAJ&pg=PR11","url_text":"The mathematical theory of finite element methods"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4757-3658-8","url_text":"978-1-4757-3658-8"}]},{"reference":"Strang, G.; Fix, G.J. (2018) [1973]. An analysis of the finite element method (2nd ed.). Wellesley-Cambridge Press. ISBN 9780980232783. OCLC 1145780513.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/analysisoffinite0000stra","url_text":"An analysis of the finite element method"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780980232783","url_text":"9780980232783"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1145780513","url_text":"1145780513"}]},{"reference":"Strikwerda, J.C. (2004). Finite difference schemes and partial differential equations (2nd ed.). SIAM. ISBN 978-0-89871-793-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mbdt5XT25AsC&pg=PP5","url_text":"Finite difference schemes and partial differential equations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89871-793-8","url_text":"978-0-89871-793-8"}]},{"reference":"LeVeque, Randall (2002). Finite Volume Methods for Hyperbolic Problems. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-43418-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mfAfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT6","url_text":"Finite Volume Methods for Hyperbolic Problems"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-43418-8","url_text":"978-1-139-43418-8"}]},{"reference":"Quarteroni, A.; Saleri, F.; Gervasio, P. (2014). Scientific computing with MATLAB and Octave (4th ed.). Springer. 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CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-8350-7. OCLC 1058138488.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-8350-7","url_text":"978-1-4200-8350-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1058138488","url_text":"1058138488"}]},{"reference":"Gumley, L.E. (2001). Practical IDL programming. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-051444-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1d-tNpm_x4gC&pg=PR9","url_text":"Practical IDL programming"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-051444-4","url_text":"978-0-08-051444-4"}]},{"reference":"Bunks, C.; Chancelier, J.P.; Delebecque, F.; Goursat, M.; Nikoukhah, R.; Steer, S. (2012). Engineering and scientific computing with Scilab. Springer. 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S2CID 60206680.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stat.auckland.ac.nz/~ihaka/downloads/R-paper.pdf","url_text":"\"R: a language for data analysis and graphics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10618600.1996.10474713","url_text":"10.1080/10618600.1996.10474713"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:60206680","url_text":"60206680"}]},{"reference":"Bezanson, Jeff; Edelman, Alan; Karpinski, Stefan; Shah, Viral B. (1 January 2017). \"Julia: A Fresh Approach to Numerical Computing\". SIAM Review. 59 (1): 65–98. doi:10.1137/141000671. hdl:1721.1/110125. ISSN 0036-1445. S2CID 13026838.","urls":[{"url":"https://epubs.siam.org/doi/abs/10.1137/141000671","url_text":"\"Julia: A Fresh Approach to Numerical Computing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1137%2F141000671","url_text":"10.1137/141000671"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F110125","url_text":"1721.1/110125"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-1445","url_text":"0036-1445"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13026838","url_text":"13026838"}]},{"reference":"Bressert, E. (2012). SciPy and NumPy: an overview for developers. O'Reilly. ISBN 9781306810395.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781306810395","url_text":"9781306810395"}]},{"reference":"Blanco-Silva, F.J. (2013). Learning SciPy for numerical and scientific computing. Packt. ISBN 9781782161639.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781782161639","url_text":"9781782161639"}]},{"reference":"Maeder, R.E. (1997). Programming in mathematica (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 9780201854497. 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OCLC 28149048.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gbv.de/dms/bowker/toc/9780201542172.pdf","url_text":"Applied Mathematica: getting started, getting it done"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-54217-2","url_text":"978-0-201-54217-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/28149048","url_text":"28149048"}]},{"reference":"Marasco, A.; Romano, A. (2001). Scientific Computing with Mathematica: Mathematical Problems for Ordinary Differential Equations. Springer. ISBN 978-0-8176-4205-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=iFRqemnmMqUC&pg=PR7","url_text":"Scientific Computing with Mathematica: Mathematical Problems for Ordinary Differential Equations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8176-4205-1","url_text":"978-0-8176-4205-1"}]},{"reference":"Golub, Gene H.; Charles F. Van Loan (1986). Matrix Computations (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5413-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_H._Golub","url_text":"Golub, Gene H."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_F._Van_Loan","url_text":"Charles F. Van Loan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-5413-X","url_text":"0-8018-5413-X"}]},{"reference":"Ralston Anthony; Rabinowitz Philips (2001). A First Course in Numerical Analysis (2nd ed.). Dover publications. ISBN 978-0486414546.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0486414546","url_text":"978-0486414546"}]},{"reference":"Higham, Nicholas J. (2002) [1996]. Accuracy and Stability of Numerical Algorithms. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. ISBN 0-89871-355-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Higham","url_text":"Higham, Nicholas J."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/accuracystabilit0000high","url_text":"Accuracy and Stability of Numerical Algorithms"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89871-355-2","url_text":"0-89871-355-2"}]},{"reference":"Hildebrand, F. B. (1974). Introduction to Numerical Analysis (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. 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ISBN 978-0-19-853418-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_H._Wilkinson","url_text":"Wilkinson, J.H."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/algebraiceigenva0000wilk","url_text":"The Algebraic Eigenvalue Problem"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-853418-1","url_text":"978-0-19-853418-1"}]},{"reference":"Kahan, W. (1972). A survey of error-analysis. Proc. IFIP Congress 71 in Ljubljana. Info. Processing 71. Vol. 2. North-Holland. pp. 1214–39. ISBN 978-0-7204-2063-0. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_system

Coordinate system

["1 Common coordinate systems","1.1 Number line","1.2 Cartesian coordinate system","1.3 Polar coordinate system","1.4 Cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems","1.5 Homogeneous coordinate system","1.6 Other commonly used systems","2 Coordinates of geometric objects","3 Transformations","4 Coordinate lines/curves and planes/surfaces","5 Coordinate maps","6 Orientation-based coordinates","7 Geographic systems","8 See also","8.1 Relativistic coordinate systems","9 References","9.1 Citations","9.2 Sources","10 External links"]

Method for specifying point positions "Coordinate" redirects here. For coordinates on the Earth, see Spatial reference system. For other uses, see Coordinate (disambiguation). The spherical coordinate system is commonly used in physics. It assigns three numbers (known as coordinates) to every point in Euclidean space: radial distance r, polar angle θ (theta), and azimuthal angle φ (phi). The symbol ρ (rho) is often used instead of r. In geometry, a coordinate system is a system that uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of the points or other geometric elements on a manifold such as Euclidean space. The order of the coordinates is significant, and they are sometimes identified by their position in an ordered tuple and sometimes by a letter, as in "the x-coordinate". The coordinates are taken to be real numbers in elementary mathematics, but may be complex numbers or elements of a more abstract system such as a commutative ring. The use of a coordinate system allows problems in geometry to be translated into problems about numbers and vice versa; this is the basis of analytic geometry. Common coordinate systems Number line Main article: Number line The simplest example of a coordinate system is the identification of points on a line with real numbers using the number line. In this system, an arbitrary point O (the origin) is chosen on a given line. The coordinate of a point P is defined as the signed distance from O to P, where the signed distance is the distance taken as positive or negative depending on which side of the line P lies. Each point is given a unique coordinate and each real number is the coordinate of a unique point. The number line Cartesian coordinate system Main article: Cartesian coordinate system The Cartesian coordinate system in the planeThe Cartesian coordinate system in three-dimensional space The prototypical example of a coordinate system is the Cartesian coordinate system. In the plane, two perpendicular lines are chosen and the coordinates of a point are taken to be the signed distances to the lines. In three dimensions, three mutually orthogonal planes are chosen and the three coordinates of a point are the signed distances to each of the planes. This can be generalized to create n coordinates for any point in n-dimensional Euclidean space. Depending on the direction and order of the coordinate axes, the three-dimensional system may be a right-handed or a left-handed system. Polar coordinate system Main article: Polar coordinate system Another common coordinate system for the plane is the polar coordinate system. A point is chosen as the pole and a ray from this point is taken as the polar axis. For a given angle θ, there is a single line through the pole whose angle with the polar axis is θ (measured counterclockwise from the axis to the line). Then there is a unique point on this line whose signed distance from the origin is r for given number r. For a given pair of coordinates (r, θ) there is a single point, but any point is represented by many pairs of coordinates. For example, (r, θ), (r, θ+2π) and (−r, θ+π) are all polar coordinates for the same point. The pole is represented by (0, θ) for any value of θ. Cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems Main articles: Cylindrical coordinate system and Spherical coordinate system Cylindrical coordinate system There are two common methods for extending the polar coordinate system to three dimensions. In the cylindrical coordinate system, a z-coordinate with the same meaning as in Cartesian coordinates is added to the r and θ polar coordinates giving a triple (r, θ, z). Spherical coordinates take this a step further by converting the pair of cylindrical coordinates (r, z) to polar coordinates (ρ, φ) giving a triple (ρ, θ, φ). Homogeneous coordinate system Main article: Homogeneous coordinates A point in the plane may be represented in homogeneous coordinates by a triple (x, y, z) where x/z and y/z are the Cartesian coordinates of the point. This introduces an "extra" coordinate since only two are needed to specify a point on the plane, but this system is useful in that it represents any point on the projective plane without the use of infinity. In general, a homogeneous coordinate system is one where only the ratios of the coordinates are significant and not the actual values. Other commonly used systems Some other common coordinate systems are the following: Curvilinear coordinates are a generalization of coordinate systems generally; the system is based on the intersection of curves. Orthogonal coordinates: coordinate surfaces meet at right angles Skew coordinates: coordinate surfaces are not orthogonal The log-polar coordinate system represents a point in the plane by the logarithm of the distance from the origin and an angle measured from a reference line intersecting the origin. Plücker coordinates are a way of representing lines in 3D Euclidean space using a six-tuple of numbers as homogeneous coordinates. Generalized coordinates are used in the Lagrangian treatment of mechanics. Canonical coordinates are used in the Hamiltonian treatment of mechanics. Barycentric coordinate system as used for ternary plots and more generally in the analysis of triangles. Trilinear coordinates are used in the context of triangles. There are ways of describing curves without coordinates, using intrinsic equations that use invariant quantities such as curvature and arc length. These include: The Whewell equation relates arc length and the tangential angle. The Cesàro equation relates arc length and curvature. Coordinates of geometric objects Coordinates systems are often used to specify the position of a point, but they may also be used to specify the position of more complex figures such as lines, planes, circles or spheres. For example, Plücker coordinates are used to determine the position of a line in space. When there is a need, the type of figure being described is used to distinguish the type of coordinate system, for example the term line coordinates is used for any coordinate system that specifies the position of a line. It may occur that systems of coordinates for two different sets of geometric figures are equivalent in terms of their analysis. An example of this is the systems of homogeneous coordinates for points and lines in the projective plane. The two systems in a case like this are said to be dualistic. Dualistic systems have the property that results from one system can be carried over to the other since these results are only different interpretations of the same analytical result; this is known as the principle of duality. Transformations See also: Active and passive transformation Main article: List of common coordinate transformations There are often many different possible coordinate systems for describing geometrical figures. The relationship between different systems is described by coordinate transformations, which give formulas for the coordinates in one system in terms of the coordinates in another system. For example, in the plane, if Cartesian coordinates (x, y) and polar coordinates (r, θ) have the same origin, and the polar axis is the positive x axis, then the coordinate transformation from polar to Cartesian coordinates is given by x = r cosθ and y = r sinθ. With every bijection from the space to itself two coordinate transformations can be associated: Such that the new coordinates of the image of each point are the same as the old coordinates of the original point (the formulas for the mapping are the inverse of those for the coordinate transformation) Such that the old coordinates of the image of each point are the same as the new coordinates of the original point (the formulas for the mapping are the same as those for the coordinate transformation) For example, in 1D, if the mapping is a translation of 3 to the right, the first moves the origin from 0 to 3, so that the coordinate of each point becomes 3 less, while the second moves the origin from 0 to −3, so that the coordinate of each point becomes 3 more. Coordinate lines/curves and planes/surfaces "Coordinate line" redirects here. Not to be confused with Line coordinates. "Coordinate plane" redirects here. Not to be confused with Plane coordinates. Given a coordinate system, if one of the coordinates of a point varies while the other coordinates are held constant, then the resulting curve is called a coordinate curve. If a coordinate curve is a straight line, it is called a coordinate line. A coordinate system for which some coordinate curves are not lines is called a curvilinear coordinate system. A coordinate line with all constant coordinates equal to zero is called a coordinate axis. In a Cartesian coordinate system, all coordinates curves are lines, and, therefore, there are as many coordinate axes as coordinates. Moreover, the coordinate axes are pairwise orthogonal. A polar coordinate system is a curvilinear system where coordinate curves are lines or circles. However, one of the coordinate curves is reduced to a single point, the origin, which is often viewed as a circle of radius zero. Similarly, spherical and cylindrical coordinate systems have coordinate curves that are lines, circles or circles of radius zero. Many curves can occur as coordinate curves. For example, the coordinate curves of parabolic coordinates are parabolas. Coordinate surfaces of the three-dimensional paraboloidal coordinates. In three-dimensional space, if one coordinate is held constant and the other two are allowed to vary, then the resulting surface is called a coordinate surface. For example, the coordinate surfaces obtained by holding ρ constant in the spherical coordinate system are the spheres with center at the origin. In three-dimensional space the intersection of two coordinate surfaces is a coordinate curve. In the Cartesian coordinate system we may speak of coordinate planes. Similarly, coordinate hypersurfaces are the (n − 1)-dimensional spaces resulting from fixing a single coordinate of an n-dimensional coordinate system. Coordinate maps Main article: Coordinate map Further information: Manifold The concept of a coordinate map, or coordinate chart is central to the theory of manifolds. A coordinate map is essentially a coordinate system for a subset of a given space with the property that each point has exactly one set of coordinates. More precisely, a coordinate map is a homeomorphism from an open subset of a space X to an open subset of Rn. It is often not possible to provide one consistent coordinate system for an entire space. In this case, a collection of coordinate maps are put together to form an atlas covering the space. A space equipped with such an atlas is called a manifold and additional structure can be defined on a manifold if the structure is consistent where the coordinate maps overlap. For example, a differentiable manifold is a manifold where the change of coordinates from one coordinate map to another is always a differentiable function. Orientation-based coordinates In geometry and kinematics, coordinate systems are used to describe the (linear) position of points and the angular position of axes, planes, and rigid bodies. In the latter case, the orientation of a second (typically referred to as "local") coordinate system, fixed to the node, is defined based on the first (typically referred to as "global" or "world" coordinate system). For instance, the orientation of a rigid body can be represented by an orientation matrix, which includes, in its three columns, the Cartesian coordinates of three points. These points are used to define the orientation of the axes of the local system; they are the tips of three unit vectors aligned with those axes. Geographic systems Main article: Spatial reference system The Earth as a whole is one of the most common geometric spaces requiring the precise measurement of location, and thus coordinate systems. Starting with the Greeks of the Hellenistic period, a variety of coordinate systems have been developed based on the types above, including: Geographic coordinate system, the spherical coordinates of latitude and longitude Projected coordinate systems, including thousands of cartesian coordinate systems, each based on a map projection to create a planar surface of the world or a region. Geocentric coordinate system, a three-dimensional cartesian coordinate system that models the earth as an object, and are most commonly used for modeling the orbits of satellites, including the Global Positioning System and other satellite navigation systems. See also Absolute angular momentum Alphanumeric grid Axes conventions in engineering Celestial coordinate system Coordinate-free Fractional coordinates Frame of reference Galilean transformation Grid reference Nomogram, graphical representations of different coordinate systems Reference system Rotation of axes Translation of axes Relativistic coordinate systems Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates Gaussian polar coordinates Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates Isotropic coordinates Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates Schwarzschild coordinates References Citations ^ Woods p. 1 ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Coordinate System". MathWorld. ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Coordinates". MathWorld. ^ Stewart, James B.; Redlin, Lothar; Watson, Saleem (2008). College Algebra (5th ed.). Brooks Cole. pp. 13–19. ISBN 978-0-495-56521-5. ^ Anton, Howard; Bivens, Irl C.; Davis, Stephen (2021). Calculus: Multivariable. John Wiley & Sons. p. 657. ISBN 978-1-119-77798-4. ^ Moon P, Spencer DE (1988). "Rectangular Coordinates (x, y, z)". Field Theory Handbook, Including Coordinate Systems, Differential Equations, and Their Solutions (corrected 2nd, 3rd print ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 9–11 (Table 1.01). ISBN 978-0-387-18430-2. ^ Finney, Ross; George Thomas; Franklin Demana; Bert Waits (June 1994). Calculus: Graphical, Numerical, Algebraic (Single Variable Version ed.). Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. ISBN 0-201-55478-X. ^ Margenau, Henry; Murphy, George M. (1956). The Mathematics of Physics and Chemistry. New York City: D. van Nostrand. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-88275-423-9. LCCN 55010911. OCLC 3017486. ^ Morse, PM; Feshbach, H (1953). Methods of Theoretical Physics, Part I. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 658. ISBN 0-07-043316-X. LCCN 52011515. ^ Jones, Alfred Clement (1912). An Introduction to Algebraical Geometry. Clarendon. ^ Hodge, W.V.D.; D. Pedoe (1994) . Methods of Algebraic Geometry, Volume I (Book II). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46900-5. ^ Woods p. 2 ^ Tang, K. T. (2006). Mathematical Methods for Engineers and Scientists. Vol. 2. Springer. p. 13. ISBN 3-540-30268-9. ^ Liseikin, Vladimir D. (2007). A Computational Differential Geometry Approach to Grid Generation. Springer. p. 38. ISBN 978-3-540-34235-9. ^ Munkres, James R. (2000) Topology. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-181629-2. ^ Hanspeter Schaub; John L. Junkins (2003). "Rigid body kinematics". Analytical Mechanics of Space Systems. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 71. ISBN 1-56347-563-4. Sources Voitsekhovskii, M.I.; Ivanov, A.B. (2001) , "Coordinates", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press Woods, Frederick S. (1922). Higher Geometry. Ginn and Co. pp. 1ff. Shigeyuki Morita; Teruko Nagase; Katsumi Nomizu (2001). Geometry of Differential Forms. AMS Bookstore. p. 12. ISBN 0-8218-1045-6. External links Look up coordinate system or coordinate in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coordinate systems. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spatial reference system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_reference_system"},{"link_name":"Coordinate (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3D_Spherical.svg"},{"link_name":"spherical coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"theta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta"},{"link_name":"phi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi"},{"link_name":"rho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rho"},{"link_name":"geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number"},{"link_name":"position","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Position_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifold"},{"link_name":"Euclidean space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_space"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"tuple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuple"},{"link_name":"real numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"elementary mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_mathematics"},{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"commutative ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_ring"},{"link_name":"analytic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_geometry"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"\"Coordinate\" redirects here. For coordinates on the Earth, see Spatial reference system. For other uses, see Coordinate (disambiguation).The spherical coordinate system is commonly used in physics. It assigns three numbers (known as coordinates) to every point in Euclidean space: radial distance r, polar angle θ (theta), and azimuthal angle φ (phi). The symbol ρ (rho) is often used instead of r.In geometry, a coordinate system is a system that uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of the points or other geometric elements on a manifold such as Euclidean space.[1][2] The order of the coordinates is significant, and they are sometimes identified by their position in an ordered tuple and sometimes by a letter, as in \"the x-coordinate\". The coordinates are taken to be real numbers in elementary mathematics, but may be complex numbers or elements of a more abstract system such as a commutative ring. The use of a coordinate system allows problems in geometry to be translated into problems about numbers and vice versa; this is the basis of analytic geometry.[3]","title":"Coordinate system"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Common coordinate systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"number line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_line"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Number-line.svg"}],"sub_title":"Number line","text":"The simplest example of a coordinate system is the identification of points on a line with real numbers using the number line. In this system, an arbitrary point O (the origin) is chosen on a given line. The coordinate of a point P is defined as the signed distance from O to P, where the signed distance is the distance taken as positive or negative depending on which side of the line P lies. Each point is given a unique coordinate and each real number is the coordinate of a unique point.[4]The number line","title":"Common coordinate systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cartesian-coordinate-system.svg"},{"link_name":"Cartesian coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rectangular_coordinates.svg"},{"link_name":"Cartesian coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"perpendicular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpendicular"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"orthogonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonality"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"coordinate axes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Coordinate_axis"},{"link_name":"right-handed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-hand_rule"}],"sub_title":"Cartesian coordinate system","text":"The Cartesian coordinate system in the planeThe Cartesian coordinate system in three-dimensional spaceThe prototypical example of a coordinate system is the Cartesian coordinate system. In the plane, two perpendicular lines are chosen and the coordinates of a point are taken to be the signed distances to the lines.[5] In three dimensions, three mutually orthogonal planes are chosen and the three coordinates of a point are the signed distances to each of the planes.[6] This can be generalized to create n coordinates for any point in n-dimensional Euclidean space.Depending on the direction and order of the coordinate axes, the three-dimensional system may be a right-handed or a left-handed system.","title":"Common coordinate systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Polar coordinate system","text":"Another common coordinate system for the plane is the polar coordinate system.[7] A point is chosen as the pole and a ray from this point is taken as the polar axis. For a given angle θ, there is a single line through the pole whose angle with the polar axis is θ (measured counterclockwise from the axis to the line). Then there is a unique point on this line whose signed distance from the origin is r for given number r. For a given pair of coordinates (r, θ) there is a single point, but any point is represented by many pairs of coordinates. For example, (r, θ), (r, θ+2π) and (−r, θ+π) are all polar coordinates for the same point. The pole is represented by (0, θ) for any value of θ.","title":"Common coordinate systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cylindrical_Coordinates.svg"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems","text":"Cylindrical coordinate systemThere are two common methods for extending the polar coordinate system to three dimensions. In the cylindrical coordinate system, a z-coordinate with the same meaning as in Cartesian coordinates is added to the r and θ polar coordinates giving a triple (r, θ, z).[8] Spherical coordinates take this a step further by converting the pair of cylindrical coordinates (r, z) to polar coordinates (ρ, φ) giving a triple (ρ, θ, φ).[9]","title":"Common coordinate systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"projective plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective_plane"},{"link_name":"infinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinity"}],"sub_title":"Homogeneous coordinate system","text":"A point in the plane may be represented in homogeneous coordinates by a triple (x, y, z) where x/z and y/z are the Cartesian coordinates of the point.[10] This introduces an \"extra\" coordinate since only two are needed to specify a point on the plane, but this system is useful in that it represents any point on the projective plane without the use of infinity. In general, a homogeneous coordinate system is one where only the ratios of the coordinates are significant and not the actual values.","title":"Common coordinate systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Curvilinear coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvilinear_coordinates"},{"link_name":"Orthogonal coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_coordinates"},{"link_name":"coordinate surfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_surface"},{"link_name":"Skew coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skew_coordinates"},{"link_name":"coordinate surfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_surface"},{"link_name":"log-polar coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log-polar_coordinates"},{"link_name":"Plücker coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%BCcker_coordinates"},{"link_name":"homogeneous coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_coordinates"},{"link_name":"Generalized coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_coordinates"},{"link_name":"Lagrangian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_mechanics"},{"link_name":"Canonical coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_coordinates"},{"link_name":"Hamiltonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian_mechanics"},{"link_name":"Barycentric coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barycentric_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"ternary plots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_plot"},{"link_name":"triangles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle"},{"link_name":"Trilinear coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trilinear_coordinates"},{"link_name":"intrinsic equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_equation"},{"link_name":"curvature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature"},{"link_name":"arc length","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_length"},{"link_name":"Whewell equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whewell_equation"},{"link_name":"tangential angle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangential_angle"},{"link_name":"Cesàro equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ces%C3%A0ro_equation"}],"sub_title":"Other commonly used systems","text":"Some other common coordinate systems are the following:Curvilinear coordinates are a generalization of coordinate systems generally; the system is based on the intersection of curves.\nOrthogonal coordinates: coordinate surfaces meet at right angles\nSkew coordinates: coordinate surfaces are not orthogonal\nThe log-polar coordinate system represents a point in the plane by the logarithm of the distance from the origin and an angle measured from a reference line intersecting the origin.\nPlücker coordinates are a way of representing lines in 3D Euclidean space using a six-tuple of numbers as homogeneous coordinates.\nGeneralized coordinates are used in the Lagrangian treatment of mechanics.\nCanonical coordinates are used in the Hamiltonian treatment of mechanics.\nBarycentric coordinate system as used for ternary plots and more generally in the analysis of triangles.\nTrilinear coordinates are used in the context of triangles.There are ways of describing curves without coordinates, using intrinsic equations that use invariant quantities such as curvature and arc length. These include:The Whewell equation relates arc length and the tangential angle.\nThe Cesàro equation relates arc length and curvature.","title":"Common coordinate systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"circles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle"},{"link_name":"spheres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere"},{"link_name":"Plücker coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%BCcker_coordinates"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"line coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_coordinates"},{"link_name":"duality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duality_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Coordinates systems are often used to specify the position of a point, but they may also be used to specify the position of more complex figures such as lines, planes, circles or spheres. For example, Plücker coordinates are used to determine the position of a line in space.[11] When there is a need, the type of figure being described is used to distinguish the type of coordinate system, for example the term line coordinates is used for any coordinate system that specifies the position of a line.It may occur that systems of coordinates for two different sets of geometric figures are equivalent in terms of their analysis. An example of this is the systems of homogeneous coordinates for points and lines in the projective plane. The two systems in a case like this are said to be dualistic. Dualistic systems have the property that results from one system can be carried over to the other since these results are only different interpretations of the same analytical result; this is known as the principle of duality.[12]","title":"Coordinates of geometric objects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Active and passive transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_and_passive_transformation"},{"link_name":"bijection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijection"},{"link_name":"1D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension"}],"text":"See also: Active and passive transformationThere are often many different possible coordinate systems for describing geometrical figures. The relationship between different systems is described by coordinate transformations, which give formulas for the coordinates in one system in terms of the coordinates in another system. For example, in the plane, if Cartesian coordinates (x, y) and polar coordinates (r, θ) have the same origin, and the polar axis is the positive x axis, then the coordinate transformation from polar to Cartesian coordinates is given by x = r cosθ and y = r sinθ.With every bijection from the space to itself two coordinate transformations can be associated:Such that the new coordinates of the image of each point are the same as the old coordinates of the original point (the formulas for the mapping are the inverse of those for the coordinate transformation)\nSuch that the old coordinates of the image of each point are the same as the new coordinates of the original point (the formulas for the mapping are the same as those for the coordinate transformation)For example, in 1D, if the mapping is a translation of 3 to the right, the first moves the origin from 0 to 3, so that the coordinate of each point becomes 3 less, while the second moves the origin from 0 to −3, so that the coordinate of each point becomes 3 more.","title":"Transformations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Line coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_coordinates"},{"link_name":"Plane coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_coordinates"},{"link_name":"straight line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight_line"},{"link_name":"curvilinear coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvilinear_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Cartesian coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"orthogonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal"},{"link_name":"circles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circle"},{"link_name":"parabolic coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic_coordinates"},{"link_name":"parabolas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabola"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Parabolic_coordinates_3D.png"},{"link_name":"spherical coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"\"Coordinate line\" redirects here. Not to be confused with Line coordinates.\"Coordinate plane\" redirects here. Not to be confused with Plane coordinates.Given a coordinate system, if one of the coordinates of a point varies while the other coordinates are held constant, then the resulting curve is called a coordinate curve. If a coordinate curve is a straight line, it is called a coordinate line. A coordinate system for which some coordinate curves are not lines is called a curvilinear coordinate system.[13]A coordinate line with all constant coordinates equal to zero is called a coordinate axis.In a Cartesian coordinate system, all coordinates curves are lines, and, therefore, there are as many coordinate axes as coordinates. Moreover, the coordinate axes are pairwise orthogonal.A polar coordinate system is a curvilinear system where coordinate curves are lines or circles. However, one of the coordinate curves is reduced to a single point, the origin, which is often viewed as a circle of radius zero. Similarly, spherical and cylindrical coordinate systems have coordinate curves that are lines, circles or circles of radius zero.Many curves can occur as coordinate curves. For example, the coordinate curves of parabolic coordinates are parabolas.Coordinate surfaces of the three-dimensional paraboloidal coordinates.In three-dimensional space, if one coordinate is held constant and the other two are allowed to vary, then the resulting surface is called a coordinate surface. For example, the coordinate surfaces obtained by holding ρ constant in the spherical coordinate system are the spheres with center at the origin. In three-dimensional space the intersection of two coordinate surfaces is a coordinate curve. In the Cartesian coordinate system we may speak of coordinate planes.Similarly, coordinate hypersurfaces are the (n − 1)-dimensional spaces resulting from fixing a single coordinate of an n-dimensional coordinate system.[14]","title":"Coordinate lines/curves and planes/surfaces"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifold"},{"link_name":"homeomorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeomorphism"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"atlas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_(topology)"},{"link_name":"differentiable manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable_manifold"}],"text":"Further information: ManifoldThe concept of a coordinate map, or coordinate chart is central to the theory of manifolds. A coordinate map is essentially a coordinate system for a subset of a given space with the property that each point has exactly one set of coordinates. More precisely, a coordinate map is a homeomorphism from an open subset of a space X to an open subset of Rn.[15] It is often not possible to provide one consistent coordinate system for an entire space. In this case, a collection of coordinate maps are put together to form an atlas covering the space. A space equipped with such an atlas is called a manifold and additional structure can be defined on a manifold if the structure is consistent where the coordinate maps overlap. For example, a differentiable manifold is a manifold where the change of coordinates from one coordinate map to another is always a differentiable function.","title":"Coordinate maps"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"kinematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinematics"},{"link_name":"angular position","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientation_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"rigid bodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigid_body"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Cartesian coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinates"},{"link_name":"unit vectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_vector"}],"text":"In geometry and kinematics, coordinate systems are used to describe the (linear) position of points and the angular position of axes, planes, and rigid bodies.[16] In the latter case, the orientation of a second (typically referred to as \"local\") coordinate system, fixed to the node, is defined based on the first (typically referred to as \"global\" or \"world\" coordinate system). For instance, the orientation of a rigid body can be represented by an orientation matrix, which includes, in its three columns, the Cartesian coordinates of three points. These points are used to define the orientation of the axes of the local system; they are the tips of three unit vectors aligned with those axes.","title":"Orientation-based coordinates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hellenistic period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_period"},{"link_name":"Geographic coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"spherical coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"latitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude"},{"link_name":"longitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude"},{"link_name":"Projected coordinate systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_reference_system"},{"link_name":"cartesian coordinate systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"map projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_projection"},{"link_name":"Geocentric coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocentric_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"cartesian coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite"},{"link_name":"Global Positioning System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System"},{"link_name":"satellite navigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_navigation"}],"text":"The Earth as a whole is one of the most common geometric spaces requiring the precise measurement of location, and thus coordinate systems. Starting with the Greeks of the Hellenistic period, a variety of coordinate systems have been developed based on the types above, including:Geographic coordinate system, the spherical coordinates of latitude and longitude\nProjected coordinate systems, including thousands of cartesian coordinate systems, each based on a map projection to create a planar surface of the world or a region.\nGeocentric coordinate system, a three-dimensional cartesian coordinate system that models the earth as an object, and are most commonly used for modeling the orbits of satellites, including the Global Positioning System and other satellite navigation systems.","title":"Geographic systems"}]

[{"image_text":"The spherical coordinate system is commonly used in physics. It assigns three numbers (known as coordinates) to every point in Euclidean space: radial distance r, polar angle θ (theta), and azimuthal angle φ (phi). The symbol ρ (rho) is often used instead of r.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/3D_Spherical.svg/300px-3D_Spherical.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The number line","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Number-line.svg/750px-Number-line.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Cylindrical coordinate system","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Cylindrical_Coordinates.svg/250px-Cylindrical_Coordinates.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Coordinate surfaces of the three-dimensional paraboloidal coordinates.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Parabolic_coordinates_3D.png/190px-Parabolic_coordinates_3D.png"}]

[{"title":"Absolute angular momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_angular_momentum"},{"title":"Alphanumeric grid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphanumeric_grid"},{"title":"Axes conventions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axes_conventions"},{"title":"Celestial coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_coordinate_system"},{"title":"Coordinate-free","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate-free"},{"title":"Fractional coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_coordinates"},{"title":"Frame of reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_of_reference"},{"title":"Galilean transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_transformation"},{"title":"Grid reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_reference"},{"title":"Nomogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomogram"},{"title":"Reference system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_system"},{"title":"Rotation of axes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotation_of_axes"},{"title":"Translation of axes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_of_axes"}]

[{"reference":"Weisstein, Eric W. \"Coordinate System\". MathWorld.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_W._Weisstein","url_text":"Weisstein, Eric W."},{"url":"https://mathworld.wolfram.com/CoordinateSystem.html","url_text":"\"Coordinate System\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathWorld","url_text":"MathWorld"}]},{"reference":"Weisstein, Eric W. \"Coordinates\". MathWorld.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_W._Weisstein","url_text":"Weisstein, Eric W."},{"url":"https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Coordinates.html","url_text":"\"Coordinates\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathWorld","url_text":"MathWorld"}]},{"reference":"Stewart, James B.; Redlin, Lothar; Watson, Saleem (2008). College Algebra (5th ed.). Brooks Cole. pp. 13–19. 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ISBN 978-1-119-77798-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=001EEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA657","url_text":"Calculus: Multivariable"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-77798-4","url_text":"978-1-119-77798-4"}]},{"reference":"Moon P, Spencer DE (1988). \"Rectangular Coordinates (x, y, z)\". Field Theory Handbook, Including Coordinate Systems, Differential Equations, and Their Solutions (corrected 2nd, 3rd print ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 9–11 (Table 1.01). ISBN 978-0-387-18430-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-18430-2","url_text":"978-0-387-18430-2"}]},{"reference":"Finney, Ross; George Thomas; Franklin Demana; Bert Waits (June 1994). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CeBIT

CeBIT

["1 History","2 Other CeBIT-branded shows","3 CeBIT Global Conferences","3.1 Speaker list 2014","4 CeBIT Awards","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Coordinates: 52°19′37″N 9°48′33″E / 52.32694°N 9.80917°E / 52.32694; 9.80917Computer expo You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in German. (January 2017) Click for important translation instructions. Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Consider adding a topic to this template: there are already 1,897 articles in the main category, and specifying|topic= will aid in categorization. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is Content in this edit is translated from the existing German Wikipedia article at ]; see its history for attribution. You may also add the template {{Translated|de|Cebit}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. CEBITLogoStatusDefunctGenreComputer ExpoFrequencyAnnuallyVenueHanover fairgroundLocation(s)HanoverCountryGermanyInaugurated1970Most recent2018Attendance120,000 (2018)Organized byDeutsche Messe AGWebsitewww.cebit.de A crowded exhibition hall during CeBIT 2000 IBM stand during CeBIT 2010 Jimmy Wales 2014 on CeBIT Global Conferences, Wikipedia Zero Number of CeBIT visitors 1986–2013 Logo used until 2017 CeBIT was a computer expo which, at its peak, was the largest and most internationally representative. The trade fair was held each year on the Hanover fairground, the world's largest fairground, in Hanover, Germany. In its day, it was considered a barometer of current trends and a measure of the state of the art in information technology. It was organized by Deutsche Messe AG. With an exhibition area of roughly 450,000 m2 (4.8 million sq ft) and a peak attendance of 850,000 visitors during the dot-com boom, it was larger both in area and attendance than its Asian counterpart COMPUTEX and its no-longer held American equivalent COMDEX. CeBIT is a German language acronym for Centrum für Büroautomation, Informationstechnologie und Telekommunikation, which translates as "Center for Office Automation, Information Technology and Telecommunication". The final CeBIT took place from 11 to 15 June 2018. History CeBIT was traditionally the computing part of the Hanover Fair, a big industry trade show held every year. It was established in 1970, with the opening of the Hanover fairground's new Hall 1, then the largest exhibition hall in the world. However, in the 1980s the information technology and telecommunications part was straining the resources of the trade fair so much that it was given a separate trade show starting in 1986, which was held four weeks earlier than the main Hanover Fair. The number of visitors for the new exhibition increased to 830,000 in 2001, but by 2007 the CeBIT expo attendance had shrunk to around 200,000, then attendance rebounded to 334,000 by 2010. The 2008 expo was marred by police raids of 51 exhibitors for patent infringement. In 2009, the U.S. state of California became official Partner State of Germany's IT and telecommunications industry association, BITKOM, and of CeBIT 2009. focusing on environmentally-friendly technologies. From 2007 till 2013, the fair acted as the World Championship (Grand Final) of Intel Extreme Masters. The championship was reallocated to Katowice, Poland in 2014. On 28 November 2018, Deutsche Messe AG announced that due to declining visitor and exhibitioner attendance, CeBIT would be canceled for the foreseeable future. This makes CeBIT 2018 the final event. Other CeBIT-branded shows As CeBIT continued to grow quickly and was becoming too big on its own, it was decided to concentrate on the professional market, while the home and entertainment market was given a separate show, CeBIT Home, during summer, planned to be biennial. However, after being held twice (in 1996 and 1998), the 2000 CeBIT Home (had originally been scheduled to be held in Leipzig due to the Expo 2000 being held in Hanover) was cancelled and the project was abandoned. Since 1999 the CeBIT sponsor Deutsche Messe AG ("German Trade Show, Inc.") has organized trade shows outside of Germany bearing the CeBIT name: Internet +, powered by CeBIT (formerly CeBIT Asia), in Shanghai, China CeBIT Australia, in Sydney CeBIT Eurasia Bilişim, in Istanbul, Turkey CeBIT America/USA in New York City, United States. It was held in 2003 and 2004, but subsequently cancelled in 2005. CeBIT India, in Bangalore, India BITS Mexico, powered by CeBIT, in México City. CeBIT ASEAN Thailand, in Bangkok, Thailand. CeBIT Global Conferences Running over a five-day period in Hanover, Germany, the CeBIT Global Conferences (CGC) are staged congruently with the CeBIT exhibition. The conferences are dedicated to providing a 360° overview of the digital industry's four core markets: IT, Telecommunications, Digital Media and Consumer Electronics. Noted industry figures and researchers from across the globe are invited to speak on the latest relevant trends and innovations as well as their impact on society and the working world. The conference is divided up into keynote speeches, talks and panel discussions. The CGC conferences are produced by Deutsche Messe AG, with the German BITKOM association acting as the CGC patron since 2009. In 2014, the CGC were staged with 140 speakers on three stages with a program of 70 conference hours and 3000 participants. Target groups of the conference are CXOs, managers, experts, visionaries and out-of-the-box thinkers, Conference languages are English and German. Recent conferences have featured the following keynote themes: 2008: "Improving Life in the Global Village". This installment of CGC attracted 1900 visitors and 43 speakers attending the keynotes and discussion sessions. 2009: "How Will We Be Working, Living and Communicating in the Coming Years?" This CGC drew 3,133 visitors from 88 nations, with some 2,200 guests following the conference via live streaming. 2010: "The Challenges of a Changing World – ICT for Better Lives and Better Business", attracting some 4,000 guests from more than 100 nations. Just under 4,000 guests also visited the conference via live streaming. The motto of the CeBIT Global Conferences for 2011 was "The Power of Creativity and Innovation". Speaker list 2014 Steve Wozniak, co-founder Apple Computer Jimmy Wales, founder Wikipedia Eugene Kaspersky, CEO and Chairman, Kaspersky Lab Mark Shuttleworth, founder, Canonical Neelie Kroes, Vice President, European Commission Sir Nigel Shadbolt, Chairman and co-founder, Open Data Institute (ODI) Dean Douglas, CEO Unify Cristina Riesen, General Manager Europe, Evernote Mikko Hyppönen, Chief Research Officer, F-Secure Over the past years, speakers at the CeBIT Global Conferences have included Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger, Governor of California; Kevin Turner, COO, Microsoft, Craig Barrett, Chairman of the Board, Intel, Jon Iwata SVP Marketing & Communications, IBM, Reid Hoffman, Chairman and CEO, LinkedIn; Mukund Krishna, CEO Suyati Inc; Scott Durchslag, COO, Skype; Werner Vogels, Vice President & CTO, Amazon, Stewart Butterfield, Co-founder of Flickr.com, Michael T. Jones, Chief Technology Advocate, Google & Founder of Google Earth; Mark Kingdon, CEO, LindenLab. CeBIT Awards CeBIT was a platform for recognising achievement by ICT businesses, particularly in Australia. The awards include the Excellence in Communications Award, the Advanced Retail Technology Award, the Innovative IT Security Award, and the Early Innovators Award. Notable past winners include Motorola, McAfee and eWAY. See also List of computer-related awards CES (Las Vegas, Nevada, US) COMPUTEX (Taipei, Taiwan) SIMO TCI (Madrid, Spain) References CeBIT ^ Heise Online: Positives Cebit-Fazit: Weniger, aber zufriedenere Messebesucher, accessed 2018-11-28 ^ "CEBIT Events Worldwide". messe.de. Archived from the original on 2010-01-28. ^ "CeBIT – Daten und Fakten – Geschichte der CeBIT". Cebit.de. Archived from the original on 2011-11-01. Retrieved 2011-12-17. ^ "From Digital Trade Fair to Innovation Festival – CeBIT to take place in June". cebit.de. Retrieved 2017-05-13. ^ 20 Jahre Centrum für "B" und "IT": Die CeBIT hat Geburtstag Archived 2008-01-06 at the Wayback Machine (in German) – By Detlef Borchers, heise online, 8 March 2006 ^ Attendance for CeBIT increases to 200,000 ^ "Cebit 2010: Besucherzahlen leicht angestiegen". Golem.de. Retrieved 2011-12-17. ^ "Authorities seize gadgets during patent raid at German tech fair". International Herald Tribune. 2009-03-29. Archived from the original on 2009-02-10. Retrieved 2011-12-17. ^ "Schwarzenegger goes to Cebit". Theinquirer.net. Archived from the original on 2009-08-21. Retrieved 2011-12-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) ^ "Germany: CeBIT, world's largest IT conference, canned | DW | 28.11.2018". DW.COM. ^ Hans-Jürgen Tast Konfetti im Büro oder Die allerletzte CeBIT. Schellerten 2021. ISBN 978-3-88842-054-2 ^ "Deutsche Messe restructures event portfolio – Trade fair news". Retrieved 2018-11-29. ^ "Techbrief – Cebit To New York". The New York Times. 2002-03-19. Retrieved 2011-12-17. ^ "CeBit America 2005 canceled – CNET News". News.cnet.com. Retrieved 2011-12-17. ^ "Australian companies fare well in CeBIT awards". Voiceanddata.com.au. 2007-05-21. Archived from the original on 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2011-12-17. ^ Archived 15 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine ^ "CeBIT.AU Innovative IT Security Award 2010". Archived from the original on 2010-11-15. Retrieved 2011-02-02. ^ Archived 26 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to CEBIT. Cebit.de at the Wayback Machine (archived 27 January 2007) The history of CeBIT Authority control databases International VIAF National France BnF data Germany 52°19′37″N 9°48′33″E / 52.32694°N 9.80917°E / 52.32694; 9.80917

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It was established in 1970, with the opening of the Hanover fairground's new Hall 1, then the largest exhibition hall in the world.[5] However, in the 1980s the information technology and telecommunications part was straining the resources of the trade fair so much that it was given a separate trade show starting in 1986, which was held four weeks earlier than the main Hanover Fair.The number of visitors for the new exhibition increased to 830,000 in 2001, but by 2007 the CeBIT expo attendance had shrunk to around 200,000,[6] then attendance rebounded to 334,000 by 2010.[7] The 2008 expo was marred by police raids of 51 exhibitors for patent infringement.[8] In 2009, the U.S. state of California became official Partner State of Germany's IT and telecommunications industry association, BITKOM, and of CeBIT 2009. focusing on environmentally-friendly technologies.[9]From 2007 till 2013, the fair acted as the World Championship (Grand Final) of Intel Extreme Masters. The championship was reallocated to Katowice, Poland in 2014.[citation needed]On 28 November 2018, Deutsche Messe AG announced that due to declining visitor and exhibitioner attendance, CeBIT would be canceled for the foreseeable\nfuture.[10][11] This makes CeBIT 2018 the final event.[12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Leipzig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig"},{"link_name":"Expo 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expo_2000"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Messe AG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Messe_AG"},{"link_name":"Internet +, powered by CeBIT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.internetplus-expo.com/En/"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"},{"link_name":"CeBIT Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.cebit.com.au/"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"},{"link_name":"Istanbul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Bangalore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"México City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico_City"},{"link_name":"CeBIT ASEAN Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//cebitasean.com/"},{"link_name":"Bangkok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"}],"text":"As CeBIT continued to grow quickly and was becoming too big on its own, it was decided to concentrate on the professional market, while the home and entertainment market was given a separate show, CeBIT Home, during summer, planned to be biennial. However, after being held twice (in 1996 and 1998), the 2000 CeBIT Home (had originally been scheduled to be held in Leipzig due to the Expo 2000 being held in Hanover) was cancelled and the project was abandoned.Since 1999 the CeBIT sponsor Deutsche Messe AG (\"German Trade Show, Inc.\") has organized trade shows outside of Germany bearing the CeBIT name:Internet +, powered by CeBIT (formerly CeBIT Asia), in Shanghai, China\nCeBIT Australia, in Sydney\nCeBIT Eurasia Bilişim, in Istanbul, Turkey\nCeBIT America/USA in New York City, United States.[13] It was held in 2003 and 2004, but subsequently cancelled in 2005.[14]\nCeBIT India, in Bangalore, India\nBITS Mexico, powered by CeBIT, in México City.\nCeBIT ASEAN Thailand, in Bangkok, Thailand.","title":"Other CeBIT-branded shows"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hanover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanover"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"keynote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keynote"},{"link_name":"CXOs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Experience_Officer"},{"link_name":"managers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Running over a five-day period in Hanover, Germany, the CeBIT Global Conferences (CGC) are staged congruently with the CeBIT exhibition. The conferences are dedicated to providing a 360° overview of the digital industry's four core markets: IT, Telecommunications, Digital Media and Consumer Electronics. Noted industry figures and researchers from across the globe are invited to speak on the latest relevant trends and innovations as well as their impact on society and the working world. The conference is divided up into keynote speeches, talks and panel discussions. The CGC conferences are produced by Deutsche Messe AG, with the German BITKOM association acting as the CGC patron since 2009. In 2014, the CGC were staged with 140 speakers on three stages with a program of 70 conference hours and 3000 participants. Target groups of the conference are CXOs, managers, experts, visionaries and out-of-the-box thinkers, Conference languages are English and German.[citation needed]Recent conferences have featured the following keynote themes:2008: \"Improving Life in the Global Village\". This installment of CGC attracted 1900 visitors and 43 speakers attending the keynotes and discussion sessions.\n2009: \"How Will We Be Working, Living and Communicating in the Coming Years?\" This CGC drew 3,133 visitors from 88 nations, with some 2,200 guests following the conference via live streaming.\n2010: \"The Challenges of a Changing World – ICT for Better Lives and Better Business\", attracting some 4,000 guests from more than 100 nations. Just under 4,000 guests also visited the conference via live streaming.[citation needed]The motto of the CeBIT Global Conferences for 2011 was \"The Power of Creativity and Innovation\".","title":"CeBIT Global Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Steve Wozniak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Wozniak"},{"link_name":"Apple Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Computer"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Wales"},{"link_name":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia"},{"link_name":"Eugene Kaspersky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Kaspersky"},{"link_name":"Kaspersky Lab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaspersky_Lab"},{"link_name":"Mark Shuttleworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Shuttleworth"},{"link_name":"Canonical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_Ltd."},{"link_name":"Neelie Kroes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neelie_Kroes"},{"link_name":"European Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commission"},{"link_name":"Open Data Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Data_Institute"},{"link_name":"Unify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unify_Software_and_Solutions_GmbH_%26_Co._KG."},{"link_name":"Evernote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evernote"},{"link_name":"Mikko Hyppönen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikko_Hypp%C3%B6nen"},{"link_name":"F-Secure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-Secure"},{"link_name":"Arnold Schwarzenegger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Schwarzenegger"},{"link_name":"Kevin Turner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Kevin_Turner"},{"link_name":"Craig Barrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Barrett_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"Reid Hoffman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reid_Hoffman"},{"link_name":"Werner Vogels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Vogels"},{"link_name":"Stewart Butterfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart_Butterfield"},{"link_name":"Michael T. Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jones_(entrepreneur)"},{"link_name":"Mark Kingdon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_D._Kingdon"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Speaker list 2014","text":"Steve Wozniak, co-founder Apple Computer\nJimmy Wales, founder Wikipedia\nEugene Kaspersky, CEO and Chairman, Kaspersky Lab\nMark Shuttleworth, founder, Canonical\nNeelie Kroes, Vice President, European Commission\nSir Nigel Shadbolt, Chairman and co-founder, Open Data Institute (ODI)\nDean Douglas, CEO Unify\nCristina Riesen, General Manager Europe, Evernote\nMikko Hyppönen, Chief Research Officer, F-SecureOver the past years, speakers at the CeBIT Global Conferences have included Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger, Governor of California; Kevin Turner, COO, Microsoft, Craig Barrett, Chairman of the Board, Intel, Jon Iwata SVP Marketing & Communications, IBM, Reid Hoffman, Chairman and CEO, LinkedIn; Mukund Krishna, CEO Suyati Inc; Scott Durchslag, COO, Skype; Werner Vogels, Vice President & CTO, Amazon, Stewart Butterfield, Co-founder of Flickr.com, Michael T. Jones, Chief Technology Advocate, Google & Founder of Google Earth; Mark Kingdon, CEO, LindenLab.[citation needed]","title":"CeBIT Global Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Motorola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"McAfee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McAfee"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"eWAY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EWay"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"CeBIT was a platform for recognising achievement by ICT businesses, particularly in Australia.[15] The awards include the Excellence in Communications Award, the Advanced Retail Technology Award, the Innovative IT Security Award, and the Early Innovators Award. Notable past winners include Motorola,[16] McAfee[17] and eWAY.[18]","title":"CeBIT Awards"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Peter_Luhn

Hans Peter Luhn

["1 Early life and education","2 Career","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"]

American computer scientist Hans Peter LuhnBorn(1896-07-01)1 July 1896Barmen, German EmpireDied19 August 1964(1964-08-19) (aged 68)Armonk, New York, U.S.NationalityAmericanKnown forKWICScientific careerFieldsComputer scienceInstitutionsIBM Hans Peter Luhn (July 1, 1896 – August 19, 1964) was an American researcher in the field of computer science and Library & Information Science for IBM, and creator of the Luhn algorithm, KWIC (Key Words In Context) indexing, and selective dissemination of information ("SDI"). His inventions have found applications in diverse areas like computer science, the textile industry, linguistics, and information science. He was awarded over 80 patents. Early life and education Luhn was born in Barmen, Germany (now part of Wuppertal) on July 1, 1896. After he completed secondary school, Luhn moved to Switzerland to learn the printing trade so he could join the family business. His career in printing was halted by his service as a communications officer in the German Army during World War I. Career After the war, Luhn entered the textile field, which eventually led him to the United States, where he invented a thread-counting gauge (the Lunometer) still on the market. From the late 1920s to the early 1940s, during which time he obtained patents for a broad range of inventions, Luhn worked in textiles and as an independent engineering consultant. He joined IBM as a senior research engineer in 1941, and soon became manager of the information retrieval research division. His introduction to the field of documentation/information science came in 1947 when he was asked to work on a problem brought to IBM by James Perry and Malcolm Dyson that involved searching for chemical compounds recorded in coded form. He came up with a solution for that and other problems using punched cards, but often had to overcome the limitations of the available machines by coming up with new ways of using them. By the dawn of the computer age in the 1950s, software became the means to surmount the limitations inherent in the punched card machines of the past. Luhn spent greater and greater amounts of time on the problems of information retrieval and storage faced by libraries and documentation centers, and pioneered the use of data processing equipment in resolving these problems. "Luhn was the first, or among the first, to work out many of the basic techniques now commonplace in information science." These techniques included full-text processing; hash codes; Key Word in Context indexing (see also Herbert Marvin Ohlman); auto-indexing; automatic abstracting and the concept of selective dissemination of information (SDI). Luhn was a pioneer in hash coding. In 1953, he suggested putting information into buckets in order to speed up search. He did not only consider handling numbers more efficiently. He was applying his concepts to text as well. Luhn’s methods were improved by computer scientists decades after his inventions. Today, hashing algorithms are essential for many applications such as textual tools, cloud services, data-intensive research and cryptography among numerous other uses. It is surprising that his name and contributions to information handling are largely forgotten. Two of Luhn's greatest achievements are the idea for an SDI system and the KWIC method of indexing. Today's SDI systems owe a great deal to a 1958 paper by Luhn, "A Business Intelligence System", which described an "automatic method to provide current awareness services to scientists and engineers" who needed help to cope with the rapid post-war growth of scientific and technical literature. Luhn apparently coined the term business intelligence in that paper. Luhn received the Award of Merit from the Association for Information Science and Technology in 1964. References ^ "HANS PETER LUHN, MENTOR, 68, DIES; Data‐Processing Specialist Served I.B.M. 20 Years". The New York Times. New York Times. 20 August 1964. p. 29. Retrieved 16 December 2019. ^ "Lunometer - Home". ^ Schultz, Claire K. H.P. Luhn: Pioneer of Information Science. Spartan Books, 1968, p. 6. ^ Hallam Stevens: Hans Peter Luhn and the Birth of the Hashing Algorithm. In: IEEE Spectrum, 30 January 2018, pp. 42-47, retrieved February 14, 2018 ^ Hans Peter Luhn (1960). Keyword-in-context index for technical literature. American Documentation, 11(4):288–295. ISSN 0002-8231. (American Documentation is the former name of the Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, ISSN 1532-2882) ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). www.research.ibm.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2008. Retrieved 12 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ BI at 50 Turns Back to the Future ^ "Award of Merit General". Association for Information Science and Technology. Further reading Rosenberg, Daniel (2019–2020). "Ingestation / A Manhattan Project". Cabinet Magazine. No. 67. External links Class Lecture Notes: H. P. Luhn and Automatic Indexing Archived 2012-04-28 at the Wayback Machine Award of Merit The Chronology of Chemical Information Science: 1950 - Present, archived from the original. Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany Israel United States Australia Netherlands Poland Academics DBLP People Trove Other IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Luhn algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luhn_algorithm"},{"link_name":"KWIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_Word_in_Context"},{"link_name":"selective dissemination of information (\"SDI\")","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_dissemination_of_information"},{"link_name":"textile industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_industry"},{"link_name":"linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"},{"link_name":"information science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_science"},{"link_name":"patents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent"}],"text":"Hans Peter Luhn (July 1, 1896 – August 19, 1964) was an American researcher in the field of computer science and Library & Information Science for IBM, and creator of the Luhn algorithm, KWIC (Key Words In Context) indexing, and selective dissemination of information (\"SDI\"). His inventions have found applications in diverse areas like computer science, the textile industry, linguistics, and information science. He was awarded over 80 patents.","title":"Hans Peter Luhn"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Barmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barmen"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire"},{"link_name":"Wuppertal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuppertal"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"}],"text":"Luhn was born in Barmen, Germany (now part of Wuppertal) on July 1, 1896. After he completed secondary school, Luhn moved to Switzerland to learn the printing trade so he could join the family business. His career in printing was halted by his service as a communications officer in the German Army during World War I.","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"information retrieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_retrieval"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"punched cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_cards"},{"link_name":"computer age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_age"},{"link_name":"full-text processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Full-text_processing&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"hash codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash_function"},{"link_name":"Key Word in Context","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_Word_in_Context"},{"link_name":"Herbert Marvin Ohlman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Marvin_Ohlman"},{"link_name":"auto-indexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Auto-indexing&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"automatic abstracting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automatic_abstracting&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"selective dissemination of information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_dissemination_of_information"},{"link_name":"hash coding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hash_function"},{"link_name":"cloud services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_service"},{"link_name":"cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"business intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_intelligence"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Award of Merit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Award_of_Merit_-_Association_for_Information_Science_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"Association for Information Science and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Information_Science_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"After the war, Luhn entered the textile field, which eventually led him to the United States, where he invented a thread-counting gauge (the Lunometer) still on the market.[2] From the late 1920s to the early 1940s, during which time he obtained patents for a broad range of inventions, Luhn worked in textiles and as an independent engineering consultant. He joined IBM as a senior research engineer in 1941, and soon became manager of the information retrieval research division.His introduction to the field of documentation/information science came in 1947 when he was asked to work on a problem brought to IBM by James Perry and Malcolm Dyson that involved searching for chemical compounds recorded in coded form.[3] He came up with a solution for that and other problems using punched cards, but often had to overcome the limitations of the available machines by coming up with new ways of using them. By the dawn of the computer age in the 1950s, software became the means to surmount the limitations inherent in the punched card machines of the past.Luhn spent greater and greater amounts of time on the problems of information retrieval and storage faced by libraries and documentation centers, and pioneered the use of data processing equipment in resolving these problems. \"Luhn was the first, or among the first, to work out many of the basic techniques now commonplace in information science.\" These techniques included full-text processing; hash codes; Key Word in Context indexing (see also Herbert Marvin Ohlman); auto-indexing; automatic abstracting and the concept of selective dissemination of information (SDI).Luhn was a pioneer in hash coding. In 1953, he suggested putting information into buckets in order to speed up search. He did not only consider handling numbers more efficiently. He was applying his concepts to text as well. Luhn’s methods were improved by computer scientists decades after his inventions. Today, hashing algorithms are essential for many applications such as textual tools, cloud services, data-intensive research and cryptography among numerous other uses. It is surprising that his name and contributions to information handling are largely forgotten.[4]Two of Luhn's greatest achievements are the idea for an SDI system and the KWIC[5] method of indexing. Today's SDI systems owe a great deal to a 1958 paper by Luhn, \"A Business Intelligence System\",[6] which described an \"automatic method to provide current awareness services to scientists and engineers\" who needed help to cope with the rapid post-war growth of scientific and technical literature. Luhn apparently coined the term business intelligence in that paper.[7]Luhn received the Award of Merit from the Association for Information Science and Technology in 1964.[8]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Ingestation / A Manhattan Project\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/67/"},{"link_name":"Cabinet Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_Magazine"}],"text":"Rosenberg, Daniel (2019–2020). \"Ingestation / A Manhattan Project\". Cabinet Magazine. No. 67.","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_name

Scottish Gaelic name

["1 First names","1.1 Goidelic names","1.2 Norse names","1.3 Anglo-Norman","1.4 Scots","1.5 Latin","1.6 Borrowing into English/Scots","2 Surnames","2.1 Formation","3 Nicknames","3.1 Character traits","3.2 Geographical references","3.3 Humorous names","3.4 Occupation","3.5 Physical characteristics","3.6 Other","4 Identifying names","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References"]

Naming customs in Scottish Gaelic culture A formal Gaelic language name consists of a given name and a surname. First names are either native or nativized (i.e. borrowed and made to fit the Gaelic sound system). Surnames are generally patronymic, i.e. they refer to a historical ancestor. The form of a surname varies according to whether its bearer is male (e.g. MacDhòmhnaill "MacDonald") or female (e.g. NicDhòmhnaill "MacDonald") though for some surnames the adjectival form of a name such as Dòmhnallach (adjectival form of MacDonald) can be used for both men and women. However, when used in the female form the first letter is lenited (if possible). First names Gaelic first names chiefly hail from 5 linguistic layers, Goidelic and 4 others, coinciding with the main languages of contact: Latin, Norse, Anglo-Norman and Scots. Unusually, male first names outnumber female first names by about a factor of 2:1. Goidelic names This layer can be broadly split into three main types: descriptive names (nouns or adjectives), e.g. Fionn "fair, bright", Art "bear" old compounds (names which had fused to the extent of now being opaque); e.g., Dòmhnall "Donald" (*Dumnoualos "world strength"), Murchadh "Murdo" (*Moricatus "sea battle") compounds, e.g. Donn-slèibhe "Dunlevy" ("brown one of the mountain"), Gille Chrìost "Gilchrist" ("servant of Christ") The first two categories were no longer productive for the most part towards the end of the Old Irish period but the last type persisted, reinforced by the coinage of ecclesiastical names following Christianization. Norse names Quite a number of names still common hail from the period of Norse contact: Somhairle < Sumarliðr Tormod < Þórmóðr Torcuil < Þórkell, Þórketill Ìomhar < Ívarr Anglo-Norman Names from this layer include: Sìleas < Giles Scots Scots names which have been borrowed into Gaelic include: Eairrdsidh < Archie Latin Names which were borrowed from Latin include: Pàdraig < Patricius Sìle < Caecilia Borrowing into English/Scots This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A fair number of Gaelic names were borrowed into English or Scots at different periods (e.g. Kenneth, Duncan, Donald, Malcolm, Calum, Lachlan, Alasdair, Iain, Eilidh), although it can sometimes be difficult to tell if the donor language was Irish or Scottish Gaelic (e.g. Deirdre, Rory, Kennedy, Bridget/Bride, Aiden). On occasion, the same name was borrowed more than once due to misinterpretation of Gaelic morphology. For example, the names Hamish and Mhairi /ˈvɑːri/ are derived from Gaelic Seumas and Màiri but rather than borrowing the root forms, the English/Scots forms are based on the Gaelic vocative case forms Sheumais and Mhàiri . Some names which did not acquire currency outside the Gaelic-speaking world were roughly transliterated into English, such as Gorm(sh)uil which is often rendered as "Gormelia". Others with no cognate were often equated with English/Scots names which bore some similarity to the Gaelic name in order to obtain "English equivalents". This includes Oighrig which was equated with Euphemia or Henrietta, Dìorbhail with Dorothy, Beathag with Rebecca or Sophie. Surnames The majority of Gaelic surnames in the Highlands and western parts are patronymic in nature and of Goidelic extraction, although epithets, geography or occupation and borrowings also occur in some surnames. However, many surnames are derived from topographical features or place names, Such surnames include Caddenhead/Cionnchadach, Cadell/Cadalach, Cleghorne/Clagarnach, Dalzell/Dailghileach, Dalrimple/Ruimpealach, Elphin/Ailbhinneach, Inverbervie/Biorbhach, Kelty/Cailtidheach, Learmonth/Learmonadhach, Ochiltree/Ochailtreabhach and many more. Campbell/Caimbeul "crooked mouth" and Cameron/Camshron "crooked nose" are two examples of surnames based on epithets, while Fraser/Frisealach is an example of a borrowing (from Anglo-French Fresel). The usage of patronymic surnames was much more varied than is generally assumed. Historically, clan surnames were used by the descendants or dependants of an ancestor but not generally by everyone in the clan territory. Only with the advent of a non-Gaelic speaking administration were clan surnames applied en-masse to people in a clan's territory. Formation Patronymic surnames for men feature either the word mac "son" (e.g. MacDhòmhnaill, lit. son of Donald) or the nominalizing suffix -ach (e.g. Dòmhnallach). In the case of women, the word nic is used, a shortening of the full phrase nighean mhic "daughter of the son of"). Various other morphological changes (such as lenition or slenderization) may apply in Gaelic, so the surname MacDonald for example may appear as MacDhòmhnaill, MhacDhòmhnaill, MhicDhòmhnaill, NicDhòmhnaill depending on the grammatical context. In Classical Gaelic culture, clans could also feature the word ua (alt. ó) "grandchild, descendant" (spelled ogha /oə/ in Modern Gaelic), e.g. Ua Dhuibhne "Duibhne's descendant", the original surname of the Campbells (Duibhne was a Celtic goddess). In speaking, ua/ó in names became reduced to , as happened also in Northern Irish and Manx, and disappeared from Anglicised forms. With the break-up of Classical Gaelic culture, ua/ó disappeared from Scottish surnames, sometimes replaced by mac. As a result of misspellings, one Gaelic surname often corresponds to numerous English/Scots forms, e.g. MacDhonnchaidh "son of Duncan" may appear as: Donagh(y), Donnagh, Dono(u)gh, MacConachie, MacConachy, MacConaghy, MacConchy, MacConechie, MacConkey, MacConnachie, MacConnechie, MacConnichie, MacConochie, MacConoughy, MacDona, MacDonachie, MacDonachy, MacDonaghy, MacDonaugh, MacDonnach, MacDonnagh, MacDonnoghie, MacDonogh, MacDonoghue, MacDonough, MacDunphy, MacKonochie, MacOnachie, MacOnechy, MacOnochie, Donohue or Donohoe (ignoring the Mac/Mc variation). Scottish Gaelic does not put a space between the Mac/Nic and the second element, whereas in Irish, there is a space: Scots Gaelic Irish English/Scots MacAonghais Mac Aonghasa MacInnes et al. MacDhòmhnaill Mac Domhnaill MacDonald et al. MacEòghainn Mac Eoghain MacEwen et al. MacMhàrtainn Mac Máirtín MacMartin et al. Nicknames Nicknames (Scottish Gaelic: far-ainm, frith-ainm) in Gaelic operate similarly to those in other languages and usually indicate a physical characteristic, an occupation, a location or an incident the person is associated and so forth. Some examples Character traits Caitrìona na h-Aonar ("Catriona on her own"), a woman who enjoyed doing everything on her own Geographical references An t-Arcach ("The Orcadian"), a man who used to fish around the Orkney Islands in his youth Bliadhnach Phabaigh ("Pabbay yearling"), a woman who had been a year old when the Isle of Pabbay was cleared of people Humorous names Calum Seòladair ("Calum Sailor"), an unusual name for a woman who was in the habit of wearing a sailor's cap Clag a' Bhaile ("The town bell"), a man with a very loud voice Occupation Ailean Còcaire ("Alan the cook"), a man who was employed at one time as the cook at Ormacleit Castle Aonghas a' Bhancair ("Angus the banker"), a man who was employed in a bank in Nova Scotia Donchadh Clachair ("Duncan the stonemason" but always presented in English as the literal translation, "Duncan Stoner"), a known 19th and 20th century resident of Achadh an Droighinn/Auchindrain township in Argyll, Scotland: used for Duncan Munro, d. 1937. Domnhall Rothach ("Donald on wheels"), used in Argyll in the 1920s to describe a Donald MacCallum who ran a mobile grocer's shop in a van Physical characteristics Bodach a' Chnatain ("The old man of the cold") Calum na Coise ("Calum of the leg"), a man who had a short leg Dòmhnall na Cluaise ("Donald of the ear"), a man who is said to have lost an ear in a fight Raibeart Bhan ("Fair Robert"), a man called Robert with light-coloured hair Other An Caillteanach ("The lost one"), a man who had become lost, causing the entire village to spend the night looking for him Ìomhair a' Bhogha Mhaide ("Ivor of the wooden bow"), a renowned archer and one time resident of Pabay Bell a' Phuill ("Bella who lives by the muddy place"), used for Isabella McCallum (1822–1915) of Achadh an Droighinn/Auchindrain township in Argyll, Scotland: her house was close to the ford where the cattle crossed the burn Identifying names This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (April 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Due to the relative paucity of names and surnames in Gaelic, the official name of a person (i.e. first name plus a surname, in Gaelic or English/Scots) is rarely used in Gaelic speaking communities as, with a small number of surnames usually predominating in an area, there are usually several people who go by the same combination, for example John MacLeod might apply to several people in the same village. In everyday life, this is usually solved by using the first name of a man, followed by the first name of his father in the genitive case or by using the first name plus an epithet. So a man called James (Seumas) with a father called Neil (Niall) would become Seumas Nèill or Seumas a' Ghlinne ("James of the glen"). In the case of married women, the convention is normally to use bean ("wife") plus the husband's first name and father's first name, in our example resulting in Bean Sheumais Nèill ("the wife of Neil's James"). The (fictitious) family tree below illustrates this custom. CatrìonaNiall MacLeod (legal name) Mary-Kate MacAulay(technically) Màiri Ceit NicAmhlaigh(known as) Bean Sheumais Nèill("wife of Neil's James")(nicknamed) Bròg miamh ("miaowing shoe")(legal name) James MacLeod(technically) Seumas MacLeòid(known as) Seumas Nèill ("Neil's James")(nicknamed) Seumas a' Ghlinne("James of the glen") (legal name) Donald MacLeod(technically) Dòmhnall MacLeòid(known as) Dòmhnall Sheumais Nèill(Neil's James' Donald)(nicknamed) Dòmhnall a' Bhanca ("Donald the banker")(legal name) Fiona MacLeod(technically) Fionnghal NicLeòid(known as) Fionnghal Sheumais Nèill(Neil's James's Fiona)(nicknamed) Fionnghal Ruadh ("red-haired Fiona")(legal name) Colin MacLeod(technically) Cailean MacLeòid(known as) Cailean Sheumais Nèill(Neil's James's Colin) (nicknamed) Cailean Bodhar ("deaf Colin") Historically, such an identifying name would take the mac "son" element, e.g. Dòmhnall mac Sheumais mac Nèill ("Donald son of James son of Neill") but in modern usage, this is usually dropped, resulting in Dòmhnall Sheumais Nèill. Identifying names sometimes use female reference points, for example if a local woman marries an outsider, this may result in the children being identified via the mother. Dòmhnall Chiorstan ("Kirsten's Donald") for instance would indicate a son called Donald with a mother called Kirsten. See also Celtic onomastics Icelandic names, which still use patronymics Irish name Russian patronymics List of Scottish Gaelic given names List of Scottish Gaelic surnames Scottish toponymy Welsh surnames Scottish names in Ulster Notes ^ East Sutherland Gaelic uses mac for both male and female surnames. References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Thomson, Derick (ed.) The Companion to Gaelic Scotland (1994) Gairm ISBN 1-871901-31-6 ^ a b c d e Morgan, P. Ainmean Chloinne (1994) Taigh na Teud ISBN 1-871931-40-1 ^ MacBain, A. Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language (1896) ^ Dorian, Nancy C. (1981). Language death: the life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 88. ISBN 9780812277852. Retrieved 24 April 2017. ^ Mark, Colin The Gaelic–English Dictionary (2004) Routledge ISBN 0-415-29761-3 ^ de Bhulbh, Seán Sloinnte na h-Éireann (1997) Comhar-Chumann Íde Naofa ISBN 0-9530560-1-5 ^ a b c d Dunn, Charles Highland Settler (1953) University of Toronto Press SBN 8020-6094-3 ^ a b c Madeg, Mikael (1982). "Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (3)". Gairm. 127. ^ Madeg, Mikael (1982–83). "Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (5)". Gairm. 121. ^ a b Madeg, Mikael (1984). "Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (9)". Gairm. 127. ^ Madeg, Mikael (1985). "Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (11)". Gairm. 130. ^ a b Madeg, Mikael (1985). "Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (12)". Gairm. 131. ^ a b Madeg, Mikael (1983). "Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (6)". Gairm. 122. ^ Madeg, Mikael (1984). "Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (8)". Gairm. 126. ^ Dwelly, E. The Illustrated Gaelic–English Dictionary (1941) vteIrish-language given namesNative masculine names Ailill Aodh Aodhán Aonghus Art Breandán Breasal Brian Cainneach Cairbre Caoimhín Cathal Cearbhall Cian Cianán Ciarán Cinnéididh Coileán Colm Conaire Conall Conán Conchobhar Cormac Criofan Dáire Deaglán Diarmaid Dónall Donn Donnchadh Dubhghall Eachann Éibhear Eochaidh Eoghan Fearghal Fearghus Féilim Fiach Fínín Fionn Fionnbharr Fionntán Flann Garaidh Iarlaith Lorcán Lughaidh Muircheartach Muiredach Muirgheas Murchadh Niall Odhrán Oisín Oscar Rian Rónán Ruairí Tadhg Toirdhealbhach Native feminine names Aifric Áine Aisling Aodhnait Aoibheann Aoife Barrdhubh Bébhinn Bríd Cacht Caoimhe Ciara Clíona Cobhlaith Dearbháil Dearbhfhorghaill Deirbhile Deirdre Dubhchobhlaigh Éadaoin Eithne Feidhealm Fíneamhain Fíona Fionnuala Forbflaith Gormfhlaith Gráinne Íde Lasairfhíona Méabh Mór Muireann Muirgheal Niamh Nuala Órlaith Róisín Sadhbh Saoirse Síothmhaith Sláine Sorcha Úna Germanic-derivedmasculine names Amhlaoibh Annraoi Éamonn Gearóid Gofraid Íomhar Lochlann Liam Maghnus Raghnall Risteárd Roibeárd Séarlas Somhairle Tiobóid Ualtar Bible-derivedmasculine names Abracham Ádhamh Árón Biniáimin Daibhí Dainéal Eafráim Gaibrial Íosac Iósua Irimia Maitiú Maois Mícheál (Maidhc) Parthalán Samúéil Séamus Seán Seosamh Síomón Solamh Tomás Bible-derivedfeminine names Aibigeál Ánna Éabha Eilís Léá Madailéin Máire Mallaidh Náoimí Ráichéal Ríobhca Rút Seacailín Seosaimhín Sinéad Siobhán Latin/Greek-derivedmasculine names Aindréas Antóin Críostóir Damhnaic Pádraig Proinsias Giolla Críost Gréagóir Labhrás León Máirtín Marcas Nioclás Nollaig Peadar Pilib Pól Seoirse Stiofán Téadóir Uinseann Latin/Greek-derivedfeminine names Agata Aignéas Bairbre Caitlín Caitríona Claire Léan Luíseach Máiréad Muinice Pádraigín Síle Treasa Tríona See also Goidelic languages Irish language Scottish Gaelic language Manx language Irish name List of Scottish Gaelic given names Scottish Gaelic name Irish genealogy vteScottish GaelicHistory Proto-Indo-European Proto-Celtic Insular Celtic Goidelic Primitive Irish Old Irish Middle Irish Gaelicisation Early Modern Irish Renaissance (present) Dialects Mid-Minch Gaelic Hebridean Gaelic Argyll Gaelic East Sutherland Gaelic Galwegian Gaelic Canadian Gaelic Dialect phonology Grammar Alphabet Dependent and independent verb forms Writing Orthography Literature Bible translations Dictionaries Official supportGaelic development An Comunn Gàidhealach Bòrd na Gàidhlig Clì Gàidhlig The Gaelic College Sabhal Mòr Ostaig Legislation Education (Scotland) Act 1872 (past) Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 MediaNewspapers Dàna Stornoway Gazette (sporadic) West Highland Free Press (sporadic) Broadcasting BBC Alba (BBC Gàidhlig) BBC Radio nan Gàidheal Publishers Acair Akerbeltz Birlinn CLÀR Ùr-sgeul Topics Gaelic-medium education Gàidhealtachd Names Music The Mòd Road signs Category vtePersonal names and anthroponymyPersonal name Birth name Given name Surname Patrilineal/Matrilineal Affixes Nobiliary particle By sequence First name Middle name Last name By trait Diminutive Double-barrelled Epithet Animal Common Plant Eponymic Matronymic Metonymic Mononymic Occupational Patronymic Surname Sobriquet Teknonymic Toponymic Surname Patrial Unisex Virtue By life situation Aptronym Birth name Code name Maiden and married names Necronym Posthumous name Temple name Placeholder name Notname Regnal name Slave name Pseudonyms (list) Art name Bugō Nicknames list Hypocorism Monarchs Nom de guerre Pen name Heteronym Ring name Shikona Stage name List Mononyms Username By cultureSurnames by countryEast Asian Amami Chinese Courtesy Art Generation Titles Japanese Korean Manchu Okinawan Taiwanese aboriginal Vietnamese Northern Asiaand Central Asia Kalmyk Mongolian Sakha Tibetan Muslim worldand Western Asia Afghan Arabic Azerbaijani Bengali Berber Coptic Mandaean Pakistani Pashtun Persian Sindhi Somali Tatar Turkish Oceania Australian Aboriginal Fijian Hawaiian Māori Sub-Saharan Africa Ashanti Democratic Republic of the Congo Eritrean and Ethiopian Ewe Ghanaian Igbo Yoruba Zimbabwean Europe, North Americaand Australasia Albanian Armenian Ashkenazi Jewish Basque Estonian Finnish Georgian Greek Ancient Greek Cypriot Hungarian Baltic Latvian Lithuanian Celtic Cornish Irish Manx Scottish Welsh Germanic Dutch English American African-American Canadian Hongkongese German Gothic Icelandic Scandinavian Swedish Romance Catalan French Italian Occitan Portuguese Roman Praenomen Nomen Cognomen Agnomen Romanian Spanish Hispanic America Slavic Bulgarian Croatian Czech Eastern Slavic Belarusian Russian Ukrainian Kashubian Macedonian Polish Serbian Slovak Suffixes Indosphere (South Asiaand Southeast Asia) Balinese Bengali Burmese Filipino Indonesian Chinese Javanese Cambodian Malaysian Indian Lao Pakistani Sindhi Sinhalese Ancient Tamil country Thai By religion Christian name Biblical name Papal name Saint's name Buddhist surname Dharma name Jewish name Hebrew Mandaean name Theophoric name Manners of addressListof authority/of honourStyles Honorific Diplomatic Imperial, royal, and noble Judiciary Religious Ecclesiastical Pre-nominal letters Suffix Emeritus Post-nominal letters Academic Orders, decorations, and medals Titles Academic Imperial, royal and noble Chivalric Courtesy False Hereditary Subsidiary Substantive Military Professional Academic Educational Honorary Business Diplomatic Judicial Religious Ecclesiastical Papal Related traditions Baptism Name day Calendar of saints Related Acronym Anonymity Anthropomorphism Personification National Call sign Deadnaming Endonym and exonym Family Galton–Watson process Legal name Name change List Given Surname Namesake Naming taboo Nomenclature Nomen nescio Misnomer Onomastics -onym Personal identity Identifier Proper name Signature Monogram Royal cypher Khelrtva Signum manus Tughra Surnames by country Category:Lists of names

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gaelic language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic"},{"link_name":"the Gaelic sound system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_phonology"},{"link_name":"patronymic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronymic_surname"},{"link_name":"lenited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenition"}],"text":"A formal Gaelic language name consists of a given name and a surname. First names are either native or nativized (i.e. borrowed and made to fit the Gaelic sound system). Surnames are generally patronymic, i.e. they refer to a historical ancestor. The form of a surname varies according to whether its bearer is male (e.g. MacDhòmhnaill \"MacDonald\") or female (e.g. NicDhòmhnaill \"MacDonald\") though for some surnames the adjectival form of a name such as Dòmhnallach (adjectival form of MacDonald) can be used for both men and women. However, when used in the female form the first letter is lenited (if possible).","title":"Scottish Gaelic name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Goidelic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelic_languages"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"Norse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse_language"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Norman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Norman_language"},{"link_name":"Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGS-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Morgan-2"}],"text":"Gaelic first names chiefly hail from 5 linguistic layers, Goidelic and 4 others, coinciding with the main languages of contact: Latin, Norse, Anglo-Norman and Scots.[1] Unusually, male first names outnumber female first names by about a factor of 2:1.[2]","title":"First names"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGS-1"},{"link_name":"Old Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irish"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGS-1"}],"sub_title":"Goidelic names","text":"This layer can be broadly split into three main types:[1]descriptive names (nouns or adjectives), e.g. Fionn \"fair, bright\", Art \"bear\"\nold compounds (names which had fused to the extent of now being opaque); e.g., Dòmhnall \"Donald\" (*Dumnoualos \"world strength\"), Murchadh \"Murdo\" (*Moricatus \"sea battle\")\ncompounds, e.g. Donn-slèibhe \"Dunlevy\" (\"brown one of the mountain\"), Gille Chrìost \"Gilchrist\" (\"servant of Christ\")The first two categories were no longer productive for the most part towards the end of the Old Irish period but the last type persisted, reinforced by the coinage of ecclesiastical names following Christianization.[1]","title":"First names"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGS-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Morgan-2"},{"link_name":"Þórkell, Þórketill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorkel"},{"link_name":"Ívarr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivar"}],"sub_title":"Norse names","text":"Quite a number of names still common hail from the period of Norse contact:[1][2]Somhairle < Sumarliðr\nTormod < Þórmóðr\nTorcuil < Þórkell, Þórketill\nÌomhar < Ívarr","title":"First names"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGS-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Morgan-2"}],"sub_title":"Anglo-Norman","text":"Names from this layer include:[1][2]Sìleas < Giles","title":"First names"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGS-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Morgan-2"}],"sub_title":"Scots","text":"Scots names which have been borrowed into Gaelic include:[1][2]Eairrdsidh < Archie","title":"First names"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Morgan-2"}],"sub_title":"Latin","text":"Names which were borrowed from Latin include:[2]Pàdraig < Patricius\nSìle < Caecilia","title":"First names"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_language"},{"link_name":"Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language"},{"link_name":"morphology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"/ˈvɑːri/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"[ˈʃeːməs̪]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Scottish_Gaelic"},{"link_name":"[ˈmaːɾʲɪ]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Scottish_Gaelic"},{"link_name":"vocative case","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocative_case"},{"link_name":"[ˈheːmɪʃ]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Scottish_Gaelic"},{"link_name":"[ˈvaːɾʲɪ]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Scottish_Gaelic"},{"link_name":"cognate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognate"},{"link_name":"Euphemia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphemia"},{"link_name":"Henrietta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrietta_(given_name)"},{"link_name":"Dorothy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_(given_name)"},{"link_name":"Rebecca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca"},{"link_name":"Sophie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie"}],"sub_title":"Borrowing into English/Scots","text":"A fair number of Gaelic names were borrowed into English or Scots at different periods (e.g. Kenneth, Duncan, Donald, Malcolm, Calum, Lachlan, Alasdair, Iain, Eilidh), although it can sometimes be difficult to tell if the donor language was Irish or Scottish Gaelic (e.g. Deirdre, Rory, Kennedy, Bridget/Bride, Aiden). On occasion, the same name was borrowed more than once due to misinterpretation of Gaelic morphology. For example, the names Hamish and Mhairi /ˈvɑːri/ are derived from Gaelic Seumas [ˈʃeːməs̪] and Màiri [ˈmaːɾʲɪ] but rather than borrowing the root forms, the English/Scots forms are based on the Gaelic vocative case forms Sheumais [ˈheːmɪʃ] and Mhàiri [ˈvaːɾʲɪ].Some names which did not acquire currency outside the Gaelic-speaking world were roughly transliterated into English, such as Gorm(sh)uil which is often rendered as \"Gormelia\".Others with no cognate were often equated with English/Scots names which bore some similarity to the Gaelic name in order to obtain \"English equivalents\". This includes Oighrig which was equated with Euphemia or Henrietta, Dìorbhail with Dorothy, Beathag with Rebecca or Sophie.","title":"First names"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"patronymic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronymic"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGS-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGS-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGS-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGS-1"}],"text":"The majority of Gaelic surnames in the Highlands and western parts are patronymic in nature and of Goidelic extraction, although epithets, geography or occupation and borrowings also occur in some surnames.[1] However, many surnames are derived from topographical features or place names, Such surnames include Caddenhead/Cionnchadach, Cadell/Cadalach, Cleghorne/Clagarnach, Dalzell/Dailghileach, Dalrimple/Ruimpealach, Elphin/Ailbhinneach, Inverbervie/Biorbhach, Kelty/Cailtidheach, Learmonth/Learmonadhach, Ochiltree/Ochailtreabhach and many more.Campbell/Caimbeul \"crooked mouth\" and Cameron/Camshron \"crooked nose\" are two examples of surnames based on epithets, while Fraser/Frisealach is an example of a borrowing (from Anglo-French Fresel).[1]The usage of patronymic surnames was much more varied than is generally assumed. Historically, clan surnames were used by the descendants or dependants of an ancestor but not generally by everyone in the clan territory.[1] Only with the advent of a non-Gaelic speaking administration were clan surnames applied en-masse to people in a clan's territory.[1]","title":"Surnames"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nominalizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominalization"},{"link_name":"-ach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-ach#Scottish_Gaelic"},{"link_name":"nic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nic#Scottish_Gaelic"},{"link_name":"nighean mhic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nighean#Scottish_Gaelic"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"lenition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenition"},{"link_name":"slenderization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Formation","text":"Patronymic surnames for men feature either the word mac \"son\" (e.g. MacDhòmhnaill, lit. son of Donald) or the nominalizing suffix -ach (e.g. Dòmhnallach). In the case of women, the word nic is used, a shortening of the full phrase nighean mhic \"daughter of the son of\").[3][a] Various other morphological changes (such as lenition or slenderization) may apply in Gaelic, so the surname MacDonald for example may appear as MacDhòmhnaill, MhacDhòmhnaill, MhicDhòmhnaill, NicDhòmhnaill depending on the grammatical context.In Classical Gaelic culture, clans could also feature the word ua (alt. ó) \"grandchild, descendant\" (spelled ogha /oə/ in Modern Gaelic), e.g. Ua Dhuibhne \"Duibhne's descendant\", the original surname of the Campbells (Duibhne was a Celtic goddess). In speaking, ua/ó in names became reduced to [ə], as happened also in Northern Irish and Manx, and disappeared from Anglicised forms. With the break-up of Classical Gaelic culture, ua/ó disappeared from Scottish surnames, sometimes replaced by mac.As a result of misspellings, one Gaelic surname often corresponds to numerous English/Scots forms, e.g. MacDhonnchaidh \"son of Duncan\" may appear as: Donagh(y), Donnagh, Dono(u)gh, MacConachie, MacConachy, MacConaghy, MacConchy, MacConechie, MacConkey, MacConnachie, MacConnechie, MacConnichie, MacConochie, MacConoughy, MacDona, MacDonachie, MacDonachy, MacDonaghy, MacDonaugh, MacDonnach, MacDonnagh, MacDonnoghie, MacDonogh, MacDonoghue, MacDonough, MacDunphy, MacKonochie, MacOnachie, MacOnechy, MacOnochie, Donohue or Donohoe (ignoring the Mac/Mc variation).Scottish Gaelic does not put a space between the Mac/Nic and the second element, whereas in Irish, there is a space:[5][6]","title":"Surnames"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nicknames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickname"},{"link_name":"Scottish Gaelic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_language"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HS-8"}],"text":"Nicknames (Scottish Gaelic: far-ainm, frith-ainm) in Gaelic operate similarly to those in other languages and usually indicate a physical characteristic, an occupation, a location or an incident the person is associated and so forth.[7]Some examples","title":"Nicknames"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gairm119-9"}],"sub_title":"Character traits","text":"Caitrìona na h-Aonar (\"Catriona on her own\"), a woman who enjoyed doing everything on her own[8]","title":"Nicknames"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Orcadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orkney_Islands"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gairm119-9"},{"link_name":"Pabbay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pabbay,_Harris"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gairm121-10"}],"sub_title":"Geographical references","text":"An t-Arcach (\"The Orcadian\"), a man who used to fish around the Orkney Islands in his youth[8]\nBliadhnach Phabaigh (\"Pabbay yearling\"), a woman who had been a year old when the Isle of Pabbay was cleared of people[9]","title":"Nicknames"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gairm127-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gairm130-12"}],"sub_title":"Humorous names","text":"Calum Seòladair (\"Calum Sailor\"), an unusual name for a woman who was in the habit of wearing a sailor's cap[10]\nClag a' Bhaile (\"The town bell\"), a man with a very loud voice[11]","title":"Nicknames"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ormacleit Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ormacleit_Castle"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gairm131-13"},{"link_name":"Nova Scotia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gairm119-9"}],"sub_title":"Occupation","text":"Ailean Còcaire (\"Alan the cook\"), a man who was employed at one time as the cook at Ormacleit Castle[12]\nAonghas a' Bhancair (\"Angus the banker\"), a man who was employed in a bank in Nova Scotia[8]\nDonchadh Clachair (\"Duncan the stonemason\" but always presented in English as the literal translation, \"Duncan Stoner\"), a known 19th and 20th century resident of Achadh an Droighinn/Auchindrain township in Argyll, Scotland: used for Duncan Munro, d. 1937.\nDomnhall Rothach (\"Donald on wheels\"), used in Argyll in the 1920s to describe a Donald MacCallum who ran a mobile grocer's shop in a van","title":"Nicknames"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gairm122-14"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gairm127-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gairm131-13"}],"sub_title":"Physical characteristics","text":"Bodach a' Chnatain (\"The old man of the cold\")[13]\nCalum na Coise (\"Calum of the leg\"), a man who had a short leg[10]\nDòmhnall na Cluaise (\"Donald of the ear\"), a man who is said to have lost an ear in a fight[12]\nRaibeart Bhan (\"Fair Robert\"), a man called Robert with light-coloured hair","title":"Nicknames"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gairm126-15"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gairm122-14"}],"sub_title":"Other","text":"An Caillteanach (\"The lost one\"), a man who had become lost, causing the entire village to spend the night looking for him[14]\nÌomhair a' Bhogha Mhaide (\"Ivor of the wooden bow\"), a renowned archer and one time resident of Pabay[13]\nBell a' Phuill (\"Bella who lives by the muddy place\"), used for Isabella McCallum (1822–1915) of Achadh an Droighinn/Auchindrain township in Argyll, Scotland: her house was close to the ford where the cattle crossed the burn","title":"Nicknames"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGS-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HS-8"},{"link_name":"genitive case","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genitive_case"},{"link_name":"epithet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epithet"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HS-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HS-8"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CGS-1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"Due to the relative paucity of names and surnames in Gaelic, the official name of a person (i.e. first name plus a surname, in Gaelic or English/Scots) is rarely used in Gaelic speaking communities as, with a small number of surnames usually predominating in an area, there are usually several people who go by the same combination, for example John MacLeod might apply to several people in the same village.[1][7] In everyday life, this is usually solved by using the first name of a man, followed by the first name of his father in the genitive case or by using the first name plus an epithet.[7] So a man called James (Seumas) with a father called Neil (Niall) would become Seumas Nèill or Seumas a' Ghlinne (\"James of the glen\").[7] In the case of married women, the convention is normally to use bean (\"wife\") plus the husband's first name and father's first name, in our example resulting in Bean Sheumais Nèill (\"the wife of Neil's James\"). The (fictitious) family tree below illustrates this custom.Historically, such an identifying name would take the mac \"son\" element, e.g. Dòmhnall mac Sheumais mac Nèill (\"Donald son of James son of Neill\") but in modern usage, this is usually dropped, resulting in Dòmhnall Sheumais Nèill.[1]Identifying names sometimes use female reference points, for example if a local woman marries an outsider, this may result in the children being identified via the mother. Dòmhnall Chiorstan (\"Kirsten's Donald\") for instance would indicate a son called Donald with a mother called Kirsten.[15]","title":"Identifying names"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"^ East Sutherland Gaelic uses mac for both male and female surnames.[4]","title":"Notes"}]

[]

[{"title":"Celtic onomastics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_onomastics"},{"title":"Icelandic names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_name"},{"title":"Irish name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_name"},{"title":"Russian patronymics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_names#Patronymic"},{"title":"List of Scottish Gaelic given names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Scottish_Gaelic_given_names"},{"title":"List of Scottish Gaelic surnames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Scottish_Gaelic_surnames"},{"title":"Scottish toponymy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_toponymy"},{"title":"Welsh surnames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_surnames"},{"title":"Scottish names in Ulster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_names_in_Ulster"}]

[{"reference":"Dorian, Nancy C. (1981). Language death: the life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 88. ISBN 9780812277852. Retrieved 24 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0cx4AAAAIAAJ&q=language+death","url_text":"Language death: the life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780812277852","url_text":"9780812277852"}]},{"reference":"Madeg, Mikael (1982). \"Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (3)\". Gairm. 127.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Madeg, Mikael (1982–83). \"Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (5)\". Gairm. 121.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Madeg, Mikael (1984). \"Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (9)\". Gairm. 127.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Madeg, Mikael (1985). \"Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (11)\". Gairm. 130.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Madeg, Mikael (1985). \"Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (12)\". Gairm. 131.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Madeg, Mikael (1983). \"Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (6)\". Gairm. 122.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Madeg, Mikael (1984). \"Far-ainmean Gàidhlig (8)\". Gairm. 126.","urls":[]}]

[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scottish_Gaelic_name&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve it"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0cx4AAAAIAAJ&q=language+death","external_links_name":"Language death: the life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_protectorate

British protectorate

["1 Implementation","2 List of former British protectorates","2.1 Americas","2.2 Arab world","2.3 Asia","2.4 Europe","2.5 Sub-Saharan Africa","2.6 Oceania","3 List of former British protected states","4 References","5 Bibliography"]

Territory over which the British government exercised limited jurisdiction For the period during the Commonwealth of England, see The Protectorate. British protectorates were protectorates—or client states—under protection of the British Empire's armed forces and represented by British diplomats in international arenas, such as the Great Game, in which the Emirate of Afghanistan and the Tibetan Kingdom became protected states for short periods of time. Many territories which became British protectorates already had local rulers with whom the Crown negotiated through treaty, acknowledging their status whilst simultaneously offering protection, e.g. British Paramountcy. British protectorates were therefore governed by indirect rule. In most cases, the local ruler, as well as the subjects of the indigenous ruler were not British subjects. British protected states represented a more loose form of British suzerainty, where the local rulers retained absolute control over the states' internal affairs and the British exercised control over defence and foreign affairs. Implementation When the British took over Cephalonia in 1809, they proclaimed, "We present ourselves to you, Inhabitants of Cephalonia, not as invaders, with views of conquest, but as allies who hold forth to you the advantages of British protection." When the British continued to occupy the Ionian Islands after the Napoleonic wars, they did not formally annex the islands but described them as a protectorate. The islands were constituted by the Treaty of Paris in 1815 as the independent United States of the Ionian Islands under British protection. Similarly, Malta was a British protectorate between the capitulation of the French in 1800 and the Treaty of Paris of 1814. The princely states of India was another example of indirect rule during the time of Empire. So too were many of the West African holdings. Other British protectorates followed. In the Pacific Ocean the sixteen islands of the Gilberts (now Kiribati) were declared a British Protectorate by Captain Davis R.N., of HMS Royalist between 27 May and 17 June 1892. The Royalist also visited each of the Ellice Islands, and Captain Davis was requested by islanders to raise the British flag, but he did not have instructions to declare the Ellice Islands as a protectorate. The nine islands of the Ellice Group (now Tuvalu) were declared a British Protectorate by Captain Gibson R.N., of HMS Curacoa, between 9 and 16 October of the same year. Britain defined its area of interest in the Solomon Islands in June 1893, when Captain Gibson R.N., of HMS Curacoa, declared the southern Solomon Islands as a British Protectorate with the proclamation of the British Solomon Islands Protectorate. In 1894, Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone's government officially announced that Uganda, where Muslim and Christian strife had attracted international attention, was to become a British Protectorate. The British administration installed carefully selected local kings under a programme of indirect rule through the local oligarchy, creating a network of British-controlled civil service. Most British protectorates were overseen by a Commissioner or a High Commissioner, under the Foreign Office, rather than a Governor under the Colonial Office. British law makes a distinction between a protectorate and a protected state. Constitutionally the two are of similar status, in which Britain provides controlled defence and external relations. However, a protectorate has an internal government established, while a protected state establishes a form of local internal self-government based on the already existing one. Persons connected with a former British protectorate, protected state, mandated territory or trust territory may remain British Protected Persons if they did not acquire the nationality of the country at independence. The last British protectorate proper was the British Solomon Islands, now Solomon Islands, which gained independence in 1978; the last British protected state was Brunei, which gained full independence in 1984. List of former British protectorates Americas Barbados (1627–1652) (as a proprietary colony under William Courteen, followed by James Hay I)  Mosquito Coast (1638–1860) (over Central America's Miskito Indian nation) Arab world Aden Protectorate (1872–1963); precursor state of South Yemen Eastern Protectorate States (mostly in Haudhramaut); later the Protectorate of South Arabia (1963–1967) Kathiri Mahra Qu'aiti Upper Yafa (consisted of five Sheikhdoms: Al-Busi, Al-Dhubi, Hadrami, Maflahi, and Mawsata) Hawra Irqa Western Protectorate States; later the Federation of South Arabia (1959/1962-1967), including Aden Colony Wahidi Sultanates (these included: Balhaf, Azzan, Bir Ali, and Habban) Beihan Dhala and Qutaibi Fadhli Lahej Lower Yafa Audhali Haushabi Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom Upper Aulaqi Sultanate Lower Aulaqi Alawi Aqrabi Dathina Shaib Nejd Hasa Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922) Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956) (condominium with Egypt) Asia Sultanate of Maldives (1887–1965)  Kingdom of Sikkim (1861–1947) Manipur Kingdom (1826–1891) Various British Raj Princely States (1845-1947) – The princely states were lower in status than protectorates as the British reserved the right to interfere in internal matters under the principle of British Paramountcy. Europe British Cyprus (1871–1914) (put under British military administration 1914–22 then proclaimed a Crown colony 1922–60) Malta Protectorate (1800–1813); Crown Colony of Malta proclaimed in 1813) (de jure part of the Kingdom of Sicily but under British protection) Ionian islands (1815–1864) (a Greek state and amical protectorate of Great Britain between 1815 and 1864) Sub-Saharan Africa  Barotseland Protectorate (1900–1964) Bechuanaland Protectorate (1885–1966)  British Somaliland (1884–1960) East Africa Protectorate (1895–1920) Gambia Colony and Protectorate* (1894–1965) Kenya Protectorate* (1920–1963) Nigeria* (1914-1960) Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914)  Northern Rhodesia (1924–1964) Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British protectorate) (1901–1957) Nyasaland Protectorate (1893–1964) ( British Central Africa Protectorate until 1907) Sierra Leone Protectorate* (1896–1961) Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914) Swaziland (1903–1968) Uganda Protectorate (1894–1962) Walvis Bay (1878–1884)  Sultanate of Zanzibar (1890–1963) *protectorates that existed alongside a colony of the same name Oceania  Territory of Papua (1884–1888) British Solomon Islands (1893–1978) Cook Islands (1888–1901)  Gilbert and Ellice Islands (1892–1916) Niue (1900–1901) Tokelau (1877–1916) List of former British protected states As protected states, the following states were never officially part of the British Empire and retained near-total control over internal affairs; however, the British controlled their foreign policy. Their status was rarely advertised while it was in effect, it becoming clear only after it was lifted.  Brunei (1888–1984)  Bhutan (1910–1947) Cis-Sutlej states(Some states:1809–1849; All states:1849-1947)  Emirate of Afghanistan (1879–1919)  Kingdom of Nepal (1816–1923)  Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1936) Federation of Malaya (1948–1957)  Federated Malay States (1895–1946)  Negeri Sembilan (1888–1895) Sungai Ujong (1874–1888) Jelebu (1886–1895)  Pahang (1888–1895)  Perak (1874–1895)  Selangor (1874–1895) Unfederated Malay States (1904/09–1946)  Johor (1914–1946)  Johor Muar (1897–1909)  Kedah (1909–1946)  Kelantan (1909–1946)  Perlis (1909–1946)  Terengganu (1919–1946)  Tonga (1900–1970) British Residency of the Persian Gulf (1822–1971); headquarters based at Bushire, Persia Persia (1919–1921)  Bahrain (1880–1971) Sheikhdom of Kuwait (1899–1961) Qatar (1916–1971)  Trucial States; precursor state of the UAE (1892–1971) Abu Dhabi (1820–1971) Ajman (1820–1971) Dubai (1835–1971) Fujairah (1952–1971) Ras Al Khaimah (1820–1971) Sharjah (1820–1971) Kalba (1936–1951) Umm al-Qaiwain (1820–1971)  Muscat and Oman (1892–1970) (informal)  Kingdom of Sarawak (1888–1946) North Borneo (1888–1946) Sultanate of Maldives (1948-1965) Swaziland (1967–1968) References ^ UK Statutory Instruments (1974). "The British Protectorates, Protected States and Protected Persons Order 1974". Retrieved 28 February 2023. ^ a b c Onley, The Raj Reconsidered (2009), pp. 50–51. ^ Commons, Great Britain Parliament House of (1801). Accounts and Papers of the House of Commons. Ordered to be printed. ^ Lakshmi Iyer, "Direct versus indirect colonial rule in India: Long-term consequences." The Review of Economics and Statistics (2010) 92#4 pp. 693–713 online Archived 3 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine ^ Adiele Eberechukwu Afigbo, The Warrant Chiefs: indirect rule in southeastern Nigeria, 1891–1929 (London: Longman, 1972) ^ Resture, Jane. "TUVALU HISTORY – 'The Davis Diaries' (H.M.S. Royalist, 1892 visit to Ellice Islands under Captain Davis)". Janeresture.com. Retrieved 20 September 2011. ^ Faaniu, Simati (1983). "Chapter 17, Colonial Rule". In Laracy, Hugh (ed.). Tuvalu: A History. University of the South Pacific/Government of Tuvalu. pp. 127–139. ^ Commonwealth and Colonial Law by Kenneth Roberts-Wray, London, Stevens, 1966. P. 897 ^ "Brunei - History | Britannica". ^ a b Onley, The Raj Reconsidered (2009), p. 51. ^ "Timeline – Story of Independence". Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2020. ^ Mullard, Saul (2011), Opening the Hidden Land: State Formation and the Construction of Sikkimese History, BRILL, p. 184, ISBN 978-90-04-20895-7 ^ Phanjoubam, Pradip (2015), The Northeast Question: Conflicts and frontiers, Routledge, pp. 3–4, ISBN 978-1-317-34004-1 ^ a b c d e f Onley, The Raj Reconsidered (2009), p. 50. ^ Cunningham, Joseph Davy (1849). A History of the Sikhs: From the Origin of the Nation to the Battles of the Sutlej. John Murray. ^ Meyer, William Stevenson (1908). "Ferozepur district". The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Vol. XII. p. 90. But the British Government, established at Delhi since 1803, intervened with an offer of protection to all the CIS-SUTLEJ STATES; and Dhanna Singh gladly availed himself of the promised aid, being one of the first chieftains to accept British protection ^ "Histories of the Modern Middle East". Laits.utexas.edu. Retrieved 21 April 2019. ^ Francis Carey Owtram (1999). "Oman and the West: State Formation in Oman since 1920" (PDF). University of London. Retrieved 31 October 2020. Bibliography Onley, James (March 2009), "The Raj Reconsidered: British India's Informal Empire and Spheres of Influence in Asia and Africa" (PDF), Asian Affairs, 11 (1), archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2022, retrieved 16 November 2019 ^ The British held a de jure protected state over Afghanistan. Despite agreeing to the terms of the Treaty of Gandamak, Abdur Rahman Khan held Afghanistan as a de-facto independent state by holding external affairs with other nations such as Persia and Russia, and often opposing the British.

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Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahidi_Bir_Ali"},{"link_name":"Habban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahidi_Haban"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Beihan.svg"},{"link_name":"Beihan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Beihan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Dhala.svg"},{"link_name":"Dhala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Dhala"},{"link_name":"Qutaibi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qutaibi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Sultanate_of_Fadhli.svg"},{"link_name":"Fadhli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fadhli_Sultanate"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Sultanate_of_Lahej.svg"},{"link_name":"Lahej","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_Lahej"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Lower_Yafa.svg"},{"link_name":"Lower Yafa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Yafa"},{"link_name":"Audhali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audhali"},{"link_name":"Haushabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haushabi"},{"link_name":"Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Aulaqi_Sheikhdom"},{"link_name":"Upper Aulaqi Sultanate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Aulaqi_Sultanate"},{"link_name":"Lower Aulaqi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Aulaqi_Sultanate"},{"link_name":"Alawi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alawi_(sheikhdom)"},{"link_name":"Aqrabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqrabi"},{"link_name":"Dathina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dathina"},{"link_name":"Shaib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaib"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"Sultanate of Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_Egypt"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Egyptian Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan"}],"sub_title":"Arab world","text":"Aden Protectorate (1872–1963); precursor state of South Yemen[10]\nEastern Protectorate States (mostly in Haudhramaut); later the Protectorate of South Arabia (1963–1967)\n Kathiri\n Mahra\n Qu'aiti\n Upper Yafa (consisted of five Sheikhdoms: Al-Busi, Al-Dhubi, Hadrami, Maflahi, and Mawsata)\n Hawra\n Irqa\nWestern Protectorate States; later the Federation of South Arabia (1959/1962-1967), including Aden Colony\n Wahidi Sultanates (these included: Balhaf, Azzan, Bir Ali, and Habban)\n Beihan\n Dhala and Qutaibi\n Fadhli\n Lahej\n Lower Yafa\n Audhali\n Haushabi\n Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom\n Upper Aulaqi Sultanate\n Lower Aulaqi\n Alawi\n Aqrabi\n Dathina\n Shaib\nNejd\nHasa\n Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922)\n Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956) (condominium with Egypt)","title":"List of former British protectorates"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Maldives_1953.svg"},{"link_name":"Sultanate of Maldives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_Maldives"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mi-11"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Sikkim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Manipur Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manipur_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"British Raj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Raj"},{"link_name":"Princely States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princely_state"},{"link_name":"British Paramountcy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Paramountcy"}],"sub_title":"Asia","text":"Sultanate of Maldives (1887–1965)[11]\n Kingdom of Sikkim (1861–1947)[12]\nManipur Kingdom (1826–1891)[13]\nVarious British Raj Princely States (1845-1947) – The princely states were lower in status than protectorates as the British reserved the right to interfere in internal matters under the principle of British Paramountcy.","title":"List of former British protectorates"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Cyprus_(1881%E2%80%931922).svg"},{"link_name":"British Cyprus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Cyprus"},{"link_name":"Crown colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_colony"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies"},{"link_name":"Malta Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta_Protectorate"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta"},{"link_name":"Crown Colony of Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Colony_of_Malta"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_United_States_of_the_Ionian_Islands.svg"},{"link_name":"Ionian islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_the_Ionian_Islands"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks"},{"link_name":"state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_(polity)"},{"link_name":"amical protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amical_protectorate"}],"sub_title":"Europe","text":"British Cyprus (1871–1914) (put under British military administration 1914–22 then proclaimed a Crown colony 1922–60)\n Malta Protectorate (1800–1813); Crown Colony of Malta proclaimed in 1813) (de jure part of the Kingdom of Sicily but under British protection)\n Ionian islands (1815–1864) (a Greek state and amical protectorate of Great Britain between 1815 and 1864)","title":"List of former British protectorates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Barotseland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barotseland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Bechuanaland Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bechuanaland_Protectorate"},{"link_name":"British Somaliland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Somaliland"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnley,_The_Raj_Reconsidered200951-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Kenya_(1895%E2%80%931921).svg"},{"link_name":"East Africa Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Africa_Protectorate"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_The_Gambia_(1889%E2%80%931965).svg"},{"link_name":"Gambia Colony and Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambia_Colony_and_Protectorate"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Kenya_(1921%E2%80%931963).svg"},{"link_name":"Kenya Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya_Colony"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria"},{"link_name":"Nigeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_Nigeria"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate_(1900%E2%80%931914).svg"},{"link_name":"Northern Nigeria Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate"},{"link_name":"Northern Rhodesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Rhodesia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British protectorate)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Territories_of_the_Gold_Coast_(British_protectorate)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyasaland"},{"link_name":"Nyasaland Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyasaland_Protectorate"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_British_Central_Africa_Protectorate.svg"},{"link_name":"British Central Africa Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Central_Africa_Protectorate"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Sierra_Leone_(1916%E2%80%931961).gif"},{"link_name":"Sierra Leone Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Protectorate"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate_(1900%E2%80%931914).svg"},{"link_name":"Southern Nigeria Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate"},{"link_name":"Swaziland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swaziland#British_rule_over_Swaziland_(1906%E2%80%931968)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Uganda_Protectorate.svg"},{"link_name":"Uganda Protectorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Protectorate"},{"link_name":"Walvis Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walvis_Bay"},{"link_name":"Sultanate of Zanzibar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_Zanzibar"}],"sub_title":"Sub-Saharan Africa","text":"Barotseland Protectorate (1900–1964)\n Bechuanaland Protectorate (1885–1966)\n British Somaliland (1884–1960)[10]\n East Africa Protectorate (1895–1920)\n Gambia Colony and Protectorate* (1894–1965)\n Kenya Protectorate* (1920–1963)\n Nigeria* (1914-1960)\n Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914)\n Northern Rhodesia (1924–1964)\n Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British protectorate) (1901–1957)\n Nyasaland Protectorate (1893–1964) ( British Central Africa Protectorate until 1907)\n Sierra Leone Protectorate* (1896–1961)\n Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914)\n Swaziland (1903–1968)\n Uganda Protectorate (1894–1962)\n Walvis Bay (1878–1884)\n Sultanate of Zanzibar (1890–1963)*protectorates that existed alongside a colony of the same name","title":"List of former British protectorates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Territory of Papua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory_of_Papua"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Solomon_Islands_(1906%E2%80%931947).svg"},{"link_name":"British Solomon Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Solomon_Islands"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Cook_Islands_Federation.svg"},{"link_name":"Cook Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook_Islands_Federation"},{"link_name":"Gilbert and Ellice Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_and_Ellice_Islands"},{"link_name":"Niue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niue"},{"link_name":"Tokelau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokelau"}],"sub_title":"Oceania","text":"Territory of Papua (1884–1888)\n British Solomon Islands (1893–1978)\n Cook Islands (1888–1901)\n Gilbert and Ellice Islands (1892–1916)\n Niue (1900–1901)\n Tokelau (1877–1916)","title":"List of former British protectorates"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnley,_The_Raj_Reconsidered200950%E2%80%9351-2"},{"link_name":"Brunei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei"},{"link_name":"Bhutan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnley,_The_Raj_Reconsidered200950-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_British_East_India_Company_(1801).svg"},{"link_name":"Cis-Sutlej states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cis-Sutlej_states"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Emirate of Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnley,_The_Raj_Reconsidered200950-14"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnley,_The_Raj_Reconsidered200950-14"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya"},{"link_name":"Federation of Malaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_Malaya"},{"link_name":"Federated Malay States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federated_Malay_States"},{"link_name":"Negeri Sembilan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negeri_Sembilan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Sungei_Ujong.svg"},{"link_name":"Sungai Ujong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sungai_Ujong"},{"link_name":"Jelebu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jelebu"},{"link_name":"Pahang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pahang"},{"link_name":"Perak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perak"},{"link_name":"Selangor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selangor"},{"link_name":"Unfederated Malay States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfederated_Malay_States"},{"link_name":"Johor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johor"},{"link_name":"Johor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johor"},{"link_name":"Muar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muar_District"},{"link_name":"Kedah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedah"},{"link_name":"Kelantan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelantan"},{"link_name":"Perlis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perlis"},{"link_name":"Terengganu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terengganu"},{"link_name":"Tonga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonga"},{"link_name":"British Residency of the Persian Gulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf_Residency"},{"link_name":"Bushire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bushehr"},{"link_name":"Persia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:State_flag_of_Persia_(1907%E2%80%931933).svg"},{"link_name":"Persia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_Iran"},{"link_name":"Bahrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnley,_The_Raj_Reconsidered200950-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Kuwait_1940-1961.png"},{"link_name":"Sheikhdom of Kuwait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheikhdom_of_Kuwait"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnley,_The_Raj_Reconsidered200950-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Qatar_(1936%E2%80%931949).svg"},{"link_name":"Qatar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar"},{"link_name":"Trucial States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trucial_States"},{"link_name":"UAE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnley,_The_Raj_Reconsidered200950-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Abu_Dhabi.svg"},{"link_name":"Abu Dhabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Dhabi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Ajman.svg"},{"link_name":"Ajman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajman"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Dubai.svg"},{"link_name":"Dubai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Fujairah_(1952%E2%80%931961).svg"},{"link_name":"Fujairah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujairah"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Sharjah_and_Ras_Al_Khaimah.svg"},{"link_name":"Ras Al Khaimah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ras_Al_Khaimah"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Sharjah_and_Ras_Al_Khaimah.svg"},{"link_name":"Sharjah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharjah"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Sharjah_and_Ras_Al_Khaimah.svg"},{"link_name":"Kalba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalba"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Umm_al-Qaiwain.svg"},{"link_name":"Umm al-Qaiwain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umm_al-Qaiwain"},{"link_name":"Muscat and Oman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscat_and_Oman"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnley,_The_Raj_Reconsidered200950%E2%80%9351-2"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Sarawak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raj_of_Sarawak"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Borneo"},{"link_name":"North Borneo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Borneo"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Maldives_1953.svg"},{"link_name":"Sultanate of Maldives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_Maldives"},{"link_name":"Swaziland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eswatini#British_rule_over_Swaziland_(1906%E2%80%931968)"}],"text":"As protected states, the following states were never officially part of the British Empire and retained near-total control over internal affairs; however, the British controlled their foreign policy. Their status was rarely advertised while it was in effect, it becoming clear only after it was lifted.[2]Brunei (1888–1984)\n Bhutan (1910–1947)[14]\n Cis-Sutlej states[15][16](Some states:1809–1849; All states:1849-1947)\n Emirate of Afghanistan (1879–1919)[a][14]\n Kingdom of Nepal (1816–1923)[14]\n Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1936)[17]\n Federation of Malaya (1948–1957)\n Federated Malay States (1895–1946)\n Negeri Sembilan (1888–1895)\n Sungai Ujong (1874–1888)\n Jelebu (1886–1895)\n Pahang (1888–1895)\n Perak (1874–1895)\n Selangor (1874–1895)\n Unfederated Malay States (1904/09–1946)\n Johor (1914–1946)\n Johor Muar (1897–1909)\n Kedah (1909–1946)\n Kelantan (1909–1946)\n Perlis (1909–1946)\n Terengganu (1919–1946)\n Tonga (1900–1970)\n British Residency of the Persian Gulf (1822–1971); headquarters based at Bushire, Persia\n Persia (1919–1921)\n Bahrain (1880–1971)[14]\n Sheikhdom of Kuwait (1899–1961)[14]\n Qatar (1916–1971)\n Trucial States; precursor state of the UAE (1892–1971)[14]\n Abu Dhabi (1820–1971)\n Ajman (1820–1971)\n Dubai (1835–1971)\n Fujairah (1952–1971)\n Ras Al Khaimah (1820–1971)\n Sharjah (1820–1971)\n Kalba (1936–1951)\n Umm al-Qaiwain (1820–1971)\n Muscat and Oman (1892–1970) (informal)[18][2]\n Kingdom of Sarawak (1888–1946)\n North Borneo (1888–1946)\n Sultanate of Maldives (1948-1965)\n Swaziland (1967–1968)","title":"List of former British protected states"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Raj Reconsidered: British India's Informal Empire and Spheres of Influence in Asia and Africa\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"de jure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_jure"},{"link_name":"Abdur Rahman Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdur_Rahman_Khan"},{"link_name":"de-facto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto"}],"text":"Onley, James (March 2009), \"The Raj Reconsidered: British India's Informal Empire and Spheres of Influence in Asia and Africa\" (PDF), Asian Affairs, 11 (1), archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2022, retrieved 16 November 2019^ The British held a de jure protected state over Afghanistan. Despite agreeing to the terms of the Treaty of Gandamak, Abdur Rahman Khan held Afghanistan as a de-facto independent state by holding external affairs with other nations such as Persia and Russia, and often opposing the British.","title":"Bibliography"}]

[]

[{"reference":"UK Statutory Instruments (1974). \"The British Protectorates, Protected States and Protected Persons Order 1974\". Retrieved 28 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1974/1895/contents/made","url_text":"\"The British Protectorates, Protected States and Protected Persons Order 1974\""}]},{"reference":"Commons, Great Britain Parliament House of (1801). Accounts and Papers of the House of Commons. Ordered to be printed.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nS5bAAAAQAAJ&dq=We+present+ourselves+to+you,+Inhabitants+of+Cephalonia,+not+as+invaders,+with+views+of+conquest,+but+as+allies+who+hold+forth+to+you+the+advantages+of+British+protection&pg=RA18-PA2","url_text":"Accounts and Papers of the House of Commons"}]},{"reference":"Resture, Jane. \"TUVALU HISTORY – 'The Davis Diaries' (H.M.S. Royalist, 1892 visit to Ellice Islands under Captain Davis)\". Janeresture.com. Retrieved 20 September 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.janeresture.com/tuvalu_davis/index.htm","url_text":"\"TUVALU HISTORY – 'The Davis Diaries' (H.M.S. Royalist, 1892 visit to Ellice Islands under Captain Davis)\""}]},{"reference":"Faaniu, Simati (1983). \"Chapter 17, Colonial Rule\". In Laracy, Hugh (ed.). Tuvalu: A History. University of the South Pacific/Government of Tuvalu. pp. 127–139.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NWaSHqXlS30C","url_text":"Tuvalu: A History"}]},{"reference":"\"Brunei - History | Britannica\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/place/Brunei/History","url_text":"\"Brunei - History | Britannica\""}]},{"reference":"\"Timeline – Story of Independence\". Archived from the original on 27 July 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190727112628/https://maldivesindependent.com/politics/timeline-story-of-independence-115638","url_text":"\"Timeline – Story of Independence\""},{"url":"https://maldivesindependent.com/politics/timeline-story-of-independence-115638","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Mullard, Saul (2011), Opening the Hidden Land: State Formation and the Construction of Sikkimese History, BRILL, p. 184, ISBN 978-90-04-20895-7","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=G_1J4tgrYDUC&pg=PA184","url_text":"Opening the Hidden Land: State Formation and the Construction of Sikkimese History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20895-7","url_text":"978-90-04-20895-7"}]},{"reference":"Phanjoubam, Pradip (2015), The Northeast Question: Conflicts and frontiers, Routledge, pp. 3–4, ISBN 978-1-317-34004-1","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OxStCwAAQBAJ","url_text":"The Northeast Question: Conflicts and frontiers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34004-1","url_text":"978-1-317-34004-1"}]},{"reference":"Cunningham, Joseph Davy (1849). A History of the Sikhs: From the Origin of the Nation to the Battles of the Sutlej. John Murray.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/historyofsikhsfr01cunn","url_text":"A History of the Sikhs: From the Origin of the Nation to the Battles of the Sutlej"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Murray_(publishing_house)","url_text":"John Murray"}]},{"reference":"Meyer, William Stevenson (1908). \"Ferozepur district\". The Imperial Gazetteer of India. Vol. XII. p. 90. But the British Government, established at Delhi since 1803, intervened with an offer of protection to all the CIS-SUTLEJ STATES; and Dhanna Singh gladly availed himself of the promised aid, being one of the first chieftains to accept British protection","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Stevenson_Meyer","url_text":"Meyer, William Stevenson"},{"url":"https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V12_096.gif","url_text":"\"Ferozepur district\""}]},{"reference":"\"Histories of the Modern Middle East\". Laits.utexas.edu. Retrieved 21 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://laits.utexas.edu/modern_me/egypt/3/treaty","url_text":"\"Histories of the Modern Middle East\""}]},{"reference":"Francis Carey Owtram (1999). \"Oman and the West: State Formation in Oman since 1920\" (PDF). University of London. Retrieved 31 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1556/1/U126805.pdf","url_text":"\"Oman and the West: State Formation in Oman since 1920\""}]},{"reference":"Onley, James (March 2009), \"The Raj Reconsidered: British India's Informal Empire and Spheres of Influence in Asia and Africa\" (PDF), Asian Affairs, 11 (1), archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2022, retrieved 16 November 2019","urls":[{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf","url_text":"\"The Raj Reconsidered: British India's Informal Empire and Spheres of Influence in Asia and Africa\""},{"url":"https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]}]

[{"Link":"https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1974/1895/contents/made","external_links_name":"\"The British Protectorates, Protected States and Protected Persons Order 1974\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nS5bAAAAQAAJ&dq=We+present+ourselves+to+you,+Inhabitants+of+Cephalonia,+not+as+invaders,+with+views+of+conquest,+but+as+allies+who+hold+forth+to+you+the+advantages+of+British+protection&pg=RA18-PA2","external_links_name":"Accounts and Papers of the House of Commons"},{"Link":"http://www.people.hbs.edu/liyer/Iyer_Colonial_REStat.pdf","external_links_name":"online"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140903053002/http://www.people.hbs.edu/liyer/Iyer_Colonial_REStat.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.janeresture.com/tuvalu_davis/index.htm","external_links_name":"\"TUVALU HISTORY – 'The Davis Diaries' (H.M.S. Royalist, 1892 visit to Ellice Islands under Captain Davis)\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NWaSHqXlS30C","external_links_name":"Tuvalu: A History"},{"Link":"https://www.britannica.com/place/Brunei/History","external_links_name":"\"Brunei - History | Britannica\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190727112628/https://maldivesindependent.com/politics/timeline-story-of-independence-115638","external_links_name":"\"Timeline – Story of Independence\""},{"Link":"https://maldivesindependent.com/politics/timeline-story-of-independence-115638","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=G_1J4tgrYDUC&pg=PA184","external_links_name":"Opening the Hidden Land: State Formation and the Construction of Sikkimese History"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OxStCwAAQBAJ","external_links_name":"The Northeast Question: Conflicts and frontiers"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/historyofsikhsfr01cunn","external_links_name":"A History of the Sikhs: From the Origin of the Nation to the Battles of the Sutlej"},{"Link":"https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V12_096.gif","external_links_name":"\"Ferozepur district\""},{"Link":"http://laits.utexas.edu/modern_me/egypt/3/treaty","external_links_name":"\"Histories of the Modern Middle East\""},{"Link":"http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1556/1/U126805.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Oman and the West: State Formation in Oman since 1920\""},{"Link":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf","external_links_name":"\"The Raj Reconsidered: British India's Informal Empire and Spheres of Influence in Asia and Africa\""},{"Link":"https://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/iais/downloads/Onley_Raj_Reconsidered.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteen-segment_display

Fourteen-segment display

["1 Character encoding","1.1 Decimal","1.2 Latin alphabet","2 Applications","2.1 Incandescent lamp","2.2 Cold-cathode neon","2.3 Examples","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]

Display made up of 14 segments used for displaying numbers and Latin letters This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Fourteen-segment display" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The individual segments of a fourteen-segment display A fourteen-segment display (FSD) (sometimes referred to as a starburst display or Union Jack display) is a type of display based on 14 segments that can be turned on or off to produce letters and numerals. It is an expansion of the more common seven-segment display, having an additional four diagonal and two vertical segments with the middle horizontal segment broken in half. A seven-segment display suffices for numerals and certain letters, but unambiguously rendering the ISO basic Latin alphabet requires more detail. A slight variation is the sixteen-segment display which allows additional legibility in displaying letters or other symbols. A decimal point or comma may be present as an additional segment, or pair of segments; the comma (used for triple-digit groupings or as a decimal separator in many regions) is commonly formed by combining the decimal point with a closely 'attached' leftwards-descending arc-shaped segment. Electronic alphanumeric displays may use LEDs, LCDs, or vacuum fluorescent display devices. The LED variant is typically manufactured in single or dual character packages, allowing the system designer to choose the number of characters suiting the application. Often a character generator is used to translate 7-bit ASCII character codes to the 14 bits that indicate which of the 14 segments to turn on or off. Character encoding Arabic numerals on a 14-segment display By lighting different elements, different characters can be displayed. In a 14-segment display, there is also an optional 15th segment which is a decimal point (denoted as "DP"). Decimal Hexadecimal encoding of decimal numbers for 14-segment display Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Hex code 0xC3F 0x406 0xDB 0x8F 0xE6 0xED 0xFD 0x1401 0xFF 0xE7 Latin alphabet Latin letters on a 14 segment display A 14-segment display is mostly used to display text because the 14 elements allow all Latin letters to be displayed both in upper case and lower case (with a few exceptions like "s"). Hexadecimal Encoding of Latin Alphabet for 14-segment display Alphabet A B C D E F G H I J K L M N Hex code 0xF7 0x128F 0x39 0x120F 0xF9 0xF1 0xBD 0xF6 0x1209 0x1E 0x2470 0x38 0x536 0x2136 Alphabet O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Hex code 0x3F 0xF3 0x203F 0x20F3 0x18D 0x1201 0x3E 0xC30 0x2836 0x2D00 0x1500 0xC09 Applications Most of the ASCII characters (the double quote is missing) on a 14-segment display Multiple-segment display devices use fewer elements than a full dot-matrix display, and may produce a better character appearance where the segments are shaped appropriately. This can reduce power consumption and the number of driver components. Fourteen-segment gas-plasma displays were used in pinball machines from 1986 through 1991 with an additional comma and period part making for a total of 16 segments. Fourteen and sixteen-segment displays were used to produce alphanumeric characters on calculators and other embedded systems. Applications today include displays fitted to telephone Caller ID units, gymnasium equipment, VCRs, car stereos, microwave ovens, slot machines, and DVD players. Such displays were very common on pinball machines for displaying the score and other information, before the widespread use of dot-matrix display panels. Incandescent lamp Multiple segment alphanumeric displays are nearly as old as the use of electricity. A 1908 textbook describes an alphanumeric display system using incandescent lamps and a mechanical switching arrangement. Each of 21 lamps was connected to a switch operated by a set of slotted bars, installed in a rotating drum. This commutator assembly could be arranged so that as the drum was rotated, different sets of switches were closed and different letters and figures could be displayed. The scheme would have been used for "talking" signs to spell out messages, but a complete set of commutator switches, drums and lamps would have been required for each letter of a message, making the resulting sign quite expensive. Cold-cathode neon A few different versions of the fourteen segment display exist as cold-cathode neon lamps. For example, one type made by Burroughs Corporation was called "Panaplex". Instead of using a filament as the incandescent versions do, these use a cathode charged to a 180 V potential which causes the electrified segment to glow a bright orange color. They operated similarly to Nixie tubes but instead of the full-formed numeric shapes, used segments to make up numerals and letters. Examples A four-character 14-segment display. Note unbroken top and bottom segments in comparison with a sixteen-segment display. LCD fourteen-segment display as used on Hewlett-Packard's HP-41 range of programmable engineering calculators from the late 1970s 14-segment LCD as used on the Hewlett-Packard HP3478A Multimeter LCD fourteen-segment characters on an after-market car stereo An inverted, backlit fourteen-segment LC display (LCD) used in a Sony MHC-EC55 Mini Hi-Fi Component System See also 7-, 9-, 14-, and 16-segment displays shown side by side Seven-segment display Eight-segment display Nine-segment display Sixteen-segment display Dot matrix display Nixie tube display Vacuum fluorescent display References ^ "AlphaNum G click with 14-segment LED display released". MikroElectronika Blog. MikroElektronika. Retrieved 11 March 2018. ^ "EFM32 Series 0 LCD Driver Application Note" (PDF). Silicon Laboratories. p. 11. Retrieved 11 March 2018. ^ Richard C. Dorf (ed.) The Electrical Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1993, ISBN 0-8493-0185-8 page 1770 ^ Maxim Integrated. "Application Note 3211: Driving 14-Segment Displays". 2004. ^ I. C. S. Reference Library Volume 4B, Scranton, International Textbook Company, 1908, no ISBN ^ Burroughs b5791 Tube Data ^ http://www.ineedcaffeine.com/content/the-burroughs-b7971/ Archived 2015-04-02 at the Wayback Machine Burroughs B7971 segmented display tube illustration, retrieved 2012 July 19 External links Media related to Fourteen segment displays at Wikimedia Commons vteDisplay technologyVideo displaysPastgeneration Eidophor Cathode-ray tube (CRT) Jumbotron Electroluminescent display (ELD) Rear-projection display Plasma display panel (PDP) ALiS Current generation Quantum dot display (QLED) Electronic paper E Ink Gyricon Light-emitting diode display (LED) Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) Active-Matrix Organic light-emitting diode (AMOLED) Liquid-crystal display (LCD) TFT TN IPS LED Blue Phase Digital Light Processing (DLP) Liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS) Next generation microLED Electroluminescent Quantum Dots (ELQD/QD-LED) Organic light-emitting transistor (OLET) Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED) Field-emission display (FED) Laser TV Quantum dot Liquid crystal MEMS display IMoD TMOS Ferroelectric liquid crystal display (FLCD) Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent technology (TDEL) Laser-powered phosphor display (LPD) Non-video Electromechanical Flip-dot Split-flap Vane Eggcrate Fiber-optic Nixie tube Vacuum fluorescent display (VFD) Light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC) Lightguide display Dot-matrix display Seven-segment display (SSD) Eight-segment display Nine-segment display Fourteen-segment display (FSD) Sixteen-segment display (SISD) 3D display Stereoscopic Autostereoscopic Multiscopic Hologram Holographic display Computer-generated holography Volumetric Fog display Static media Monoscope Movie projector Neon sign Slide projector Transparency Laser beam Display capabilities EDID CEA-861 DisplayID Always-on display See-through display Related articles Scan line History of display technology Large-screen television technology Optimum HDTV viewing distance High Dynamic Range (HDR) Color Light Output Flexible display Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays Comparison of display technology

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It is an expansion of the more common seven-segment display, having an additional four diagonal and two vertical segments with the middle horizontal segment broken in half. A seven-segment display suffices for numerals and certain letters, but unambiguously rendering the ISO basic Latin alphabet requires more detail.[3] A slight variation is the sixteen-segment display which allows additional legibility in displaying letters or other symbols.A decimal point or comma may be present as an additional segment, or pair of segments; the comma (used for triple-digit groupings or as a decimal separator in many regions) is commonly formed by combining the decimal point with a closely 'attached' leftwards-descending arc-shaped segment.Electronic alphanumeric displays may use LEDs, LCDs, or vacuum fluorescent display devices. The LED variant is typically manufactured in single or dual character packages, allowing the system designer to choose the number of characters suiting the application.Often a character generator is used to translate 7-bit ASCII character codes to the 14 bits that indicate which of the 14 segments to turn on or off.[4]","title":"Fourteen-segment display"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arabic_number_on_a_14_segement_display.gif"}],"text":"Arabic numerals on a 14-segment displayBy lighting different elements, different characters can be displayed.In a 14-segment display, there is also an optional 15th segment which is a decimal point (denoted as \"DP\").","title":"Character encoding"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Decimal","title":"Character encoding"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Latin_alphabet_on_a_14_segement_display.gif"},{"link_name":"Latin letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_alphabet"},{"link_name":"upper case","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_CASE"},{"link_name":"lower case","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_case"}],"sub_title":"Latin alphabet","text":"Latin letters on a 14 segment displayA 14-segment display is mostly used to display text because the 14 elements allow all Latin letters to be displayed both in upper case and lower case (with a few exceptions like \"s\").","title":"Character encoding"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:14_Segment_LCD_characters.jpg"},{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII"},{"link_name":"gas-plasma displays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_display"},{"link_name":"pinball machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinball_machines"},{"link_name":"comma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comma_(punctuation)"},{"link_name":"period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period_(punctuation)"},{"link_name":"alphanumeric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphanumeric"},{"link_name":"calculators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator"},{"link_name":"embedded systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system"},{"link_name":"Caller ID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caller_ID"},{"link_name":"VCRs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videocassette_recorder"},{"link_name":"car stereos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_audio"},{"link_name":"microwave ovens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_oven"},{"link_name":"slot machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slot_machine"}],"text":"Most of the ASCII characters (the double quote is missing) on a 14-segment displayMultiple-segment display devices use fewer elements than a full dot-matrix display, and may produce a better character appearance where the segments are shaped appropriately. 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Note unbroken top and bottom segments in comparison with a sixteen-segment display.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLCD fourteen-segment display as used on Hewlett-Packard's HP-41 range of programmable engineering calculators from the late 1970s\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t14-segment LCD as used on the Hewlett-Packard HP3478A Multimeter\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLCD fourteen-segment characters on an after-market car stereo\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAn inverted, backlit fourteen-segment LC display (LCD) used in a Sony MHC-EC55 Mini Hi-Fi Component System","title":"Applications"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_quantum_mechanics

Relativistic quantum mechanics

["1 Combining special relativity and quantum mechanics","1.1 Space and time","1.2 Non-relativistic and relativistic Hamiltonians","1.3 The Klein–Gordon and Dirac equations for free particles","1.4 Densities and currents","2 Spin and electromagnetically interacting particles","2.1 Spin 0","2.2 Spin 1/2","2.3 Helicity and chirality","2.4 Higher spins","3 Velocity operator","4 Relativistic quantum Lagrangians","5 Relativistic quantum angular momentum","5.1 Thomas precession and spin–orbit interactions","6 History","6.1 Relativistic description of particles in quantum phenomena","6.2 Experiments","6.3 Quantum non-locality and relativistic locality","6.4 The Lamb shift","6.5 Development of quantum electrodynamics","7 See also","7.1 Atomic physics and chemistry","7.2 Mathematical physics","7.3 Particle physics and quantum field theory","8 Footnotes","9 References","9.1 Selected books","9.2 Group theory in quantum physics","9.3 Selected papers","10 Further reading","10.1 Relativistic quantum mechanics and field theory","10.2 Quantum theory and applications in general","11 External links"]

Quantum mechanics taking into account particles near or at the speed of light Part of a series of articles aboutQuantum mechanics i ℏ d d t | Ψ ⟩ = H ^ | Ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\Psi \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\Psi \rangle } Schrödinger equation Introduction Glossary History Background Classical mechanics Old quantum theory Bra–ket notation Hamiltonian Interference Fundamentals Complementarity Decoherence Entanglement Energy level Measurement Nonlocality Quantum number State Superposition Symmetry Tunnelling Uncertainty Wave function Collapse Experiments Bell's inequality Davisson–Germer Double-slit Elitzur–Vaidman Franck–Hertz Leggett–Garg inequality Mach–Zehnder Popper Quantum eraser Delayed-choice Schrödinger's cat Stern–Gerlach Wheeler's delayed-choice Formulations Overview Heisenberg Interaction Matrix Phase-space Schrödinger Sum-over-histories (path integral) Equations Dirac Klein–Gordon Pauli Rydberg Schrödinger Interpretations Bayesian Consistent histories Copenhagen de Broglie–Bohm Ensemble Hidden-variable Local Superdeterminism Many-worlds Objective collapse Quantum logic Relational Transactional Von Neumann–Wigner Advanced topics Relativistic quantum mechanics Quantum field theory Quantum information science Quantum computing Quantum chaos EPR paradox Density matrix Scattering theory Quantum statistical mechanics Quantum machine learning Scientists Aharonov Bell Bethe Blackett Bloch Bohm Bohr Born Bose de Broglie Compton Dirac Davisson Debye Ehrenfest Einstein Everett Fock Fermi Feynman Glauber Gutzwiller Heisenberg Hilbert Jordan Kramers Lamb Landau Laue Moseley Millikan Onnes Pauli Planck Rabi Raman Rydberg Schrödinger Simmons Sommerfeld von Neumann Weyl Wien Wigner Zeeman Zeilinger vte In physics, relativistic quantum mechanics (RQM) is any Poincaré covariant formulation of quantum mechanics (QM). This theory is applicable to massive particles propagating at all velocities up to those comparable to the speed of light c, and can accommodate massless particles. The theory has application in high energy physics, particle physics and accelerator physics, as well as atomic physics, chemistry and condensed matter physics. Non-relativistic quantum mechanics refers to the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics applied in the context of Galilean relativity, more specifically quantizing the equations of classical mechanics by replacing dynamical variables by operators. Relativistic quantum mechanics (RQM) is quantum mechanics applied with special relativity. Although the earlier formulations, like the Schrödinger picture and Heisenberg picture were originally formulated in a non-relativistic background, a few of them (e.g. the Dirac or path-integral formalism) also work with special relativity. Key features common to all RQMs include: the prediction of antimatter, spin magnetic moments of elementary spin 1⁄2 fermions, fine structure, and quantum dynamics of charged particles in electromagnetic fields. The key result is the Dirac equation, from which these predictions emerge automatically. By contrast, in non-relativistic quantum mechanics, terms have to be introduced artificially into the Hamiltonian operator to achieve agreement with experimental observations. The most successful (and most widely used) RQM is relativistic quantum field theory (QFT), in which elementary particles are interpreted as field quanta. A unique consequence of QFT that has been tested against other RQMs is the failure of conservation of particle number, for example in matter creation and annihilation. In this article, the equations are written in familiar 3D vector calculus notation and use hats for operators (not necessarily in the literature), and where space and time components can be collected, tensor index notation is shown also (frequently used in the literature), in addition the Einstein summation convention is used. SI units are used here; Gaussian units and natural units are common alternatives. All equations are in the position representation; for the momentum representation the equations have to be Fourier transformed – see position and momentum space. Combining special relativity and quantum mechanics One approach is to modify the Schrödinger picture to be consistent with special relativity. A postulate of quantum mechanics is that the time evolution of any quantum system is given by the Schrödinger equation: i ℏ ∂ ∂ t ψ = H ^ ψ {\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\psi ={\hat {H}}\psi } using a suitable Hamiltonian operator Ĥ corresponding to the system. The solution is a complex-valued wavefunction ψ(r, t), a function of the 3D position vector r of the particle at time t, describing the behavior of the system. Every particle has a non-negative spin quantum number s. The number 2s is an integer, odd for fermions and even for bosons. Each s has 2s + 1 z-projection quantum numbers; σ = s, s − 1, ... , −s + 1, −s. This is an additional discrete variable the wavefunction requires; ψ(r, t, σ). Historically, in the early 1920s Pauli, Kronig, Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit were the first to propose the concept of spin. The inclusion of spin in the wavefunction incorporates the Pauli exclusion principle (1925) and the more general spin–statistics theorem (1939) due to Fierz, rederived by Pauli a year later. This is the explanation for a diverse range of subatomic particle behavior and phenomena: from the electronic configurations of atoms, nuclei (and therefore all elements on the periodic table and their chemistry), to the quark configurations and colour charge (hence the properties of baryons and mesons). A fundamental prediction of special relativity is the relativistic energy–momentum relation; for a particle of rest mass m, and in a particular frame of reference with energy E and 3-momentum p with magnitude in terms of the dot product p = p ⋅ p {\displaystyle p={\sqrt {\mathbf {p} \cdot \mathbf {p} }}} , it is: E 2 = c 2 p ⋅ p + ( m c 2 ) 2 . {\displaystyle E^{2}=c^{2}\mathbf {p} \cdot \mathbf {p} +(mc^{2})^{2}\,.} These equations are used together with the energy and momentum operators, which are respectively: E ^ = i ℏ ∂ ∂ t , p ^ = − i ℏ ∇ , {\displaystyle {\hat {E}}=i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\,,\quad {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}=-i\hbar \nabla \,,} to construct a relativistic wave equation (RWE): a partial differential equation consistent with the energy–momentum relation, and is solved for ψ to predict the quantum dynamics of the particle. For space and time to be placed on equal footing, as in relativity, the orders of space and time partial derivatives should be equal, and ideally as low as possible, so that no initial values of the derivatives need to be specified. This is important for probability interpretations, exemplified below. The lowest possible order of any differential equation is the first (zeroth order derivatives would not form a differential equation). The Heisenberg picture is another formulation of QM, in which case the wavefunction ψ is time-independent, and the operators A(t) contain the time dependence, governed by the equation of motion: d d t A = 1 i ℏ [ A , H ^ ] + ∂ ∂ t A , {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}A={\frac {1}{i\hbar }}+{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}A\,,} This equation is also true in RQM, provided the Heisenberg operators are modified to be consistent with SR. Historically, around 1926, Schrödinger and Heisenberg show that wave mechanics and matrix mechanics are equivalent, later furthered by Dirac using transformation theory. A more modern approach to RWEs, first introduced during the time RWEs were developing for particles of any spin, is to apply representations of the Lorentz group. Space and time In classical mechanics and non-relativistic QM, time is an absolute quantity all observers and particles can always agree on, "ticking away" in the background independent of space. Thus in non-relativistic QM one has for a many particle system ψ(r1, r2, r3, ..., t, σ1, σ2, σ3...). In relativistic mechanics, the spatial coordinates and coordinate time are not absolute; any two observers moving relative to each other can measure different locations and times of events. The position and time coordinates combine naturally into a four-dimensional spacetime position X = (ct, r) corresponding to events, and the energy and 3-momentum combine naturally into the four-momentum P = (E/c, p) of a dynamic particle, as measured in some reference frame, change according to a Lorentz transformation as one measures in a different frame boosted and/or rotated relative the original frame in consideration. The derivative operators, and hence the energy and 3-momentum operators, are also non-invariant and change under Lorentz transformations. Under a proper orthochronous Lorentz transformation (r, t) → Λ(r, t) in Minkowski space, all one-particle quantum states ψσ locally transform under some representation D of the Lorentz group: ψ σ ( r , t ) → D ( Λ ) ψ σ ( Λ − 1 ( r , t ) ) {\displaystyle \psi _{\sigma }(\mathbf {r} ,t)\rightarrow D(\Lambda )\psi _{\sigma }(\Lambda ^{-1}(\mathbf {r} ,t))} where D(Λ) is a finite-dimensional representation, in other words a (2s + 1)×(2s + 1) square matrix . Again, ψ is thought of as a column vector containing components with the (2s + 1) allowed values of σ. The quantum numbers s and σ as well as other labels, continuous or discrete, representing other quantum numbers are suppressed. One value of σ may occur more than once depending on the representation. Further information: Generator (mathematics), group theory, Representation theory of the Lorentz group, and symmetries in quantum mechanics Non-relativistic and relativistic Hamiltonians Main article: Hamiltonian operator The classical Hamiltonian for a particle in a potential is the kinetic energy p·p/2m plus the potential energy V(r, t), with the corresponding quantum operator in the Schrödinger picture: H ^ = p ^ ⋅ p ^ 2 m + V ( r , t ) {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}={\frac {{\hat {\mathbf {p} }}\cdot {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}}{2m}}+V(\mathbf {r} ,t)} and substituting this into the above Schrödinger equation gives a non-relativistic QM equation for the wavefunction: the procedure is a straightforward substitution of a simple expression. By contrast this is not as easy in RQM; the energy–momentum equation is quadratic in energy and momentum leading to difficulties. Naively setting: H ^ = E ^ = c 2 p ^ ⋅ p ^ + ( m c 2 ) 2 ⇒ i ℏ ∂ ∂ t ψ = c 2 p ^ ⋅ p ^ + ( m c 2 ) 2 ψ {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}={\hat {E}}={\sqrt {c^{2}{\hat {\mathbf {p} }}\cdot {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}+(mc^{2})^{2}}}\quad \Rightarrow \quad i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\psi ={\sqrt {c^{2}{\hat {\mathbf {p} }}\cdot {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}+(mc^{2})^{2}}}\,\psi } is not helpful for several reasons. The square root of the operators cannot be used as it stands; it would have to be expanded in a power series before the momentum operator, raised to a power in each term, could act on ψ. As a result of the power series, the space and time derivatives are completely asymmetric: infinite-order in space derivatives but only first order in the time derivative, which is inelegant and unwieldy. Again, there is the problem of the non-invariance of the energy operator, equated to the square root which is also not invariant. Another problem, less obvious and more severe, is that it can be shown to be nonlocal and can even violate causality: if the particle is initially localized at a point r0 so that ψ(r0, t = 0) is finite and zero elsewhere, then at any later time the equation predicts delocalization ψ(r, t) ≠ 0 everywhere, even for |r| > ct which means the particle could arrive at a point before a pulse of light could. This would have to be remedied by the additional constraint ψ(|r| > ct, t) = 0. There is also the problem of incorporating spin in the Hamiltonian, which isn't a prediction of the non-relativistic Schrödinger theory. Particles with spin have a corresponding spin magnetic moment quantized in units of μB, the Bohr magneton: μ ^ S = − g μ B ℏ S ^ , | μ S | = − g μ B σ , {\displaystyle {\hat {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}_{S}=-{\frac {g\mu _{B}}{\hbar }}{\hat {\mathbf {S} }}\,,\quad \left|{\boldsymbol {\mu }}_{S}\right|=-g\mu _{B}\sigma \,,} where g is the (spin) g-factor for the particle, and S the spin operator, so they interact with electromagnetic fields. For a particle in an externally applied magnetic field B, the interaction term H ^ B = − B ⋅ μ ^ S {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}_{B}=-\mathbf {B} \cdot {\hat {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}_{S}} has to be added to the above non-relativistic Hamiltonian. On the contrary; a relativistic Hamiltonian introduces spin automatically as a requirement of enforcing the relativistic energy-momentum relation. Relativistic Hamiltonians are analogous to those of non-relativistic QM in the following respect; there are terms including rest mass and interaction terms with externally applied fields, similar to the classical potential energy term, as well as momentum terms like the classical kinetic energy term. A key difference is that relativistic Hamiltonians contain spin operators in the form of matrices, in which the matrix multiplication runs over the spin index σ, so in general a relativistic Hamiltonian: H ^ = H ^ ( r , t , p ^ , S ^ ) {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}={\hat {H}}(\mathbf {r} ,t,{\hat {\mathbf {p} }},{\hat {\mathbf {S} }})} is a function of space, time, and the momentum and spin operators. The Klein–Gordon and Dirac equations for free particles Substituting the energy and momentum operators directly into the energy–momentum relation may at first sight seem appealing, to obtain the Klein–Gordon equation: E ^ 2 ψ = c 2 p ^ ⋅ p ^ ψ + ( m c 2 ) 2 ψ , {\displaystyle {\hat {E}}^{2}\psi =c^{2}{\hat {\mathbf {p} }}\cdot {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}\psi +(mc^{2})^{2}\psi \,,} and was discovered by many people because of the straightforward way of obtaining it, notably by Schrödinger in 1925 before he found the non-relativistic equation named after him, and by Klein and Gordon in 1927, who included electromagnetic interactions in the equation. This is relativistically invariant, yet this equation alone isn't a sufficient foundation for RQM for a at least two reasons: one is that negative-energy states are solutions, another is the density (given below), and this equation as it stands is only applicable to spinless particles. This equation can be factored into the form: ( E ^ − c α ⋅ p ^ − β m c 2 ) ( E ^ + c α ⋅ p ^ + β m c 2 ) ψ = 0 , {\displaystyle \left({\hat {E}}-c{\boldsymbol {\alpha }}\cdot {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}-\beta mc^{2}\right)\left({\hat {E}}+c{\boldsymbol {\alpha }}\cdot {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}+\beta mc^{2}\right)\psi =0\,,} where α = (α1, α2, α3) and β are not simply numbers or vectors, but 4 × 4 Hermitian matrices that are required to anticommute for i ≠ j: α i β = − β α i , α i α j = − α j α i , {\displaystyle \alpha _{i}\beta =-\beta \alpha _{i},\quad \alpha _{i}\alpha _{j}=-\alpha _{j}\alpha _{i}\,,} and square to the identity matrix: α i 2 = β 2 = I , {\displaystyle \alpha _{i}^{2}=\beta ^{2}=I\,,} so that terms with mixed second-order derivatives cancel while the second-order derivatives purely in space and time remain. The first factor: ( E ^ − c α ⋅ p ^ − β m c 2 ) ψ = 0 ⇔ H ^ = c α ⋅ p ^ + β m c 2 {\displaystyle \left({\hat {E}}-c{\boldsymbol {\alpha }}\cdot {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}-\beta mc^{2}\right)\psi =0\quad \Leftrightarrow \quad {\hat {H}}=c{\boldsymbol {\alpha }}\cdot {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}+\beta mc^{2}} is the Dirac equation. The other factor is also the Dirac equation, but for a particle of negative mass. Each factor is relativistically invariant. The reasoning can be done the other way round: propose the Hamiltonian in the above form, as Dirac did in 1928, then pre-multiply the equation by the other factor of operators E + cα · p + βmc2, and comparison with the KG equation determines the constraints on α and β. The positive mass equation can continue to be used without loss of continuity. The matrices multiplying ψ suggest it isn't a scalar wavefunction as permitted in the KG equation, but must instead be a four-component entity. The Dirac equation still predicts negative energy solutions, so Dirac postulated that negative energy states are always occupied, because according to the Pauli principle, electronic transitions from positive to negative energy levels in atoms would be forbidden. See Dirac sea for details. Densities and currents In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the square modulus of the wavefunction ψ gives the probability density function ρ = |ψ|2. This is the Copenhagen interpretation, circa 1927. In RQM, while ψ(r, t) is a wavefunction, the probability interpretation is not the same as in non-relativistic QM. Some RWEs do not predict a probability density ρ or probability current j (really meaning probability current density) because they are not positive-definite functions of space and time. The Dirac equation does: ρ = ψ † ψ , j = ψ † γ 0 γ ψ ⇌ J μ = ψ † γ 0 γ μ ψ {\displaystyle \rho =\psi ^{\dagger }\psi ,\quad \mathbf {j} =\psi ^{\dagger }\gamma ^{0}{\boldsymbol {\gamma }}\psi \quad \rightleftharpoons \quad J^{\mu }=\psi ^{\dagger }\gamma ^{0}\gamma ^{\mu }\psi } where the dagger denotes the Hermitian adjoint (authors usually write ψ = ψ†γ0 for the Dirac adjoint) and Jμ is the probability four-current, while the Klein–Gordon equation does not: ρ = i ℏ 2 m c 2 ( ψ ∗ ∂ ψ ∂ t − ψ ∂ ψ ∗ ∂ t ) , j = − i ℏ 2 m ( ψ ∗ ∇ ψ − ψ ∇ ψ ∗ ) ⇌ J μ = i ℏ 2 m ( ψ ∗ ∂ μ ψ − ψ ∂ μ ψ ∗ ) {\displaystyle \rho ={\frac {i\hbar }{2mc^{2}}}\left(\psi ^{*}{\frac {\partial \psi }{\partial t}}-\psi {\frac {\partial \psi ^{*}}{\partial t}}\right)\,,\quad \mathbf {j} =-{\frac {i\hbar }{2m}}\left(\psi ^{*}\nabla \psi -\psi \nabla \psi ^{*}\right)\quad \rightleftharpoons \quad J^{\mu }={\frac {i\hbar }{2m}}(\psi ^{*}\partial ^{\mu }\psi -\psi \partial ^{\mu }\psi ^{*})} where ∂μ is the four-gradient. Since the initial values of both ψ and ∂ψ/∂t may be freely chosen, the density can be negative. Instead, what appears look at first sight a "probability density" and "probability current" has to be reinterpreted as charge density and current density when multiplied by electric charge. Then, the wavefunction ψ is not a wavefunction at all, but reinterpreted as a field. The density and current of electric charge always satisfy a continuity equation: ∂ ρ ∂ t + ∇ ⋅ J = 0 ⇌ ∂ μ J μ = 0 , {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \rho }{\partial t}}+\nabla \cdot \mathbf {J} =0\quad \rightleftharpoons \quad \partial _{\mu }J^{\mu }=0\,,} as charge is a conserved quantity. Probability density and current also satisfy a continuity equation because probability is conserved, however this is only possible in the absence of interactions. Spin and electromagnetically interacting particles Including interactions in RWEs is generally difficult. Minimal coupling is a simple way to include the electromagnetic interaction. For one charged particle of electric charge q in an electromagnetic field, given by the magnetic vector potential A(r, t) defined by the magnetic field B = ∇ × A, and electric scalar potential ϕ(r, t), this is: E ^ → E ^ − q ϕ , p ^ → p ^ − q A ⇌ P ^ μ → P ^ μ − q A μ {\displaystyle {\hat {E}}\rightarrow {\hat {E}}-q\phi \,,\quad {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}\rightarrow {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}-q\mathbf {A} \quad \rightleftharpoons \quad {\hat {P}}_{\mu }\rightarrow {\hat {P}}_{\mu }-qA_{\mu }} where Pμ is the four-momentum that has a corresponding 4-momentum operator, and Aμ the four-potential. In the following, the non-relativistic limit refers to the limiting cases: E − e ϕ ≈ m c 2 , p ≈ m v , {\displaystyle E-e\phi \approx mc^{2}\,,\quad \mathbf {p} \approx m\mathbf {v} \,,} that is, the total energy of the particle is approximately the rest energy for small electric potentials, and the momentum is approximately the classical momentum. Spin 0 In RQM, the KG equation admits the minimal coupling prescription; ( E ^ − q ϕ ) 2 ψ = c 2 ( p ^ − q A ) 2 ψ + ( m c 2 ) 2 ψ ⇌ [ ( P ^ μ − q A μ ) ( P ^ μ − q A μ ) − ( m c ) 2 ] ψ = 0. {\displaystyle {({\hat {E}}-q\phi )}^{2}\psi =c^{2}{({\hat {\mathbf {p} }}-q\mathbf {A} )}^{2}\psi +(mc^{2})^{2}\psi \quad \rightleftharpoons \quad \left\psi =0.} In the case where the charge is zero, the equation reduces trivially to the free KG equation so nonzero charge is assumed below. This is a scalar equation that is invariant under the irreducible one-dimensional scalar (0,0) representation of the Lorentz group. This means that all of its solutions will belong to a direct sum of (0,0) representations. Solutions that do not belong to the irreducible (0,0) representation will have two or more independent components. Such solutions cannot in general describe particles with nonzero spin since spin components are not independent. Other constraint will have to be imposed for that, e.g. the Dirac equation for spin 1/2, see below. Thus if a system satisfies the KG equation only, it can only be interpreted as a system with zero spin. The electromagnetic field is treated classically according to Maxwell's equations and the particle is described by a wavefunction, the solution to the KG equation. The equation is, as it stands, not always very useful, because massive spinless particles, such as the π-mesons, experience the much stronger strong interaction in addition to the electromagnetic interaction. It does, however, correctly describe charged spinless bosons in the absence of other interactions. The KG equation is applicable to spinless charged bosons in an external electromagnetic potential. As such, the equation cannot be applied to the description of atoms, since the electron is a spin 1/2 particle. In the non-relativistic limit the equation reduces to the Schrödinger equation for a spinless charged particle in an electromagnetic field: ( i ℏ ∂ ∂ t − q ϕ ) ψ = 1 2 m ( p ^ − q A ) 2 ψ ⇔ H ^ = 1 2 m ( p ^ − q A ) 2 + q ϕ . {\displaystyle \left(i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}-q\phi \right)\psi ={\frac {1}{2m}}{({\hat {\mathbf {p} }}-q\mathbf {A} )}^{2}\psi \quad \Leftrightarrow \quad {\hat {H}}={\frac {1}{2m}}{({\hat {\mathbf {p} }}-q\mathbf {A} )}^{2}+q\phi .} Spin 1/2 Main article: spin-1/2 Non relativistically, spin was phenomenologically introduced in the Pauli equation by Pauli in 1927 for particles in an electromagnetic field: ( i ℏ ∂ ∂ t − q ϕ ) ψ = [ 1 2 m ( σ ⋅ ( p − q A ) ) 2 ] ψ ⇔ H ^ = 1 2 m ( σ ⋅ ( p − q A ) ) 2 + q ϕ {\displaystyle \left(i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}-q\phi \right)\psi =\left\psi \quad \Leftrightarrow \quad {\hat {H}}={\frac {1}{2m}}{({\boldsymbol {\sigma }}\cdot (\mathbf {p} -q\mathbf {A} ))}^{2}+q\phi } by means of the 2 × 2 Pauli matrices, and ψ is not just a scalar wavefunction as in the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation, but a two-component spinor field: ψ = ( ψ ↑ ψ ↓ ) {\displaystyle \psi ={\begin{pmatrix}\psi _{\uparrow }\\\psi _{\downarrow }\end{pmatrix}}} where the subscripts ↑ and ↓ refer to the "spin up" (σ = +1/2) and "spin down" (σ = −1/2) states. In RQM, the Dirac equation can also incorporate minimal coupling, rewritten from above; ( i ℏ ∂ ∂ t − q ϕ ) ψ = γ 0 [ c γ ⋅ ( p ^ − q A ) − m c 2 ] ψ ⇌ [ γ μ ( P ^ μ − q A μ ) − m c 2 ] ψ = 0 {\displaystyle \left(i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}-q\phi \right)\psi =\gamma ^{0}\left\psi \quad \rightleftharpoons \quad \left\psi =0} and was the first equation to accurately predict spin, a consequence of the 4 × 4 gamma matrices γ0 = β, γ = (γ1, γ2, γ3) = βα = (βα1, βα2, βα3). There is a 4 × 4 identity matrix pre-multiplying the energy operator (including the potential energy term), conventionally not written for simplicity and clarity (i.e. treated like the number 1). Here ψ is a four-component spinor field, which is conventionally split into two two-component spinors in the form: ψ = ( ψ + ψ − ) = ( ψ + ↑ ψ + ↓ ψ − ↑ ψ − ↓ ) {\displaystyle \psi ={\begin{pmatrix}\psi _{+}\\\psi _{-}\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}\psi _{+\uparrow }\\\psi _{+\downarrow }\\\psi _{-\uparrow }\\\psi _{-\downarrow }\end{pmatrix}}} The 2-spinor ψ+ corresponds to a particle with 4-momentum (E, p) and charge q and two spin states (σ = ±1/2, as before). The other 2-spinor ψ− corresponds to a similar particle with the same mass and spin states, but negative 4-momentum −(E, p) and negative charge −q, that is, negative energy states, time-reversed momentum, and negated charge. This was the first interpretation and prediction of a particle and corresponding antiparticle. See Dirac spinor and bispinor for further description of these spinors. In the non-relativistic limit the Dirac equation reduces to the Pauli equation (see Dirac equation for how). When applied a one-electron atom or ion, setting A = 0 and ϕ to the appropriate electrostatic potential, additional relativistic terms include the spin–orbit interaction, electron gyromagnetic ratio, and Darwin term. In ordinary QM these terms have to be put in by hand and treated using perturbation theory. The positive energies do account accurately for the fine structure. Within RQM, for massless particles the Dirac equation reduces to: ( E ^ c + σ ⋅ p ^ ) ψ + = 0 , ( E ^ c − σ ⋅ p ^ ) ψ − = 0 ⇌ σ μ P ^ μ ψ + = 0 , σ μ P ^ μ ψ − = 0 , {\displaystyle \left({\frac {\hat {E}}{c}}+{\boldsymbol {\sigma }}\cdot {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}\right)\psi _{+}=0\,,\quad \left({\frac {\hat {E}}{c}}-{\boldsymbol {\sigma }}\cdot {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}\right)\psi _{-}=0\quad \rightleftharpoons \quad \sigma ^{\mu }{\hat {P}}_{\mu }\psi _{+}=0\,,\quad \sigma _{\mu }{\hat {P}}^{\mu }\psi _{-}=0\,,} the first of which is the Weyl equation, a considerable simplification applicable for massless neutrinos. This time there is a 2 × 2 identity matrix pre-multiplying the energy operator conventionally not written. In RQM it is useful to take this as the zeroth Pauli matrix σ0 which couples to the energy operator (time derivative), just as the other three matrices couple to the momentum operator (spatial derivatives). The Pauli and gamma matrices were introduced here, in theoretical physics, rather than pure mathematics itself. They have applications to quaternions and to the SO(2) and SO(3) Lie groups, because they satisfy the important commutator and anticommutator + relations respectively: [ σ a , σ b ] = 2 i ε a b c σ c , [ σ a , σ b ] + = 2 δ a b σ 0 {\displaystyle \left=2i\varepsilon _{abc}\sigma _{c}\,,\quad \left_{+}=2\delta _{ab}\sigma _{0}} where εabc is the three-dimensional Levi-Civita symbol. The gamma matrices form bases in Clifford algebra, and have a connection to the components of the flat spacetime Minkowski metric ηαβ in the anticommutation relation: [ γ α , γ β ] + = γ α γ β + γ β γ α = 2 η α β , {\displaystyle \left_{+}=\gamma ^{\alpha }\gamma ^{\beta }+\gamma ^{\beta }\gamma ^{\alpha }=2\eta ^{\alpha \beta }\,,} (This can be extended to curved spacetime by introducing vierbeins, but is not the subject of special relativity). In 1929, the Breit equation was found to describe two or more electromagnetically interacting massive spin 1/2 fermions to first-order relativistic corrections; one of the first attempts to describe such a relativistic quantum many-particle system. This is, however, still only an approximation, and the Hamiltonian includes numerous long and complicated sums. Helicity and chirality Main articles: Helicity (particle physics) and Chirality (physics) See also: spin polarization The helicity operator is defined by; h ^ = S ^ ⋅ p ^ | p | = S ^ ⋅ c p ^ E 2 − ( m 0 c 2 ) 2 {\displaystyle {\hat {h}}={\hat {\mathbf {S} }}\cdot {\frac {\hat {\mathbf {p} }}{|\mathbf {p} |}}={\hat {\mathbf {S} }}\cdot {\frac {c{\hat {\mathbf {p} }}}{\sqrt {E^{2}-(m_{0}c^{2})^{2}}}}} where p is the momentum operator, S the spin operator for a particle of spin s, E is the total energy of the particle, and m0 its rest mass. Helicity indicates the orientations of the spin and translational momentum vectors. Helicity is frame-dependent because of the 3-momentum in the definition, and is quantized due to spin quantization, which has discrete positive values for parallel alignment, and negative values for antiparallel alignment. An automatic occurrence in the Dirac equation (and the Weyl equation) is the projection of the spin 1/2 operator on the 3-momentum (times c), σ · c p, which is the helicity (for the spin 1/2 case) times E 2 − ( m 0 c 2 ) 2 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {E^{2}-(m_{0}c^{2})^{2}}}} . For massless particles the helicity simplifies to: h ^ = S ^ ⋅ c p ^ E {\displaystyle {\hat {h}}={\hat {\mathbf {S} }}\cdot {\frac {c{\hat {\mathbf {p} }}}{E}}} Higher spins The Dirac equation can only describe particles of spin 1/2. Beyond the Dirac equation, RWEs have been applied to free particles of various spins. In 1936, Dirac extended his equation to all fermions, three years later Fierz and Pauli rederived the same equation. The Bargmann–Wigner equations were found in 1948 using Lorentz group theory, applicable for all free particles with any spin. Considering the factorization of the KG equation above, and more rigorously by Lorentz group theory, it becomes apparent to introduce spin in the form of matrices. The wavefunctions are multicomponent spinor fields, which can be represented as column vectors of functions of space and time: ψ ( r , t ) = [ ψ σ = s ( r , t ) ψ σ = s − 1 ( r , t ) ⋮ ψ σ = − s + 1 ( r , t ) ψ σ = − s ( r , t ) ] ⇌ ψ ( r , t ) † = [ ψ σ = s ( r , t ) ⋆ ψ σ = s − 1 ( r , t ) ⋆ ⋯ ψ σ = − s + 1 ( r , t ) ⋆ ψ σ = − s ( r , t ) ⋆ ] {\displaystyle \psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)={\begin{bmatrix}\psi _{\sigma =s}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\psi _{\sigma =s-1}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\vdots \\\psi _{\sigma =-s+1}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\psi _{\sigma =-s}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\end{bmatrix}}\quad \rightleftharpoons \quad {\psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\dagger }={\begin{bmatrix}{\psi _{\sigma =s}(\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\star }&{\psi _{\sigma =s-1}(\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\star }&\cdots &{\psi _{\sigma =-s+1}(\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\star }&{\psi _{\sigma =-s}(\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\star }\end{bmatrix}}} where the expression on the right is the Hermitian conjugate. For a massive particle of spin s, there are 2s + 1 components for the particle, and another 2s + 1 for the corresponding antiparticle (there are 2s + 1 possible σ values in each case), altogether forming a 2(2s + 1)-component spinor field: ψ ( r , t ) = [ ψ + , σ = s ( r , t ) ψ + , σ = s − 1 ( r , t ) ⋮ ψ + , σ = − s + 1 ( r , t ) ψ + , σ = − s ( r , t ) ψ − , σ = s ( r , t ) ψ − , σ = s − 1 ( r , t ) ⋮ ψ − , σ = − s + 1 ( r , t ) ψ − , σ = − s ( r , t ) ] ⇌ ψ ( r , t ) † [ ψ + , σ = s ( r , t ) ⋆ ψ + , σ = s − 1 ( r , t ) ⋆ ⋯ ψ − , σ = − s ( r , t ) ⋆ ] {\displaystyle \psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)={\begin{bmatrix}\psi _{+,\,\sigma =s}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\psi _{+,\,\sigma =s-1}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\vdots \\\psi _{+,\,\sigma =-s+1}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\psi _{+,\,\sigma =-s}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\psi _{-,\,\sigma =s}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\psi _{-,\,\sigma =s-1}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\vdots \\\psi _{-,\,\sigma =-s+1}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\psi _{-,\,\sigma =-s}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\end{bmatrix}}\quad \rightleftharpoons \quad {\psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\dagger }{\begin{bmatrix}{\psi _{+,\,\sigma =s}(\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\star }&{\psi _{+,\,\sigma =s-1}(\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\star }&\cdots &{\psi _{-,\,\sigma =-s}(\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\star }\end{bmatrix}}} with the + subscript indicating the particle and − subscript for the antiparticle. However, for massless particles of spin s, there are only ever two-component spinor fields; one is for the particle in one helicity state corresponding to +s and the other for the antiparticle in the opposite helicity state corresponding to −s: ψ ( r , t ) = ( ψ + ( r , t ) ψ − ( r , t ) ) {\displaystyle \psi (\mathbf {r} ,t)={\begin{pmatrix}\psi _{+}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\psi _{-}(\mathbf {r} ,t)\end{pmatrix}}} According to the relativistic energy-momentum relation, all massless particles travel at the speed of light, so particles traveling at the speed of light are also described by two-component spinors. Historically, Élie Cartan found the most general form of spinors in 1913, prior to the spinors revealed in the RWEs following the year 1927. For equations describing higher-spin particles, the inclusion of interactions is nowhere near as simple minimal coupling, they lead to incorrect predictions and self-inconsistencies. For spin greater than ħ/2, the RWE is not fixed by the particle's mass, spin, and electric charge; the electromagnetic moments (electric dipole moments and magnetic dipole moments) allowed by the spin quantum number are arbitrary. (Theoretically, magnetic charge would contribute also). For example, the spin 1/2 case only allows a magnetic dipole, but for spin 1 particles magnetic quadrupoles and electric dipoles are also possible. For more on this topic, see multipole expansion and (for example) Cédric Lorcé (2009). Velocity operator The Schrödinger/Pauli velocity operator can be defined for a massive particle using the classical definition p = m v, and substituting quantum operators in the usual way: v ^ = 1 m p ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {v} }}={\frac {1}{m}}{\hat {\mathbf {p} }}} which has eigenvalues that take any value. In RQM, the Dirac theory, it is: v ^ = i ℏ [ H ^ , r ^ ] {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {v} }}={\frac {i}{\hbar }}\left} which must have eigenvalues between ±c. See Foldy–Wouthuysen transformation for more theoretical background. Relativistic quantum Lagrangians The Hamiltonian operators in the Schrödinger picture are one approach to forming the differential equations for ψ. An equivalent alternative is to determine a Lagrangian (really meaning Lagrangian density), then generate the differential equation by the field-theoretic Euler–Lagrange equation: ∂ μ ( ∂ L ∂ ( ∂ μ ψ ) ) − ∂ L ∂ ψ = 0 {\displaystyle \partial _{\mu }\left({\frac {\partial {\mathcal {L}}}{\partial (\partial _{\mu }\psi )}}\right)-{\frac {\partial {\mathcal {L}}}{\partial \psi }}=0\,} For some RWEs, a Lagrangian can be found by inspection. For example, the Dirac Lagrangian is: L = ψ ¯ ( γ μ P μ − m c ) ψ {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}={\overline {\psi }}(\gamma ^{\mu }P_{\mu }-mc)\psi } and Klein–Gordon Lagrangian is: L = − ℏ 2 m η μ ν ∂ μ ψ ∗ ∂ ν ψ − m c 2 ψ ∗ ψ . {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}=-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{m}}\eta ^{\mu \nu }\partial _{\mu }\psi ^{*}\partial _{\nu }\psi -mc^{2}\psi ^{*}\psi \,.} This is not possible for all RWEs; and is one reason the Lorentz group theoretic approach is important and appealing: fundamental invariance and symmetries in space and time can be used to derive RWEs using appropriate group representations. The Lagrangian approach with field interpretation of ψ is the subject of QFT rather than RQM: Feynman's path integral formulation uses invariant Lagrangians rather than Hamiltonian operators, since the latter can become extremely complicated, see (for example) Weinberg (1995). Relativistic quantum angular momentum In non-relativistic QM, the angular momentum operator is formed from the classical pseudovector definition L = r × p. In RQM, the position and momentum operators are inserted directly where they appear in the orbital relativistic angular momentum tensor defined from the four-dimensional position and momentum of the particle, equivalently a bivector in the exterior algebra formalism: M α β = X α P β − X β P α = 2 X [ α P β ] ⇌ M = X ∧ P , {\displaystyle M^{\alpha \beta }=X^{\alpha }P^{\beta }-X^{\beta }P^{\alpha }=2X^{}\quad \rightleftharpoons \quad \mathbf {M} =\mathbf {X} \wedge \mathbf {P} \,,} which are six components altogether: three are the non-relativistic 3-orbital angular momenta; M12 = L3, M23 = L1, M31 = L2, and the other three M01, M02, M03 are boosts of the centre of mass of the rotating object. An additional relativistic-quantum term has to be added for particles with spin. For a particle of rest mass m, the total angular momentum tensor is: J α β = 2 X [ α P β ] + 1 m 2 ε α β γ δ W γ p δ ⇌ J = X ∧ P + 1 m 2 ⋆ ( W ∧ P ) {\displaystyle J^{\alpha \beta }=2X^{}+{\frac {1}{m^{2}}}\varepsilon ^{\alpha \beta \gamma \delta }W_{\gamma }p_{\delta }\quad \rightleftharpoons \quad \mathbf {J} =\mathbf {X} \wedge \mathbf {P} +{\frac {1}{m^{2}}}\star (\mathbf {W} \wedge \mathbf {P} )} where the star denotes the Hodge dual, and W α = 1 2 ε α β γ δ M β γ p δ ⇌ W = ⋆ ( M ∧ P ) {\displaystyle W_{\alpha }={\frac {1}{2}}\varepsilon _{\alpha \beta \gamma \delta }M^{\beta \gamma }p^{\delta }\quad \rightleftharpoons \quad \mathbf {W} =\star (\mathbf {M} \wedge \mathbf {P} )} is the Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector. For more on relativistic spin, see (for example) Troshin & Tyurin (1994). Thomas precession and spin–orbit interactions In 1926, the Thomas precession is discovered: relativistic corrections to the spin of elementary particles with application in the spin–orbit interaction of atoms and rotation of macroscopic objects. In 1939 Wigner derived the Thomas precession. In classical electromagnetism and special relativity, an electron moving with a velocity v through an electric field E but not a magnetic field B, will in its own frame of reference experience a Lorentz-transformed magnetic field B′: B ′ = E × v c 2 1 − ( v / c ) 2 . {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} '={\frac {\mathbf {E} \times \mathbf {v} }{c^{2}{\sqrt {1-\left(v/c\right)^{2}}}}}\,.} In the non-relativistic limit v << c: B ′ = E × v c 2 , {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} '={\frac {\mathbf {E} \times \mathbf {v} }{c^{2}}}\,,} so the non-relativistic spin interaction Hamiltonian becomes: H ^ = − B ′ ⋅ μ ^ S = − ( B + E × v c 2 ) ⋅ μ ^ S , {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}=-\mathbf {B} '\cdot {\hat {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}_{S}=-\left(\mathbf {B} +{\frac {\mathbf {E} \times \mathbf {v} }{c^{2}}}\right)\cdot {\hat {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}_{S}\,,} where the first term is already the non-relativistic magnetic moment interaction, and the second term the relativistic correction of order (v/c)², but this disagrees with experimental atomic spectra by a factor of 1⁄2. It was pointed out by L. Thomas that there is a second relativistic effect: An electric field component perpendicular to the electron velocity causes an additional acceleration of the electron perpendicular to its instantaneous velocity, so the electron moves in a curved path. The electron moves in a rotating frame of reference, and this additional precession of the electron is called the Thomas precession. It can be shown that the net result of this effect is that the spin–orbit interaction is reduced by half, as if the magnetic field experienced by the electron has only one-half the value, and the relativistic correction in the Hamiltonian is: H ^ = − B ′ ⋅ μ ^ S = − ( B + E × v 2 c 2 ) ⋅ μ ^ S . {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}=-\mathbf {B} '\cdot {\hat {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}_{S}=-\left(\mathbf {B} +{\frac {\mathbf {E} \times \mathbf {v} }{2c^{2}}}\right)\cdot {\hat {\boldsymbol {\mu }}}_{S}\,.} In the case of RQM, the factor of 1⁄2 is predicted by the Dirac equation. History The events which led to and established RQM, and the continuation beyond into quantum electrodynamics (QED), are summarized below and P.W Atkins (1974)]. More than half a century of experimental and theoretical research from the 1890s through to the 1950s in the new and mysterious quantum theory as it was up and coming revealed that a number of phenomena cannot be explained by QM alone. SR, found at the turn of the 20th century, was found to be a necessary component, leading to unification: RQM. Theoretical predictions and experiments mainly focused on the newly found atomic physics, nuclear physics, and particle physics; by considering spectroscopy, diffraction and scattering of particles, and the electrons and nuclei within atoms and molecules. Numerous results are attributed to the effects of spin. Relativistic description of particles in quantum phenomena Albert Einstein in 1905 explained of the photoelectric effect; a particle description of light as photons. In 1916, Sommerfeld explains fine structure; the splitting of the spectral lines of atoms due to first order relativistic corrections. The Compton effect of 1923 provided more evidence that special relativity does apply; in this case to a particle description of photon–electron scattering. de Broglie extends wave–particle duality to matter: the de Broglie relations, which are consistent with special relativity and quantum mechanics. By 1927, Davisson and Germer and separately G. Thomson successfully diffract electrons, providing experimental evidence of wave-particle duality. Experiments 1897 J. J. Thomson discovers the electron and measures its mass-to-charge ratio. Discovery of the Zeeman effect: the splitting a spectral line into several components in the presence of a static magnetic field. 1908 Millikan measures the charge on the electron and finds experimental evidence of its quantization, in the oil drop experiment. 1911 Alpha particle scattering in the Geiger–Marsden experiment, led by Rutherford, showed that atoms possess an internal structure: the atomic nucleus. 1913 The Stark effect is discovered: splitting of spectral lines due to a static electric field (compare with the Zeeman effect). 1922 Stern–Gerlach experiment: experimental evidence of spin and its quantization. 1924 Stoner studies splitting of energy levels in magnetic fields. 1932 Experimental discovery of the neutron by Chadwick, and positrons by Anderson, confirming the theoretical prediction of positrons. 1958 Discovery of the Mössbauer effect: resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma radiation by atomic nuclei bound in a solid, useful for accurate measurements of gravitational redshift and time dilation, and in the analysis of nuclear electromagnetic moments in hyperfine interactions. Quantum non-locality and relativistic locality In 1935, Einstein, Rosen, Podolsky published a paper concerning quantum entanglement of particles, questioning quantum nonlocality and the apparent violation of causality upheld in SR: particles can appear to interact instantaneously at arbitrary distances. This was a misconception since information is not and cannot be transferred in the entangled states; rather the information transmission is in the process of measurement by two observers (one observer has to send a signal to the other, which cannot exceed c). QM does not violate SR. In 1959, Bohm and Aharonov publish a paper on the Aharonov–Bohm effect, questioning the status of electromagnetic potentials in QM. The EM field tensor and EM 4-potential formulations are both applicable in SR, but in QM the potentials enter the Hamiltonian (see above) and influence the motion of charged particles even in regions where the fields are zero. In 1964, Bell's theorem was published in a paper on the EPR paradox, showing that QM cannot be derived from local hidden-variable theories if locality is to be maintained. The Lamb shift Main article: Lamb shift In 1947, the Lamb shift was discovered: a small difference in the 2S1⁄2 and 2P1⁄2 levels of hydrogen, due to the interaction between the electron and vacuum. Lamb and Retherford experimentally measure stimulated radio-frequency transitions the 2S1⁄2 and 2P1⁄2 hydrogen levels by microwave radiation. An explanation of the Lamb shift is presented by Bethe. Papers on the effect were published in the early 1950s. Development of quantum electrodynamics 1927 Dirac establishes the field of QED, also coining the term "quantum electrodynamics". 1943 Tomonaga begins work on renormalization, influential in QED. 1947 Schwinger calculates the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron. Kusch measures of the anomalous magnetic electron moment, confirming one of QED's great predictions. See also Atomic physics and chemistry Relativistic quantum chemistry Breit equation Electron spin resonance Fine-structure constant Mathematical physics Quantum spacetime Spin connection Spinor bundle Dirac equation in the algebra of physical space Casimir invariant Casimir operator Wigner D-matrix Particle physics and quantum field theory Zitterbewegung Two-body Dirac equations Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider Symmetry (physics) Parity CPT invariance Chirality (physics) Standard model Gauge theory Tachyon Modern searches for Lorentz violation Footnotes ^ Other common notations include ms and sz etc., but this would clutter expressions with unnecessary subscripts. The subscripts σ labeling spin values are not to be confused for tensor indices nor the Pauli matrices. ^ This spinor notation is not necessarily standard; the literature usually writes ψ = ( u 1 u 2 ) {\displaystyle \psi ={\begin{pmatrix}u^{1}\\u^{2}\end{pmatrix}}} or ψ = ( χ η ) {\displaystyle \psi ={\begin{pmatrix}\chi \\\eta \end{pmatrix}}} etc., but in the context of spin 1/2, this informal identification is commonly made. ^ Again this notation is not necessarily standard, the more advanced literature usually writes ψ = ( u v ) = ( u 1 u 2 v 1 v 2 ) {\displaystyle \psi ={\begin{pmatrix}u\\v\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}u^{1}\\u^{2}\\v^{1}\\v^{2}\end{pmatrix}}} etc., but here we show informally the correspondence of energy, helicity, and spin states. ^ Some authors, including Penrose, use Latin letters in this definition, even though it is conventional to use Greek indices for vectors and tensors in spacetime. References ^ Perkins, D.H. (2000). 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Physics. 1 (3): 195–200. doi:10.1103/PhysicsPhysiqueFizika.1.195. ^ Lamb, Willis E.; Retherford, Robert C. (1947). "Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom by a Microwave Method". Physical Review. 72 (3): 241–243. Bibcode:1947PhRv...72..241L. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.72.241. ^ Lamb, W.E. Jr. & Retherford, R.C. (1950). "Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom. Part I". Phys. Rev. 79 (4): 549–572. Bibcode:1950PhRv...79..549L. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.79.549. Lamb, W.E. Jr. & Retherford, R.C. (1951). "Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom. Part II". Phys. Rev. 81 (2): 222–232. Bibcode:1951PhRv...81..222L. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.81.222.Lamb, W.E. Jr. (1952). "Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom. III". Phys. Rev. 85 (2): 259–276. Bibcode:1952PhRv...85..259L. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.85.259. PMID 17775407. Lamb, W.E. Jr. & Retherford, R.C. (1952). "Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom. IV". Phys. Rev. 86 (6): 1014–1022. Bibcode:1952PhRv...86.1014L. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.86.1014. PMID 17775407. Triebwasser, S.; Dayhoff, E.S. & Lamb, W.E. Jr. (1953). "Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom. V". Phys. Rev. 89 (1): 98–106. Bibcode:1953PhRv...89...98T. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.89.98. ^ Dirac, Paul (1927-03-01). "The quantum theory of the emission and absorption of radiation". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character. 114 (767): 243–265. doi:10.1098/rspa.1927.0039. ISSN 0950-1207. Selected books Dirac, P.A.M. (1981). Principles of Quantum Mechanics (4th ed.). Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852011-5. Dirac, P.A.M. (1964). Lectures on Quantum Mechanics. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-41713-4. Thaller, B. (2010). The Dirac Equation. Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-08134-7. Pauli, W. (1980). General Principles of Quantum Mechanics. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-09842-3. Merzbacher, E. (1998). Quantum Mechanics (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-88702-7. Messiah, A. (1961). Quantum Mechanics. Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-59766-7. Bjorken, J.D.; Drell, S.D. (1964). Relativistic Quantum Mechanics (Pure & Applied Physics). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-005493-6. Feynman, R.P.; Leighton, R.B.; Sands, M. (1965). Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 3. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-02118-9. Schiff, L.I. (1968). Quantum Mechanics (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. Dyson, F. (2011). Advanced Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4383-40-0. Clifton, R.K. (2011). Perspectives on Quantum Reality: Non-Relativistic, Relativistic, and Field-Theoretic. Springer. ISBN 978-90-481-4643-7. Tannoudji, C.; Diu, B.; Laloë, F. (1977). Quantum Mechanics. Vol. 1. Wiley VCH. ISBN 978-0-471-16433-3. Tannoudji, C.; Diu, B.; Laloë, F. (1977). Quantum Mechanics. Vol. 2. Wiley VCH. ISBN 978-0-471-16435-7. Rae, A.I.M. (2008). Quantum Mechanics. Vol. 2 (5th ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-58488-970-0. Pilkuhn, H. (2005). Relativistic Quantum Mechanics. Texts and Monographs in Physics Series (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-28522-9. Parthasarathy, R. (2010). Relativistic quantum mechanics. Alpha Science International. ISBN 978-1-84265-573-3. Kaldor, U.; Wilson, S. (2003). Theoretical Chemistry and Physics of Heavy and Superheavy Elements. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-1371-3. Thaller, B. (2005). Advanced visual quantum mechanics. Springer. Bibcode:2005avqm.book.....T. ISBN 978-0-387-27127-9. Breuer, H.P.; Petruccione, F. (2000). Relativistic Quantum Measurement and Decoherence. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-41061-4. Relativistic quantum mechanics. Shepherd, P.J. (2013). A Course in Theoretical Physics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-51692-8. Bethe, H.A.; Jackiw, R.W. (1997). Intermediate Quantum Mechanics. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-32831-8. Heitler, W. (1954). The Quantum Theory of Radiation (3rd ed.). Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-64558-2. Gottfried, K.; Yan, T. (2003). Quantum Mechanics: Fundamentals (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 245. ISBN 978-0-387-95576-6. Schwabl, F. (2010). Quantum Mechanics. Springer. p. 220. ISBN 978-3-540-71933-5. Sachs, R.G. (1987). The Physics of Time Reversal (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 280. ISBN 978-0-226-73331-9. hyperfine structure in relativistic quantum mechanics. Group theory in quantum physics Weyl, H. (1950). The theory of groups and quantum mechanics. Courier Dover Publications. p. 203. ISBN 9780486602691. magnetic moments in relativistic quantum mechanics. Tung, W.K. (1985). Group Theory in Physics. World Scientific. ISBN 978-9971-966-56-0. Heine, V. (1993). Group Theory in Quantum Mechanics: An Introduction to Its Present Usage. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-67585-5. Selected papers Dirac, P.A.M. (1932). "Relativistic Quantum Mechanics". Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 136 (829): 453–464. Bibcode:1932RSPSA.136..453D. doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0094. Pauli, W. (1945). "Exclusion principle and quantum mechanics" (PDF). Antoine, J.P. (2004). "Relativistic Quantum Mechanics". J. Phys. A. 37 (4): 1465. Bibcode:2004JPhA...37.1463P. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.499.2793. doi:10.1088/0305-4470/37/4/B01. Henneaux, M.; Teitelboim, C. (1982). "Relativistic quantum mechanics of supersymmetric particles". Vol. 143. Fanchi, J.R. (1986). "Parametrizing relativistic quantum mechanics". Phys. Rev. A. 34 (3): 1677–1681. Bibcode:1986PhRvA..34.1677F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.34.1677. PMID 9897446. Ord, G.N. (1983). "Fractal space-time: a geometric analogue of relativistic quantum mechanics". J. Phys. A. 16 (9): 1869–1884. Bibcode:1983JPhA...16.1869O. doi:10.1088/0305-4470/16/9/012. Coester, F.; Polyzou, W.N. (1982). "Relativistic quantum mechanics of particles with direct interactions". Phys. Rev. D. 26 (6): 1348–1367. Bibcode:1982PhRvD..26.1348C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.26.1348. Mann, R.B.; Ralph, T.C. (2012). "Relativistic quantum information". Class. Quantum Grav. 29 (22): 220301. Bibcode:2012CQGra..29v0301M. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/29/22/220301. S2CID 123341332. Low, S.G. (1997). "Canonically Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: Representations of the Unitary Semidirect Heisenberg Group, U(1,3) *s H(1,3)". J. Math. Phys. 38 (22): 2197–2209. arXiv:physics/9703008. Bibcode:2012CQGra..29v0301M. doi:10.1088/0264-9381/29/22/220301. S2CID 123341332. Fronsdal, C.; Lundberg, L.E. (1997). "Relativistic Quantum Mechanics of Two Interacting Particles". Phys. Rev. D. 1 (12): 3247–3258. arXiv:physics/9703008. Bibcode:1970PhRvD...1.3247F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.1.3247. Bordovitsyn, V.A.; Myagkii, A.N. (2004). "Spin–orbital motion and Thomas precession in the classical and quantum theories" (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 72 (1): 51–52. arXiv:physics/0310016. Bibcode:2004AmJPh..72...51K. doi:10.1119/1.1615526. S2CID 119533324. Rȩbilas, K. (2013). "Comment on 'Elementary analysis of the special relativistic combination of velocities, Wigner rotation and Thomas precession'". Eur. J. Phys. 34 (3): L55–L61. Bibcode:2013EJPh...34L..55R. doi:10.1088/0143-0807/34/3/L55. S2CID 122527454. Corben, H.C. (1993). "Factors of 2 in magnetic moments, spin–orbit coupling, and Thomas precession". Am. J. Phys. 61 (6): 551. Bibcode:1993AmJPh..61..551C. doi:10.1119/1.17207. Further reading Relativistic quantum mechanics and field theory Ohlsson, T. (2011). Relativistic Quantum Physics: From Advanced Quantum Mechanics to Introductory Quantum Field Theory. Cambridge University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-139-50432-4. Aitchison, I.J.R.; Hey, A.J.G. (2002). Gauge Theories in Particle Physics: From Relativistic Quantum Mechanics to QED. Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-8775-3. Griffiths, D. (2008). Introduction to Elementary Particles. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-61847-7. Capri, Anton Z. (2002). Relativistic quantum mechanics and introduction to quantum field theory. World Scientific. Bibcode:2002rqmi.book.....C. ISBN 978-981-238-137-8. Wu, Ta-you; Hwang, W.Y. Pauchy (1991). Relativistic quantum mechanics and quantum fields. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-02-0608-6. Nagashima, Y. (2010). Elementary particle physics, Quantum Field Theory. Vol. 1. ISBN 978-3-527-40962-4. Bjorken, J.D.; Drell, S.D. (1965). Relativistic Quantum Fields (Pure & Applied Physics). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-005494-3. Weinberg, S. (1996). The Quantum Theory of Fields. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-55002-4. Weinberg, S. (2000). The Quantum Theory of Fields. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66000-6. Gross, F. (2008). Relativistic Quantum Mechanics and Field Theory. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-61734-0. Nazarov, Y.V.; Danon, J. (2013). Advanced Quantum Mechanics: A Practical Guide. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76150-5. Bogolubov, N.N. (1989). General Principles of Quantum Field Theory (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-7923-0540-8. Mandl, F.; Shaw, G. (2010). Quantum Field Theory (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-49683-0. Lindgren, I. (2011). Relativistic Many-body Theory: A New Field-theoretical Approach. Springer series on atomic, optical, and plasma physics. Vol. 63. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-8309-1. Grant, I.P. (2007). Relativistic Quantum theory of atoms and molecules. Atomic, optical, and plasma physics. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-34671-7. Quantum theory and applications in general Aruldhas, G.; Rajagopal, P. (2005). Modern Physics. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 395. ISBN 978-81-203-2597-5. Hummel, R.E. (2011). Electronic properties of materials. Springer. p. 395. ISBN 978-1-4419-8164-6. Pavia, D.L. (2005). Introduction to Spectroscopy (4th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-495-11478-9. Mizutani, U. (2001). Introduction to the Electron Theory of Metals. Cambridge University Press. p. 387. ISBN 978-0-521-58709-9. Choppin, G.R. (2002). Radiochemistry and nuclear chemistry (3 ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 308. ISBN 978-0-7506-7463-8. Sitenko, A.G. (1990). Theory of nuclear reactions. World Scientific. p. 443. ISBN 978-9971-5-0482-3. Nolting, W.; Ramakanth, A. (2008). Quantum theory of magnetism. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-85416-6. Luth, H. (2013). Quantum Physics in the Nanoworld. Graduate texts in physics. Springer. p. 149. ISBN 978-3-642-31238-0. Sattler, K.D. (2010). Handbook of Nanophysics: Functional Nanomaterials. CRC Press. pp. 40–43. ISBN 978-1-4200-7553-3. Kuzmany, H. (2009). Solid-State Spectroscopy. Springer. p. 256. ISBN 978-3-642-01480-2. Reid, J.M. (1984). The Atomic Nucleus (2nd ed.). Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-0978-5. Schwerdtfeger, P. (2002). Relativistic Electronic Structure Theory - Fundamentals. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry. Vol. 11. Elsevier. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-08-054046-7. Piela, L. (2006). Ideas of Quantum Chemistry. Elsevier. p. 676. ISBN 978-0-08-046676-7. Kumar, M. (2009). Quantum (book). ISBN 978-1-84831-035-3. External links Pfeifer, W. (2008) . Relativistic Quantum Mechanics, an Introduction. Lukačević, Igor (2013). "Relativistic Quantum Mechanics (Lecture Notes)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-26. "Relativistic Quantum Mechanics" (PDF). Cavendish Laboratory. University of Cambridge. Miller, David J. (2008). "Relativistic Quantum Mechanics" (PDF). University of Glasgow. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-12-19. Retrieved 2020-11-17. Swanson, D.G. (2007). "Quantum Mechanics Foundations and Applications". Alabama, USA: Taylor & Francis. p. 160. Calvert, J.B. (2003). "The Particle Electron and Thomas Precession". Arteha, S.N. "Spin and the Thomas precession". vteQuantum mechanicsBackground Introduction History Timeline Classical mechanics Old quantum theory Glossary Fundamentals Born rule Bra–ket notation Complementarity Density matrix Energy level Ground state Excited state Degenerate levels Zero-point energy Entanglement Hamiltonian Interference Decoherence Measurement Nonlocality Quantum state Superposition Tunnelling Scattering theory Symmetry in quantum mechanics Uncertainty Wave function Collapse Wave–particle duality Formulations Formulations Heisenberg Interaction Matrix mechanics Schrödinger Path integral formulation Phase space Equations Dirac Klein–Gordon Pauli Rydberg Schrödinger Interpretations Bayesian Consistent histories Copenhagen de Broglie–Bohm Ensemble Hidden-variable Local Superdeterminism Many-worlds Objective collapse Quantum logic Relational Transactional Von Neumann–Wigner Experiments Bell test Davisson–Germer Delayed-choice quantum eraser Double-slit Franck–Hertz Mach–Zehnder interferometer Elitzur–Vaidman Popper Quantum eraser Stern–Gerlach Wheeler's delayed choice Science Quantum biology Quantum chemistry Quantum chaos Quantum cosmology Quantum differential calculus Quantum dynamics Quantum geometry Quantum measurement problem Quantum mind Quantum stochastic calculus Quantum spacetime Technology Quantum algorithms Quantum amplifier Quantum bus Quantum cellular automata Quantum finite automata Quantum channel Quantum circuit Quantum complexity theory Quantum computing Timeline Quantum cryptography Quantum electronics Quantum error correction Quantum imaging Quantum image processing Quantum information Quantum key distribution Quantum logic Quantum logic gates Quantum machine Quantum machine learning Quantum metamaterial Quantum metrology Quantum network Quantum neural network Quantum optics Quantum programming Quantum sensing Quantum simulator Quantum teleportation Extensions Quantum fluctuation Casimir effect Quantum statistical mechanics Quantum field theory History Quantum gravity Relativistic quantum mechanics Related Schrödinger's cat in popular culture Wigner's friend EPR paradox Quantum mysticism Category

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This theory is applicable to massive particles propagating at all velocities up to those comparable to the speed of light c, and can accommodate massless particles. The theory has application in high energy physics,[1] particle physics and accelerator physics,[2] as well as atomic physics, chemistry[3] and condensed matter physics.[4][5] Non-relativistic quantum mechanics refers to the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics applied in the context of Galilean relativity, more specifically quantizing the equations of classical mechanics by replacing dynamical variables by operators. Relativistic quantum mechanics (RQM) is quantum mechanics applied with special relativity. Although the earlier formulations, like the Schrödinger picture and Heisenberg picture were originally formulated in a non-relativistic background, a few of them (e.g. the Dirac or path-integral formalism) also work with special relativity.Key features common to all RQMs include: the prediction of antimatter, spin magnetic moments of elementary spin 1⁄2 fermions, fine structure, and quantum dynamics of charged particles in electromagnetic fields.[6] The key result is the Dirac equation, from which these predictions emerge automatically. By contrast, in non-relativistic quantum mechanics, terms have to be introduced artificially into the Hamiltonian operator to achieve agreement with experimental observations.The most successful (and most widely used) RQM is relativistic quantum field theory (QFT), in which elementary particles are interpreted as field quanta. A unique consequence of QFT that has been tested against other RQMs is the failure of conservation of particle number, for example in matter creation and annihilation.[7]In this article, the equations are written in familiar 3D vector calculus notation and use hats for operators (not necessarily in the literature), and where space and time components can be collected, tensor index notation is shown also (frequently used in the literature), in addition the Einstein summation convention is used. SI units are used here; Gaussian units and natural units are common alternatives. All equations are in the position representation; for the momentum representation the equations have to be Fourier transformed – see position and momentum space.","title":"Relativistic quantum mechanics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Schrödinger picture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_picture"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martin,_Shaw,_p_3-2"},{"link_name":"postulate of quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_formulation_of_quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"time evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_evolution"},{"link_name":"Schrödinger equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation"},{"link_name":"Hamiltonian 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configurations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_configuration"},{"link_name":"elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_element"},{"link_name":"periodic table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table"},{"link_name":"chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry"},{"link_name":"colour charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour_charge"},{"link_name":"baryons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryon"},{"link_name":"mesons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meson"},{"link_name":"energy–momentum relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%E2%80%93momentum_relation"},{"link_name":"rest mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rest_mass"},{"link_name":"frame of reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_of_reference"},{"link_name":"energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum"},{"link_name":"magnitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"dot product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_product"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_operator"},{"link_name":"momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum_operator"},{"link_name":"operators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator_(physics)#Operators_in_quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"relativistic wave equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_wave_equation"},{"link_name":"partial differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"partial derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_derivative"},{"link_name":"Heisenberg picture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heisenberg_picture"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Schrödinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger"},{"link_name":"Heisenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg"},{"link_name":"matrix mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_mechanics"},{"link_name":"transformation theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformation_theory_(quantum_mechanics)"},{"link_name":"representations of the Lorentz group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representations_of_the_Lorentz_group"}],"text":"One approach is to modify the Schrödinger picture to be consistent with special relativity.[2]A postulate of quantum mechanics is that the time evolution of any quantum system is given by the Schrödinger equation:i\n ℏ\n \n \n ∂\n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n ψ\n =\n \n \n \n H\n ^\n \n \n \n ψ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i\\hbar {\\frac {\\partial }{\\partial t}}\\psi ={\\hat {H}}\\psi }using a suitable Hamiltonian operator Ĥ corresponding to the system. The solution is a complex-valued wavefunction ψ(r, t), a function of the 3D position vector r of the particle at time t, describing the behavior of the system.Every particle has a non-negative spin quantum number s. The number 2s is an integer, odd for fermions and even for bosons. Each s has 2s + 1 z-projection quantum numbers; σ = s, s − 1, ... , −s + 1, −s.[a] This is an additional discrete variable the wavefunction requires; ψ(r, t, σ).Historically, in the early 1920s Pauli, Kronig, Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit were the first to propose the concept of spin. The inclusion of spin in the wavefunction incorporates the Pauli exclusion principle (1925) and the more general spin–statistics theorem (1939) due to Fierz, rederived by Pauli a year later. This is the explanation for a diverse range of subatomic particle behavior and phenomena: from the electronic configurations of atoms, nuclei (and therefore all elements on the periodic table and their chemistry), to the quark configurations and colour charge (hence the properties of baryons and mesons).A fundamental prediction of special relativity is the relativistic energy–momentum relation; for a particle of rest mass m, and in a particular frame of reference with energy E and 3-momentum p with magnitude in terms of the dot product \n \n \n \n p\n =\n \n \n \n p\n \n ⋅\n \n p\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p={\\sqrt {\\mathbf {p} \\cdot \\mathbf {p} }}}\n \n, it is:[8]E\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n p\n \n ⋅\n \n p\n \n +\n (\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E^{2}=c^{2}\\mathbf {p} \\cdot \\mathbf {p} +(mc^{2})^{2}\\,.}These equations are used together with the energy and momentum operators, which are respectively:E\n ^\n \n \n \n =\n i\n ℏ\n \n \n ∂\n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n =\n −\n i\n ℏ\n ∇\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {E}}=i\\hbar {\\frac {\\partial }{\\partial t}}\\,,\\quad {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}=-i\\hbar \\nabla \\,,}to construct a relativistic wave equation (RWE): a partial differential equation consistent with the energy–momentum relation, and is solved for ψ to predict the quantum dynamics of the particle. For space and time to be placed on equal footing, as in relativity, the orders of space and time partial derivatives should be equal, and ideally as low as possible, so that no initial values of the derivatives need to be specified. This is important for probability interpretations, exemplified below. The lowest possible order of any differential equation is the first (zeroth order derivatives would not form a differential equation).The Heisenberg picture is another formulation of QM, in which case the wavefunction ψ is time-independent, and the operators A(t) contain the time dependence, governed by the equation of motion:d\n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n A\n =\n \n \n 1\n \n i\n ℏ\n \n \n \n [\n A\n ,\n \n \n \n H\n ^\n \n \n \n ]\n +\n \n \n ∂\n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n A\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {d}{dt}}A={\\frac {1}{i\\hbar }}[A,{\\hat {H}}]+{\\frac {\\partial }{\\partial t}}A\\,,}This equation is also true in RQM, provided the Heisenberg operators are modified to be consistent with SR.[9][10]Historically, around 1926, Schrödinger and Heisenberg show that wave mechanics and matrix mechanics are equivalent, later furthered by Dirac using transformation theory.A more modern approach to RWEs, first introduced during the time RWEs were developing for particles of any spin, is to apply representations of the Lorentz group.","title":"Combining special relativity and quantum mechanics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"classical mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanics"},{"link_name":"many particle system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many_particle_system"},{"link_name":"relativistic mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_mechanics"},{"link_name":"spatial coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"coordinate time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_time"},{"link_name":"events","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_(relativity)"},{"link_name":"four-dimensional spacetime position","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-vector#Four-position"},{"link_name":"four-momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-momentum"},{"link_name":"reference frame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_of_reference"},{"link_name":"Lorentz transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_transformation"},{"link_name":"orthochronous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthochronous"},{"link_name":"Lorentz transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_transformation"},{"link_name":"Minkowski space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_space"},{"link_name":"representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory_of_the_Lorentz_group"},{"link_name":"Lorentz group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_group"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Weinberg-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"square matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_matrix"},{"link_name":"column vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_vector"},{"link_name":"quantum numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_number"},{"link_name":"Generator (mathematics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generator_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"group theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_theory"},{"link_name":"Representation theory of the Lorentz group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory_of_the_Lorentz_group"},{"link_name":"symmetries in quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetries_in_quantum_mechanics"}],"sub_title":"Space and time","text":"In classical mechanics and non-relativistic QM, time is an absolute quantity all observers and particles can always agree on, \"ticking away\" in the background independent of space. Thus in non-relativistic QM one has for a many particle system ψ(r1, r2, r3, ..., t, σ1, σ2, σ3...).In relativistic mechanics, the spatial coordinates and coordinate time are not absolute; any two observers moving relative to each other can measure different locations and times of events. The position and time coordinates combine naturally into a four-dimensional spacetime position X = (ct, r) corresponding to events, and the energy and 3-momentum combine naturally into the four-momentum P = (E/c, p) of a dynamic particle, as measured in some reference frame, change according to a Lorentz transformation as one measures in a different frame boosted and/or rotated relative the original frame in consideration. The derivative operators, and hence the energy and 3-momentum operators, are also non-invariant and change under Lorentz transformations.Under a proper orthochronous Lorentz transformation (r, t) → Λ(r, t) in Minkowski space, all one-particle quantum states ψσ locally transform under some representation D of the Lorentz group:[11]\n[12]ψ\n \n σ\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n →\n D\n (\n Λ\n )\n \n ψ\n \n σ\n \n \n (\n \n Λ\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi _{\\sigma }(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\rightarrow D(\\Lambda )\\psi _{\\sigma }(\\Lambda ^{-1}(\\mathbf {r} ,t))}where D(Λ) is a finite-dimensional representation, in other words a (2s + 1)×(2s + 1) square matrix . Again, ψ is thought of as a column vector containing components with the (2s + 1) allowed values of σ. The quantum numbers s and σ as well as other labels, continuous or discrete, representing other quantum numbers are suppressed. One value of σ may occur more than once depending on the representation.Further information: Generator (mathematics), group theory, Representation theory of the Lorentz group, and symmetries in quantum mechanics","title":"Combining special relativity and quantum mechanics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"classical Hamiltonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian_mechanics"},{"link_name":"potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_potential"},{"link_name":"kinetic energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy"},{"link_name":"potential energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energy"},{"link_name":"Schrödinger picture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_picture"},{"link_name":"power series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_series"},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"nonlocal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_nonlocality"},{"link_name":"causality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parker_1994-14"},{"link_name":"Bohr magneton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_magneton"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"g-factor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-factor_(physics)"},{"link_name":"spin operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_operator"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_field"},{"link_name":"magnetic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schuam_p_181-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"rest mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rest_mass"},{"link_name":"matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"matrix multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_multiplication"}],"sub_title":"Non-relativistic and relativistic Hamiltonians","text":"The classical Hamiltonian for a particle in a potential is the kinetic energy p·p/2m plus the potential energy V(r, t), with the corresponding quantum operator in the Schrödinger picture:H\n ^\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n m\n \n \n \n +\n V\n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {H}}={\\frac {{\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}\\cdot {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}}{2m}}+V(\\mathbf {r} ,t)}and substituting this into the above Schrödinger equation gives a non-relativistic QM equation for the wavefunction: the procedure is a straightforward substitution of a simple expression. By contrast this is not as easy in RQM; the energy–momentum equation is quadratic in energy and momentum leading to difficulties. Naively setting:H\n ^\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n E\n ^\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n +\n (\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ⇒\n \n i\n ℏ\n \n \n ∂\n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n ψ\n =\n \n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n +\n (\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {H}}={\\hat {E}}={\\sqrt {c^{2}{\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}\\cdot {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}+(mc^{2})^{2}}}\\quad \\Rightarrow \\quad i\\hbar {\\frac {\\partial }{\\partial t}}\\psi ={\\sqrt {c^{2}{\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}\\cdot {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}+(mc^{2})^{2}}}\\,\\psi }is not helpful for several reasons. The square root of the operators cannot be used as it stands; it would have to be expanded in a power series before the momentum operator, raised to a power in each term, could act on ψ. As a result of the power series, the space and time derivatives are completely asymmetric: infinite-order in space derivatives but only first order in the time derivative, which is inelegant and unwieldy. Again, there is the problem of the non-invariance of the energy operator, equated to the square root which is also not invariant. Another problem, less obvious and more severe, is that it can be shown to be nonlocal and can even violate causality: if the particle is initially localized at a point r0 so that ψ(r0, t = 0) is finite and zero elsewhere, then at any later time the equation predicts delocalization ψ(r, t) ≠ 0 everywhere, even for |r| > ct which means the particle could arrive at a point before a pulse of light could. This would have to be remedied by the additional constraint ψ(|r| > ct, t) = 0.[13]There is also the problem of incorporating spin in the Hamiltonian, which isn't a prediction of the non-relativistic Schrödinger theory. Particles with spin have a corresponding spin magnetic moment quantized in units of μB, the Bohr magneton:[14][15]μ\n ^\n \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n =\n −\n \n \n \n g\n \n μ\n \n B\n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n ^\n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n |\n \n \n μ\n \n \n S\n \n \n |\n \n =\n −\n g\n \n μ\n \n B\n \n \n σ\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {\\boldsymbol {\\mu }}}_{S}=-{\\frac {g\\mu _{B}}{\\hbar }}{\\hat {\\mathbf {S} }}\\,,\\quad \\left|{\\boldsymbol {\\mu }}_{S}\\right|=-g\\mu _{B}\\sigma \\,,}where g is the (spin) g-factor for the particle, and S the spin operator, so they interact with electromagnetic fields. For a particle in an externally applied magnetic field B, the interaction term[16]H\n ^\n \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n =\n −\n \n B\n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n μ\n ^\n \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {H}}_{B}=-\\mathbf {B} \\cdot {\\hat {\\boldsymbol {\\mu }}}_{S}}has to be added to the above non-relativistic Hamiltonian. On the contrary; a relativistic Hamiltonian introduces spin automatically as a requirement of enforcing the relativistic energy-momentum relation.[17]Relativistic Hamiltonians are analogous to those of non-relativistic QM in the following respect; there are terms including rest mass and interaction terms with externally applied fields, similar to the classical potential energy term, as well as momentum terms like the classical kinetic energy term. A key difference is that relativistic Hamiltonians contain spin operators in the form of matrices, in which the matrix multiplication runs over the spin index σ, so in general a relativistic Hamiltonian:H\n ^\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n H\n ^\n \n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n ,\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n S\n \n ^\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {H}}={\\hat {H}}(\\mathbf {r} ,t,{\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }},{\\hat {\\mathbf {S} }})}is a function of space, time, and the momentum and spin operators.","title":"Combining special relativity and quantum mechanics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Klein–Gordon equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klein%E2%80%93Gordon_equation"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"relativistically invariant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_covariance"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martin,_Shaw,_p_3-2"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Penrose_2005,_p_620%E2%80%93621-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Hermitian matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitian_matrix"},{"link_name":"anticommute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticommute"},{"link_name":"identity matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_matrix"},{"link_name":"Dirac equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_equation"},{"link_name":"negative mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_mass"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Penrose_2005,_p_620%E2%80%93621-21"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martin,_Shaw,_pp._5%E2%80%936-6"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Pauli principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle"},{"link_name":"electronic transitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_transition"},{"link_name":"atoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom"},{"link_name":"Dirac sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_sea"}],"sub_title":"The Klein–Gordon and Dirac equations for free particles","text":"Substituting the energy and momentum operators directly into the energy–momentum relation may at first sight seem appealing, to obtain the Klein–Gordon equation:[18]E\n ^\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n ψ\n =\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n ψ\n +\n (\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n ψ\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {E}}^{2}\\psi =c^{2}{\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}\\cdot {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}\\psi +(mc^{2})^{2}\\psi \\,,}and was discovered by many people because of the straightforward way of obtaining it, notably by Schrödinger in 1925 before he found the non-relativistic equation named after him, and by Klein and Gordon in 1927, who included electromagnetic interactions in the equation. This is relativistically invariant, yet this equation alone isn't a sufficient foundation for RQM for a at least two reasons: one is that negative-energy states are solutions,[2][19] another is the density (given below), and this equation as it stands is only applicable to spinless particles. This equation can be factored into the form:[20][21](\n \n \n \n \n E\n ^\n \n \n \n −\n c\n \n α\n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n −\n β\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n E\n ^\n \n \n \n +\n c\n \n α\n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n +\n β\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n ψ\n =\n 0\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left({\\hat {E}}-c{\\boldsymbol {\\alpha }}\\cdot {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}-\\beta mc^{2}\\right)\\left({\\hat {E}}+c{\\boldsymbol {\\alpha }}\\cdot {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}+\\beta mc^{2}\\right)\\psi =0\\,,}where α = (α1, α2, α3) and β are not simply numbers or vectors, but 4 × 4 Hermitian matrices that are required to anticommute for i ≠ j:α\n \n i\n \n \n β\n =\n −\n β\n \n α\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n \n α\n \n i\n \n \n \n α\n \n j\n \n \n =\n −\n \n α\n \n j\n \n \n \n α\n \n i\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha _{i}\\beta =-\\beta \\alpha _{i},\\quad \\alpha _{i}\\alpha _{j}=-\\alpha _{j}\\alpha _{i}\\,,}and square to the identity matrix:α\n \n i\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n β\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n I\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha _{i}^{2}=\\beta ^{2}=I\\,,}so that terms with mixed second-order derivatives cancel while the second-order derivatives purely in space and time remain. The first factor:(\n \n \n \n \n E\n ^\n \n \n \n −\n c\n \n α\n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n −\n β\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n ψ\n =\n 0\n \n ⇔\n \n \n \n \n H\n ^\n \n \n \n =\n c\n \n α\n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n +\n β\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left({\\hat {E}}-c{\\boldsymbol {\\alpha }}\\cdot {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}-\\beta mc^{2}\\right)\\psi =0\\quad \\Leftrightarrow \\quad {\\hat {H}}=c{\\boldsymbol {\\alpha }}\\cdot {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}+\\beta mc^{2}}is the Dirac equation. The other factor is also the Dirac equation, but for a particle of negative mass.[20] Each factor is relativistically invariant. The reasoning can be done the other way round: propose the Hamiltonian in the above form, as Dirac did in 1928, then pre-multiply the equation by the other factor of operators E + cα · p + βmc2, and comparison with the KG equation determines the constraints on α and β. The positive mass equation can continue to be used without loss of continuity. The matrices multiplying ψ suggest it isn't a scalar wavefunction as permitted in the KG equation, but must instead be a four-component entity. The Dirac equation still predicts negative energy solutions,[6][22] so Dirac postulated that negative energy states are always occupied, because according to the Pauli principle, electronic transitions from positive to negative energy levels in atoms would be forbidden. See Dirac sea for details.","title":"Combining special relativity and quantum mechanics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"square modulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_modulus"},{"link_name":"wavefunction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavefunction"},{"link_name":"probability density function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_density_function"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen interpretation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen_interpretation"},{"link_name":"probability current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_current"},{"link_name":"positive-definite functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive-definite_function"},{"link_name":"Dirac equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_equation"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Hermitian adjoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitian_adjoint"},{"link_name":"Dirac adjoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_adjoint"},{"link_name":"probability four-current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_current#Definition_(relativistic_4-current)"},{"link_name":"Klein–Gordon equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klein%E2%80%93Gordon_equation"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"four-gradient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-gradient"},{"link_name":"charge density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_density"},{"link_name":"current density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_density"},{"link_name":"electric charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parker_1994-14"},{"link_name":"continuity equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuity_equation"},{"link_name":"conserved quantity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conserved_quantity"}],"sub_title":"Densities and currents","text":"In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the square modulus of the wavefunction ψ gives the probability density function ρ = |ψ|2. This is the Copenhagen interpretation, circa 1927. In RQM, while ψ(r, t) is a wavefunction, the probability interpretation is not the same as in non-relativistic QM. Some RWEs do not predict a probability density ρ or probability current j (really meaning probability current density) because they are not positive-definite functions of space and time. The Dirac equation does:[23]ρ\n =\n \n ψ\n \n †\n \n \n ψ\n ,\n \n \n j\n \n =\n \n ψ\n \n †\n \n \n \n γ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n γ\n \n ψ\n \n ⇌\n \n \n J\n \n μ\n \n \n =\n \n ψ\n \n †\n \n \n \n γ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n γ\n \n μ\n \n \n ψ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho =\\psi ^{\\dagger }\\psi ,\\quad \\mathbf {j} =\\psi ^{\\dagger }\\gamma ^{0}{\\boldsymbol {\\gamma }}\\psi \\quad \\rightleftharpoons \\quad J^{\\mu }=\\psi ^{\\dagger }\\gamma ^{0}\\gamma ^{\\mu }\\psi }where the dagger denotes the Hermitian adjoint (authors usually write ψ = ψ†γ0 for the Dirac adjoint) and Jμ is the probability four-current, while the Klein–Gordon equation does not:[24]ρ\n =\n \n \n \n i\n ℏ\n \n \n 2\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n ψ\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n ∂\n ψ\n \n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n −\n ψ\n \n \n \n ∂\n \n ψ\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n ,\n \n \n j\n \n =\n −\n \n \n \n i\n ℏ\n \n \n 2\n m\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n ψ\n \n ∗\n \n \n ∇\n ψ\n −\n ψ\n ∇\n \n ψ\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n ⇌\n \n \n J\n \n μ\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n i\n ℏ\n \n \n 2\n m\n \n \n \n (\n \n ψ\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n ∂\n \n μ\n \n \n ψ\n −\n ψ\n \n ∂\n \n μ\n \n \n \n ψ\n \n ∗\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho ={\\frac {i\\hbar }{2mc^{2}}}\\left(\\psi ^{*}{\\frac {\\partial \\psi }{\\partial t}}-\\psi {\\frac {\\partial \\psi ^{*}}{\\partial t}}\\right)\\,,\\quad \\mathbf {j} =-{\\frac {i\\hbar }{2m}}\\left(\\psi ^{*}\\nabla \\psi -\\psi \\nabla \\psi ^{*}\\right)\\quad \\rightleftharpoons \\quad J^{\\mu }={\\frac {i\\hbar }{2m}}(\\psi ^{*}\\partial ^{\\mu }\\psi -\\psi \\partial ^{\\mu }\\psi ^{*})}where ∂μ is the four-gradient. Since the initial values of both ψ and ∂ψ/∂t may be freely chosen, the density can be negative.Instead, what appears look at first sight a \"probability density\" and \"probability current\" has to be reinterpreted as charge density and current density when multiplied by electric charge. Then, the wavefunction ψ is not a wavefunction at all, but reinterpreted as a field.[13] The density and current of electric charge always satisfy a continuity equation:∂\n ρ\n \n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n +\n ∇\n ⋅\n \n J\n \n =\n 0\n \n ⇌\n \n \n ∂\n \n μ\n \n \n \n J\n \n μ\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\partial \\rho }{\\partial t}}+\\nabla \\cdot \\mathbf {J} =0\\quad \\rightleftharpoons \\quad \\partial _{\\mu }J^{\\mu }=0\\,,}as charge is a conserved quantity. Probability density and current also satisfy a continuity equation because probability is conserved, however this is only possible in the absence of interactions.","title":"Combining special relativity and quantum mechanics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Minimal coupling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_coupling"},{"link_name":"electric charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"},{"link_name":"magnetic vector potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_vector_potential"},{"link_name":"electric scalar potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_scalar_potential"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"four-momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-momentum"},{"link_name":"4-momentum operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-momentum_operator"},{"link_name":"four-potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-potential"}],"text":"Including interactions in RWEs is generally difficult. Minimal coupling is a simple way to include the electromagnetic interaction. For one charged particle of electric charge q in an electromagnetic field, given by the magnetic vector potential A(r, t) defined by the magnetic field B = ∇ × A, and electric scalar potential ϕ(r, t), this is:[25]E\n ^\n \n \n \n →\n \n \n \n E\n ^\n \n \n \n −\n q\n ϕ\n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n →\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n −\n q\n \n A\n \n \n ⇌\n \n \n \n \n \n P\n ^\n \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n →\n \n \n \n \n P\n ^\n \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n −\n q\n \n A\n \n μ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {E}}\\rightarrow {\\hat {E}}-q\\phi \\,,\\quad {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}\\rightarrow {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}-q\\mathbf {A} \\quad \\rightleftharpoons \\quad {\\hat {P}}_{\\mu }\\rightarrow {\\hat {P}}_{\\mu }-qA_{\\mu }}where Pμ is the four-momentum that has a corresponding 4-momentum operator, and Aμ the four-potential. In the following, the non-relativistic limit refers to the limiting cases:E\n −\n e\n ϕ\n ≈\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n p\n \n ≈\n m\n \n v\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E-e\\phi \\approx mc^{2}\\,,\\quad \\mathbf {p} \\approx m\\mathbf {v} \\,,}that is, the total energy of the particle is approximately the rest energy for small electric potentials, and the momentum is approximately the classical momentum.","title":"Spin and electromagnetically interacting particles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"(0,0)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory_of_the_Lorentz_group"},{"link_name":"Maxwell's equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations"},{"link_name":"bosons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boson"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martin,_Shaw,_p_3-2"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schuam_p_181-17"}],"sub_title":"Spin 0","text":"In RQM, the KG equation admits the minimal coupling prescription;(\n \n \n \n E\n ^\n \n \n \n −\n q\n ϕ\n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ψ\n =\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n −\n q\n \n A\n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ψ\n +\n (\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n ψ\n \n ⇌\n \n \n [\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n P\n ^\n \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n −\n q\n \n A\n \n μ\n \n \n )\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n P\n ^\n \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n −\n q\n \n A\n \n μ\n \n \n )\n \n −\n \n \n (\n m\n c\n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n ]\n \n ψ\n =\n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {({\\hat {E}}-q\\phi )}^{2}\\psi =c^{2}{({\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}-q\\mathbf {A} )}^{2}\\psi +(mc^{2})^{2}\\psi \\quad \\rightleftharpoons \\quad \\left[{({\\hat {P}}_{\\mu }-qA_{\\mu })}{({\\hat {P}}^{\\mu }-qA^{\\mu })}-{(mc)}^{2}\\right]\\psi =0.}In the case where the charge is zero, the equation reduces trivially to the free KG equation so nonzero charge is assumed below. This is a scalar equation that is invariant under the irreducible one-dimensional scalar (0,0) representation of the Lorentz group. This means that all of its solutions will belong to a direct sum of (0,0) representations. Solutions that do not belong to the irreducible (0,0) representation will have two or more independent components. Such solutions cannot in general describe particles with nonzero spin since spin components are not independent. Other constraint will have to be imposed for that, e.g. the Dirac equation for spin 1/2, see below. Thus if a system satisfies the KG equation only, it can only be interpreted as a system with zero spin.The electromagnetic field is treated classically according to Maxwell's equations and the particle is described by a wavefunction, the solution to the KG equation. The equation is, as it stands, not always very useful, because massive spinless particles, such as the π-mesons, experience the much stronger strong interaction in addition to the electromagnetic interaction. It does, however, correctly describe charged spinless bosons in the absence of other interactions.The KG equation is applicable to spinless charged bosons in an external electromagnetic potential.[2] As such, the equation cannot be applied to the description of atoms, since the electron is a spin 1/2 particle. In the non-relativistic limit the equation reduces to the Schrödinger equation for a spinless charged particle in an electromagnetic field:[16](\n \n i\n ℏ\n \n \n ∂\n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n −\n q\n ϕ\n \n )\n \n ψ\n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n m\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n −\n q\n \n A\n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ψ\n \n ⇔\n \n \n \n \n H\n ^\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n m\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n −\n q\n \n A\n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n q\n ϕ\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(i\\hbar {\\frac {\\partial }{\\partial t}}-q\\phi \\right)\\psi ={\\frac {1}{2m}}{({\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}-q\\mathbf {A} )}^{2}\\psi \\quad \\Leftrightarrow \\quad {\\hat {H}}={\\frac {1}{2m}}{({\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}-q\\mathbf {A} )}^{2}+q\\phi .}","title":"Spin and electromagnetically interacting particles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"phenomenologically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenological_model"},{"link_name":"Pauli equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_equation"},{"link_name":"Pauli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_field"},{"link_name":"Pauli matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_matrices"},{"link_name":"spinor field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinor_field"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"gamma matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_matrices"},{"link_name":"identity matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_matrix"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"time-reversed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-symmetry"},{"link_name":"negated charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-symmetry"},{"link_name":"antiparticle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiparticle"},{"link_name":"Dirac spinor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_spinor"},{"link_name":"bispinor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bispinor"},{"link_name":"Dirac equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_equation#Comparison_with_the_Pauli_theory"},{"link_name":"spin–orbit interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93orbit_interaction"},{"link_name":"gyromagnetic ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyromagnetic_ratio"},{"link_name":"Darwin term","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_term"},{"link_name":"perturbation theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perturbation_theory"},{"link_name":"Weyl equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weyl_equation"},{"link_name":"neutrinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C.B._1994-29"},{"link_name":"identity matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_matrix"},{"link_name":"pure mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_mathematics"},{"link_name":"quaternions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternion"},{"link_name":"SO(2)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SO(2)"},{"link_name":"SO(3)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SO(3)"},{"link_name":"Lie groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lie_group"},{"link_name":"commutator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutator"},{"link_name":"anticommutator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutator#Anticommutator"},{"link_name":"three-dimensional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-dimensional"},{"link_name":"Levi-Civita symbol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi-Civita_symbol"},{"link_name":"bases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basis_(linear_algebra)"},{"link_name":"Clifford algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_algebra"},{"link_name":"Minkowski metric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_metric"},{"link_name":"curved spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curved_space"},{"link_name":"vierbeins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartan_formalism_(physics)"},{"link_name":"Breit equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breit_equation"},{"link_name":"many-particle system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-particle_system"}],"sub_title":"Spin 1/2","text":"Non relativistically, spin was phenomenologically introduced in the Pauli equation by Pauli in 1927 for particles in an electromagnetic field:(\n \n i\n ℏ\n \n \n ∂\n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n −\n q\n ϕ\n \n )\n \n ψ\n =\n \n [\n \n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n m\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n σ\n \n ⋅\n (\n \n p\n \n −\n q\n \n A\n \n )\n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n ]\n \n ψ\n \n ⇔\n \n \n \n \n H\n ^\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n m\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n σ\n \n ⋅\n (\n \n p\n \n −\n q\n \n A\n \n )\n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n q\n ϕ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(i\\hbar {\\frac {\\partial }{\\partial t}}-q\\phi \\right)\\psi =\\left[{\\frac {1}{2m}}{({\\boldsymbol {\\sigma }}\\cdot (\\mathbf {p} -q\\mathbf {A} ))}^{2}\\right]\\psi \\quad \\Leftrightarrow \\quad {\\hat {H}}={\\frac {1}{2m}}{({\\boldsymbol {\\sigma }}\\cdot (\\mathbf {p} -q\\mathbf {A} ))}^{2}+q\\phi }by means of the 2 × 2 Pauli matrices, and ψ is not just a scalar wavefunction as in the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation, but a two-component spinor field:ψ\n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n ↑\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n ↓\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi ={\\begin{pmatrix}\\psi _{\\uparrow }\\\\\\psi _{\\downarrow }\\end{pmatrix}}}where the subscripts ↑ and ↓ refer to the \"spin up\" (σ = +1/2) and \"spin down\" (σ = −1/2) states.[b]In RQM, the Dirac equation can also incorporate minimal coupling, rewritten from above;(\n \n i\n ℏ\n \n \n ∂\n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n −\n q\n ϕ\n \n )\n \n ψ\n =\n \n γ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n [\n \n c\n \n γ\n \n ⋅\n \n (\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n −\n q\n \n A\n \n )\n \n −\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ]\n \n ψ\n \n ⇌\n \n \n [\n \n \n γ\n \n μ\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n P\n ^\n \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n −\n q\n \n A\n \n μ\n \n \n )\n −\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ]\n \n ψ\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(i\\hbar {\\frac {\\partial }{\\partial t}}-q\\phi \\right)\\psi =\\gamma ^{0}\\left[c{\\boldsymbol {\\gamma }}\\cdot {({\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}-q\\mathbf {A} )}-mc^{2}\\right]\\psi \\quad \\rightleftharpoons \\quad \\left[\\gamma ^{\\mu }({\\hat {P}}_{\\mu }-qA_{\\mu })-mc^{2}\\right]\\psi =0}and was the first equation to accurately predict spin, a consequence of the 4 × 4 gamma matrices γ0 = β, γ = (γ1, γ2, γ3) = βα = (βα1, βα2, βα3). There is a 4 × 4 identity matrix pre-multiplying the energy operator (including the potential energy term), conventionally not written for simplicity and clarity (i.e. treated like the number 1). Here ψ is a four-component spinor field, which is conventionally split into two two-component spinors in the form:[c]ψ\n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n −\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n +\n ↑\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n +\n ↓\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n −\n ↑\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n −\n ↓\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi ={\\begin{pmatrix}\\psi _{+}\\\\\\psi _{-}\\end{pmatrix}}={\\begin{pmatrix}\\psi _{+\\uparrow }\\\\\\psi _{+\\downarrow }\\\\\\psi _{-\\uparrow }\\\\\\psi _{-\\downarrow }\\end{pmatrix}}}The 2-spinor ψ+ corresponds to a particle with 4-momentum (E, p) and charge q and two spin states (σ = ±1/2, as before). The other 2-spinor ψ− corresponds to a similar particle with the same mass and spin states, but negative 4-momentum −(E, p) and negative charge −q, that is, negative energy states, time-reversed momentum, and negated charge. This was the first interpretation and prediction of a particle and corresponding antiparticle. See Dirac spinor and bispinor for further description of these spinors. In the non-relativistic limit the Dirac equation reduces to the Pauli equation (see Dirac equation for how). When applied a one-electron atom or ion, setting A = 0 and ϕ to the appropriate electrostatic potential, additional relativistic terms include the spin–orbit interaction, electron gyromagnetic ratio, and Darwin term. In ordinary QM these terms have to be put in by hand and treated using perturbation theory. The positive energies do account accurately for the fine structure.Within RQM, for massless particles the Dirac equation reduces to:(\n \n \n \n \n \n E\n ^\n \n \n c\n \n \n +\n \n σ\n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n ψ\n \n +\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n ,\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n \n E\n ^\n \n \n c\n \n \n −\n \n σ\n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n ψ\n \n −\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n ⇌\n \n \n σ\n \n μ\n \n \n \n \n \n \n P\n ^\n \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n \n ψ\n \n +\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n ,\n \n \n σ\n \n μ\n \n \n \n \n \n \n P\n ^\n \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n \n ψ\n \n −\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left({\\frac {\\hat {E}}{c}}+{\\boldsymbol {\\sigma }}\\cdot {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}\\right)\\psi _{+}=0\\,,\\quad \\left({\\frac {\\hat {E}}{c}}-{\\boldsymbol {\\sigma }}\\cdot {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}\\right)\\psi _{-}=0\\quad \\rightleftharpoons \\quad \\sigma ^{\\mu }{\\hat {P}}_{\\mu }\\psi _{+}=0\\,,\\quad \\sigma _{\\mu }{\\hat {P}}^{\\mu }\\psi _{-}=0\\,,}the first of which is the Weyl equation, a considerable simplification applicable for massless neutrinos.[26] This time there is a 2 × 2 identity matrix pre-multiplying the energy operator conventionally not written. In RQM it is useful to take this as the zeroth Pauli matrix σ0 which couples to the energy operator (time derivative), just as the other three matrices couple to the momentum operator (spatial derivatives).The Pauli and gamma matrices were introduced here, in theoretical physics, rather than pure mathematics itself. They have applications to quaternions and to the SO(2) and SO(3) Lie groups, because they satisfy the important commutator [ , ] and anticommutator [ , ]+ relations respectively:[\n \n \n σ\n \n a\n \n \n ,\n \n σ\n \n b\n \n \n \n ]\n \n =\n 2\n i\n \n ε\n \n a\n b\n c\n \n \n \n σ\n \n c\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n [\n \n \n σ\n \n a\n \n \n ,\n \n σ\n \n b\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n +\n \n \n =\n 2\n \n δ\n \n a\n b\n \n \n \n σ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left[\\sigma _{a},\\sigma _{b}\\right]=2i\\varepsilon _{abc}\\sigma _{c}\\,,\\quad \\left[\\sigma _{a},\\sigma _{b}\\right]_{+}=2\\delta _{ab}\\sigma _{0}}where εabc is the three-dimensional Levi-Civita symbol. The gamma matrices form bases in Clifford algebra, and have a connection to the components of the flat spacetime Minkowski metric ηαβ in the anticommutation relation:[\n \n \n γ\n \n α\n \n \n ,\n \n γ\n \n β\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n +\n \n \n =\n \n γ\n \n α\n \n \n \n γ\n \n β\n \n \n +\n \n γ\n \n β\n \n \n \n γ\n \n α\n \n \n =\n 2\n \n η\n \n α\n β\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left[\\gamma ^{\\alpha },\\gamma ^{\\beta }\\right]_{+}=\\gamma ^{\\alpha }\\gamma ^{\\beta }+\\gamma ^{\\beta }\\gamma ^{\\alpha }=2\\eta ^{\\alpha \\beta }\\,,}(This can be extended to curved spacetime by introducing vierbeins, but is not the subject of special relativity).In 1929, the Breit equation was found to describe two or more electromagnetically interacting massive spin 1/2 fermions to first-order relativistic corrections; one of the first attempts to describe such a relativistic quantum many-particle system. This is, however, still only an approximation, and the Hamiltonian includes numerous long and complicated sums.","title":"Spin and electromagnetically interacting particles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"spin polarization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_polarization"},{"link_name":"helicity operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicity_(particle_physics)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Helicity and chirality","text":"See also: spin polarizationThe helicity operator is defined by;h\n ^\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n S\n \n ^\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n p\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n S\n \n ^\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n c\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n (\n \n m\n \n 0\n \n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {h}}={\\hat {\\mathbf {S} }}\\cdot {\\frac {\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}{|\\mathbf {p} |}}={\\hat {\\mathbf {S} }}\\cdot {\\frac {c{\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}}{\\sqrt {E^{2}-(m_{0}c^{2})^{2}}}}}where p is the momentum operator, S the spin operator for a particle of spin s, E is the total energy of the particle, and m0 its rest mass. Helicity indicates the orientations of the spin and translational momentum vectors.[27] Helicity is frame-dependent because of the 3-momentum in the definition, and is quantized due to spin quantization, which has discrete positive values for parallel alignment, and negative values for antiparallel alignment.An automatic occurrence in the Dirac equation (and the Weyl equation) is the projection of the spin 1/2 operator on the 3-momentum (times c), σ · c p, which is the helicity (for the spin 1/2 case) times \n \n \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n (\n \n m\n \n 0\n \n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {E^{2}-(m_{0}c^{2})^{2}}}}\n \n.For massless particles the helicity simplifies to:h\n ^\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n S\n \n ^\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n c\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n \n E\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {h}}={\\hat {\\mathbf {S} }}\\cdot {\\frac {c{\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}}{E}}}","title":"Spin and electromagnetically interacting particles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"free particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_particle"},{"link_name":"Fierz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markus_Fierz"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Bargmann–Wigner equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bargmann%E2%80%93Wigner_equations"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Lorentz group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_group"},{"link_name":"spinor fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinor_field"},{"link_name":"column vectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_vector"},{"link_name":"functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Hermitian conjugate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitian_conjugate"},{"link_name":"antiparticle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiparticle"},{"link_name":"Élie Cartan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lie_Cartan"},{"link_name":"spinors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinor"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"electric dipole moments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_dipole_moment"},{"link_name":"magnetic dipole moments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_dipole_moment"},{"link_name":"spin quantum number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_quantum_number"},{"link_name":"magnetic charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_charge"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C.B._1994-29"},{"link_name":"multipole expansion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multipole_expansion"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Higher spins","text":"The Dirac equation can only describe particles of spin 1/2. Beyond the Dirac equation, RWEs have been applied to free particles of various spins. In 1936, Dirac extended his equation to all fermions, three years later Fierz and Pauli rederived the same equation.[28] The Bargmann–Wigner equations were found in 1948 using Lorentz group theory, applicable for all free particles with any spin.[29][30] Considering the factorization of the KG equation above, and more rigorously by Lorentz group theory, it becomes apparent to introduce spin in the form of matrices.The wavefunctions are multicomponent spinor fields, which can be represented as column vectors of functions of space and time:ψ\n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n σ\n =\n s\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n σ\n =\n s\n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n σ\n =\n −\n s\n +\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n σ\n =\n −\n s\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n ⇌\n \n \n \n ψ\n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n †\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n σ\n =\n s\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n ⋆\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n σ\n =\n s\n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n ⋆\n \n \n \n \n ⋯\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n σ\n =\n −\n s\n +\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n ⋆\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n σ\n =\n −\n s\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n ⋆\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi (\\mathbf {r} ,t)={\\begin{bmatrix}\\psi _{\\sigma =s}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\\\\psi _{\\sigma =s-1}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\\\\vdots \\\\\\psi _{\\sigma =-s+1}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\\\\psi _{\\sigma =-s}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\end{bmatrix}}\\quad \\rightleftharpoons \\quad {\\psi (\\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\\dagger }={\\begin{bmatrix}{\\psi _{\\sigma =s}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\\star }&{\\psi _{\\sigma =s-1}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\\star }&\\cdots &{\\psi _{\\sigma =-s+1}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\\star }&{\\psi _{\\sigma =-s}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\\star }\\end{bmatrix}}}where the expression on the right is the Hermitian conjugate. For a massive particle of spin s, there are 2s + 1 components for the particle, and another 2s + 1 for the corresponding antiparticle (there are 2s + 1 possible σ values in each case), altogether forming a 2(2s + 1)-component spinor field:ψ\n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n +\n ,\n \n σ\n =\n s\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n +\n ,\n \n σ\n =\n s\n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n +\n ,\n \n σ\n =\n −\n s\n +\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n +\n ,\n \n σ\n =\n −\n s\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n −\n ,\n \n σ\n =\n s\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n −\n ,\n \n σ\n =\n s\n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n −\n ,\n \n σ\n =\n −\n s\n +\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n −\n ,\n \n σ\n =\n −\n s\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n ⇌\n \n \n \n ψ\n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n †\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n +\n ,\n \n σ\n =\n s\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n ⋆\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n +\n ,\n \n σ\n =\n s\n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n ⋆\n \n \n \n \n ⋯\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n −\n ,\n \n σ\n =\n −\n s\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n ⋆\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi (\\mathbf {r} ,t)={\\begin{bmatrix}\\psi _{+,\\,\\sigma =s}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\\\\psi _{+,\\,\\sigma =s-1}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\\\\vdots \\\\\\psi _{+,\\,\\sigma =-s+1}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\\\\psi _{+,\\,\\sigma =-s}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\\\\psi _{-,\\,\\sigma =s}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\\\\psi _{-,\\,\\sigma =s-1}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\\\\vdots \\\\\\psi _{-,\\,\\sigma =-s+1}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\\\\psi _{-,\\,\\sigma =-s}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\end{bmatrix}}\\quad \\rightleftharpoons \\quad {\\psi (\\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\\dagger }{\\begin{bmatrix}{\\psi _{+,\\,\\sigma =s}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\\star }&{\\psi _{+,\\,\\sigma =s-1}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\\star }&\\cdots &{\\psi _{-,\\,\\sigma =-s}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)}^{\\star }\\end{bmatrix}}}with the + subscript indicating the particle and − subscript for the antiparticle. However, for massless particles of spin s, there are only ever two-component spinor fields; one is for the particle in one helicity state corresponding to +s and the other for the antiparticle in the opposite helicity state corresponding to −s:ψ\n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n +\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n −\n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi (\\mathbf {r} ,t)={\\begin{pmatrix}\\psi _{+}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\\\\\psi _{-}(\\mathbf {r} ,t)\\end{pmatrix}}}According to the relativistic energy-momentum relation, all massless particles travel at the speed of light, so particles traveling at the speed of light are also described by two-component spinors. Historically, Élie Cartan found the most general form of spinors in 1913, prior to the spinors revealed in the RWEs following the year 1927.For equations describing higher-spin particles, the inclusion of interactions is nowhere near as simple minimal coupling, they lead to incorrect predictions and self-inconsistencies.[31] For spin greater than ħ/2, the RWE is not fixed by the particle's mass, spin, and electric charge; the electromagnetic moments (electric dipole moments and magnetic dipole moments) allowed by the spin quantum number are arbitrary. (Theoretically, magnetic charge would contribute also). For example, the spin 1/2 case only allows a magnetic dipole, but for spin 1 particles magnetic quadrupoles and electric dipoles are also possible.[26] For more on this topic, see multipole expansion and (for example) Cédric Lorcé (2009).[32][33]","title":"Spin and electromagnetically interacting particles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Foldy–Wouthuysen transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foldy%E2%80%93Wouthuysen_transformation"}],"text":"The Schrödinger/Pauli velocity operator can be defined for a massive particle using the classical definition p = m v, and substituting quantum operators in the usual way:[34]v\n \n ^\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n m\n \n \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n ^\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {\\mathbf {v} }}={\\frac {1}{m}}{\\hat {\\mathbf {p} }}}which has eigenvalues that take any value. In RQM, the Dirac theory, it is:v\n \n ^\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n i\n ℏ\n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n H\n ^\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n r\n \n ^\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {\\mathbf {v} }}={\\frac {i}{\\hbar }}\\left[{\\hat {H}},{\\hat {\\mathbf {r} }}\\right]}which must have eigenvalues between ±c. See Foldy–Wouthuysen transformation for more theoretical background.","title":"Velocity operator"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lagrangian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_(field_theory)"},{"link_name":"Lagrangian density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_density"},{"link_name":"field-theoretic Euler–Lagrange equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_field_theory#Relativistic_field_theory"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"path integral formulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_integral_formulation"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"The Hamiltonian operators in the Schrödinger picture are one approach to forming the differential equations for ψ. An equivalent alternative is to determine a Lagrangian (really meaning Lagrangian density), then generate the differential equation by the field-theoretic Euler–Lagrange equation:∂\n \n μ\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n ∂\n \n \n L\n \n \n \n \n ∂\n (\n \n ∂\n \n μ\n \n \n ψ\n )\n \n \n \n )\n \n −\n \n \n \n ∂\n \n \n L\n \n \n \n \n ∂\n ψ\n \n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\partial _{\\mu }\\left({\\frac {\\partial {\\mathcal {L}}}{\\partial (\\partial _{\\mu }\\psi )}}\\right)-{\\frac {\\partial {\\mathcal {L}}}{\\partial \\psi }}=0\\,}For some RWEs, a Lagrangian can be found by inspection. For example, the Dirac Lagrangian is:[35]L\n \n \n =\n \n \n ψ\n ¯\n \n \n (\n \n γ\n \n μ\n \n \n \n P\n \n μ\n \n \n −\n m\n c\n )\n ψ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {L}}={\\overline {\\psi }}(\\gamma ^{\\mu }P_{\\mu }-mc)\\psi }and Klein–Gordon Lagrangian is:L\n \n \n =\n −\n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n m\n \n \n \n η\n \n μ\n ν\n \n \n \n ∂\n \n μ\n \n \n \n ψ\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n ∂\n \n ν\n \n \n ψ\n −\n m\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ψ\n \n ∗\n \n \n ψ\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {L}}=-{\\frac {\\hbar ^{2}}{m}}\\eta ^{\\mu \\nu }\\partial _{\\mu }\\psi ^{*}\\partial _{\\nu }\\psi -mc^{2}\\psi ^{*}\\psi \\,.}This is not possible for all RWEs; and is one reason the Lorentz group theoretic approach is important and appealing: fundamental invariance and symmetries in space and time can be used to derive RWEs using appropriate group representations. The Lagrangian approach with field interpretation of ψ is the subject of QFT rather than RQM: Feynman's path integral formulation uses invariant Lagrangians rather than Hamiltonian operators, since the latter can become extremely complicated, see (for example) Weinberg (1995).[36]","title":"Relativistic quantum Lagrangians"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"angular momentum operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum_operator"},{"link_name":"pseudovector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudovector"},{"link_name":"relativistic angular momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_angular_momentum"},{"link_name":"bivector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivector"},{"link_name":"exterior algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exterior_algebra"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"centre of mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_of_mass"},{"link_name":"Hodge dual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodge_dual"},{"link_name":"Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli%E2%80%93Lubanski_pseudovector"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"text":"In non-relativistic QM, the angular momentum operator is formed from the classical pseudovector definition L = r × p. In RQM, the position and momentum operators are inserted directly where they appear in the orbital relativistic angular momentum tensor defined from the four-dimensional position and momentum of the particle, equivalently a bivector in the exterior algebra formalism:[37][d]M\n \n α\n β\n \n \n =\n \n X\n \n α\n \n \n \n P\n \n β\n \n \n −\n \n X\n \n β\n \n \n \n P\n \n α\n \n \n =\n 2\n \n X\n \n [\n α\n \n \n \n P\n \n β\n ]\n \n \n \n ⇌\n \n \n M\n \n =\n \n X\n \n ∧\n \n P\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M^{\\alpha \\beta }=X^{\\alpha }P^{\\beta }-X^{\\beta }P^{\\alpha }=2X^{[\\alpha }P^{\\beta ]}\\quad \\rightleftharpoons \\quad \\mathbf {M} =\\mathbf {X} \\wedge \\mathbf {P} \\,,}which are six components altogether: three are the non-relativistic 3-orbital angular momenta; M12 = L3, M23 = L1, M31 = L2, and the other three M01, M02, M03 are boosts of the centre of mass of the rotating object. An additional relativistic-quantum term has to be added for particles with spin. For a particle of rest mass m, the total angular momentum tensor is:J\n \n α\n β\n \n \n =\n 2\n \n X\n \n [\n α\n \n \n \n P\n \n β\n ]\n \n \n +\n \n \n 1\n \n m\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ε\n \n α\n β\n γ\n δ\n \n \n \n W\n \n γ\n \n \n \n p\n \n δ\n \n \n \n ⇌\n \n \n J\n \n =\n \n X\n \n ∧\n \n P\n \n +\n \n \n 1\n \n m\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n ⋆\n (\n \n W\n \n ∧\n \n P\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle J^{\\alpha \\beta }=2X^{[\\alpha }P^{\\beta ]}+{\\frac {1}{m^{2}}}\\varepsilon ^{\\alpha \\beta \\gamma \\delta }W_{\\gamma }p_{\\delta }\\quad \\rightleftharpoons \\quad \\mathbf {J} =\\mathbf {X} \\wedge \\mathbf {P} +{\\frac {1}{m^{2}}}\\star (\\mathbf {W} \\wedge \\mathbf {P} )}where the star denotes the Hodge dual, andW\n \n α\n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n ε\n \n α\n β\n γ\n δ\n \n \n \n M\n \n β\n γ\n \n \n \n p\n \n δ\n \n \n \n ⇌\n \n \n W\n \n =\n ⋆\n (\n \n M\n \n ∧\n \n P\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle W_{\\alpha }={\\frac {1}{2}}\\varepsilon _{\\alpha \\beta \\gamma \\delta }M^{\\beta \\gamma }p^{\\delta }\\quad \\rightleftharpoons \\quad \\mathbf {W} =\\star (\\mathbf {M} \\wedge \\mathbf {P} )}is the Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector.[38] For more on relativistic spin, see (for example) Troshin & Tyurin (1994).[39]","title":"Relativistic quantum angular momentum"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thomas precession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_precession"},{"link_name":"spin–orbit interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93orbit_interaction"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"classical electromagnetism and special relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_electromagnetism_and_special_relativity#The_E_and_B_fields"},{"link_name":"Lorentz-transformed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_transformation"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kroemer-46"},{"link_name":"rotating frame of reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotating_frame_of_reference"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kroemer-46"}],"sub_title":"Thomas precession and spin–orbit interactions","text":"In 1926, the Thomas precession is discovered: relativistic corrections to the spin of elementary particles with application in the spin–orbit interaction of atoms and rotation of macroscopic objects.[40][41] In 1939 Wigner derived the Thomas precession.In classical electromagnetism and special relativity, an electron moving with a velocity v through an electric field E but not a magnetic field B, will in its own frame of reference experience a Lorentz-transformed magnetic field B′:B\n \n ′\n \n =\n \n \n \n \n E\n \n ×\n \n v\n \n \n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n \n \n (\n \n v\n \n /\n \n c\n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {B} '={\\frac {\\mathbf {E} \\times \\mathbf {v} }{c^{2}{\\sqrt {1-\\left(v/c\\right)^{2}}}}}\\,.}In the non-relativistic limit v << c:B\n \n ′\n \n =\n \n \n \n \n E\n \n ×\n \n v\n \n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {B} '={\\frac {\\mathbf {E} \\times \\mathbf {v} }{c^{2}}}\\,,}so the non-relativistic spin interaction Hamiltonian becomes:[42]H\n ^\n \n \n \n =\n −\n \n \n B\n \n ′\n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n μ\n ^\n \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n =\n −\n \n (\n \n \n B\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n E\n \n ×\n \n v\n \n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n μ\n ^\n \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {H}}=-\\mathbf {B} '\\cdot {\\hat {\\boldsymbol {\\mu }}}_{S}=-\\left(\\mathbf {B} +{\\frac {\\mathbf {E} \\times \\mathbf {v} }{c^{2}}}\\right)\\cdot {\\hat {\\boldsymbol {\\mu }}}_{S}\\,,}where the first term is already the non-relativistic magnetic moment interaction, and the second term the relativistic correction of order (v/c)², but this disagrees with experimental atomic spectra by a factor of 1⁄2. It was pointed out by L. Thomas that there is a second relativistic effect: An electric field component perpendicular to the electron velocity causes an additional acceleration of the electron perpendicular to its instantaneous velocity, so the electron moves in a curved path. The electron moves in a rotating frame of reference, and this additional precession of the electron is called the Thomas precession. It can be shown[43] that the net result of this effect is that the spin–orbit interaction is reduced by half, as if the magnetic field experienced by the electron has only one-half the value, and the relativistic correction in the Hamiltonian is:H\n ^\n \n \n \n =\n −\n \n \n B\n \n ′\n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n μ\n ^\n \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n =\n −\n \n (\n \n \n B\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n E\n \n ×\n \n v\n \n \n \n 2\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n μ\n ^\n \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {H}}=-\\mathbf {B} '\\cdot {\\hat {\\boldsymbol {\\mu }}}_{S}=-\\left(\\mathbf {B} +{\\frac {\\mathbf {E} \\times \\mathbf {v} }{2c^{2}}}\\right)\\cdot {\\hat {\\boldsymbol {\\mu }}}_{S}\\,.}In the case of RQM, the factor of 1⁄2 is predicted by the Dirac equation.[42]","title":"Relativistic quantum angular momentum"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"quantum electrodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"P.W Atkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Atkins"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"atomic physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_physics"},{"link_name":"nuclear physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physics"},{"link_name":"particle physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics"},{"link_name":"spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopy"},{"link_name":"diffraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction"},{"link_name":"scattering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scattering"}],"text":"The events which led to and established RQM, and the continuation beyond into quantum electrodynamics (QED), are summarized below [see, for example, R. Resnick and R. Eisberg (1985),[44] and P.W Atkins (1974)[45]]. More than half a century of experimental and theoretical research from the 1890s through to the 1950s in the new and mysterious quantum theory as it was up and coming revealed that a number of phenomena cannot be explained by QM alone. SR, found at the turn of the 20th century, was found to be a necessary component, leading to unification: RQM. Theoretical predictions and experiments mainly focused on the newly found atomic physics, nuclear physics, and particle physics; by considering spectroscopy, diffraction and scattering of particles, and the electrons and nuclei within atoms and molecules. Numerous results are attributed to the effects of spin.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"photoelectric effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect"},{"link_name":"photons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photons"},{"link_name":"Sommerfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld"},{"link_name":"fine structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine_structure"},{"link_name":"spectral lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_line"},{"link_name":"atoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoms"},{"link_name":"Compton effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_effect"},{"link_name":"de Broglie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie"},{"link_name":"wave–particle duality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality"},{"link_name":"matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter"},{"link_name":"de Broglie relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Broglie_relations"},{"link_name":"Davisson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton_Davisson"},{"link_name":"Germer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lester_Germer"},{"link_name":"G. Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson"}],"sub_title":"Relativistic description of particles in quantum phenomena","text":"Albert Einstein in 1905 explained of the photoelectric effect; a particle description of light as photons. In 1916, Sommerfeld explains fine structure; the splitting of the spectral lines of atoms due to first order relativistic corrections. The Compton effect of 1923 provided more evidence that special relativity does apply; in this case to a particle description of photon–electron scattering. de Broglie extends wave–particle duality to matter: the de Broglie relations, which are consistent with special relativity and quantum mechanics. By 1927, Davisson and Germer and separately G. Thomson successfully diffract electrons, providing experimental evidence of wave-particle duality.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"J. J. Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._J._Thomson"},{"link_name":"electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"mass-to-charge ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass-to-charge_ratio"},{"link_name":"Zeeman effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeeman_effect"},{"link_name":"spectral line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_line"},{"link_name":"Millikan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan"},{"link_name":"oil drop experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_drop_experiment"},{"link_name":"Alpha particle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_particle"},{"link_name":"Geiger–Marsden experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93Marsden_experiment"},{"link_name":"Rutherford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford"},{"link_name":"atomic nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Stark effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stark_effect"},{"link_name":"electric field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_field"},{"link_name":"Stern–Gerlach experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern%E2%80%93Gerlach_experiment"},{"link_name":"Stoner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Clifton_Stoner"},{"link_name":"energy levels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_level"},{"link_name":"magnetic fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field"},{"link_name":"neutron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"Chadwick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Chadwick"},{"link_name":"positrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron"},{"link_name":"Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson"},{"link_name":"Mössbauer effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_effect"},{"link_name":"gamma radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_radiation"},{"link_name":"gravitational redshift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_redshift"},{"link_name":"time dilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_dilation"},{"link_name":"hyperfine interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperfine_interaction"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"sub_title":"Experiments","text":"1897 J. J. Thomson discovers the electron and measures its mass-to-charge ratio. Discovery of the Zeeman effect: the splitting a spectral line into several components in the presence of a static magnetic field.\n1908 Millikan measures the charge on the electron and finds experimental evidence of its quantization, in the oil drop experiment.\n1911 Alpha particle scattering in the Geiger–Marsden experiment, led by Rutherford, showed that atoms possess an internal structure: the atomic nucleus.[46]\n1913 The Stark effect is discovered: splitting of spectral lines due to a static electric field (compare with the Zeeman effect).\n1922 Stern–Gerlach experiment: experimental evidence of spin and its quantization.\n1924 Stoner studies splitting of energy levels in magnetic fields.\n1932 Experimental discovery of the neutron by Chadwick, and positrons by Anderson, confirming the theoretical prediction of positrons.\n1958 Discovery of the Mössbauer effect: resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma radiation by atomic nuclei bound in a solid, useful for accurate measurements of gravitational redshift and time dilation, and in the analysis of nuclear electromagnetic moments in hyperfine interactions.[47]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rosen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Rosen"},{"link_name":"Podolsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Podolsky"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"quantum entanglement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement"},{"link_name":"quantum nonlocality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_nonlocality"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Bohm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bohm"},{"link_name":"Aharonov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakir_Aharonov"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Aharonov–Bohm effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aharonov%E2%80%93Bohm_effect"},{"link_name":"EM field tensor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_field_tensor"},{"link_name":"EM 4-potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_four-potential"},{"link_name":"Bell's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"local hidden-variable theories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_hidden-variable_theory"}],"sub_title":"Quantum non-locality and relativistic locality","text":"In 1935, Einstein, Rosen, Podolsky published a paper[48] concerning quantum entanglement of particles, questioning quantum nonlocality and the apparent violation of causality upheld in SR: particles can appear to interact instantaneously at arbitrary distances. This was a misconception since information is not and cannot be transferred in the entangled states; rather the information transmission is in the process of measurement by two observers (one observer has to send a signal to the other, which cannot exceed c). QM does not violate SR.[49][50] In 1959, Bohm and Aharonov publish a paper[51] on the Aharonov–Bohm effect, questioning the status of electromagnetic potentials in QM. The EM field tensor and EM 4-potential formulations are both applicable in SR, but in QM the potentials enter the Hamiltonian (see above) and influence the motion of charged particles even in regions where the fields are zero. In 1964, Bell's theorem was published in a paper on the EPR paradox,[52] showing that QM cannot be derived from local hidden-variable theories if locality is to be maintained.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lamb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willis_Lamb"},{"link_name":"Retherford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Retherford"},{"link_name":"microwave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Bethe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"}],"sub_title":"The Lamb shift","text":"In 1947, the Lamb shift was discovered: a small difference in the 2S1⁄2 and 2P1⁄2 levels of hydrogen, due to the interaction between the electron and vacuum. Lamb and Retherford experimentally measure stimulated radio-frequency transitions the 2S1⁄2 and 2P1⁄2 hydrogen levels by microwave radiation.[53] An explanation of the Lamb shift is presented by Bethe. Papers on the effect were published in the early 1950s.[54]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dirac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dirac"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Tomonaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin-Itiro_Tomonaga"},{"link_name":"renormalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renormalization"},{"link_name":"Schwinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Schwinger"},{"link_name":"anomalous magnetic moment of the electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomalous_magnetic_dipole_moment#Anomalous_magnetic_moment_of_the_electron"},{"link_name":"Kusch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polykarp_Kusch"}],"sub_title":"Development of quantum electrodynamics","text":"1927 Dirac establishes the field of QED, also coining the term \"quantum electrodynamics\".[55]\n1943 Tomonaga begins work on renormalization, influential in QED.\n1947 Schwinger calculates the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron. Kusch measures of the anomalous magnetic electron moment, confirming one of QED's great predictions.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"tensor indices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor_index_notation"},{"link_name":"Pauli matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_matrices"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-27"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-41"}],"text":"^ Other common notations include ms and sz etc., but this would clutter expressions with unnecessary subscripts. The subscripts σ labeling spin values are not to be confused for tensor indices nor the Pauli matrices.\n\n^ This spinor notation is not necessarily standard; the literature usually writes \n \n \n \n ψ\n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n u\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi ={\\begin{pmatrix}u^{1}\\\\u^{2}\\end{pmatrix}}}\n \n or \n \n \n \n ψ\n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n χ\n \n \n \n \n η\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi ={\\begin{pmatrix}\\chi \\\\\\eta \\end{pmatrix}}}\n \n etc., but in the context of spin 1/2, this informal identification is commonly made.\n\n^ Again this notation is not necessarily standard, the more advanced literature usually writes\n\n\n \n \n \n ψ\n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n u\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi ={\\begin{pmatrix}u\\\\v\\end{pmatrix}}={\\begin{pmatrix}u^{1}\\\\u^{2}\\\\v^{1}\\\\v^{2}\\end{pmatrix}}}\n \n etc.,\n\nbut here we show informally the correspondence of energy, helicity, and spin states.\n\n^ Some authors, including Penrose, use Latin letters in this definition, even though it is conventional to use Greek indices for vectors and tensors in spacetime.","title":"Footnotes"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ohlsson, T.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Ohlsson"},{"link_name":"Relativistic Quantum Physics: From Advanced Quantum Mechanics to Introductory Quantum Field Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=hRavtAW5EFcC&q=pauli-lubanski+pseudovector&pg=PA11"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-139-50432-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-50432-4"},{"link_name":"Gauge Theories in Particle Physics: From Relativistic Quantum Mechanics to QED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=n7k_QS4Hb0YC&q=hyperfine+structure+in+relativistic+quantum+mechanics&pg=PA50"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8493-8775-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-8775-3"},{"link_name":"Introduction to Elementary Particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Wb9DYrjcoKAC&q=hyperfine+structure+in+relativistic+quantum+mechanics"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-527-61847-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-61847-7"},{"link_name":"Relativistic quantum mechanics and introduction to quantum field theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=tTJHB5hepQUC&q=relativistic+quantum+mechanics"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2002rqmi.book.....C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002rqmi.book.....C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-981-238-137-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-238-137-8"},{"link_name":"Wu, Ta-you","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Ta-You"},{"link_name":"Hwang, W.Y. Pauchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Woei-Yann_Pauchy_Hwang&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Relativistic quantum mechanics and quantum fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=gJR_gVU52NkC&q=relativistic+quantum+mechanics"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-981-02-0608-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-02-0608-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-527-40962-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-40962-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-07-005494-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-005494-3"},{"link_name":"Weinberg, S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Weinberg"},{"link_name":"The Quantum Theory of Fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/quantumtheoryoff00stev"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-55002-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55002-4"},{"link_name":"Weinberg, S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Weinberg"},{"link_name":"The Quantum Theory of Fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/quantumtheoryoff00stev"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-66000-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-66000-6"},{"link_name":"Relativistic Quantum Mechanics and Field Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=o9dXoK_2s6MC&q=fractional+quantum+mechanics+books&pg=PP2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-527-61734-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-61734-0"},{"link_name":"Advanced Quantum Mechanics: A Practical Guide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=BrTP8hEWRGUC&q=Relativistic_quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-76150-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76150-5"},{"link_name":"General Principles of Quantum Field Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Ef4zDW1V2LkC&q=lamb+shift&pg=PA187"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7923-0540-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-0540-8"},{"link_name":"Quantum Field Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=7VLMj4AvvicC&q=pauli-lubanski+pseudovector&pg=PA273"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-471-49683-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-49683-0"},{"link_name":"Relativistic Many-body Theory: A New Field-theoretical Approach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=noUF83SAl2wC&q=hyperfine+structure+in+relativistic+quantum+mechanics&pg=PA9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4419-8309-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-8309-1"},{"link_name":"Relativistic Quantum theory of atoms and molecules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=yYFCAAAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-387-34671-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-34671-7"}],"sub_title":"Relativistic quantum mechanics and field theory","text":"Ohlsson, T. (2011). Relativistic Quantum Physics: From Advanced Quantum Mechanics to Introductory Quantum Field Theory. Cambridge University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-139-50432-4.\nAitchison, I.J.R.; Hey, A.J.G. (2002). Gauge Theories in Particle Physics: From Relativistic Quantum Mechanics to QED. Vol. 1 (3rd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-8775-3.\nGriffiths, D. (2008). Introduction to Elementary Particles. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-61847-7.\nCapri, Anton Z. (2002). Relativistic quantum mechanics and introduction to quantum field theory. World Scientific. Bibcode:2002rqmi.book.....C. ISBN 978-981-238-137-8.\nWu, Ta-you; Hwang, W.Y. Pauchy (1991). Relativistic quantum mechanics and quantum fields. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-02-0608-6.\nNagashima, Y. (2010). Elementary particle physics, Quantum Field Theory. Vol. 1. ISBN 978-3-527-40962-4.\nBjorken, J.D.; Drell, S.D. (1965). Relativistic Quantum Fields (Pure & Applied Physics). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-005494-3.\nWeinberg, S. (1996). The Quantum Theory of Fields. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-55002-4.\nWeinberg, S. (2000). The Quantum Theory of Fields. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66000-6.\nGross, F. (2008). Relativistic Quantum Mechanics and Field Theory. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-61734-0.\nNazarov, Y.V.; Danon, J. (2013). Advanced Quantum Mechanics: A Practical Guide. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76150-5.\nBogolubov, N.N. (1989). General Principles of Quantum Field Theory (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-7923-0540-8.\nMandl, F.; Shaw, G. (2010). Quantum Field Theory (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-49683-0.\nLindgren, I. (2011). Relativistic Many-body Theory: A New Field-theoretical Approach. Springer series on atomic, optical, and plasma physics. Vol. 63. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-8309-1.\nGrant, I.P. (2007). Relativistic Quantum theory of atoms and molecules. Atomic, optical, and plasma physics. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-34671-7.","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Modern Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=GnCWJF6TQUwC&q=electromagnetic+moments+for+high-spin+particles&pg=PA395"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-81-203-2597-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-203-2597-5"},{"link_name":"Electronic properties of materials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=TsHFou6RftkC&q=electromagnetic+moments+for+high-spin+particles&pg=PA395"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4419-8164-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-8164-6"},{"link_name":"Introduction to Spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=FkaNOdwk0FQC&q=magnetic+moments+allowed+by+spin+quantum+number&pg=PA105"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-495-11478-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-11478-9"},{"link_name":"Introduction to the Electron Theory of Metals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=zY5z_UGqAcwC&q=magnetic+moments+allowed+by+spin+quantum+number&pg=PA387"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-58709-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58709-9"},{"link_name":"Radiochemistry and nuclear chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=IsAEjPpvyrkC&q=magnetic+multipole+moments+allowed+by+spin+quantum+number&pg=PA308"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7506-7463-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-7463-8"},{"link_name":"Theory of nuclear reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=IcF5GV7ftT0C&q=magnetic+multipole+moments+allowed+by+spin+quantum+number&pg=PA443"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-9971-5-0482-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9971-5-0482-3"},{"link_name":"Quantum theory of magnetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=vrcHC9XoHbsC&q=magnetic+multipole+moments+allowed+by+spin+quantum+number&pg=PA748"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-540-85416-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-85416-6"},{"link_name":"Quantum Physics in the Nanoworld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=9zrbFSHWcCAC&q=magnetic+multipole+moments+allowed+by+spin+quantum+number&pg=PA149"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-642-31238-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-31238-0"},{"link_name":"Handbook of Nanophysics: Functional Nanomaterials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=08BWNlciXx4C&q=magnetic+multipole+moments+allowed+by+spin+quantum+number&pg=SA40-PA3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4200-7553-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-7553-3"},{"link_name":"Solid-State Spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Jg89d0h9SIoC&q=magnetic+multipole+moments+allowed+by+spin+quantum+number&pg=PA256"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-642-01480-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-01480-2"},{"link_name":"The Atomic Nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=rcdRAQAAIAAJ&q=magnetic+multipole+moments+allowed+by+spin+quantum+number&pg=PA277"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7190-0978-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-0978-5"},{"link_name":"Relativistic Electronic Structure Theory - Fundamentals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=9tO_9Tf6dZgC&q=magnetic+multipole+moments+allowed+by+spin+quantum+number&pg=PA208"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-08-054046-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-054046-7"},{"link_name":"Ideas of Quantum Chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=nbdITbfsP6oC&q=magnetic+multipole+moments+allowed+by+spin+quantum+number&pg=PA676"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-08-046676-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-046676-7"},{"link_name":"Quantum (book)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_(book)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84831-035-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84831-035-3"}],"sub_title":"Quantum theory and applications in general","text":"Aruldhas, G.; Rajagopal, P. (2005). Modern Physics. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 395. ISBN 978-81-203-2597-5.\nHummel, R.E. (2011). Electronic properties of materials. Springer. p. 395. ISBN 978-1-4419-8164-6.\nPavia, D.L. (2005). Introduction to Spectroscopy (4th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-495-11478-9.\nMizutani, U. (2001). Introduction to the Electron Theory of Metals. Cambridge University Press. p. 387. ISBN 978-0-521-58709-9.\nChoppin, G.R. (2002). Radiochemistry and nuclear chemistry (3 ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 308. ISBN 978-0-7506-7463-8.\nSitenko, A.G. (1990). Theory of nuclear reactions. World Scientific. p. 443. ISBN 978-9971-5-0482-3.\nNolting, W.; Ramakanth, A. (2008). Quantum theory of magnetism. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-85416-6.\nLuth, H. (2013). Quantum Physics in the Nanoworld. Graduate texts in physics. Springer. p. 149. ISBN 978-3-642-31238-0.\nSattler, K.D. (2010). Handbook of Nanophysics: Functional Nanomaterials. CRC Press. pp. 40–43. ISBN 978-1-4200-7553-3.\nKuzmany, H. (2009). Solid-State Spectroscopy. Springer. p. 256. ISBN 978-3-642-01480-2.\nReid, J.M. (1984). The Atomic Nucleus (2nd ed.). Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-0978-5.\nSchwerdtfeger, P. (2002). Relativistic Electronic Structure Theory - Fundamentals. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry. Vol. 11. Elsevier. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-08-054046-7.\nPiela, L. (2006). Ideas of Quantum Chemistry. Elsevier. p. 676. ISBN 978-0-08-046676-7.\nKumar, M. (2009). Quantum (book). ISBN 978-1-84831-035-3.","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"title":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Relativistic_quantum_mechanics&action=edit&section=22"},{"title":"Relativistic quantum chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_quantum_chemistry"},{"title":"Breit equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breit_equation"},{"title":"Electron spin resonance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_spin_resonance"},{"title":"Fine-structure constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fine-structure_constant"},{"title":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Relativistic_quantum_mechanics&action=edit&section=23"},{"title":"Quantum spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_spacetime"},{"title":"Spin connection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_connection"},{"title":"Spinor bundle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinor_bundle"},{"title":"Dirac equation in the algebra of physical space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_equation_in_the_algebra_of_physical_space"},{"title":"Casimir invariant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_invariant"},{"title":"Casimir operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_operator"},{"title":"Wigner D-matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigner_D-matrix"},{"title":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Relativistic_quantum_mechanics&action=edit&section=24"},{"title":"Zitterbewegung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zitterbewegung"},{"title":"Two-body Dirac equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-body_Dirac_equations"},{"title":"Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Collider"},{"title":"Symmetry (physics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_(physics)"},{"title":"Parity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parity_(physics)"},{"title":"CPT invariance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPT_invariance"},{"title":"Chirality (physics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirality_(physics)#Chirality_and_helicity"},{"title":"Standard model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_model"},{"title":"Gauge theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_theory"},{"title":"Tachyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyon"},{"title":"Modern searches for Lorentz violation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_searches_for_Lorentz_violation"}]

[{"reference":"Perkins, D.H. (2000). Introduction to High Energy Physics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-62196-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=e63cNigcmOUC&q=Relativistic+quantum+mechanics&pg=PA19","url_text":"Introduction to High Energy Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62196-0","url_text":"978-0-521-62196-0"}]},{"reference":"Martin, B.R.; Shaw, G. (2008-12-03). Particle Physics. Manchester Physics Series (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-470-03294-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/particlephysics00mart","url_text":"Particle Physics"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/particlephysics00mart/page/n24","url_text":"3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-03294-7","url_text":"978-0-470-03294-7"}]},{"reference":"Reiher, M.; Wolf, A. (2009). Relativistic Quantum Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-62749-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YwSpxCfsNsEC&q=Relativistic+quantum+mechanics&pg=PA1","url_text":"Relativistic Quantum Chemistry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-62749-3","url_text":"978-3-527-62749-3"}]},{"reference":"Strange, P. (1998). Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: With Applications in Condensed Matter and Atomic Physics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56583-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=sdVrBM2w0OwC&q=Relativistic+quantum+mechanics&pg=PR15","url_text":"Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: With Applications in Condensed Matter and Atomic Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56583-7","url_text":"978-0-521-56583-7"}]},{"reference":"Mohn, P. (2003). Magnetism in the Solid State: An Introduction. Springer Series in Solid-State Sciences Series. Vol. 134. Springer. p. 6. ISBN 978-3-540-43183-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgyjojQUyMcC&q=electromagnetic+multipoles+in+relativistic+quantum+mechanics&pg=PA6","url_text":"Magnetism in the Solid State: An Introduction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-43183-1","url_text":"978-3-540-43183-1"}]},{"reference":"Martin, B.R.; Shaw, G. (2008-12-03). Particle Physics. Manchester Physics Series (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-470-03294-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/particlephysics00mart","url_text":"Particle Physics"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/particlephysics00mart/page/n26","url_text":"5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-03294-7","url_text":"978-0-470-03294-7"}]},{"reference":"Messiah, A. (1981). Quantum Mechanics. Vol. 2. North-Holland Publishing Company. p. 875. ISBN 978-0-7204-0045-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=VR93vUk8d_8C&q=lorentz+group+in+relativistic+quantum+mechanics&pg=PA876","url_text":"Quantum Mechanics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7204-0045-8","url_text":"978-0-7204-0045-8"}]},{"reference":"Forshaw, J.R.; Smith, A.G. (2009). Dynamics and Relativity. Manchester Physics Series. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 258–259. ISBN 978-0-470-01460-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/dynamicsrelativi00fors","url_text":"Dynamics and Relativity"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/dynamicsrelativi00fors/page/n272","url_text":"258"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-01460-8","url_text":"978-0-470-01460-8"}]},{"reference":"Greiner, W. (2000). Relativistic Quantum Mechanics. Wave Equations (3rd ed.). Springer. p. 70. ISBN 978-3-540-67457-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2DAInxwvlHYC&q=Relativistic+quantum+mechanics&pg=PA1","url_text":"Relativistic Quantum Mechanics. Wave Equations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-67457-3","url_text":"978-3-540-67457-3"}]},{"reference":"Wachter, A. (2011). \"Relativistic quantum mechanics\". Springer. p. 34. ISBN 978-90-481-3645-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NjZogv2yFzAC&q=armin+wachter+relativistic+quantum+mechanics","url_text":"\"Relativistic quantum mechanics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-3645-2","url_text":"978-90-481-3645-2"}]},{"reference":"Weinberg, S. (1964). \"Feynman Rules for Any spin\" (PDF). Phys. Rev. 133 (5B): B1318–B1332. Bibcode:1964PhRv..133.1318W. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.133.B1318. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-12-04. Retrieved 2014-08-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201204053451/http://theory.fi.infn.it/becattini/files/weinberg1.pdf","url_text":"\"Feynman Rules for Any spin\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964PhRv..133.1318W","url_text":"1964PhRv..133.1318W"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.133.B1318","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRev.133.B1318"},{"url":"http://theory.fi.infn.it/becattini/files/weinberg1.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Weinberg, S. (1964). \"Feynman Rules for Any spin. II. Massless Particles\" (PDF). Phys. Rev. 134 (4B): B882–B896. Bibcode:1964PhRv..134..882W. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.134.B882. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-03-09. Retrieved 2013-04-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220309040610/http://theory.fi.infn.it/becattini/files/weinberg2.pdf","url_text":"\"Feynman Rules for Any spin. II. Massless Particles\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964PhRv..134..882W","url_text":"1964PhRv..134..882W"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.134.B882","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRev.134.B882"},{"url":"http://theory.fi.infn.it/becattini/files/weinberg2.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Weinberg, S. (1969). \"Feynman Rules for Any spin. III\" (PDF). Phys. Rev. 181 (5): 1893–1899. Bibcode:1969PhRv..181.1893W. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.181.1893. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-03-25. Retrieved 2013-04-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220325020742/http://theory.fi.infn.it/becattini/files/weinberg3.pdf","url_text":"\"Feynman Rules for Any spin. III\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969PhRv..181.1893W","url_text":"1969PhRv..181.1893W"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.181.1893","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRev.181.1893"},{"url":"http://theory.fi.infn.it/becattini/files/weinberg3.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Masakatsu, K. (2012). \"Superradiance Problem of Bosons and Fermions for Rotating Black Holes in Bargmann–Wigner Formulation\". arXiv:1208.0644 [gr-qc].","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1208.0644","url_text":"1208.0644"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/archive/gr-qc","url_text":"gr-qc"}]},{"reference":"Parker, C.B. (1994). McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 1193–1194. ISBN 978-0-07-051400-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/mcgrawhillencycl1993park/page/1193","url_text":"McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/mcgrawhillencycl1993park/page/1193","url_text":"1193–1194"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-051400-3","url_text":"978-0-07-051400-3"}]},{"reference":"Resnick, R.; Eisberg, R. (1985). Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei and Particles (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 274. ISBN 978-0-471-87373-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/quantumphysicsof00eisb/page/274","url_text":"Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei and Particles"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/quantumphysicsof00eisb/page/274","url_text":"274"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-87373-0","url_text":"978-0-471-87373-0"}]},{"reference":"Landau, L.D.; Lifshitz, E.M. (1981). Quantum Mechanics Non-Relativistic Theory. Vol. 3. Elsevier. p. 455. 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Relativistic quantum mechanics of leptons and fields. Springer. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-7923-1049-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BPCFI4yFMbcC&q=magnetic+moments+in+relativistic+quantum+mechanics&pg=PA67","url_text":"Relativistic quantum mechanics of leptons and fields"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-1049-5","url_text":"978-0-7923-1049-5"}]},{"reference":"Abers, E. (2004). Quantum Mechanics. Addison Wesley. p. 423. ISBN 978-0-13-146100-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-146100-0","url_text":"978-0-13-146100-0"}]},{"reference":"McMahon, D. (2008). Quantum Field Theory. Demystified. McGraw Hill. p. 114. 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Bibcode:1939AnMat..40..149W. doi:10.2307/1968551. JSTOR 1968551. S2CID 121773411. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-10-04. 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Annals of Physics. 216 (2): 226–267. Bibcode:1992AnPhy.216..226J. doi:10.1016/0003-4916(92)90176-M.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992AnPhy.216..226J","url_text":"1992AnPhy.216..226J"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0003-4916%2892%2990176-M","url_text":"10.1016/0003-4916(92)90176-M"}]},{"reference":"Lorcé, Cédric (2009). \"Electromagnetic Properties for Arbitrary Spin Particles: Part 1 − Electromagnetic Current and Multipole Decomposition\". arXiv:0901.4199 [hep-ph].","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/0901.4199","url_text":"0901.4199"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/archive/hep-ph","url_text":"hep-ph"}]},{"reference":"Lorcé, Cédric (2009). \"Electromagnetic Properties for Arbitrary Spin Particles: Part 2 − Natural Moments and Transverse Charge Densities\". Physical Review D. 79 (11): 113011. arXiv:0901.4200. Bibcode:2009PhRvD..79k3011L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.79.113011. S2CID 17801598.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/0901.4200","url_text":"0901.4200"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PhRvD..79k3011L","url_text":"2009PhRvD..79k3011L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.79.113011","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevD.79.113011"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17801598","url_text":"17801598"}]},{"reference":"Strange, P. (1998). Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: With Applications in Condensed Matter and Atomic Physics. Cambridge University Press. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-521-56583-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=sdVrBM2w0OwC&q=velocity+operator+in+relativistic+quantum+mechanics&pg=PA208","url_text":"Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: With Applications in Condensed Matter and Atomic Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56583-7","url_text":"978-0-521-56583-7"}]},{"reference":"Labelle, P. (2010). Supersymmetry. Demystified. McGraw-Hill. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-07-163641-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/supersymmetrydem00labe","url_text":"Supersymmetry"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/supersymmetrydem00labe/page/n28","url_text":"14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-163641-4","url_text":"978-0-07-163641-4"}]},{"reference":"Weinberg, S. (1995). The Quantum Theory of Fields. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-55001-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Weinberg","url_text":"Weinberg, S."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/quantumtheoryoff00stev","url_text":"The Quantum Theory of Fields"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55001-7","url_text":"978-0-521-55001-7"}]},{"reference":"Penrose, R. (2005). The Road to Reality. Vintage Books. pp. 437, 566–569. ISBN 978-0-09-944068-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Road_to_Reality","url_text":"The Road to Reality"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-944068-0","url_text":"978-0-09-944068-0"}]},{"reference":"Ryder, L.H. (1996). Quantum Field Theory (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-521-47814-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nnuW_kVJ500C&q=pauli-lubanski+pseudovector&pg=PA62","url_text":"Quantum Field Theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47814-4","url_text":"978-0-521-47814-4"}]},{"reference":"Troshin, S.M.; Tyurin, N.E. (1994). Spin phenomena in particle interactions. World Scientific. Bibcode:1994sppi.book.....T. ISBN 978-981-02-1692-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=AU2DV1hKpuoC&q=pauli-lubanski+pseudovector&pg=PA9","url_text":"Spin phenomena in particle interactions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994sppi.book.....T","url_text":"1994sppi.book.....T"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-02-1692-4","url_text":"978-981-02-1692-4"}]},{"reference":"Misner, C.W.; Thorne, K.S.; Wheeler, J.A. (15 September 1973). Gravitation. Macmillan. p. 1146. 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ISBN 978-90-481-3735-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=v0pSfo8vrtsC&q=thomas+precession+relativistic+quantum+mechanics&pg=PA329","url_text":"General relativity and John Archibald Wheeler"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-3735-0","url_text":"978-90-481-3735-0"}]},{"reference":"Kroemer, H. (2003). \"The Thomas precession factor in spin–orbit interaction\" (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 72 (1): 51–52. arXiv:physics/0310016. Bibcode:2004AmJPh..72...51K. doi:10.1119/1.1615526. S2CID 119533324.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ece.ucsb.edu/faculty/Kroemer/pubs/13_04Thomas.pdf","url_text":"\"The Thomas precession factor in spin–orbit interaction\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0310016","url_text":"physics/0310016"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AmJPh..72...51K","url_text":"2004AmJPh..72...51K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.1615526","url_text":"10.1119/1.1615526"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119533324","url_text":"119533324"}]},{"reference":"Jackson, J.D. (1999). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Wiley. p. 548. 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ISBN 978-0-471-80553-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/introductorynucl00kran","url_text":"Introductory Nuclear Physics"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/introductorynucl00kran/page/n418","url_text":"396"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-80553-3","url_text":"978-0-471-80553-3"}]},{"reference":"Krane, K.S. (1988). Introductory Nuclear Physics. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 361–370. ISBN 978-0-471-80553-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/introductorynucl00kran","url_text":"Introductory Nuclear Physics"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/introductorynucl00kran/page/n383","url_text":"361"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-80553-3","url_text":"978-0-471-80553-3"}]},{"reference":"Einstein, A.; Podolsky, B.; Rosen, N. (1935). \"Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?\" (PDF). Phys. Rev. 47 (10): 777–780. Bibcode:1935PhRv...47..777E. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777.","urls":[{"url":"https://cds.cern.ch/record/1060284/files/PhysRev.48.696.pdf","url_text":"\"Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1935PhRv...47..777E","url_text":"1935PhRv...47..777E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.47.777","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRev.47.777"}]},{"reference":"Abers, E. (2004). Quantum Mechanics. Addison Wesley. p. 192. 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Bibcode:1959PhRv..115..485A. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.115.485.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.115.485","url_text":"\"Significance of electromagnetic potentials in quantum theory\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review","url_text":"Physical Review"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1959PhRv..115..485A","url_text":"1959PhRv..115..485A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.115.485","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRev.115.485"}]},{"reference":"Bell, John (1964). \"On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen Paradox\" (PDF). Physics. 1 (3): 195–200. doi:10.1103/PhysicsPhysiqueFizika.1.195.","urls":[{"url":"http://homepages.physik.uni-muenchen.de/~vondelft/Lehre/09qm/lec21-22-BellInequalities/Bell1964.pdf","url_text":"\"On the Einstein Podolsky Rosen Paradox\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(American_Physical_Society_journal)","url_text":"Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysicsPhysiqueFizika.1.195","url_text":"10.1103/PhysicsPhysiqueFizika.1.195"}]},{"reference":"Lamb, Willis E.; Retherford, Robert C. (1947). \"Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom by a Microwave Method\". Physical Review. 72 (3): 241–243. 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Jr. (1952). \"Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom. III\". Phys. Rev. 85 (2): 259–276. Bibcode:1952PhRv...85..259L. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.85.259. PMID 17775407.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1952PhRv...85..259L","url_text":"1952PhRv...85..259L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.85.259","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRev.85.259"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17775407","url_text":"17775407"}]},{"reference":"Lamb, W.E. Jr. & Retherford, R.C. (1952). \"Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom. IV\". Phys. Rev. 86 (6): 1014–1022. Bibcode:1952PhRv...86.1014L. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.86.1014. PMID 17775407.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1952PhRv...86.1014L","url_text":"1952PhRv...86.1014L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.86.1014","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRev.86.1014"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17775407","url_text":"17775407"}]},{"reference":"Triebwasser, S.; Dayhoff, E.S. & Lamb, W.E. Jr. (1953). \"Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom. V\". Phys. Rev. 89 (1): 98–106. 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ISSN 0950-1207.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1927.0039","url_text":"\"The quantum theory of the emission and absorption of radiation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1927.0039","url_text":"10.1098/rspa.1927.0039"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0950-1207","url_text":"0950-1207"}]},{"reference":"Dirac, P.A.M. (1981). Principles of Quantum Mechanics (4th ed.). Clarendon Press. 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ISBN 978-0-471-88702-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-88702-7","url_text":"978-0-471-88702-7"}]},{"reference":"Messiah, A. (1961). Quantum Mechanics. Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-59766-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-59766-7","url_text":"978-0-471-59766-7"}]},{"reference":"Bjorken, J.D.; Drell, S.D. (1964). Relativistic Quantum Mechanics (Pure & Applied Physics). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-005493-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-005493-6","url_text":"978-0-07-005493-6"}]},{"reference":"Feynman, R.P.; Leighton, R.B.; Sands, M. (1965). Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 3. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-02118-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/III_toc.html","url_text":"Feynman Lectures on Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-02118-9","url_text":"978-0-201-02118-9"}]},{"reference":"Schiff, L.I. (1968). Quantum Mechanics (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/quantummechanics0000schi","url_text":"Quantum Mechanics"}]},{"reference":"Dyson, F. (2011). Advanced Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4383-40-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeman_Dyson","url_text":"Dyson, F."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4383-40-0","url_text":"978-981-4383-40-0"}]},{"reference":"Clifton, R.K. (2011). 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ISBN 978-0-226-73331-9. hyperfine structure in relativistic quantum mechanics.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/physicsoftimerev0000sach","url_text":"The Physics of Time Reversal"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/physicsoftimerev0000sach/page/280","url_text":"280"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-73331-9","url_text":"978-0-226-73331-9"}]},{"reference":"Weyl, H. (1950). The theory of groups and quantum mechanics. Courier Dover Publications. p. 203. ISBN 9780486602691. magnetic moments in relativistic quantum mechanics.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Weyl","url_text":"Weyl, H."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/theoryofgroupsqu1950weyl","url_text":"The theory of groups and quantum mechanics"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/theoryofgroupsqu1950weyl/page/203","url_text":"203"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486602691","url_text":"9780486602691"}]},{"reference":"Tung, W.K. (1985). Group Theory in Physics. World Scientific. ISBN 978-9971-966-56-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=O89tgpOBO04C&q=group+theory+in+physics","url_text":"Group Theory in Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9971-966-56-0","url_text":"978-9971-966-56-0"}]},{"reference":"Heine, V. (1993). Group Theory in Quantum Mechanics: An Introduction to Its Present Usage. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-67585-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NayFD34uEu0C&q=lorentz+group+in+relativistic+quantum+mechanics&pg=PA363","url_text":"Group Theory in Quantum Mechanics: An Introduction to Its Present Usage"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-67585-5","url_text":"978-0-486-67585-5"}]},{"reference":"Dirac, P.A.M. (1932). \"Relativistic Quantum Mechanics\". Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 136 (829): 453–464. Bibcode:1932RSPSA.136..453D. doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0094.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dirac","url_text":"Dirac, P.A.M."},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1932.0094","url_text":"\"Relativistic Quantum Mechanics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_A","url_text":"Proceedings of the Royal Society A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932RSPSA.136..453D","url_text":"1932RSPSA.136..453D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1932.0094","url_text":"10.1098/rspa.1932.0094"}]},{"reference":"Pauli, W. (1945). \"Exclusion principle and quantum mechanics\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli","url_text":"Pauli, W."},{"url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1945/pauli-lecture.pdf","url_text":"\"Exclusion principle and quantum mechanics\""}]},{"reference":"Antoine, J.P. (2004). \"Relativistic Quantum Mechanics\". J. Phys. A. 37 (4): 1465. Bibcode:2004JPhA...37.1463P. 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Bibcode:1983JPhA...16.1869O. doi:10.1088/0305-4470/16/9/012.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983JPhA...16.1869O","url_text":"1983JPhA...16.1869O"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0305-4470%2F16%2F9%2F012","url_text":"10.1088/0305-4470/16/9/012"}]},{"reference":"Coester, F.; Polyzou, W.N. (1982). \"Relativistic quantum mechanics of particles with direct interactions\". Phys. Rev. D. 26 (6): 1348–1367. 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Bibcode:1970PhRvD...1.3247F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.1.3247.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/9703008","url_text":"physics/9703008"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970PhRvD...1.3247F","url_text":"1970PhRvD...1.3247F"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.1.3247","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevD.1.3247"}]},{"reference":"Bordovitsyn, V.A.; Myagkii, A.N. (2004). \"Spin–orbital motion and Thomas precession in the classical and quantum theories\" (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 72 (1): 51–52. arXiv:physics/0310016. Bibcode:2004AmJPh..72...51K. doi:10.1119/1.1615526. 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Eur. J. Phys. 34 (3): L55–L61. Bibcode:2013EJPh...34L..55R. doi:10.1088/0143-0807/34/3/L55. S2CID 122527454.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013EJPh...34L..55R","url_text":"2013EJPh...34L..55R"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0143-0807%2F34%2F3%2FL55","url_text":"10.1088/0143-0807/34/3/L55"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122527454","url_text":"122527454"}]},{"reference":"Corben, H.C. (1993). \"Factors of 2 in magnetic moments, spin–orbit coupling, and Thomas precession\". Am. J. Phys. 61 (6): 551. Bibcode:1993AmJPh..61..551C. doi:10.1119/1.17207.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993AmJPh..61..551C","url_text":"1993AmJPh..61..551C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.17207","url_text":"10.1119/1.17207"}]},{"reference":"Ohlsson, T. (2011). Relativistic Quantum Physics: From Advanced Quantum Mechanics to Introductory Quantum Field Theory. Cambridge University Press. p. 10. 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ISBN 978-0-8493-8775-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=n7k_QS4Hb0YC&q=hyperfine+structure+in+relativistic+quantum+mechanics&pg=PA50","url_text":"Gauge Theories in Particle Physics: From Relativistic Quantum Mechanics to QED"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-8775-3","url_text":"978-0-8493-8775-3"}]},{"reference":"Griffiths, D. (2008). Introduction to Elementary Particles. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-61847-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Wb9DYrjcoKAC&q=hyperfine+structure+in+relativistic+quantum+mechanics","url_text":"Introduction to Elementary Particles"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-61847-7","url_text":"978-3-527-61847-7"}]},{"reference":"Capri, Anton Z. (2002). Relativistic quantum mechanics and introduction to quantum field theory. World Scientific. Bibcode:2002rqmi.book.....C. ISBN 978-981-238-137-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tTJHB5hepQUC&q=relativistic+quantum+mechanics","url_text":"Relativistic quantum mechanics and introduction to quantum field theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002rqmi.book.....C","url_text":"2002rqmi.book.....C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-238-137-8","url_text":"978-981-238-137-8"}]},{"reference":"Wu, Ta-you; Hwang, W.Y. Pauchy (1991). Relativistic quantum mechanics and quantum fields. World Scientific. 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McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-005494-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-005494-3","url_text":"978-0-07-005494-3"}]},{"reference":"Weinberg, S. (1996). The Quantum Theory of Fields. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-55002-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Weinberg","url_text":"Weinberg, S."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/quantumtheoryoff00stev","url_text":"The Quantum Theory of Fields"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-55002-4","url_text":"978-0-521-55002-4"}]},{"reference":"Weinberg, S. (2000). The Quantum Theory of Fields. Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imprint_(trade_name)

Imprint (trade name)

["1 Description","2 Use","3 References"]

Trade name under which works are published An imprint of a publisher is a trade name under which it publishes a work. A single publishing company may have multiple imprints, often using the different names as brands to market works to various demographic consumer segments. Description An imprint of a publisher is a trade name—a name that a business uses for trading commercial products or services—under which a work is published. Imprints typically have a defining character or mission. In some cases, the diversity results from the takeover of smaller publishers (or parts of their business) by a larger company. In the case of Barnes & Noble, imprints have been used to facilitate the venture of a bookseller into publishing. In the video game industry, some game companies operate various publishing labels with Take-Two Interactive credited as "the father of label" in their case the labels are wholly owned incorporated entities with their own publishing and distributing, sales and marketing infrastructure and management teams and their own respective subsidiaries also incorporated (Rockstar North Limited, 2K Vegas, Inc.). This model has influenced rivals including Activision Blizzard, ZeniMax, Electronic Arts from 2008 to 2018, Warner Bros. Interactive, Embracer Group, and Koei Tecmo. Take-Two have had such models in place since 1997–1998, and is seen as "a game holding company with autonomous game publishing and development subsidiaries". Independently-owned game publishers like Devolver Digital also use the word "label" to describe itself. Use A single publishing company may have multiple imprints, with the different imprints often used by the publisher to market works to different demographic consumer segments. For example, the objective of Viking—an imprint of the Penguin Group—is "o publish a strictly limited list of good nonfiction, such as biography, history and works on contemporary affairs, and distinguished fiction with some claim to permanent importance rather than ephemeral popular interest". References ^ Friedlander, Joel (2015-02-09). "A Quick Lesson About Publishers, Imprints, CreateSpace, and Bowker". The Book Designer. Retrieved 2016-07-29. ^ "Industry Overview: Journalism and Publishing". Wet Feet. Archived from the original on 2016-08-17. Retrieved 2016-07-29. ^ "Take-Two CEO Strauss Zelnick: 'I'm charged with making hard decisions'". 18 June 2018. ^ "EA CEO pledges freedom to Take-Two Interactive's developers". 3 March 2008. ^ "What is an imprint?". The Book Publicity Blog. 2009-07-14. vteBook publishing processCopy preparation Submission Literary agent Publisher's reader Contract negotiation intellectual property rights royalty rates, format, etc. Editing Literary editor Commissioning editor Developmental editor Authors' editor Book editor Copy editing Prepress Design Indexing Typesetting Proof-reading List of proofreader's marks Book production Printing Folding Binding Trimming Imprint vteAcademic publishingJournals Academic journal Scientific journal Public health Papers Paper Abstract Review article Position paper Literature review Grey literature Working paper White paper Technical report Annual report Pamphlet Essay Lab notes Other publication types Thesis Collection of articles Patent Biological Chemical Book Monograph Chapter Poster session Proceedings Impact and ranking Acknowledgment index Altmetrics Article-level metrics Author-level metrics Bibliometrics Citation impact Citation index Journal ranking Eigenfactor h-index Impact factor SCImago Journal Rank Scientometrics Reform and access Academic journal publishing reform Open access Citation advantage Serials crisis Sci-Hub #ICanHazPDF Versioning Preprint Postprint Version of record Erratum Retraction Indexes and search engines Google Scholar AMiner BASE CORE Semantic Scholar Scopus Web of Science Paperity OpenAlex Related topics Imprint Scientific writing Peer review Scholarly communication Scientific literature Learned society Open research Open scientific data ORCID Electronic publishing Ingelfinger rule Least publishable unit "Publish or perish" Lists Academic journals Scientific journals Open-access journals Academic databases and search engines University presses Copyright policies Preprint policies Style/formatting guides Category:Academic publishing Category:Scientific documents Authority control databases International FAST National Germany Israel United States This publishing-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

[{"reference":"Friedlander, Joel (2015-02-09). \"A Quick Lesson About Publishers, Imprints, CreateSpace, and Bowker\". The Book Designer. Retrieved 2016-07-29.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thebookdesigner.com/2015/02/a-quick-lesson-about-publishers-imprints-createspace-and-bowker/","url_text":"\"A Quick Lesson About Publishers, Imprints, CreateSpace, and Bowker\""}]},{"reference":"\"Industry Overview: Journalism and Publishing\". Wet Feet. Archived from the original on 2016-08-17. Retrieved 2016-07-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160817211206/https://www.wetfeet.com/articles/industry-overview-journalism-and-publishing","url_text":"\"Industry Overview: Journalism and Publishing\""},{"url":"https://www.wetfeet.com/articles/industry-overview-journalism-and-publishing","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Take-Two CEO Strauss Zelnick: 'I'm charged with making hard decisions'\". 18 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://venturebeat.com/2018/06/18/take-two-ceo-strauss-zelnick-im-charged-with-making-hard-decisions/","url_text":"\"Take-Two CEO Strauss Zelnick: 'I'm charged with making hard decisions'\""}]},{"reference":"\"EA CEO pledges freedom to Take-Two Interactive's developers\". 3 March 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mercurynews.com/2008/03/02/ea-ceo-pledges-freedom-to-take-two-interactives-developers/","url_text":"\"EA CEO pledges freedom to Take-Two Interactive's developers\""}]},{"reference":"\"What is an imprint?\". The Book Publicity Blog. 2009-07-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://yodiwan.wordpress.com/2009/07/14/what-is-an-imprint","url_text":"\"What is an imprint?\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Group

Mahindra Group

["1 History","2 Affiliated companies","3 Community initiatives","4 Leadership","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Indian multinational conglomerate For other uses, see Mahindra (disambiguation). Mahindra GroupCompany typePrivateIndustryConglomerateFounded2 October 1945; 78 years ago (1945-10-02)Founder Jagdish Chandra Mahindra Kailash Chandra Mahindra HeadquartersMumbai, Maharashtra, IndiaArea servedWorldwideKey people Anand Mahindra (Chairman) Keshub Mahindra (Chairman emeritus) Anish Shah (MD & CEO) ProductsAutomotiveIT servicesFinanceHospitalityAgribusinessDefenseAerospaceLogisticsReal estateEducationRevenue₹121,269 crore (US$15 billion) (2023)OwnerAnand MahindraNumber of employees260,000+ (2022)Subsidiaries Mahindra & Mahindra Tech Mahindra Mahindra & Mahindra Financial Services Limited Mahindra Defence Mahindra Aerospace Club Mahindra Holidays Comviva Mahindra Lifespace Developers Mahindra Ugine Steel Mahindra Susten Mahindra Agri Business Mahindra Heavy Engines Ltd Mahindra EPC Irrigation Ltd. Mahindra Water Utilities Ltd. Bristlecone Mahindra Systech Mahindra Logistics Websitewww.mahindra.com Mahindra Group is an Indian multinational conglomerate, headquartered in Mumbai. The group has operations in over 100 countries, with a presence in aerospace, agribusiness, aftermarket automotive components, construction equipment, defence, energy, farm equipment, finance and insurance, industrial equipment, information technology, leisure and hospitality, logistics, real estate, retail and education. The group's flagship company Mahindra & Mahindra has market leadership in utility vehicles as well as tractors in India. History Mahindra & Mahindra was incorporated as Mahindra & Mohammed in 1945 by the brothers J. C. Mahindra and K. C. Mahindra, and Malik Ghulam Muhammad in Ludhiana, Punjab to trade steel. Following the Partition of India in 1947, Malik Ghulam Muhammad left the company and emigrated to Pakistan, where he became the first finance minister of the new state (and later the third Governor General in 1951). In 1948, K. C. Mahindra changed the company's name to Mahindra & Mahindra. Building on their expertise in the steel industry, the Mahindra brothers began trading steel with UK suppliers. They won a contract to manufacture Willys Jeeps in India and began producing them in 1947. By 1956, the company was listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange, and by 1969 the company became an exporter of utility vehicles and spare parts. Like many Indian companies, Mahindra responded to the restrictions of the Licence Raj by expanding into other industries. Mahindra & Mahindra created a tractor division in 1982 and a tech division (now Tech Mahindra) in 1986. It has continued to diversify its operations through both joint ventures and greenfield investments. By 1994, the group had become so diverse that it undertook a fundamental reorganization, dividing into six Strategic Business Units: Automotive; Farm Equipment; Infrastructure; Trade and Financial services; Information Technology; and Automotive Components (known internally as Systech). The new managing director, Anand Mahindra, followed this reorganization with a new logo in 2000 and the successful launch of the Mahindra Scorpio (a wholly indigenously designed vehicle) in 2002. Along with an overhaul in production and manufacturing methods, these changes helped make the company more competitive, and since then the Group's reputation and revenues have risen noticeably. Currently, Mahindra & Mahindra is one of the 20 largest companies in India In 2009, Forbes ranked Mahindra among the top 200 most reputable companies in the world. In January 2011, the Mahindra Group launched a new corporate brand, Mahindra Rise, to unify Mahindra's image across industries and geographies. The brand positions Mahindra products and services as aspirational, supporting customers' ambitions to 'Rise.' In April 2012, the Mahindra Group expressed interest in purchasing the bankrupt automobile company Saab, and placed several bids for Saab, though was outbid by Saab's new owner National Electric Vehicle Sweden. Affiliated companies This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Aerospace Mahindra Aerospace Aftermarket Mahindra FirstChoice Services Mahindra First Choice Wheels Agribusiness Mahindra Agribusiness Division EPC Mahindra Automotive Mahindra & Mahindra Mahindra Truck & Bus Mahindra Electric Mahindra Two Wheelers GenZe Jawa Moto Pininfarina Automobili Pininfarina Peugeot Motocycles Components Engines Engineering Mahindra Castings Mahindra Composites Mahindra Engineering Mahindra Gears and Transmissions Mahindra Forgings Mahindra Hinoday Ltd Mahindra Intertrade Mahindra Sona Ltd. Mahindra Steel Service Centre Mahindra Systech Mahindra Ugine Steel Metalcastello S.p.A. Consulting Mahindra Integrated Business Solutions Mahindra Consulting Engineers Mahindra Logisoft Mahindra Special Services Group Defence Mahindra & Mahindra – Military Defence Division Mahindra Defence Systems Defence Land Systems India Limited: (2010–2013). Education Mahindra United World College of India Mahindra École Centrale Energy Mahindra & Mahindra – Energy Division Mahindra Solar One Mahindra Susten Farm equipment Mahindra & Mahindra – Farm Equipment Division Mahindra USA Inc Mahindra Yueda (Yancheng) Tractor Co Mahindra Tractors Erkunt Tractor Gromax Agri Equipment Mahindra Swaraj Jiangling Tractors Financial services Mahindra & Mahindra Financial Services Limited Mahindra Insurance Brokers Mahindra Rural Housing Finance Mahindra Mutual Fund Hospitality Mahindra Holidays and Resorts Industrial equipment Mahindra Conveyor Systems Information technology Tech Mahindra Mahindra Comviva Bristlecone CanvasM Logistics Mahindra Logistics Smart Shift Luxury boats Mahindra Marine Private Limited Ecommerce M2ALL Real estate Mahindra Lifespaces Mahindra World City Retail Mahindra Retail Sports Mahindra United FC Mahindra Racing Media Hungama Digital Media Entertainment Pinkvilla Elle India Elle Decor Defunct Mahindra Satyam Mahindra Renault Community initiatives The Mahindra Group is extensively involved in philanthropy and volunteering. It is considered an active participant in the Indian Corporate Social Responsibility field and received the Pegasus Award for CSR in 2007. Mahindra engages in philanthropy primarily through the KC Mahindra Trust, which serves as the CSR arm of the group (although many subsidiaries have their own CSR initiatives, notably Tech Mahindra and Mahindra Satyam). Founded in 1953 by K.C Mahindra, the trust focuses primarily on fostering literacy in India and promoting higher learning through grants and scholarships. Mahindra operates several vocational schools as well as the Mahindra United World College. The KC Mahindra Trust's primary project however is Project Nanhi Kali, which targets the education of young Indian girls. The foundation currently supports the education of approximately 153,190 underprivileged girls. Other initiatives include Mahindra Hariyali (a 1 million tree planting campaign) as well as sponsorship of the Lifeline Express, a mobile hospital train. Mahindra employees also plan and lead their own service projects through Mahindra's Employee Social Options Plans. In 2009, more than 35,000 employees participated. The Mahindra Group was responsible for the creation of Mahindra United World College, a UWC campus located in Pune. Mahindra supports the Mahindra Excellence in Theatre Awards to recognize Indian theater talent, the Mahindra Indo-American Film Festival, and the Mahindra Lucknow Festival. In 2011, it held the first annual Mahindra Blues Festival with guests including Buddy Guy, Johnny Lang, and Shemekia Copeland at the Mehboob Studios in Mumbai. Mahindra partners with the NBA and Celtic Football Club to bring grassroots basketball and football to India. Leadership Keshub Mahindra was the Chairman Emeritus of Mahindra & Mahindra and a graduate of Wharton Business School, University of Pennsylvania, USA. He joined the company in 1947 and became the chairman in 1963. During his career he has also been Chairman of Bombay Chamber of Commerce and Industry (1966–67), President of ASSOCHAM (1969–70), Chairman of the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad (1975–85); Member of the Foundation Board – International Institute for Management Development (1984–89). His awards include: Companion – British Institute of Management (1985), Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur (1987), Business India – Businessman of the Year (1989), Honorary Fellowship of All India Management Association (1990), Institute of Company Secretaries of India (ICSI) Lifetime Achievement Award for Excellence in Corporate Governance (2004), Lakshya Business Visionary Award – NITIE (2006), ICFAI Business School (IBS) Kolkata Lifetime Achievement Award presented by the Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India (ICFAI) (2007). At the time of the Bhopal Disaster he was managing director of Union Carbide India Ltd. (In 2010 he was charged and indicted for causing death due to negligence and sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment and Rs 1 Lakh fine.) He was granted bail shortly after being sentenced. Anand Mahindra is chairman and managing director of Mahindra & Mahindra. He graduated from Harvard University and earned his MBA from Harvard Business School in 1981. He joined the Mahindra Group in 1981 as an Executive Assistant to the Finance Director of the Mahindra Ugine Steel Company. See also Club Mahindra Holidays Mahindra & Mahindra Tech Mahindra Mahindra Aerospace Portal: companies References ^ "Corporate overview". Retrieved 9 August 2010. ^ "India's Most Reputable Companies". Forbes.com. 20 November 2006. Retrieved 9 August 2010. ^ "BSE Sensex little changed; Reliance disappoints | Reuters". In.reuters.com. 27 July 2009. Retrieved 9 August 2010. ^ "Mahindra Corporate". Mahindra.com. Retrieved 9 August 2010. ^ Oconnor, Ashling (18 June 2007). "Time to put Indias new business challenge on the road". The Times. London. Retrieved 12 May 2010. ^ "Putt-Putt Tractors, Revved-Up Goals". Forbes.com. 27 October 2006. Archived from the original on 25 October 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2010. ^ "The Hindu Business Line : Resurgent India strikes back with confidence". Blonnet.com. 26 April 2006. Archived from the original on 28 May 2006. Retrieved 9 August 2010. ^ "The 20 Largest Companies in India". Rediff.com. 10 December 2010. Retrieved 18 February 2011. ^ "World's Most Reputable Companies: The Rankings". Forbes.com. 6 May 2009. Retrieved 18 February 2011. ^ "Mahindra & Mahindra to use 'Rise' as new brand positioning". Economic Times. 17 January 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2011. ^ "Tata Motors places bid for Saab Automobile: Report – The Times of India". Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. 6 March 2012. Retrieved 8 October 2012. ^ "Sebi grants license to Mahindra Mutual Fund". The Times of India. ^ "- Moneycontrol.com". 17 December 2007. ^ "Tech Mahindra launches foundation". The Hindu. 14 June 2007. Archived from the original on 16 September 2007. ^ Project Nahni Kali Official Website Archived 13 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Education". Mahindra.com. Retrieved 8 October 2012. ^ a b "- Moneycontrol.com". 3 October 2007. ^ "Nanhi Kali ::". ^ "how-we-help". Mahindra.com. Retrieved 8 October 2012. ^ "Alternative content". Mahindra Blues. Retrieved 8 October 2012. ^ "how-we-help". Mahindra.com. Retrieved 8 October 2012. ^ "Mahindra Corporate". Mahindra.com. Retrieved 9 August 2010. ^ "Eight convicted over Bhopal gas disaster – ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)". Abc.net.au. 7 June 2010. Retrieved 9 August 2010. ^ "UPDATE 2-Ex-Union Carbide officials jailed over Bhopal leak". Reuters. 7 June 2010. Retrieved 9 August 2010. ^ "Harvard Humanities 2.0". Harvard Gazette. 5 October 2010. ^ "Anand Mahindra". Mahindra.com. Retrieved 8 October 2012. External links Official website vteMahindra GroupDivisions andsubsidiariesMobilityMahindra & Mahindra Mahindra Gujarat Mahindra Tractors Mahindra Truck and Bus Mahindra Powerol Erkunt Tractor ArmaTrac Mitsubishi Agricultural Machinery (33%) Pininfarina (76.06%) Punjab Tractors Ltd. Mahindra Two Wheelers Kinetic Motors BSA Company GenZe Peugeot Motocycles Classic Legends (Licensee of Jawa Moto) Other Mahindra Electric Mahindra Marine Mahindra Logistics Carandbike.com Aerospace & defence Mahindra Aerospace GippsAero Defense Land Systems (JV) Information technology Tech Mahindra Mahindra Satyam Financial services Mahindra & Mahindra Financial Services Limited Other Mahindra Susten Mahindra Ugine Steel Mahindra Holidays & Resorts Mahindra City Mahindra Racing Meru Cabs People Anand Mahindra Jagdish Chandra Mahindra Kailash Chandra Mahindra Keshub Mahindra C. P. Gurnani Pawan Kumar Goenka Rajesh Jejurikar Bhaskar Ramamurthi Chetan Maini Philanthropy Project Nanhi Kali Naandi Foundation KC Mahindra Education Trust Institutions Mahindra United World College of India Mahindra University Category Authority control databases ISNI

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The group has operations in over 100 countries, with a presence in aerospace, agribusiness, aftermarket automotive components, construction equipment, defence, energy, farm equipment, finance and insurance, industrial equipment, information technology, leisure and hospitality, logistics, real estate, retail and education. [2] The group's flagship company Mahindra & Mahindra has market leadership in utility vehicles[3] as well as tractors in India.","title":"Mahindra Group"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"J. C. Mahindra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._C._Mahindra"},{"link_name":"K. C. Mahindra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._C._Mahindra"},{"link_name":"Malik Ghulam Muhammad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malik_Ghulam_Muhammad"},{"link_name":"Ludhiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludhiana"},{"link_name":"Punjab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab_(India)"},{"link_name":"Partition of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_India"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan"},{"link_name":"Mahindra & Mahindra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_%26_Mahindra"},{"link_name":"steel industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_industry"},{"link_name":"Willys Jeeps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willys_Jeep"},{"link_name":"Bombay Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombay_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"utility vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_vehicle"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Licence Raj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licence_Raj"},{"link_name":"tractor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractor"},{"link_name":"Tech Mahindra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tech_Mahindra"},{"link_name":"greenfield investments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenfield_investment"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Automotive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive"},{"link_name":"Farm Equipment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_equipment"},{"link_name":"Infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure"},{"link_name":"Trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade"},{"link_name":"Financial services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_services"},{"link_name":"Information Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Technology"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"managing director","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managing_director"},{"link_name":"Anand Mahindra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anand_Mahindra"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Scorpio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Scorpio"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Saab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saab_Automobile"},{"link_name":"National Electric Vehicle Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Electric_Vehicle_Sweden"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Mahindra & Mahindra was incorporated as Mahindra & Mohammed in 1945 by the brothers J. C. Mahindra and K. C. Mahindra, and Malik Ghulam Muhammad in Ludhiana, Punjab to trade steel. Following the Partition of India in 1947, Malik Ghulam Muhammad left the company and emigrated to Pakistan, where he became the first finance minister of the new state (and later the third Governor General in 1951). In 1948, K. C. Mahindra changed the company's name to Mahindra & Mahindra.Building on their expertise in the steel industry, the Mahindra brothers began trading steel with UK suppliers. They won a contract to manufacture Willys Jeeps in India and began producing them in 1947. By 1956, the company was listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange, and by 1969 the company became an exporter of utility vehicles and spare parts.[4] Like many Indian companies, Mahindra responded to the restrictions of the Licence Raj by expanding into other industries. Mahindra & Mahindra created a tractor division in 1982 and a tech division (now Tech Mahindra) in 1986. It has continued to diversify its operations through both joint ventures and greenfield investments.[5]By 1994, the group had become so diverse that it undertook a fundamental reorganization, dividing into six Strategic Business Units: Automotive; Farm Equipment; Infrastructure; Trade and Financial services; Information Technology; and Automotive Components (known internally as Systech).[6] The new managing director, Anand Mahindra, followed this reorganization with a new logo in 2000 and the successful launch of the Mahindra Scorpio (a wholly indigenously designed vehicle) in 2002. Along with an overhaul in production and manufacturing methods, these changes helped make the company more competitive,[7] and since then the Group's reputation and revenues have risen noticeably. Currently, Mahindra & Mahindra is one of the 20 largest companies in India[8] In 2009, Forbes ranked Mahindra among the top 200 most reputable companies in the world.[9]In January 2011, the Mahindra Group launched a new corporate brand, Mahindra Rise, to unify Mahindra's image across industries and geographies.[10] The brand positions Mahindra products and services as aspirational, supporting customers' ambitions to 'Rise.'In April 2012, the Mahindra Group expressed interest in purchasing the bankrupt automobile company Saab, and placed several bids for Saab, though was outbid by Saab's new owner National Electric Vehicle Sweden.[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mahindra Aerospace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Aerospace"},{"link_name":"Mahindra & Mahindra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_%26_Mahindra"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Truck & Bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Truck_and_Bus_Division"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Electric"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Two Wheelers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Two_Wheelers"},{"link_name":"GenZe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GenZe_(company)"},{"link_name":"Jawa Moto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawa_Moto"},{"link_name":"Pininfarina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pininfarina"},{"link_name":"Automobili Pininfarina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobili_Pininfarina"},{"link_name":"Peugeot Motocycles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peugeot_Motocycles"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Ugine Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Ugine_Steel"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Defence Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mahindra_Defence_Systems&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Defence Land Systems India Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Land_Systems_India_Limited"},{"link_name":"Mahindra United World College of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_United_World_College_of_India"},{"link_name":"Mahindra École Centrale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_%C3%89cole_Centrale"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Susten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Susten"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Tractors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Tractors"},{"link_name":"Erkunt Tractor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erkunt_Group"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Swaraj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab_Tractors_Ltd."},{"link_name":"Jiangling Tractors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiangling_Tractors"},{"link_name":"Mahindra & Mahindra Financial Services Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_%26_Mahindra_Financial_Services_Limited"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Holidays and Resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Club_Mahindra_Holidays"},{"link_name":"Tech Mahindra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tech_Mahindra"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Comviva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Comviva"},{"link_name":"Bristlecone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bristlecone_(company)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Lifespaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Lifespaces"},{"link_name":"Mahindra World City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_World_City,_New_Chennai"},{"link_name":"Mahindra United FC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_United_FC"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Racing"},{"link_name":"Hungama Digital Media Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungama_Digital_Media_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Pinkvilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinkvilla"},{"link_name":"Elle India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elle_India"},{"link_name":"Elle Decor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elle_Decor"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Satyam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Satyam"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Renault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Renault_Limited"}],"text":"AerospaceMahindra AerospaceAftermarketMahindra FirstChoice Services\nMahindra First Choice WheelsAgribusinessMahindra Agribusiness Division\nEPC MahindraAutomotiveMahindra & Mahindra\nMahindra Truck & Bus\nMahindra Electric\nMahindra Two Wheelers\nGenZe\nJawa Moto\nPininfarina\nAutomobili Pininfarina\nPeugeot MotocyclesComponentsEngines Engineering\nMahindra Castings\nMahindra Composites\nMahindra Engineering\nMahindra Gears and Transmissions\nMahindra Forgings\nMahindra Hinoday Ltd\nMahindra Intertrade\nMahindra Sona Ltd.\nMahindra Steel Service Centre\nMahindra Systech\nMahindra Ugine Steel\nMetalcastello S.p.A.ConsultingMahindra Integrated Business Solutions\nMahindra Consulting Engineers\nMahindra Logisoft\nMahindra Special Services GroupDefenceMahindra & Mahindra – Military Defence Division\nMahindra Defence Systems\nDefence Land Systems India Limited: (2010–2013).EducationMahindra United World College of India\nMahindra École CentraleEnergyMahindra & Mahindra – Energy Division\nMahindra Solar One\nMahindra SustenFarm equipmentMahindra & Mahindra – Farm Equipment Division\nMahindra USA Inc\nMahindra Yueda (Yancheng) Tractor Co\nMahindra Tractors\nErkunt Tractor\nGromax Agri Equipment\nMahindra Swaraj\nJiangling TractorsFinancial servicesMahindra & Mahindra Financial Services Limited\nMahindra Insurance Brokers\nMahindra Rural Housing Finance\nMahindra Mutual Fund[12]HospitalityMahindra Holidays and ResortsIndustrial equipmentMahindra Conveyor SystemsInformation technologyTech Mahindra\nMahindra Comviva\nBristlecone\nCanvasMLogisticsMahindra Logistics\nSmart ShiftLuxury boatsMahindra Marine Private LimitedEcommerceM2ALLReal estateMahindra Lifespaces\nMahindra World CityRetailMahindra RetailSportsMahindra United FC\nMahindra RacingMediaHungama Digital Media Entertainment\nPinkvilla\nElle India\nElle DecorDefunctMahindra Satyam\nMahindra Renault","title":"Affiliated companies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"philanthropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philanthropy"},{"link_name":"Corporate Social Responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_Social_Responsibility"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Tech Mahindra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tech_Mahindra"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Satyam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Satyam"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trust_(law)"},{"link_name":"literacy in India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy_in_India"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Mahindra United World College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_United_World_College"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Project Nanhi Kali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Nanhi_Kali"},{"link_name":"Indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-moneycontrol.com-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-moneycontrol.com-17"},{"link_name":"Lifeline Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifeline_Express"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Mahindra United World College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_United_World_College"},{"link_name":"UWC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_World_Colleges"},{"link_name":"Pune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pune"},{"link_name":"Mahindra Blues Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_Blues_Festival"},{"link_name":"Mehboob Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehboob_Studios"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"The Mahindra Group is extensively involved in philanthropy and volunteering. It is considered an active participant in the Indian Corporate Social Responsibility field and received the Pegasus Award for CSR in 2007.[13] Mahindra engages in philanthropy primarily through the KC Mahindra Trust, which serves as the CSR arm of the group (although many subsidiaries have their own CSR initiatives, notably Tech Mahindra and Mahindra Satyam).[14] Founded in 1953 by K.C Mahindra, the trust focuses primarily on fostering literacy in India and promoting higher learning through grants and scholarships.[15] Mahindra operates several vocational schools as well as the Mahindra United World College.[16] The KC Mahindra Trust's primary project however is Project Nanhi Kali, which targets the education of young Indian girls.[17] The foundation currently supports the education of approximately 153,190 underprivileged girls.[18] Other initiatives include Mahindra Hariyali (a 1 million tree planting campaign)[17] as well as sponsorship of the Lifeline Express, a mobile hospital train. Mahindra employees also plan and lead their own service projects through Mahindra's Employee Social Options Plans. In 2009, more than 35,000 employees participated.[19]The Mahindra Group was responsible for the creation of Mahindra United World College, a UWC campus located in Pune.Mahindra supports the Mahindra Excellence in Theatre Awards to recognize Indian theater talent, the Mahindra Indo-American Film Festival, and the Mahindra Lucknow Festival. In 2011, it held the first annual Mahindra Blues Festival with guests including Buddy Guy, Johnny Lang, and Shemekia Copeland at the Mehboob Studios in Mumbai.[20] Mahindra partners with the NBA and Celtic Football Club to bring grassroots basketball and football to India.[21]","title":"Community initiatives"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wharton Business School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wharton_Business_School"},{"link_name":"University of Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Institute_of_Management_Ahmedabad"},{"link_name":"International Institute for Management Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Institute_for_Management_Development"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Bhopal Disaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_Disaster"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Anand Mahindra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anand_Mahindra"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"Harvard Business School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_School"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AM-E-00-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"Keshub Mahindra was the Chairman Emeritus of Mahindra & Mahindra and a graduate of Wharton Business School, University of Pennsylvania, USA. He joined the company in 1947 and became the chairman in 1963.During his career he has also been Chairman of Bombay Chamber of Commerce and Industry (1966–67), President of ASSOCHAM (1969–70), Chairman of the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad (1975–85); Member of the Foundation Board – International Institute for Management Development (1984–89).His awards include:\nCompanion – British Institute of Management (1985),\nChevalier de la Légion d'honneur (1987),\nBusiness India – Businessman of the Year (1989),\nHonorary Fellowship of All India Management Association (1990),\nInstitute of Company Secretaries of India (ICSI) Lifetime Achievement Award for Excellence in Corporate Governance (2004),\nLakshya Business Visionary Award – NITIE (2006),\nICFAI Business School (IBS) Kolkata Lifetime Achievement Award presented by the Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India (ICFAI) (2007).[22]At the time of the Bhopal Disaster he was managing director of Union Carbide India Ltd. (In 2010 he was charged and indicted for causing death due to negligence and sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment and Rs 1 Lakh fine.) He was granted bail shortly after being sentenced.[23]\n[24]Anand Mahindra is chairman and managing director of Mahindra & Mahindra. He graduated from Harvard University and earned his MBA from Harvard Business School in 1981.[25] He joined the Mahindra Group in 1981 as an Executive Assistant to the Finance Director of the Mahindra Ugine Steel Company.[26]","title":"Leadership"}]

[]

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[{"reference":"\"Corporate overview\". Retrieved 9 August 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mahindra.com/about-us","url_text":"\"Corporate overview\""}]},{"reference":"\"India's Most Reputable Companies\". Forbes.com. 20 November 2006. Retrieved 9 August 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/2006/11/20/leadership-companies-reputation-lead-managing-cx_hc_1120indarep_slide_9.html?thisSpeed=15000","url_text":"\"India's Most Reputable Companies\""}]},{"reference":"\"BSE Sensex little changed; Reliance disappoints | Reuters\". In.reuters.com. 27 July 2009. Retrieved 9 August 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://in.reuters.com/article/businessNews/idINIndia-41345620090727","url_text":"\"BSE Sensex little changed; Reliance disappoints | Reuters\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mahindra Corporate\". Mahindra.com. Retrieved 9 August 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mahindra.com/Heritage/milestonesyearwise.htm#1954","url_text":"\"Mahindra Corporate\""}]},{"reference":"Oconnor, Ashling (18 June 2007). \"Time to put Indias new business challenge on the road\". The Times. London. Retrieved 12 May 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/markets/india/article1945670.ece","url_text":"\"Time to put Indias new business challenge on the road\""}]},{"reference":"\"Putt-Putt Tractors, Revved-Up Goals\". Forbes.com. 27 October 2006. Archived from the original on 25 October 2012. Retrieved 9 August 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121025180436/http://www.forbes.com/global/2006/0424/032_2.html","url_text":"\"Putt-Putt Tractors, Revved-Up Goals\""},{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/global/2006/0424/032_2.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Hindu Business Line : Resurgent India strikes back with confidence\". Blonnet.com. 26 April 2006. Archived from the original on 28 May 2006. Retrieved 9 August 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060528134527/http://www.blonnet.com/2006/04/26/stories/2006042600141100.htm","url_text":"\"The Hindu Business Line : Resurgent India strikes back with confidence\""},{"url":"http://www.blonnet.com/2006/04/26/stories/2006042600141100.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The 20 Largest Companies in India\". Rediff.com. 10 December 2010. Retrieved 18 February 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rediff.com/business/slide-show/slide-show-1-the-top-20-companies-in-india/20101210.htm","url_text":"\"The 20 Largest Companies in India\""}]},{"reference":"\"World's Most Reputable Companies: The Rankings\". Forbes.com. 6 May 2009. Retrieved 18 February 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/2009/05/06/world-reputable-companies-leadership-reputation-table.html","url_text":"\"World's Most Reputable Companies: The Rankings\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mahindra & Mahindra to use 'Rise' as new brand positioning\". Economic Times. 17 January 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/news-by-company/corporate-trends/mahindra-mahindra-to-use-rise-as-new-brand-positioning/articleshow/7304716.cms","url_text":"\"Mahindra & Mahindra to use 'Rise' as new brand positioning\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tata Motors places bid for Saab Automobile: Report – The Times of India\". Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. 6 March 2012. Retrieved 8 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/international-business/Tata-Motors-places-bid-for-Saab-Automobile-Report/articleshow/12159611.cms","url_text":"\"Tata Motors places bid for Saab Automobile: Report – The Times of India\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sebi grants license to Mahindra Mutual Fund\". The Times of India.","urls":[{"url":"http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/Sebi-grants-license-to-Mahindra-Mutual-Fund/articleshow/50876752.cms","url_text":"\"Sebi grants license to Mahindra Mutual Fund\""}]},{"reference":"\"- Moneycontrol.com\". 17 December 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.moneycontrol.com/india/news/pressmarket/mahindra-receives-pegasus-csr-award/18/40/317684","url_text":"\"- Moneycontrol.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tech Mahindra launches foundation\". The Hindu. 14 June 2007. Archived from the original on 16 September 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070916213213/http://www.hindu.com/2007/06/14/stories/2007061401871800.htm","url_text":"\"Tech Mahindra launches foundation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hindu","url_text":"The Hindu"},{"url":"http://www.hindu.com/2007/06/14/stories/2007061401871800.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Education\". Mahindra.com. Retrieved 8 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mahindra.com/mahindra/how-we-help.page?cname=how-we-help&dname=Education","url_text":"\"Education\""}]},{"reference":"\"- Moneycontrol.com\". 3 October 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.moneycontrol.com/india/news/pressmarket/mahindra-renews-its-commitment-to-society/16/00/305964","url_text":"\"- Moneycontrol.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nanhi Kali ::\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nanhikali.org/","url_text":"\"Nanhi Kali ::\""}]},{"reference":"\"how-we-help\". Mahindra.com. Retrieved 8 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://mahindra.com/mahindra/how-we-help.page?cname=how-we-help&dname=Employee-Social-Options","url_text":"\"how-we-help\""}]},{"reference":"\"Alternative content\". Mahindra Blues. Retrieved 8 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mahindrablues.com/","url_text":"\"Alternative content\""}]},{"reference":"\"how-we-help\". Mahindra.com. Retrieved 8 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://mahindra.com/mahindra/how-we-help.page?cname=how-we-help&dname=Culture-and-Sports","url_text":"\"how-we-help\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mahindra Corporate\". Mahindra.com. Retrieved 9 August 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mahindra.com/heritage/mfam_kcm.html","url_text":"\"Mahindra Corporate\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eight convicted over Bhopal gas disaster – ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation)\". Abc.net.au. 7 June 2010. 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Web hosting service

["1 History","2 Classification","2.1 Static page hosting","2.2 Larger hosting services","3 Types of hosting","4 Host management","4.1 Reliability and uptime","5 Security","6 See also","7 References"]

Service for hosting websites An example of rack mounted servers Part of a series onInternet hosting service Full-featured hosting Virtual private server Dedicated hosting Colocation centre Cloud computing Peer-to-peer Web hosting Shared Clustered Application-specific web hosting Blog (comments) Guild hosting service Image Video Wiki farms Application Social network By content format File Image Video Music Other types Remote backup Game server Home server DNS Email vte A web hosting service is a type of Internet hosting service that hosts websites for clients, i.e. it offers the facilities required for them to create and maintain a site and makes it accessible on the World Wide Web. Companies providing web hosting services are sometimes called web hosts. Typically, web hosting requires the following: one or more servers to act as the host(s) for the sites; servers may be physical or virtual colocation for the server(s), providing physical space, electricity, and Internet connectivity; Domain Name System configuration to define name(s) for the sites and point them to the hosting server(s); a web server running on the host; for each site hosted on the server: space on the server(s) to hold the files making up the site site-specific configuration often, a database; software and credentials allowing the client to access these, enabling them to create, configure, and modify the site; email connectivity allowing the host and site to send email to the client. History Until 1991, the Internet was restricted to use only "... for research and education in the sciences and engineering ..." and was used for email, telnet, FTP and USENET traffic—but only a tiny number of web pages. The World Wide Web protocols had only just been written and not until the end of 1993 would there be a graphical web browser for Mac or Windows computers. Even after there was some opening up of Internet access, the situation was confused until 1995. To host a website on the internet, an individual or company would need their own computer or server. As not all companies had the budget or expertise to do this, web hosting services began to offer to host users' websites on their own servers, without the client needing to own the necessary infrastructure required to operate the website. The owners of the websites, also called webmasters, would be able to create a website that would be hosted on the web hosting service's server and published to the web by the web hosting service. As the number of users on the World Wide Web grew, the pressure for companies, both large and small, to have an online presence grew. By 1995, companies such as GeoCities, Angelfire and Tripod were offering free hosting. Classification Static page hosting The most basic is web page and small-scale file hosting, where files can be uploaded via File Transfer Protocol (FTP) or a web interface. The files are usually delivered to the Web "as is" or with minimal processing. Many Internet service providers (ISPs) offer this service free to subscribers. Individuals and organizations may also obtain web page hosting from alternative service providers. Free web hosting service is offered by different companies with limited services, sometimes supported by advertisements, and often limited when compared to paid hosting. Single page hosting is generally sufficient for personal web pages. Personal website hosting is typically free, advertisement-sponsored, or inexpensive. Business website hosting often has a higher expense depending upon the size and type of the site. Larger hosting services Many large companies that are not Internet service providers need to be permanently connected to the web to send email, files, etc. to other sites. The company may use the computer as a website host to provide details of their goods and services and facilities for online orders. A complex site calls for a more comprehensive package that provides database support and application development platforms (e.g. ASP.NET, ColdFusion, Java EE, Perl/Plack, PHP or Ruby on Rails). These facilities allow customers to write or install scripts for applications like forums and content management. Web hosting packages often include a web content management system, so the end-user does not have to worry about the more technical aspects. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is used for websites that wish to encrypt the transmitted data. Types of hosting A typical server "rack" commonly seen in colocation centres Internet hosting services can run web servers. The scope of web hosting services varies greatly. Shared web hosting service – One's website is placed on the same server as many other sites, ranging from a few sites to hundreds of websites. Typically, all domains may share a common pool of server resources, such as RAM and the CPU. The features available with this type of service can be quite basic and not flexible in terms of software and updates. Resellers often sell shared web hosting and web companies often have reseller accounts to provide hosting for clients. Reseller web hosting – Allows clients to become web hosts themselves. Resellers could function, for individual domains, under any combination of these listed types of hosting, depending on who they are affiliated with as a reseller. Resellers' accounts may vary tremendously in size: they may have their own virtual dedicated server to a colocated server. Many resellers provide a nearly identical service to their provider's shared hosting plan and provide the technical support themselves. Virtual Dedicated Server – Also known as a Virtual Private Server (VPS), divides server resources into virtual servers, where resources can be allocated in a way that does not directly reflect the underlying hardware. VPS will often be allocated resources based on a one server to many VPSs relationship, however virtualisation may be done for a number of reasons, including the ability to move a VPS container between servers. The users may have root access to their own virtual space. Customers are sometimes responsible for patching and maintaining the server (unmanaged server) or the VPS provider may provide server admin tasks for the customer (managed server). Dedicated hosting service – The user gets their own web server and gains full control over it (user has root access for Linux/administrator access for Windows); however, the user typically does not own the server. One type of dedicated hosting is self-managed or unmanaged. This is usually the least expensive for dedicated plans. The user has full administrative access to the server, which means the client is responsible for the security and maintenance of their own dedicated server. Managed hosting service – The user gets their own web server but is not allowed full control over it (user is denied root access for Linux/administrator access for Windows); however, they are allowed to manage their data via FTP or other remote management tools. The user is disallowed full control so that the provider can guarantee quality of service by not allowing the user to modify the server or potentially create configuration problems. The user typically does not own the server. The server is leased to the client. Colocation web hosting service – Similar to the dedicated web hosting service, but the user owns the colo server; the hosting company provides physical space that the server takes up and takes care of the server. This is the most powerful and expensive type of web hosting service. In most cases, the colocation provider may provide little to no support directly for their client's machine, providing only the electrical, Internet access, and storage facilities for the server. In most cases for colo, the client would have their own administrator visit the data center on site to do any hardware upgrades or changes. Formerly, many colocation providers would accept any system configuration for hosting, even ones housed in desktop-style minitower cases, but most hosts now require rack mount enclosures and standard system configurations. Cloud hosting – Hosting based on clustered load-balanced servers. A cloud hosted website may be more reliable than alternatives since other computers in the cloud can compensate when a single piece of hardware goes down. Also, local power disruptions or even natural disasters are less problematic for cloud hosted sites, as cloud hosting is decentralized. Cloud hosting also allows providers to charge users only for resources consumed by the user, rather than a flat fee for the amount the user expects they will use, or a fixed cost upfront hardware investment. Alternatively, the lack of centralization may give users less control on where their data is located which could be a problem for users with data security or privacy concerns as per GDPR guidelines. Cloud hosting users can request additional resources on-demand such as only during periods of peak traffic, while offloading IT management to the cloud hosting service. Clustered hosting – Having multiple servers hosting the same content for better resource utilization. Clustered servers are a perfect solution for high-availability dedicated hosting, or creating a scalable web hosting solution. A cluster may separate web serving from database hosting capability. (Usually web hosts use clustered hosting for their shared hosting plans, as there are multiple benefits to the mass managing of clients). Grid hosting – This form of distributed hosting is when a server cluster acts like a grid and is composed of multiple nodes. Home server – A private server can be used to host one or more websites from a usually consumer-grade broadband connection. These can be purpose-built machines or more commonly old PCs. Some ISPs block home servers by disallowing incoming requests to TCP port 80 of the user's connection and by refusing to provide static IP addresses. A common way to attain a reliable DNS host name is by creating an account with a dynamic DNS service. A dynamic DNS service will automatically change the IP address that a URL points to when the IP address changes. Some specific types of hosting provided by web host service providers: File hosting service: hosts files, not web pages Image hosting service Video hosting service Blog hosting service Paste bin Shopping cart software E-mail hosting service Host management Racks of servers The host may also provide an interface or control panel for managing the web server and installing scripts, as well as other modules and service applications like e-mail. A web server that does not use a control panel for managing the hosting account, is often referred to as a "headless" server. Some hosts specialize in certain software or services (e.g. e-commerce, blogs, etc.). Reliability and uptime The availability of a website is measured by the percentage of a year in which the website is publicly accessible and reachable via the Internet. This is different from measuring the uptime of a system. Uptime refers to the system itself being online. Uptime does not take into account being able to reach it as in the event of a network outage. A hosting provider's Service Level Agreement (SLA) may include a certain amount of scheduled downtime per year in order to perform maintenance on the systems. This scheduled downtime is often excluded from the SLA timeframe, and needs to be subtracted from the Total Time when availability is calculated. Depending on the wording of an SLA, if the availability of a system drops below that in the signed SLA, a hosting provider often will provide a partial refund for time lost. How downtime is determined changes from provider to provider, therefore reading the SLA is imperative. Not all providers release uptime statistics. Security Because web hosting services host websites belonging to their customers, online security is an important concern. When a customer agrees to use a web hosting service, they are relinquishing control of the security of their site to the company that is hosting the site. The level of security that a web hosting service offers is extremely important to a prospective customer and can be a major factor when considering which provider a customer may choose. Web hosting servers can be attacked by malicious users in different ways, including uploading malware or malicious code onto a hosted website. These attacks may be done for different reasons, including stealing credit card data, launching a Distributed Denial of Service Attack (DDoS) or spamming. See also Cloud Computing Dedicated hosting service Green hosting Internet Application Management Service-level agreement Shared hosting Shared web hosting service Virtual Private Server References ^ March 16, 1992, memo from Mariam Leder, NSF Assistant General Counsel to Steven Wolff, Division Director, NSF DNCRI (included at page 128 of Management of NSFNET, a transcript of the March 12, 1992, hearing before the Subcommittee on Science of the Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Second Congress, Second Session, Hon. Rick Boucher, subcommittee chairman, presiding) ^ a b "The history of web hosting". www.tibus.com. Retrieved 2016-12-11. ^ Ward, Mark (3 August 2006). "How the web went world wide". BBC News. Retrieved 24 January 2011. ^ Raggett, Dave; Jenny Lam; Ian Alexander (1996). HTML 3: Electronic Publishing on the World Wide Web. Harlow, England; Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley. p. 21. ISBN 9780201876932. ^ "Retiring the NSFNET Backbone Service: Chronicling the End of an Era", Susan R. Harris and Elise Gerich, ConneXions, Vol. 10, No. 4, April 1996 ^ "A History of Web Hosting ". BizTech. 2012-02-24. Retrieved 2016-11-04. ^ Buyya, Rajkumar; Yeo, Chee Shin; Venugopal, Srikumar (2008). "Market-Oriented Cloud Computing: Vision, Hype, and Reality for Delivering IT Services as Computing Utilities". 2008 10th IEEE International Conference on High Performance Computing and Communications. pp. 5–13. arXiv:0808.3558. doi:10.1109/HPCC.2008.172. ISBN 978-0-7695-3352-0. S2CID 16882678. ^ Intark Han; Hong-Shik Park; Youn-Kwae Jeong; Kwang-Roh Park (2006). "An integrated home server for communication, broadcast reception, and home automation". IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics. 52: 104–109. doi:10.1109/TCE.2006.1605033. S2CID 22145496. ^ Dawson, Christian. "Why Uptime Guarantees are Ridiculous". Servint. Retrieved 7 October 2014. a good SLA will clearly state how uptime is defined and what you'll receive if the "uptime promise" is not met. ^ Schultz, Eugene (2003). "Attackers hit Web hosting servers". Computers & Security. 22 (4): 273–283. doi:10.1016/s0167-4048(03)00402-4. ^ InstantShift (11 February 2011). "A Guide to Web Hosting Security Issues and Prevention". InstantShift - Web Designers and Developers Daily Resource. Retrieved 2016-10-31. vteWebsite managementConceptsWeb hosting Clustered Peer-to-peer Self-hosting Virtual Web analytics Click analytics Mobile web analytics Web tracking Click tracking Overselling Web document Web content Web content lifecycle Web server Web cache Webmaster Website governanceWeb hosting control panels (comparison) AlternC cPanel DirectAdmin Domain Technologie Control i-MSCP InterWorx ISPConfig Kloxo Plesk Usermin Webmin Froxlor Top-level domain registries AFNIC auDA DNS Belgium CentralNic CIRA CNNIC CZ.NIC DENIC EURid Freenom GoDaddy Google Domains Identity Digital IPM JPRS KISA NIC México Nominet PIR Tucows Verisign Domain name managers and registrars Bluehost Domainz DreamHost Dynadot Enom Epik Gandi GMO Internet GoDaddy Google Domains Hover Infomaniak Jimdo Name.com Namecheap Hostinger NameSilo NearlyFreeSpeech Network Solutions OVH Register.com Squarespace Tucows UK2 Webcentral Web.com Wix.com Web content management system Document management system Wiki software Blog software

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Companies providing web hosting services are sometimes called web hosts.Typically, web hosting requires the following:one or more servers to act as the host(s) for the sites; servers may be physical or virtual\ncolocation for the server(s), providing physical space, electricity, and Internet connectivity;\nDomain Name System configuration to define name(s) for the sites and point them to the hosting server(s);\na web server running on the host;\nfor each site hosted on the server:\nspace on the server(s) to hold the files making up the site\nsite-specific configuration\noften, a database;\nsoftware and credentials allowing the client to access these, enabling them to create, configure, and modify the site;\nemail connectivity allowing the host and site to send email to the client.","title":"Web hosting service"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tib1-2"},{"link_name":"email","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email"},{"link_name":"telnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telnet"},{"link_name":"FTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FTP"},{"link_name":"USENET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USENET"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Raggett21-4"},{"link_name":"situation was confused","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation_Network#Commercial_ISPs.2C_ANS_CO.2BRE.2C_and_the_CIX"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ConneXions-April1996-5"},{"link_name":"website","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website"},{"link_name":"internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tib1-2"},{"link_name":"websites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website"},{"link_name":"webmasters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webmaster"},{"link_name":"GeoCities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeoCities"},{"link_name":"Angelfire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelfire"},{"link_name":"Tripod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripod.com"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Until 1991, the Internet was restricted to use only \"... for research and education in the sciences and engineering ...\"[1][2] and was used for email, telnet, FTP and USENET traffic—but only a tiny number of web pages. The World Wide Web protocols had only just been written[3] and not until the end of 1993 would there be a graphical web browser for Mac or Windows computers.[4] Even after there was some opening up of Internet access, the situation was confused[clarification needed] until 1995.[5]To host a website on the internet, an individual or company would need their own computer or server.[2] As not all companies had the budget or expertise to do this, web hosting services began to offer to host users' websites on their own servers, without the client needing to own the necessary infrastructure required to operate the website. The owners of the websites, also called webmasters, would be able to create a website that would be hosted on the web hosting service's server and published to the web by the web hosting service.As the number of users on the World Wide Web grew, the pressure for companies, both large and small, to have an online presence grew. By 1995, companies such as GeoCities, Angelfire and Tripod were offering free hosting.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"web page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_page"},{"link_name":"uploaded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upload"},{"link_name":"File Transfer Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Internet service providers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_provider"},{"link_name":"needs update?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"personal web pages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_web_page"}],"sub_title":"Static page hosting","text":"The most basic is web page and small-scale file hosting, where files can be uploaded via File Transfer Protocol (FTP) or a web interface. The files are usually delivered to the Web \"as is\" or with minimal processing. Many Internet service providers (ISPs) offer this service free to subscribers. Individuals and organizations may also obtain web page hosting from alternative service providers.Free web hosting service is offered by different companies with limited services, sometimes supported by advertisements,[needs update?] and often limited when compared to paid hosting.Single page hosting is generally sufficient for personal web pages. Personal website hosting is typically free, advertisement-sponsored, or inexpensive. Business website hosting often has a higher expense depending upon the size and type of the site.","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"incomprehensible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup"},{"link_name":"database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database"},{"link_name":"support","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_center_management#Tech_Support"},{"link_name":"ASP.NET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASP.NET"},{"link_name":"ColdFusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ColdFusion"},{"link_name":"Java EE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_Platform,_Enterprise_Edition"},{"link_name":"Perl/Plack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plack_(software)"},{"link_name":"PHP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHP"},{"link_name":"Ruby on Rails","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_on_Rails"},{"link_name":"forums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_forum"},{"link_name":"content management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_management"},{"link_name":"web content management system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_content_management_system"},{"link_name":"Secure Sockets Layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer"}],"sub_title":"Larger hosting services","text":"Many large companies that are not Internet service providers need to be permanently connected to the web to send email, files, etc. to other sites. The company may use the computer as a website host to provide details of their goods and services and facilities for online orders.[incomprehensible]A complex site calls for a more comprehensive package that provides database support and application development platforms (e.g. ASP.NET, ColdFusion, Java EE, Perl/Plack, PHP or Ruby on Rails). These facilities allow customers to write or install scripts for applications like forums and content management. Web hosting packages often include a web content management system, so the end-user does not have to worry about the more technical aspects. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is used for websites that wish to encrypt the transmitted data.","title":"Classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KN-Servers2.JPG"},{"link_name":"colocation centres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colocation_centre"},{"link_name":"web servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_servers"},{"link_name":"Shared web hosting service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_web_hosting_service"},{"link_name":"RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU"},{"link_name":"Resellers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reseller"},{"link_name":"Virtual Dedicated Server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_private_server#Hosting"},{"link_name":"Virtual Private Server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Private_Server"},{"link_name":"root access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_access"},{"link_name":"Dedicated hosting service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedicated_hosting_service"},{"link_name":"root access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superuser"},{"link_name":"Managed hosting service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managed_hosting_service"},{"link_name":"Colocation web hosting service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colocation_center"},{"link_name":"minitower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minitower"},{"link_name":"rack mount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rack_mount"},{"link_name":"Cloud hosting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"data security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_security"},{"link_name":"privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privacy_policy"},{"link_name":"GDPR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Data_Protection_Regulation"},{"link_name":"Clustered hosting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clustered_hosting"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Home server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_server"},{"link_name":"broadband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadband"},{"link_name":"TCP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol"},{"link_name":"static IP addresses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_IP_address"},{"link_name":"dynamic DNS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_DNS"},{"link_name":"DNS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS"},{"link_name":"URL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URL"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"File hosting service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_hosting_service"},{"link_name":"Image hosting service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_hosting_service"},{"link_name":"Video hosting service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_hosting_service"},{"link_name":"Blog hosting service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blog_hosting_service"},{"link_name":"Paste bin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paste_bin"},{"link_name":"Shopping cart software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopping_cart_software"},{"link_name":"E-mail hosting service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail_hosting_service"}],"text":"A typical server \"rack\" commonly seen in colocation centresInternet hosting services can run web servers. The scope of web hosting services varies greatly.Shared web hosting service – One's website is placed on the same server as many other sites, ranging from a few sites to hundreds of websites. Typically, all domains may share a common pool of server resources, such as RAM and the CPU. The features available with this type of service can be quite basic and not flexible in terms of software and updates. Resellers often sell shared web hosting and web companies often have reseller accounts to provide hosting for clients.\nReseller web hosting – Allows clients to become web hosts themselves. Resellers could function, for individual domains, under any combination of these listed types of hosting, depending on who they are affiliated with as a reseller. Resellers' accounts may vary tremendously in size: they may have their own virtual dedicated server to a colocated server. Many resellers provide a nearly identical service to their provider's shared hosting plan and provide the technical support themselves.\nVirtual Dedicated Server – Also known as a Virtual Private Server (VPS), divides server resources into virtual servers, where resources can be allocated in a way that does not directly reflect the underlying hardware. VPS will often be allocated resources based on a one server to many VPSs relationship, however virtualisation may be done for a number of reasons, including the ability to move a VPS container between servers. The users may have root access to their own virtual space. Customers are sometimes responsible for patching and maintaining the server (unmanaged server) or the VPS provider may provide server admin tasks for the customer (managed server).\nDedicated hosting service – The user gets their own web server and gains full control over it (user has root access for Linux/administrator access for Windows); however, the user typically does not own the server. One type of dedicated hosting is self-managed or unmanaged. This is usually the least expensive for dedicated plans. The user has full administrative access to the server, which means the client is responsible for the security and maintenance of their own dedicated server.\nManaged hosting service – The user gets their own web server but is not allowed full control over it (user is denied root access for Linux/administrator access for Windows); however, they are allowed to manage their data via FTP or other remote management tools. The user is disallowed full control so that the provider can guarantee quality of service by not allowing the user to modify the server or potentially create configuration problems. The user typically does not own the server. The server is leased to the client.\nColocation web hosting service – Similar to the dedicated web hosting service, but the user owns the colo server; the hosting company provides physical space that the server takes up and takes care of the server. This is the most powerful and expensive type of web hosting service. In most cases, the colocation provider may provide little to no support directly for their client's machine, providing only the electrical, Internet access, and storage facilities for the server. In most cases for colo, the client would have their own administrator visit the data center on site to do any hardware upgrades or changes. Formerly, many colocation providers would accept any system configuration for hosting, even ones housed in desktop-style minitower cases, but most hosts now require rack mount enclosures and standard system configurations.\nCloud hosting – Hosting based on clustered load-balanced servers. A cloud hosted website may be more reliable than alternatives since other computers in the cloud can compensate when a single piece of hardware goes down. Also, local power disruptions or even natural disasters are less problematic for cloud hosted sites, as cloud hosting is decentralized. Cloud hosting also allows providers to charge users only for resources consumed by the user, rather than a flat fee for the amount the user expects they will use, or a fixed cost upfront hardware investment. Alternatively, the lack of centralization may give users less control on where their data is located which could be a problem for users with data security or privacy concerns as per GDPR guidelines. Cloud hosting users can request additional resources on-demand such as only during periods of peak traffic, while offloading IT management to the cloud hosting service.\nClustered hosting – Having multiple servers hosting the same content for better resource utilization. Clustered servers are a perfect solution for high-availability dedicated hosting, or creating a scalable web hosting solution. A cluster may separate web serving from database hosting capability. (Usually web hosts use clustered hosting for their shared hosting plans, as there are multiple benefits to the mass managing of clients).[7]\nGrid hosting – This form of distributed hosting is when a server cluster acts like a grid and is composed of multiple nodes.[citation needed]\nHome server – A private server can be used to host one or more websites from a usually consumer-grade broadband connection. These can be purpose-built machines or more commonly old PCs. Some ISPs block home servers by disallowing incoming requests to TCP port 80 of the user's connection and by refusing to provide static IP addresses. A common way to attain a reliable DNS host name is by creating an account with a dynamic DNS service. A dynamic DNS service will automatically change the IP address that a URL points to when the IP address changes.[8]Some specific types of hosting provided by web host service providers:File hosting service: hosts files, not web pages\nImage hosting service\nVideo hosting service\nBlog hosting service\nPaste bin\nShopping cart software\nE-mail hosting service","title":"Types of hosting"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Floridaserversfront1.jpg"},{"link_name":"control panel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_panel_(Web_hosting)"},{"link_name":"web server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_server"},{"link_name":"control panel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_panel_(Web_hosting)"}],"text":"Racks of serversThe host may also provide an interface or control panel for managing the web server and installing scripts, as well as other modules and service applications like e-mail. A web server that does not use a control panel for managing the hosting account, is often referred to as a \"headless\" server. Some hosts specialize in certain software or services (e.g. e-commerce, blogs, etc.).","title":"Host management"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"availability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_availability"},{"link_name":"uptime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uptime"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Service Level Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service-level_agreement"},{"link_name":"downtime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downtime"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Reliability and uptime","text":"The availability of a website is measured by the percentage of a year in which the website is publicly accessible and reachable via the Internet. This is different from measuring the uptime of a system. Uptime refers to the system itself being online. Uptime does not take into account being able to reach it as in the event of a network outage.[citation needed] A hosting provider's Service Level Agreement (SLA) may include a certain amount of scheduled downtime per year in order to perform maintenance on the systems. This scheduled downtime is often excluded from the SLA timeframe, and needs to be subtracted from the Total Time when availability is calculated. Depending on the wording of an SLA, if the availability of a system drops below that in the signed SLA, a hosting provider often will provide a partial refund for time lost. How downtime is determined changes from provider to provider, therefore reading the SLA is imperative.[9] Not all providers release uptime statistics.","title":"Host management"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"online security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"malware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware"},{"link_name":"code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code"},{"link_name":"website","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Website"},{"link_name":"Distributed Denial of Service Attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_denial_of_service_attack"},{"link_name":"spamming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spamming"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Because web hosting services host websites belonging to their customers, online security is an important concern. When a customer agrees to use a web hosting service, they are relinquishing control of the security of their site to the company that is hosting the site. The level of security that a web hosting service offers is extremely important to a prospective customer and can be a major factor when considering which provider a customer may choose.[10]Web hosting servers can be attacked by malicious users in different ways, including uploading malware or malicious code onto a hosted website. These attacks may be done for different reasons, including stealing credit card data, launching a Distributed Denial of Service Attack (DDoS) or spamming.[11]","title":"Security"}]

[{"image_text":"An example of rack mounted servers","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Paris_servers_DSC00190.jpg/220px-Paris_servers_DSC00190.jpg"},{"image_text":"A typical server \"rack\" commonly seen in colocation centres","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/KN-Servers2.JPG/220px-KN-Servers2.JPG"},{"image_text":"Racks of servers","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Floridaserversfront1.jpg/220px-Floridaserversfront1.jpg"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_game_engines

List of game engines

["1 Engines","2 See also","3 References"]

Game engines are tools available to implement video games without building everything from the ground up. Whether they are 2D or 3D based, they offer tools to aid in asset creation and placement. Engines Note: The following list is not exhaustive. Also, it mixes game engines with rendering engines as well as API bindings without any distinctions. Name Primary programming language Release year Scripting Cross-platform 2D/3D oriented Target platform Notable games License Notes and references 4A Engine C++ 2010 Yes 3D Windows, macOS, Linux, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One Metro 2033, Metro: Last Light, Metro Exodus Proprietary A-Frame (VR) JavaScript 2015 JavaScript Yes 3D Cross-platform MIT Open source Entity component system WebVR framework Adventure Game Interpreter 1984 C style Yes 2D DOS, Apple SOS, ProDOS, Classic Mac OS, Atari TOS List Proprietary Adventure Game Studio C++ 1997 AGSScript Yes 2D Windows, Linux Chzo Mythos, Blackwell Artistic 2.0 Mostly used to develop third-person pre-rendered graphic adventure games, one of the most popular for developing amateur adventure games Aleph One C++ 2000? Lua, Marathon markup language Yes 2.5D Windows, Linux, macOS Aleph One (Marathon remake) GPL-3.0-or-later FPS engine Amazon Lumberyard C++ 2015 Lua Yes 3D PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Windows New World Proprietary The software is free to download and use, however, it works closely with Amazon services. Anvil C++, C# 2009 Yes 3D Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Wii U, Xbox 360, Xbox One List Proprietary AppGameKit C++, BASIC 2016 C#, C++, AGK BASIC Yes 2D, 3D Windows, Mac, iOS, Android, HTML5, Raspberry Pi Proprietary Ardor3D Java 2008 Yes 3D Cross-platform zlib Fork of jMonkeyEngine 2.0 Aurora toolset C++ 2002 NWScript Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS Neverwinter Nights Proprietary Babylon.js JavaScript, TypeScript 2013 JavaScript, TypeScript Yes 3D Cross-Platform Apache License 2.0 Blend4Web JavaScript, Python, C, C++ 2018 JavaScript Yes 3D WebGL, Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, Android Experience Curiosity GPLv3 or commercial Game content, including graphics, animation, sound, and physics, is authored in the 3D modeling and animation suite Blender Blender Game Engine C, C++ 2000 Python Yes 2D, 3D Windows, Linux, macOS, Solaris Yo Frankie!, Sintel The Game, ColorCube GPL-2.0-or-later 2D/3D game engine packaged in a 3D modelar with integrated Bullet physics library Build engine C 1995 Yes 2.5D Windows, Linux, macOS, DOS Duke Nukem 3D, Shadow Warrior, Blood, Redneck Rampage Custom, free non-commercial use FPS engine; 2.5D, 2D grid base geometry Buildbox C++ 2014 Optional(JavaScript) Yes 2D, 3D Windows, macOS, iOS, Android Proprietary 2D/3D game builder with drag and drop functionalities, coding optional (not required), FREE license available C4 Engine C++ 2015 C++, Visual Script Yes 3D Windows, PlayStation 5, PlayStation 4, Xbox One List Proprietary Chrome Engine C++ 2002 Yes 3D Windows, Linux, PlayStation 4, Xbox One List Proprietary ClanLib C++ 1999 Yes 2.5D Windows, Linux, macOS zlib Clausewitz C++ 2007 Yes 3D Windows, macOS, Linux All Paradox Development Studio games since 2007 Proprietary Clickteam Fusion 1994 Yes 2D Windows, iOS, Android, HTML5, Adobe Flash Five Nights at Freddy's, Baba Is You Proprietary Cocos2d, Cocos2d-x, Cocos2d-html5 C++, Python, Objective-C, JavaScript 2010 C++, JavaScript, Java, Lua Yes 2D, 2.5D, 3D Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, Android, BlackBerry, Tizen Geometry Dash MIT Android target binds to Java; iOS target uses Objective-C Codea Lua 2011 No 2D, 3D iOS Apache 2.0 Construct C++ 2007 JavaScript, Event System Yes 2D Windows, macOS, Wii U, HTML5 capable internet browsers Hypnospace Outlaw Proprietary, GPL Classic version CraftStudio 2015 Lua Yes 2D, 3D Windows, macOS, Linux Free use Used to create voxel-based games. Creation Engine C++ 2011 Papyrus Yes 3D Windows, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Xbox One, PlayStation 4 The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, Fallout 4, Fallout 76 Proprietary CryEngine C++ 2002 C++, C# Yes 3D Windows, macOS, Linux, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Wii U, Xbox 360, Xbox One, iOS, Android Crysis, Far Cry Proprietary Crystal Tools Yes 3D PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Windows, Wii List Proprietary Crystal Space C++ Java, Perl, Python Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS Keepsake, Yo Frankie! LGPL-2.0-or-later Cube Engine C++ 2001 CubeScript Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS AssaultCube, Cube zlib Prior generation (means it has a successor), 2D grid-based system, optimized for outdoor not indoor maps Cube 2 Engine C++ 2004 CubeScript Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS Cube 2: Sauerbraten zlib Efficient 6-directional height map based geometry (versus traditional Polygon soup model), hence the name Cube, FPS engine Dagor Engine Yes 3D Windows, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Linux, macOS List BSD Dark Engine C++ 1995 No 3D Windows Thief: The Dark Project, System Shock 2, Thief II: The Metal Age Proprietary Advanced AI and sound features (full control of sound propagation). Edited with DromEd. Decima Yes 3D PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows Death Stranding, Horizon Zero Dawn, Killzone: Shadow Fall, Until Dawn, Until Dawn: Rush of Blood, Horizon Forbidden West Proprietary Defold C++ Lua Yes 2D, 3D iOS, Android, HTML5, Windows, macOS, Linux, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4 Defold License 1.0 Scene Editor, Particle Fx editor, Tilemap Editor, Code Editor, Debugger. Extend the engine with your own native code (C/C++, Obj-C, Java, JavaScript). Delta3D C++ Python Yes 2.5D Cross-platform LGPL-2.1-or-later Dim3 C++ JavaScript Yes 3D Cross-platform MIT DimensioneX Multiplayer Engine Java Java, VBScript Yes 2.5D Cross-platform GPL Produces browser games with pseudo-3D views; games can be made into Facebook Apps; intended for beginners DX Studio C++ JavaScript No 3D Windows Proprietary, Freeware Dunia Engine C++ Yes 3D Windows, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, PlayStation 4, Xbox One List Proprietary Based on CryEngine ego Yes 3D PlayStation 3, Windows, Xbox 360, macOS, Wii, Wii U, Xbox One, PlayStation 4 List Proprietary Primarily used for racing games Electron toolset C# NWScript No 3D Windows Neverwinter Nights 2 Proprietary Enforce No 3D Windows Shade: Wrath of Angels, Alpha Prime, Carrier Command: Gaea Mission, Take On Mars Proprietary Enigma Engine Yes 3D Windows, macOS, Blitzkrieg, Blitzkrieg 2 Proprietary Essence Engine No 3D Windows List Proprietary Exult C++ Yes 2D Windows, Linux, macOS, BSD Ultima VII GPL-2.0-or-later Free software re-implemented Ultima VII game engine Flare3D ActionScript 3 Yes 3D Web, Windows, iOS, Android, BlackBerry List Proprietary Flixel ActionScript Yes 2D Various games by Gregory Weir MIT Boilerplate code for Flash games ForgeLight Yes 3D Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One Free Realms, PlanetSide 2, Landmark, EverQuest Next, H1Z1: Just Survive, H1Z1: King of the Kill Proprietary Fox Engine 2013 Yes 3D Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One List Proprietary Freescape Freescape Command Language Yes 3D Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, IBM PC, Commodore 64, Amiga, Atari ST List Proprietary FreeSpace 2 Source Code Project C++ Yes 3D Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, FreeBSD FreeSpace 2; several projects, including games based on the Babylon 5 and 2004 Battlestar Galactica universes. Freeware for non-commercial use Frostbite C++ 2008 Yes 3D Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One List Proprietary Used originally for the Battlefield video games Future Pinball No 3D Windows Freeware Gamebryo C++ Yes 3D Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, Xbox One List Proprietary Game Editor Custom (C styled) Yes 2D iPhone, iPad, macOS, Windows (95-Windows 7), Linux, Windows-based smartphones, GP2X, Pocket PCs, Handheld PCs GPL, Proprietary GameMaker Studio Game Maker Language 1999 Game Maker Language, JavaScript, C++, GLSL, HLSL Yes 2D Windows, Windows 8, Xbox 360, Xbox One, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, macOS, Ubuntu, HTML5, Android, iOS, Windows Phone 8, Tizen, Amazon Fire TV, Nintendo Switch AM2R, Deltarune, Hotline Miami, Hyper Light Drifter, Minit, Nuclear Throne, Pizza Tower, Undertale, VA-11 Hall-A, Wandersong Proprietary Limited 3D abilities GameSalad Lang Script Yes 2D iOS, Android Proprietary Gamestudio CScript, Lite-C No 3D Windows List Proprietary Games can be published royalty-free GDevelop C++, JavaScript 2008 Events editor, JavaScript (Optional) Yes 2D, 3D Windows, Linux, Mac, HTML5, Android, iOS, Facebook Instant Games MIT Drag-and-drop game engine for everyone, almost everything can be done from the GUI, no coding experience required to make games Genie Engine Yes 2D Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S Age of Empires, Age of Empires II, Star Wars: Galactic Battlegrounds, Age of Empires II: HD Edition, Age of Empires: Definitive Edition, Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition Proprietary Godot C++ 2014 GDScript (like Python), C#, Visual Script, GDNative Yes 2D, 2.5D, 3D Windows, macOS, Linux, UWP, iOS, Android, HTML and Web Assembly Cruelty Squad, Hardcoded, Kingdoms of the Dump, Cassette Beasts, Brotato MIT 3.0+ adds C# scripting plus other languages via modules and GDNative. PBR and Global Illumination. Gold Box Assembly, Pascal, C, C++ Yes 2D Amiga, Apple II, Atari ST, Commodore 64/128, DOS, Macintosh, Nintendo Entertainment System, PC-9801, Sega Genesis Pool of Radiance, Gateway to the Savage Frontier, Champions of Krynn, Buck Rogers: Countdown to Doomsday, Neverwinter Nights, Spelljammer: Pirates of Realmspace Proprietary SSI's engine for Advanced Dungeons & Dragons role-playing games GoldSrc C, C++, Assembly 1998 Yes 3D Windows, macOS, Linux, PlayStation 2, Xbox, Dreamcast Half-Life, Opposing Force, Team Fortress Classic, Sven Co-op, Counter-Strike, Ricochet, Day of Defeat Proprietary Highly modified Quake engine HeroEngine C++, C# HeroScript Language No 3D Windows Star Wars: The Old Republic Proprietary Horde3D C++ Yes 3D Windows, Linux Offroad Legends, Timelines: Assault on America EPL Small 3D rendering engine for large crowds of animated characters HPL Engine C++ AngelScript Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS Penumbra: Overture, Penumbra: Black Plague, Penumbra: Requiem, Amnesia: The Dark Descent, Amnesia: A Machine for Pigs, Soma Proprietary, GPL-3.0-or-later (version 1 and 2) Cross-platform, compatible with OpenGL, OpenAL, and Newton Game Dynamics libraries; defining features include ability for advanced object interaction via use of Newton's physics code id Tech 0Wolfenstein 3D engine C 1992 Yes 2.5D Windows, Linux, macOS Wolfenstein 3D, Spear of Destiny, Blake Stone: Aliens of Gold, Corridor 7: Alien Invasion, Blake Stone: Planet Strike, Operation Body Count, Super 3D Noah's Ark GPL-2.0-or-later Also termed the Wolfenstein 3D engine id Tech 1Doom engine C 1995 ACS Yes 2.5D Windows, Linux, macOS Doom, Doom II, Heretic, Hexen, Strife, Chex Quest GPL-2.0-or-later 2D-based level geometry, sprites, and particles, uses clever methods to give illusion of 3D depth. id Tech 2Quake engine C 1999 QuakeC Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS Quake GPL-2.0-or-later Also termed the Quake engine. First true 3D id Tech engine. id Tech 2.5Quake II engine C 2001 C Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS Quake II GPL-2.0-or-later Also termed the Quake II engine. Improvements to the id Tech 2 engine. id Tech 3Quake III Arena engine C 2005 C Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS Quake III Arena, Quake Live GPL-2.0-or-later Also termed the Quake III engine. id Tech 3.5 C 2005 C Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS Return to Castle Wolfenstein, Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory GPL-3.0-or-later Improvements to the id Tech 3 engine. id Tech 4Doom 3 engine C++ 2011 C++ via DLLs Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS Doom 3, Quake 4, Prey, Enemy Territory: Quake Wars, Wolfenstein, Brink GPL-3.0-or-later Also termed the Doom 3 engine; features advanced: lighting, shadows, interactive GUI surfaces. id Tech 4.5 C++ 2011 C++ via DLLs Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS Doom 3: BFG Edition GPL-3.0-or-later Improvements to the id Tech 4 engine. id Tech 5 C++, AMPL, Clipper, Python 2011 Script Yes 3D Windows, macOS, Xbox 360, Xbox One, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4 Rage, Wolfenstein: The New Order, Wolfenstein: The Old Blood, The Evil Within Proprietary First id Tech engine to feature MegaTexture technology, starting with Rage id Tech 6 C++ 2016 Yes 3D Windows, Xbox One, PlayStation 4, Nintendo Switch Doom (2016), Wolfenstein II: The New Colossus Proprietary id Tech 7 C++ 2020 Yes 3D Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Nintendo Switch Doom Eternal Proprietary iMUSE — — Integrated with other engines Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge, all LucasArts adventure games afterwards Proprietary Dynamic music system Infinity Engine Yes 2D Windows, Mac OS, macOS, AmigaOS 4 Baldur's Gate, Planescape: Torment, Icewind Dale, Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn, Icewind Dale II Proprietary Irrlicht C++ C++ Yes 3D Windows, Mac OS, Linux, Windows CE List of Irrlicht games zlib Open source, audio with extension ioquake3 C 2005? Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS Urban Terror, OpenArena GPL-2.0-or-later Iron Engine No 3D Windows Sins of a Solar Empire, Sins of a Dark Age Proprietary IW engine C++ Custom (C styled) (derived from QuakeC) Yes 3D Windows, macOS, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 3, Xbox One, Xbox 360, Wii U, Wii Call of Duty series Proprietary Originally built from id Tech 3 Jade C++ Yes 3D Cross-platform List Proprietary Jake2 Java Yes 3D Cross-platform GPL Java port of Quake II game engine Java 3D Java Yes 3D Cross-platform BSD Community-centric project. Used by many schools as part of course work Jedi C Yes 2.5D DOS, Windows Star Wars: Dark Forces, Outlaws Proprietary Rumored to have been reverse-engineered from Doom engine jMonkeyEngine Java 2004 Yes 3D Cross-platform Grappling Hook BSD Community-centric project, used by several commercial game studios Kinetica No 3D PlayStation 2 List Proprietary Kivy (framework) Python 2011 Kv Yes 2.5D Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, Android MIT For rapid development, can make multi-touch apps LayaAir ActionScript 3, JavaScript, TypeScript Yes 2D, 3D WebGL, Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, Android GPL or commercial 2D/3D game engine and also VR mode, provide free tools to convert 3d assets content from FBX files or Unity scene. Leadwerks C++ Lua Yes 3D Windows, Linux Proprietary LibGDX Java, Kotlin 2014 Yes 2D, 3D Linux, Windows, macOS, iOS, Android, Java applet, WebGL Ingress, Slay the Spire Apache 2.0 Java game development framework, provides a unified API that works across all supported platforms LithTech Yes 3D Cross-platform List Proprietary Luminous Engine Yes 3D PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Windows Final Fantasy XV Proprietary LyN Yes 3D Cross-platform List Proprietary Intended to scale effectively on 7th and 8th generation consoles LÖVE C++ 2008 Lua Yes 2D iOS, Android, Windows, Linux, macOS, NetBSD, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, Solaris, and all platforms supported by pkgsrc Mari0, Journey to the Center of Hawkthorne, Move or Die, Balatro zlib M.U.G.E.N C Yes 2D Linux, DOS, Windows, macOS Freeware Used Allegro initially, now uses on SDL Marmalade C++, Lua, Objective-C, HTML5 Lua, 2DKit Yes 2D, 3D iOS, Android, BlackBerry, Windows 10, FireOS, macOS, Windows, Tizen, Roku, Chromecast Angry Birds POP!, Cut the Rope, Call of Duty: World at War: Zombies, Doodle Jump, Draw Something, Godus, Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light, Metal Gear Solid Mobile Proprietary High-performance, cross-platform, with authoring tools and asset store Moai SDK C++ Lua Yes 2D Windows, macOS, iOS, Android, Linux Broken Age CPAL MT Framework C++ Yes 3D PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Windows, Wii, Wii U, Nintendo 3DS, PlayStation Vita List Proprietary Intended to be 7th generation console engine, replaced by Panta Rhei Monkey X Monkey, C++, C#, Java, JavaScript, ActionScript Yes 2D Windows, macOS, Linux Crypt of the NecroDancer MIT MonoGame / XNA C# 2009 C# Yes 2D, 3D Windows, macOS, Xbox One, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Windows Phone, iOS, Android, Windows Store, Ouya, BSD Skulls of the Shogun, Terraria, Bastion, TowerFall, Transistor, Fez, Axiom Verge, Celeste Microsoft Public C# game development framework, successor to Microsoft XNA. Northlight C++, D D Yes 3D Windows, Xbox One, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X and Series S Control, CrossfireX (Story Mode), Quantum Break, Alan Wake 2 Proprietary Quantum Break was the first commercial AAA game to ship with bits implemented in D programming language. NScripter No 2D Windows HaniHani, Tsukihime Freeware O3DE C++, Python 2021 Lua, Script Canvas Yes 3D Windows, macOS, iOS, Linux, Android Apache 2.0MIT License 3D rendering engine used by New World and several other games Odyssey Engine Yes 3D Windows, macOS Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic, Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic II: The Sith Lords Proprietary OGRE C++ 2005 C++ Yes 3D Linux, Windows (all major versions), macOS, NaCl, WinRT, Windows Phone 8, iOS and Android Torchlight, Kenshi MIT 3D rendering engine used by several games OHRRPGCE FreeBASIC HamsterSpeak Yes 2D Windows, macOS, Linux, Android GPL-2.0-or-later Role-playing game creation system; use of scripting is optional ONScripter NScripter NScripter Yes 2D Windows, macOS, Linux, Dreamcast, PSP, iOS Narcissu, Saya no Uta, Tsukihime GPL-2.0-or-later Used to develop visual novels and first-person adventure games OpenClonk C++ C4Script Yes 2.5D Windows, Linux, macOS OpenClonk ISC Engine for 2D action/strategy platformers with 3D graphics OpenMW C++ mwscript, Lua Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS GPL-3.0-or-later Reimplementation of the Morrowind game engine OpenSimulator C# LSL Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS, FreeBSD BSD Server platform to host virtual worlds, compatible with Second Life clients ORX C/C++ 2009 Custom Yes 2.5D Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, Android zlib 3D accelerated Panda3D C++, Python 2002 Python Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS Toontown Online, Pirates of the Caribbean Online BSD Panta Rhei Yes 3D PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Windows Deep Down Proprietary Successor to MT Framework for 8th generation consoles Phaser JavaScript JavaScript Yes 2D Cross-platform Vampire Survivors MIT PhyreEngine C++ Yes 3D PC, PlayStation Portable, PlayStation Vita, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4 List Proprietary, Freeware Pico-8 Lua Yes 2D Windows, macOS, Linux, HTML5 Celeste Classic, UFO Swamp Odyssey, Pico Racer, P.Craft Proprietary Strict limitations to game design: 32kB cartridge size, 16 colours, 4 channel wavetable sound, 128x128 pixels, 256 sprites of 8x8 pixels. Pie in the Sky C Yes 2.5D DOS, Windows, macOS List Proprietary Pixel Game Maker MV JavaScript JavaScript, CoffeeScript Yes 2D Windows, Nintendo Switch Proprietary PlayCanvas JavaScript JavaScript Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, HTML5, Android MIT Users can work on game at the same time via online browser and publish to multiple platforms; engine uses WebGL and includes physics PlayN Java Yes 2D iOS, Android, HTML5, Windows, Linux Apache 2.0 Pygame Python 2000 Python Yes 2D Windows, MacOS, OS X, BeOS, FreeBSD, IRIX, Linux List LGPL Pyrogenesis C++ JavaScript Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS 0 A.D. LGPL Designed for RTS games Q Yes 3D Windows, macOS, Linux, PS2, PS3, Wii Proprietary Qfusion C/C++ AngelScript Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS, Android Warsow GPL-2.0-or-later REDengine C++ Yes 3D Windows, macOS, Xbox 360, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5 The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, Cyberpunk 2077 Proprietary Ren'Py Python Pygame Yes 2D Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, OpenBSD Analogue: A Hate Story, Jisei, Katawa Shoujo, Doki Doki Literature Club! MIT Used to develop visual novels and first-person adventure games RenderWare C++ 1993 RWX Yes 3D Windows, Mac OS, GameCube, Wii, Xbox, Xbox 360, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable Grand Theft Auto III, Grand Theft Auto: Vice City, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, Sonic Heroes, SpongeBob SquarePants: Battle for Bikini Bottom, SpongeBob SquarePants: Lights, Camera, Pants!, The Incredibles, The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie Proprietary RenderWare script available in version 2 only Roblox C++ Lua Yes 3D Windows, macOS, iOS, Android, Xbox Adopt Me!, Brookhaven, Tower of Hell, Frontlines, Sonic Speed Simulator Proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine (RAGE) C++ 2006 Yes 3D Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Wii, Xbox 360, Xbox One List Proprietary RPG Maker Ruby, JavaScript Yes 2D PC-8801, MSX2, PC-9801, Super Famicom, Windows, PlayStation, Game Boy Color, PlayStation 2, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, macOS, Linux, iOS, Android, PlayStation 4, Nintendo Switch Alpha Kimori, Ao Oni, Aveyond series, Corpse Party, Eternal Eden, Laxius Force, Omori, One Night Trilogy, Super Columbine Massacre RPG!, To the Moon, Yume Nikki Proprietary Series of game creation systems, allows users to build their own role-playing games SAGE Yes 3D Windows, Macintosh, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 List Proprietary Used for real-time strategy games SCUMM Yes 2D 3DO, Amiga, Apple II, Atari ST, CDTV, Commodore 64, FM Towns & Marty, Macintosh, Nintendo Entertainment System, DOS, Windows, Sega Mega-CD, TurboGrafx-16/PC Engine See Category:SCUMM games Proprietary Full name is Script Creation Utility for Maniac Mansion, from the first game it was used with; uses iMUSE and INSANE; ScummVM provides an open source re-creation Scratch 2007 Yes 2D Cross-platform GPL-2.0-or-later Serious Engine Yes 3D Serious Sam series Proprietary Shark 3D C++ Python Yes 3D Windows, Xbox, Xbox 360 Dreamfall: The Longest Journey Proprietary Silent Storm engine No 3D Windows Silent Storm, Night Watch, Hammer & Sickle, Day Watch Proprietary Used for turn-based tactics games Snowdrop C++ Yes 3D Windows, Switch, PlayStation 4, Xbox One Tom Clancy's The Division, South Park: The Fractured but Whole, Mario + Rabbids Kingdom Battle, Avatar: Frontiers of Pandora Proprietary Solar2D Lua Yes 2D iOS, Android, Kindle, Windows Phone 8, Apple TV, Android TV, macOS, Windows, Linux MIT Source C++ 2004 Squirrel, Lua, Python Yes 3D Windows, macOS, Linux, PlayStation 3, Xbox, Xbox 360, Android Half-Life 2, Counter-Strike: Source, Left 4 Dead, Portal, Team Fortress 2, others (list) Proprietary The SDK is bundled with many Source games Source 2 C++ 2015 Lua Yes 3D Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, iOS Dota 2 (port), The Lab (limited), Artifact, Dota Underlords, Half-Life: Alyx, Counter-Strike 2 Proprietary The first game using Source 2, Dota 2, was ported over from the original Source engine. One of The Lab's minigame Robot Repair uses Source 2 engine while rest of seven uses Unity's engine. Spring C++ C, C++, Java/JVM, Lua, Python Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS Balanced Annihilation, Zero-K GPL-2.0-or-later RTS, simulated events, OpenGL Starling Framework ActionScript Yes 2D Windows, macOS, Linux, iOS, Android Angry Birds Friends, Incredipede BSD Simplified Recreates the traditional Flash display list architecture on accelerated graphics hardware Stencyl Haxe Haxe, VPL Yes 2D Flash, HTML5, iOS, Android, Linux, macOS, Windows Cat Bird Proprietary Free to publish to Flash and HTML5. Subscription required for publishing to desktop or mobile. Autodesk Stingray (Bitsquid) Lua Yes 3D Windows, Mac, Linux, iOS, Android, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 Escape Dead Island, Hamilton's Great Adventure, Krater, Gauntlet, Helldivers, Magicka 2, The Showdown Effect, War of the Vikings, War of the Roses, Warhammer: End Times - Vermintide, Warhammer: Vermintide 2 Proprietary StepMania C++ Lua Yes 3D Cross-platform In the Groove, Pump It Up Pro, Pump It Up Infinity MIT A rhythm video game and engine that was originally developed as a simulator of Konami's DDR Stratagus C++ Lua Yes 2D Linux Bos Wars GPL-2.0-only For real-time strategy games Stride C# C# Yes 2D, 3D Windows, Linux, Xbox One, iOS, Android, UWP MIT Built in .NET, so it always supports latest C#. Previously known as Paradox and Xenko. Three.js JavaScript JavaScript Yes 2D, 3D HTML5, Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, Android MIT TIC-80 Lua, JavaScript, Ruby, others 2017 Yes 2D HTML5, Windows, Linux, macOS, Raspberry Pi, Nintendo 3DS MIT Intentionally limited specifications, including a 240x136 display; a 16 color palette; 256 8x8 sprites; and 4-channel sound. TOSHI Yes 3D Windows, GameCube, Wii, PlayStation 2, Xbox Jurassic Park: Operation Genesis, Nicktoons Unite!, Barnyard, El Tigre: The Adventures of Manny Rivera, Marvel Super Hero Squad, de Blob Proprietary Torque3D C++ 2012 TorqueScript Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS Marble Blast Gold, Tribes 2, Blockland MIT Includes multiplayer network code, seamless indoor-outdoor rendering engines, skeletal animation, drag and drop GUI creation, built in world editor, C-like scripting language Turbulenz TypeScript JavaScript Yes 2D, 3D HTML5, iOS, Android MIT Twine CSS/JavaScript JavaScript Yes 2D Windows, macOS, Linux, Web application Depression Quest, The Temple of No GPL Exports HTML without server. Used for text games and visual novels. UbiArt Framework C++ Yes 2.5D Cross-platform Rayman Origins, Rayman Legends, Child of Light, Valiant Hearts: The Great War Proprietary Unigine C++ 2005 C#, UnigineScript, GLSL, HLSL, UUSL Yes 3D Windows, Linux, macOS, PlayStation 3, Android, iOS List Proprietary Focused on large open scenes: 64-bit precision of coordinates, support for geo coordinates, round Earth model. Mainly used in enterprise and professional simulators. Unity C++ 2005 C#, Visual scripting (Bolt) Yes 2D, 2.5D, 3D Windows, macOS, Linux, Xbox 360, Xbox One, Wii U, New 3DS, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Windows Phone, iOS, Android, BlackBerry 10, Tizen, Unity Web Player, Windows Store, WebGL, Oculus Rift, Gear VR, Android TV, Samsung Smart TV Pokémon Go, Monument Valley, Call of Duty: Mobile, Beat Saber, Cuphead, Genshin Impact, Subnautica, The Forest Proprietary Bolt was acquired by Unity Technologies in May 2020, henceforth introducing Visual Scripting in Unity Unreal Engine C++ 1998 C++, Blueprints Yes 3D Cross-platform Unreal series, Fortnite, Gears of War, Valorant Proprietary UnrealScript was removed in version 4 V-Play Game Engine C++ QML, JavaScript Yes 2D iOS, Android, Windows, macOS List Proprietary Built on Qt Vengeance Engine C++ No 3D Windows Tribes: Vengeance, SWAT 4 Proprietary Based on Unreal Engine version 2/2.5 Vicarious Visions Alchemy Lang Script Yes 3D GameCube, Wii, WiiWare, WiiU, Nintendo Switch, Xbox, Xbox 360, Xbox Live Arcade, Xbox One, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, PlayStation Network, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Microsoft Windows, Android, iOS, tvOS Skylanders, Crash Bandicoot Proprietary Virtools Yes 3D Ballance Proprietary Used for game prototyping and rapid development Vision Lang Script Yes 3D Windows, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, Wii, Wii U, iOS, Android, PlayStation Vita, IE6 and up, Firefox 2.0 and up, Google Chrome, Opera 9 and up List Proprietary Visual3D Game Engine C#/.NET Yes 3D Windows, Xbox 360 Proprietary Commercial successor to open-source RealmForge engine Visual Pinball C++ VBScript No 3D Windows MAME-like pre-0.172, then BSD, GPL VRAGE C# Yes 3D Windows, Xbox One Miner Wars 2081, Space Engineers,Medieval Engineers Proprietary Source code was released under a commercial license Wintermute Engine C++ C-like syntax No 2.5D Windows The White Chamber, Ghost in the Sheet, Dark Fall: Lost Souls, Face Noir Donationware, MIT, LGPL Lite version lacks 3D Actor function World Builder No 2D System 3 Lost Crystal Freeware WorldForge C++ Lua (client), Python (server) Yes 3D Cross-platform GPL MMORPG framework made of libraries, server, client, media XnGine No 3D DOS The Terminator: Future Shock, The Terminator: SkyNET, TES 2: Daggerfall, TES Legends: Battlespire, TES Adventures: Redguard Proprietary Zillions of Games Zillions Rules No 2D Windows Proprietary See also Physics engine Game engine recreation List of open-source video games List of WebGL frameworks Role-playing game creation software References ^ "Blend4Web Official Site". Blend4Web.com. Retrieved June 22, 2015. ^ "blender.org - Installation Policy". March 25, 2009. Archived from the original on March 25, 2009. Retrieved August 21, 2012. ^ "Features". blender.org. Retrieved August 21, 2012. ^ Frictional Games (May 12, 2010). "FrictionalGames/HPL1Engine: A real time 3D engine". GitHub. Archived from the original on June 8, 2018. Retrieved May 8, 2017. ^ "Amnesia is now open source!". Frictional Games. Retrieved November 30, 2020. ^ "pkgsrc.se - The NetBSD package collection". pkgsrc.se. Retrieved August 19, 2015. ^ "LÖVE - Free 2D Game Engine". Retrieved December 6, 2016. ^ Akinlaja, Damilare (2013). LÖVE2d for Lua Game Programming. ISBN 978-1782161608. ^ "D in Games: Ethan Watson of Remedy Games Goes to GDC Europe". dlang.org. Retrieved July 20, 2022. ^ "PICO-8 Fantasy Console". ^ Bailey, Dustin (March 8, 2018). "Artifact will use Source 2, bringing the engine to iOS and Android". PCGamesN. Archived from the original on March 9, 2018. Retrieved March 8, 2018. ^ Martin, Michael. "Valve Announces Dota 2 Reborn". IGN. Archived from the original on June 29, 2016. Retrieved July 10, 2016. ^ "How Unity3D Became a Game-Development Beast". June 3, 2013. Retrieved August 28, 2020. ^ "Unity Technologies acquires Bolt". Retrieved May 4, 2020. vteGame engines (list) Source port First-person shooter engine list Game engine recreation list Game creation system Game IDE List of visual novel engines id Tech Proprietary1980s Filmation Freescape Gold Box SCUMM 1990s 3D GameStudio Clickteam Dark Engine GameMaker Genie Engine GoldSrc Jedi LithTech Mugen Pie in the Sky Reality Lab RenderWare RPG Maker Sim RPG Maker Unreal Engine Virtual Theatre Voxel Space Zero Zillions of Games 2000s Anvil C4 Engine Chrome Engine CryEngine Crystal Tools Diesel Ego Essence Engine Euphoria Flare3D Frostbite Gamebryo GameSalad HeroEngine IW Leadwerks Marmalade MT Framework PhyreEngine Q RAGE Retro Engine SAGE Shark 3D Silent Storm engine Source Titan Unigine Unity Vicious Engine Vision Visual3D Game Engine 2010s 4A Engine Amazon Lumberyard Bitsquid Buildbox Construct Creation Engine Decima Defold Felgo Fox Engine id Tech 5 id Tech 6 Ignite Kynapse Luminous Engine Nvidia GameWorks Panta Rhei Pixel Game Maker MV RE Engine Snowdrop Stencyl Source 2 UbiArt Framework 2020s id Tech 7 Free andopen-source1970s Z-machine 1990s Adventure Game Studio Build Crystal Space Doom engine Game-Maker OHRRPGCE Quake engine Quake II engine Stratagus 2000s Away3D Blender Game Engine Bork3D Game Engine Cocos2d Dim3 Game Editor GDevelop id Tech 3 id Tech 4 Irrlicht Engine jMonkeyEngine Lightweight Java Game Library Löve OGRE Open Wonderland Panda3D Papervision3D Plasma Platinum Arts Sandbox Pygame Ren'Py Scratch Solar2D Spring Engine Thousand Parsec Torque Vassal Engine Wintermute Engine 2010s Delta3D Godot GPUOpen Horde3D libGDX Moai OpenFL ORX PlayCanvas Raylib Snap! Stencyl Stride 2020s Open 3D Engine

[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of game engines"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Note: The following list is not exhaustive. Also, it mixes game engines with rendering engines as well as API bindings without any distinctions.","title":"Engines"}]

[]

[{"title":"Physics engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_engine"},{"title":"Game engine recreation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_engine_recreation"},{"title":"List of open-source video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_open-source_video_games"},{"title":"List of WebGL frameworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_WebGL_frameworks"},{"title":"Role-playing game creation software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role-playing_game_creation_software"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consulting_firm

Consulting firm

["1 Segments","2 Models of business","2.1 Outsourcing","3 Types","4 Successful consulting firm cases","4.1 Mexico","5 Impact of consulting firms in emerging economies","5.1 Negative impacts","5.2 Positive impacts","6 Impact of consulting firms in developed economies","7 Examples of Consulting Firms","8 See also","9 References"]

Firm of experts providing professional assistance A consulting firm or simply consultancy is a professional service firm that provides expertise and specialised labour for a fee, through the use of consultants. Consulting firms may have one employee or thousands; they may consult in a broad range of domains, for example, management, engineering, and so on. Management consultants, in particular, typically work with company executives and provide them with generalists and industry-specific specialists, known as subject-matter experts, usually trained in management or in business schools. The deliverable of a management consultant is usually recommendations for achieving a company objective, leading to a company project. Many consulting firms complement the recommendations with implementation support, either by the consultants or by technicians and other experts. Consulting services are part of the professional services and account for several hundred billion dollars in annual revenues. Between 2010 and 2015, the 10 largest consulting firms alone made 170 billion dollars growth revenue and the average annual growth rate is around 4%. According to The Economist, the industry’s most important firms are the "Great eight" consulting firms which consist of Bain, BCG, McKinsey, Deloitte, EY, KPMG, PwC and Accenture. Segments The segmentation of advisory services varies widely across organizations and countries. Categorization is unclear, in part because of the upheavals that have occurred in this industry in recent years. One approach is to separate services into five broad service delivery families, considering the managers they are targeting: Services related to the company's overall strategy, which are addressed to the CEO, Services related to marketing, communication, sales and public relations, which are addressed to the CMO, Services related to management, financial management, taxation, accounting, compliance with regulations, for the CFO, Services related to the company's operations, intended for operational management, which may be different depending on the industrial sector (technology director, plant managers, operations directors, Research and Development managers), for instance COO and CTO, Service related to information technology (see IT consulting) intended for information management, which are addressed to the CIO. Models of business A consulting firm's model of business may be compared to staffing, wherein the objective is to lower labour costs for clients for an intended result, or relative to an intended result or output, in order to charge for a profit margin for the consulting firm. Clients are looking to procure or purchase external help and assistance. Consulting firms sustain their revenues from a labour economic point of view as a method for distributing labour, where certain positions, roles or fields of expertise within the labour market find it more suitable for contract work, as contrasted to in-house employment, for a few conceivable reasons: Client needs being incontinuous, or continuous but otherwise volatile in that they may vary from time to time in nature and scope, A potential scarcity of skilled labour available on the market, The possibility of offering a higher work level activity, The necessity for licensed labour or other qualified labour for tasks not making up the core task assembly of the client organization, Looking to get a hold of or utilize of third party intellectual property, intangible capital or other types of goodwill belonging to the consulting firm. Aside from the economic arguments stated above, consulting also acts as a corporate services model: Where internal consulting solutions (at which the client firm acts as a de-facto employer) may run into issues of scope once projects get too large, external consulting firms may be able to provide a better solution for the larger consulting deals on the market, Risk and compliance audits may be suitable for a consulting contract as a means of safeguarding neutrality, Consulting comprises the natural service model for large-scale transformation projects in client enterprises, Certain service models, such as financial auditing and economic consulting, are effectively required to offer their services in the form of consulting agreements due to a lack of industry position outside of the tertiary sector, Some clients may decide to hand over entire assemblies of tasks to consulting firms for a period of time - this is akin to outsourcing agreements, however with the exception of a predestined due date which is atypical in outsourcing, Consulting is also used as a third party service model as could be seen in for example contract formations of b2b-deals, legal consulting and M&A activity, consequently acting as a source of profit for clients, consulting firms and society as proffered. The consulting business model can be seen as a result of the knowledge economy, and as a subset of the knowledge industry. Today it is not rare for consulting firms to offer what may be considered turnkey solutions to clients. Knowledge transfer is also a prevalent sales argument for consulting services. Outsourcing It is common practice for consulting firms to be involved in the sale of outsourcing services as well. Similarly, outsourcing firms may offer consulting services as a way to help integrate their services with the client. Many consulting firms offer several service packages as part of their business portfolio. While consulting services and outsourcing services are compatible, issues arise if the clients are not aware of the differences between the two. From an ethical standpoint, it is important that clients are aware of what type or types of services they are procuring, as consulting services are meant to be a complementary service to the client firm, whereas outsourcing effectively aims to replace parts of the client firm that are imperative to their operational ability. Types There are different types of consulting firms serving different sectors. They mainly fall under the following fields: Architecture and Engineering Financial services Health care Safety in the workplace Hotel and hospitality industry Human resources Information technology Legal Management Music Regulatory compliance Some consulting firms also serve niche sectors, such as: advertising/marketing/public relations environmental consulting entertainment/media energy logistics consulting in politics and the public sector real estate recycling small business raw material supply Successful consulting firm cases Mexico In 2013, there was a randomized trial in Mexico where 432 small and medium enterprises were allowed access to management consulting services for one year. As a result of this trial, there were many positive impacts. Such positive impacts include: increase in entrepreneurial spirit, increases in employment and higher wages for employees. Even after 5 years after the trial, positive impacts are still active. These results were achieved by advertising a consulting program to 432 enterprises and recorded data on the positive effects. Impact of consulting firms in emerging economies Negative impacts The impact of consulting firms on local businesses in emerging economies do not always have positive effects. One reason for this is that firms in emerging economies suffer from the inferiority of their technologies and innovation capabilities, thus, although they have access to consulting firms, they cannot make the most of the advice given. Advice given by consulting firms to clients may not be used efficiently as clients firms in emerging markets tend to suffer due to a lack of infrastructure, organisation, and education. Another reason firms in emerging economies struggle to effectively use consulting services is that innovation is very costly and risky. Positive impacts As noted above, consulting firms in emerging economies do also have positive impacts. Positive impacts include: increases in employment, increase in entrepreneurial spirit and higher wages for employees. Impact of consulting firms in developed economies One study shows that there is a significant difference between efficiency between consulting firms in America (developed economy) and consulting firms in Asia Pacific regions (emerging economy). Efficiency scores of consulting firms in America were significantly higher than consulting firms in Asia Pacific regions. This is because firms in developed economies have better infrastructure, organisation and education, thus advice given by consulting firms is used efficiently. Examples of Consulting Firms There are many consulting firms out there that provide services across a range of industries, Notable firms include KPMG, BCG, Deloitte, PWC and EY. Worth noting there are also a myriad of other smaller more niche firms including Ecorys, YABX, Westcliffe Strategic and many many more. These firms often offer solutions to smaller businesses than the bigger consulting companies. See also Consulting Information technology consulting Knowledge economy Knowledge industry Knowledge intensive business services Knowledge transfer Management consulting Professional services network Staffing Temporary work References ^ "Have McKinsey and its consulting rivals got too big?". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2024-03-27. ^ "Consulting on the Cusp of Disruption". Harvard Business Review. 2013-10-01. Retrieved 2017-12-30. ^ Maister, David H. (2004). "The Anatomy of a Consulting Firm". The Advice Business: Essential Tools and Models for Managing Consulting. Retrieved 22 May 2022. ^ Alvesson, Mats; Robertson, Maxine (2006). "The Best and the Brightest: The Construction, Significance and Effects of Elite Identities in Consulting Firms". Organization. 13 (2). SAGE Journals: 195–224. doi:10.1177/1350508406061674. S2CID 206696349. ^ "Strategy and Organization Consulting" (PDF). Center for Effective Organizations. Retrieved 6 April 2023. ^ Swartz, Don (1974). "Similarities and Differences of Internal and External Consultants". Academy of Management Proceedings. 1974. Academy of Management: 17. doi:10.5465/ambpp.1974.4980555. Retrieved 6 April 2023. ^ Kelley, R. E. (1979). "Should you have an internal consultant?". Harvard Business Review. 57 (6). Europe PMC: 110–120. PMID 10244211. Retrieved 6 April 2023. ^ "Caveat Compliance: Can Firms Rely on Advice Received from Compliance Consultants?" (PDF). Retrieved 6 April 2023. ^ Poulfelt, Flemming; Olson, Thomas H.; Poulfelt, Flemming; Bhambri, Arvind; Greiner, Larry (2017). "The Changing Global Consulting Industry". Management Consulting Today and Tomorrow. Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 5–36. doi:10.4324/9781315648293-2. ISBN 9781315648293. Retrieved 7 April 2023. ^ Munro, Lois; Stewart, Jenny (2009). "External auditors' reliance on internal audit: the impact of sourcing arrangements and consulting activities". Accounting & Finance. 50 (2). Wiley Online Library: 371–387. doi:10.1111/j.1467-629X.2009.00322.x. hdl:10072/29902. S2CID 154459504. Retrieved 7 April 2023. ^ Momparler, Alexander; Carmona, Pedro; Lassala, Carlos (2015). "Quality of consulting services and consulting fees". Journal of Business Research. 68 (7): 1458–1462. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.01.033. Retrieved 19 May 2022. ^ Armbrüster, Thomas (2006). The Economics and Sociology of Management Consulting. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85715-4. ^ Shogun, Steve M. (May 2004). "Editorial: Consulting, Research, and Consulting Research, Volume 23, Issue 2, May 2004". Marketing Science. 23 (2). INFORMS: 173–179. doi:10.1287/mksc.1040.0078. Retrieved 19 May 2022. ^ Sarvary, Miklos (1999). "Knowledge Management and Competition in the Consulting Industry". California Management Review. 41 (2): 95–107. doi:10.2307/41165988. JSTOR 41165988. S2CID 154894228. Retrieved 19 May 2022. ^ Jacobson, Nora; Butterill, Dale; Goering, Paula (2005). "Consulting as a Strategy for Knowledge Transfer". The Milbank Quarterly. 83 (2): 299–321. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0009.2005.00348.x. PMC 2690143. PMID 15960773. ^ Nissen, Volker (2018). Digital Transformation of the Consulting Industry: Extending the Traditional Delivery Model. Progress in IS. Springer Cham. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-70491-3. ISBN 978-3-319-70491-3. ^ Sandberg, Robert. "Corporate Consulting for Customer Solutions: Bridging Diverging Business Logics" (PDF). ex.hhs.se. Stockholm School of Economics. Retrieved 23 May 2022. ^ Butterill, Dale; Goering, Paula; Jacobson, Nora (16 June 2005). "Consulting as a Strategy for Knowledge Transfer". The Milbank Quarterly. 83 (2): 299–321. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0009.2005.00348.x. PMC 2690143. PMID 15960773. ^ Anderson, Stephen J.; McKenzie, David (January 2022). "Improving Business Practices and the Boundary of the Entrepreneur: A Randomized Experiment Comparing Training, Consulting, Insourcing, and Outsourcing". Journal of Political Economy. 130 (1): 157–209. doi:10.1086/717044. hdl:10986/34979. S2CID 240535903. Retrieved 21 September 2022. ^ Czerniawska, Fiona (June 2006). "Outsourcing: Death Knell for Consulting?". Consulting to Management. 17 (2): 57–59. Retrieved 21 September 2022. ^ "Business plan examples". Monday, 25 November 2019 ^ Bruhn, Miriam; Karlan, Dean; Schoar, Antoinette (April 2018). "The Impact of Consulting Services on Small and Medium Enterprises: Evidence from a Randomized Trial in Mexico". Journal of Political Economy. 126 (2): 635–687. doi:10.1086/696154. hdl:1721.1/121090. ISSN 0022-3808. S2CID 5814460. ^ "Why Big Data is becoming so Important in Supply Chain | Big Supply-Chain Analytics – Assuras – Providing Assurance & Confidence For Today's Leading Businesses". 2022-10-01. Retrieved 2022-10-24. ^ Back, Yujin; Praveen Parboteeah, K.; Nam, Dae-il (2014-12-01). "Innovation in Emerging Markets: The Role of Management Consulting Firms". Journal of International Management. 20 (4): 390–405. doi:10.1016/j.intman.2014.07.001. ISSN 1075-4253. ^ Park, Gowangwoo; Lee, Seok-Kee; Choi, Kanghwa (January 2021). "Evaluating the Service Operating Efficiency and Its Determinants in Global Consulting Firms: A Metafrontier Analysis". Sustainability. 13 (18): 10352. doi:10.3390/su131810352. Authority control databases: National Germany

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"professional service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_services"},{"link_name":"firm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business"},{"link_name":"fee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fee"},{"link_name":"consultants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consultants"},{"link_name":"management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_consulting"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_consulting"},{"link_name":"subject-matter experts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject-matter_expert"},{"link_name":"professional services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_services"},{"link_name":"The Economist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economist"},{"link_name":"Bain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bain_%26_Company"},{"link_name":"BCG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Consulting_Group"},{"link_name":"McKinsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McKinsey_%26_Company"},{"link_name":"Deloitte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deloitte"},{"link_name":"EY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_%26_Young"},{"link_name":"KPMG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPMG"},{"link_name":"PwC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PwC"},{"link_name":"Accenture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accenture"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"A consulting firm or simply consultancy is a professional service firm that provides expertise and specialised labour for a fee, through the use of consultants. Consulting firms may have one employee or thousands; they may consult in a broad range of domains, for example, management, engineering, and so on.Management consultants, in particular, typically work with company executives and provide them with generalists and industry-specific specialists, known as subject-matter experts, usually trained in management or in business schools. The deliverable of a management consultant is usually recommendations for achieving a company objective, leading to a company project.Many consulting firms complement the recommendations with implementation support, either by the consultants or by technicians and other experts.Consulting services are part of the professional services and account for several hundred billion dollars in annual revenues. Between 2010 and 2015, the 10 largest consulting firms alone made 170 billion dollars growth revenue and the average annual growth rate is around 4%.According to The Economist, the industry’s most important firms are the \"Great eight\" consulting firms which consist of Bain, BCG, McKinsey, Deloitte, EY, KPMG, PwC and Accenture.[1]","title":"Consulting firm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"company's overall strategy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_strategy"},{"link_name":"CEO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_executive_officer"},{"link_name":"CMO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_marketing_officer"},{"link_name":"financial management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_management"},{"link_name":"CFO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_financial_officer"},{"link_name":"company's operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_management"},{"link_name":"COO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_operating_officer"},{"link_name":"CTO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_technology_officer"},{"link_name":"information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"IT consulting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT_consulting"},{"link_name":"CIO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_information_officer"}],"text":"The segmentation of advisory services varies widely across organizations and countries. Categorization is unclear, in part because of the upheavals that have occurred in this industry in recent years.[2]One approach is to separate services into five broad service delivery families, considering the managers they are targeting:Services related to the company's overall strategy, which are addressed to the CEO,\nServices related to marketing, communication, sales and public relations, which are addressed to the CMO,\nServices related to management, financial management, taxation, accounting, compliance with regulations, for the CFO,\nServices related to the company's operations, intended for operational management, which may be different depending on the industrial sector (technology director, plant managers, operations directors, Research and Development managers), for instance COO and CTO,\nService related to information technology (see IT consulting) intended for information management, which are addressed to the CIO.","title":"Segments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"staffing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporary_work"},{"link_name":"clients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_(business)"},{"link_name":"profit margin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profit_margin"},{"link_name":"labour economic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_economics"},{"link_name":"labour market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_market"},{"link_name":"contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"work level activity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_of_labour"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"licensed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licensure"},{"link_name":"intellectual property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"corporate services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_services"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_transformation"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"financial auditing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_audit"},{"link_name":"economic consulting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_consulting"},{"link_name":"tertiary sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"third party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third-party_source"},{"link_name":"b2b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business-to-business"},{"link_name":"legal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal"},{"link_name":"M&A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"knowledge economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_economy"},{"link_name":"knowledge industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_industry"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"turnkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnkey"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Knowledge transfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_transfer"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"A consulting firm's model of business may be compared to staffing, wherein the objective is to lower labour costs for clients for an intended result, or relative to an intended result or output, in order to charge for a profit margin for the consulting firm. Clients are looking to procure or purchase external help and assistance. Consulting firms sustain their revenues from a labour economic point of view as a method for distributing labour, where certain positions, roles or fields of expertise within the labour market find it more suitable for contract work, as contrasted to in-house employment, for a few conceivable reasons:Client needs being incontinuous, or continuous but otherwise volatile in that they may vary from time to time in nature and scope,\nA potential scarcity of skilled labour available on the market,[3]\nThe possibility of offering a higher work level activity,[4]\nThe necessity for licensed labour or other qualified labour for tasks not making up the core task assembly of the client organization,\nLooking to get a hold of or utilize of third party intellectual property, intangible capital or other types of goodwill belonging to the consulting firm.[5]Aside from the economic arguments stated above, consulting also acts as a corporate services model:Where internal consulting solutions (at which the client firm acts as a de-facto employer) may run into issues of scope once projects get too large, external consulting firms may be able to provide a better solution for the larger consulting deals on the market,[6][7]\nRisk and compliance audits may be suitable for a consulting contract as a means of safeguarding neutrality,[8]\nConsulting comprises the natural service model for large-scale transformation projects in client enterprises,[9]\nCertain service models, such as financial auditing and economic consulting, are effectively required to offer their services in the form of consulting agreements due to a lack of industry position outside of the tertiary sector,[10]\nSome clients may decide to hand over entire assemblies of tasks to consulting firms for a period of time - this is akin to outsourcing agreements, however with the exception of a predestined due date which is atypical in outsourcing,\nConsulting is also used as a third party service model as could be seen in for example contract formations of b2b-deals, legal consulting and M&A activity,consequently acting as a source of profit for clients, consulting firms and society as proffered.[11][12][13] The consulting business model can be seen as a result of the knowledge economy, and as a subset of the knowledge industry.[14][15] Today it is not rare for consulting firms to offer what may be considered turnkey solutions to clients.[16][17] Knowledge transfer is also a prevalent sales argument for consulting services.[18]","title":"Models of business"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"outsourcing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outsourcing"},{"link_name":"integrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_integration"},{"link_name":"portfolio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portfolio_(finance)"},{"link_name":"ethical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_ethics"},{"link_name":"procuring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procurement"},{"link_name":"replace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outsourcing#Business_Process_Outsourcing"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Outsourcing","text":"It is common practice for consulting firms to be involved in the sale of outsourcing services as well. Similarly, outsourcing firms may offer consulting services as a way to help integrate their services with the client. Many consulting firms offer several service packages as part of their business portfolio. While consulting services and outsourcing services are compatible, issues arise if the clients are not aware of the differences between the two. From an ethical standpoint, it is important that clients are aware of what type or types of services they are procuring, as consulting services are meant to be a complementary service to the client firm, whereas outsourcing effectively aims to replace parts of the client firm that are imperative to their operational ability.[19][20]","title":"Models of business"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture"},{"link_name":"Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"Financial services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_services"},{"link_name":"Health care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_care"},{"link_name":"Safety in the workplace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_in_the_workplace"},{"link_name":"Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel"},{"link_name":"hospitality industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospitality_industry"},{"link_name":"Human resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resource_consulting"},{"link_name":"Information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology_consulting"},{"link_name":"Legal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Practice_of_law"},{"link_name":"Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_consulting"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_industry"},{"link_name":"Regulatory compliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_compliance"},{"link_name":"advertising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising"},{"link_name":"marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing"},{"link_name":"public relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_relations"},{"link_name":"environmental consulting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_consulting"},{"link_name":"entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_industry"},{"link_name":"media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media"},{"link_name":"energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"logistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistics"},{"link_name":"consulting in politics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_consulting"},{"link_name":"public sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sector_consulting"},{"link_name":"real estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_estate"},{"link_name":"recycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recycling"},{"link_name":"small business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_and_medium-sized_enterprises"},{"link_name":"raw material supply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_material"}],"text":"There are different types of consulting firms serving different sectors. They mainly fall under the following fields:Architecture and Engineering\nFinancial services\nHealth care\nSafety in the workplace\nHotel and hospitality industry\nHuman resources\nInformation technology\nLegal\nManagement[21]\nMusic\nRegulatory complianceSome consulting firms also serve niche sectors, such as:advertising/marketing/public relations\nenvironmental consulting\nentertainment/media\nenergy\nlogistics\nconsulting in politics and the public sector\nreal estate\nrecycling\nsmall business\nraw material supply","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Successful consulting firm cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Mexico","text":"In 2013, there was a randomized trial in Mexico where 432 small and medium enterprises were allowed access to management consulting services for one year.[22] As a result of this trial, there were many positive impacts. Such positive impacts include: increase in entrepreneurial spirit, increases in employment and higher wages for employees. Even after 5 years after the trial, positive impacts are still active.[23] These results were achieved by advertising a consulting program to 432 enterprises and recorded data on the positive effects.","title":"Successful consulting firm cases"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Impact of consulting firms in emerging economies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"emerging economies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerging_economies"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Negative impacts","text":"The impact of consulting firms on local businesses in emerging economies do not always have positive effects.[24] One reason for this is that firms in emerging economies suffer from the inferiority of their technologies and innovation capabilities, thus, although they have access to consulting firms, they cannot make the most of the advice given. Advice given by consulting firms to clients may not be used efficiently as clients firms in emerging markets tend to suffer due to a lack of infrastructure, organisation, and education. Another reason firms in emerging economies struggle to effectively use consulting services is that innovation is very costly and risky.","title":"Impact of consulting firms in emerging economies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"above","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Successful_consulting_firm_cases"}],"sub_title":"Positive impacts","text":"As noted above, consulting firms in emerging economies do also have positive impacts. Positive impacts include: increases in employment, increase in entrepreneurial spirit and higher wages for employees.","title":"Impact of consulting firms in emerging economies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"developed economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_economy"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"One study shows that there is a significant difference between efficiency between consulting firms in America (developed economy) and consulting firms in Asia Pacific regions (emerging economy).[25] Efficiency scores of consulting firms in America were significantly higher than consulting firms in Asia Pacific regions. This is because firms in developed economies have better infrastructure, organisation and education, thus advice given by consulting firms is used efficiently.","title":"Impact of consulting firms in developed economies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"KPMG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.KPMG.com"},{"link_name":"BCG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.bcg.com/"},{"link_name":"Deloitte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.deloitte.com/au/en.html"},{"link_name":"PWC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.pwc.com.au/"},{"link_name":"EY.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ey.com/en_au"},{"link_name":"Ecorys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ecorys.com/"},{"link_name":"YABX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.yabx.com.au"},{"link_name":"Westcliffe Strategic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//westcliff.co/"}],"text":"There are many consulting firms out there that provide services across a range of industries, Notable firms include KPMG, BCG, Deloitte, PWC and EY.Worth noting there are also a myriad of other smaller more niche firms including Ecorys, YABX, Westcliffe Strategic and many many more. These firms often offer solutions to smaller businesses than the bigger consulting companies.","title":"Examples of Consulting Firms"}]

[]

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[{"reference":"\"Have McKinsey and its consulting rivals got too big?\". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2024-03-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.economist.com/business/2024/03/25/have-mckinsey-and-its-consulting-rivals-got-too-big","url_text":"\"Have McKinsey and its consulting rivals got too big?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613","url_text":"0013-0613"}]},{"reference":"\"Consulting on the Cusp of Disruption\". Harvard Business Review. 2013-10-01. Retrieved 2017-12-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://hbr.org/2013/10/consulting-on-the-cusp-of-disruption","url_text":"\"Consulting on the Cusp of Disruption\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_Review","url_text":"Harvard Business Review"}]},{"reference":"Maister, David H. (2004). \"The Anatomy of a Consulting Firm\". The Advice Business: Essential Tools and Models for Managing Consulting. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Graphic_Arts

American Institute of Graphic Arts

["1 History","2 Symbol sign project","3 Annual competitions","3.1 Cased","3.2 50 Books/50 Covers","3.3 365","4 Conferences","5 National board members","6 Affiliations","7 International membership","8 Publications","8.1 Journals","8.2 Books","8.3 Other publication activities","9 See also","10 References"]

Professional organization for design AIGAAIGA logoFounded1914 (1914)TypeProfessional AssociationLocationHeadquarters in New York CityLocations73 chapters across the countryArea served United StatesMembers Over 18,000Official languages EnglishKey peopleAshleigh Axios, Board President Bennie F. Johnson, Executive Director Employees 18Websiteaiga.org The American Institute of Graphic Arts (AIGA) is a professional organization for design. Its members practice all forms of communication design, including graphic design, typography, interaction design, user experience, branding and identity. The organization's aim is to be the standard bearer for professional ethics and practices for the design profession. There are currently over 25,000 members and 72 chapters, and more than 200 student groups around the United States. In 2005, AIGA changed its name to “AIGA, the professional association for design,” dropping the "American Institute of Graphic Arts" to welcome all design disciplines. History In 1911, Frederic Goudy, Alfred Stieglitz, and W. A. Dwiggins came together to discuss the creation of an organization that was committed to individuals passionate about communication design. In 1913, president of the National Arts Club, John G. Agar, announced the formation of The American Institute of Graphic Arts during the eighth annual exhibition of “The Books of the Year.” The National Arts Club was instrumental in the formation of AIGA in that they helped to form the committee to plan to organize the organization. The committee formed included Charles DeKay and William B. Howland and officially formed the American Institute of Graphic Arts in 1914. Howland, publisher and editor of The Outlook, was elected president. The goal of the group was to promote excellence in the graphic design profession through its network of local chapters throughout the country. In 1920, AIGA began awarding medals to "individuals who have set standards of excellence over a lifetime of work or have made individual contributions to innovation within the practice of design." Winners have been recognized for design, teaching, writing or leadership of the profession and may honor individuals posthumously. In 1982, the New York Chapter was formed and the organization began creating local chapters to decentralize leadership. Represented by Washington, D.C., arts advocate and attorney, James Lorin Silverberg, Esq., the Washington, D.C., Chapter of AIGA, was organized as the American Institute of Graphic Arts, Incorporated, Washington, D.C., on September 6, 1984. Symbol sign project Main article: DOT pictograms The AIGA, in collaboration with the US Department of Transportation, produced 50 standard symbols to be used on signs "in airports and other transportation hubs and at large international events". The first 34 symbols were published in 1974, receiving a Presidential Design Award. The remaining 16 designs were added in 1979. Annual competitions Cased In 2012, AIGA replaced all its competitions with a single competition called "Cased" (formerly called "Justified"). The stated aim of the competition is to demonstrate "the collective success and impact of the design profession by celebrating the best in contemporary design through case studies". 50 Books/50 Covers Between 1941 and 2011, AIGA sponsored a juried contest for the 50 best designed books published in the previous year, entitled "50 Books/50 Covers". Jurors included booksellers, book publishers, and designers such as George Salter. On February 17, 2012, AIGA announced that it would cease organizing the contest and that future contests would be organized by Design Observer. This move has been criticized. 365 The 365 was an annual design competition for all graphic design other than book design. The last original "365" competition was organized in 2011, after which it was replaced by the "Cased" competition. Starting in 2022, AIGA reintroduced 365: AIGA Year in Design Conferences AIGA organized two conferences, the AIGA Design Conference and GAIN: AIGA Design and Business Conference. Both conferences were held biennially and the two were held in alternating years. The first AIGA Design Conference took place in Boston, Massachusetts in 1985. Beginning in 2016, the AIGA Design Conference will be held annually with the 2016 conference held in Las Vegas. Since 2016, conferences have been hosted by Roman Mars. National board members As of 2022, the national board consists of Manuhuia Barcham (President) Frances Yllana (Secretary) Sherra Bell (President's Council Chair) Sheharazad Fleming Oen Hammonds Isaiah Steinfeld Xouchee Moua Eileen Prado Anna Thomsen Maribeth Kradel-Weitzel Cesar Rivera Elise Roy Art Taylor Victor Davila Affiliations Between 2005 and 2009, AIGA was briefly a member of Icograda (now called Ico-D). In 2010, it withdrew from the international organization, citing financial reasons. International membership AIGA opened up membership beyond local chapters in 2014, for creative professionals living and working outside of the US. Publications Journals In 1947 AIGA started publishing the AIGA Journal of Graphic Design (ISSN 0736-5322), which in 2000 was renamed Trace: AIGA Journal of Design (ISSN 1471-3497). The journal ceased publication in 2003. Between 2000 and 2003, AIGA published Loop: AIGA Journal of Interaction Design Education, an “interactive, web-based” research journal on interaction and visual interface design co-sponsored by Virginia Commonwealth University’s Center for Design Studies. Between 2004 and 2011, AIGA published Voice: AIGA Journal of Design, “an online publication for the discussion of design matters” listing Steven Heller as its editor. Although the journal was stated in “What AIGA is doing and why” and had been cited in scholarly research, after AIGA revamped its website in May 2011, it was subsumed under AIGA’s main site and ceased to exist as a distinct entity. Books As part of its strategy to “publish critical thinking about design and designing”, AIGA also “copublishes selected works by thought leaders in design” under the imprint of “AIGA Design Press”. Published titles include The Open Brand: When Push Comes to Pull in a Web-Made World (Kelly Mooney and Nita Rollins, 2008) Digital Foundations: Intro to Media Design with the Adobe Creative Suite (Xtine Burrough and Michael Mandiberg, 2008), which was released under a Creative Commons license Designing for Interaction: Creating Smart Applications and Clever Devices (Dan Saffer, 2006) Designing With Web Standards (Jeffrey Zeldman, 2006) Inside/Outside: From the Basics to the Practice of Design (Malcolm Grear, 2006) ZAG: The Number-One Strategy of High-Performance Brands (Marty Neumeier, 2006) Do Good: How Design Can Change the World (David B. Berman, 2008) Writing for Visual Thinkers: A Guide for Artists and Designers (Andrea Marks, 2011) AIGA has also published the periodically updated AIGA professional practices in graphic design including a translation to simplified Chinese. Other publication activities In 2014, AIGA's editorial director Perrin Drumm created Eye on Design as a source for new and emerging graphic designers. Founded first as an online blog, Eye on Design grew into a multimedia platform that included a tri-annual print magazine, conference, event series, weekly newsletter, and social media activations." See also List of AIGA medalists References ^ a b "About AIGA". ^ "Find a chapter". ^ a b "AIGA board of directors". Archived from the original on 2014-07-14. Retrieved 2014-07-19. ^ a b "AIGA Staff". ^ "AIGA, the professional association for design, New York, NY, United States". Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved 2022-11-05. ^ a b "AIGA". madmuseum.org. Retrieved 2016-10-21. ^ "ARTS CLUB WARNED OF 'THOUGHT TRUST'; While It Plans for Graphic Arts, Bacheller Also Warns of Our Europeanization. NEW THEMES FOR NOVELS Getting Away from Work, He Finds Butcher's Daughter Cultivates Only Ease and the Graces Now". The New York Times. Retrieved 2016-11-30. ^ "How Our Quarter Century Began". AIGA | the professional association for design. Retrieved 2016-11-30. ^ Steven Heller; Nathan Gluck. "Seventy-five years of AIGA". aiga.org. Retrieved 17 January 2015. ^ Blanchard, Margaret A. (2013-12-19). History of the Mass Media in the United States: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 9781135917425. ^ "AIGA Medalists List". AIGA | the professional association for design. Retrieved 2016-10-21. ^ "District of Columbia Corporate Records". The District of Columbia. ^ "Symbol Signs". AIGA. 2009. Archived from the original on October 10, 2009. Retrieved September 2, 2009. ^ a b "Cased, AIGA's annual design competition". ^ AIGA. "Justified: AIGA Annual Design Competition". Archived from the original on June 6, 2014. Retrieved June 3, 2014. ^ Fifty Books of the year 1963, The American Institute of Graphic Arts, New York, 1964. ^ AIGA (February 17, 2012). "AIGA and Design Observer Partner on "50 Books/50 Covers"". Retrieved June 3, 2014. ^ a b Scher, Paula (6 April 2012). "AIGA: Unjustified". Print Magazine. Retrieved June 3, 2014. ^ AIGA. "365 | Design Effectiveness Competition". Retrieved June 3, 2014. ^ AIGA. "365 | AIGA Year in Design". Retrieved April 14, 2022. ^ ""A Tradition Over Time". AIGA. Retrieved October 1, 2009". Archived from the original on 2009-10-09. Retrieved 2009-10-02. ^ "AIGA Design Conference". designconference.aiga.org. Retrieved 2016-08-14. ^ "Join us in New Orleans for the AIGA Design Conference". ^ "Board of Directors | AIGA". www.aiga.org. Retrieved 2022-11-05. ^ Grefe, Richard (January 25, 2010). "Why has AIGA withdrawn from Icograda?". Retrieved July 15, 2014. ^ AIGA. "AIGA History Timeline". Retrieved July 18, 2014. ^ "AIGA journal of graphic design / ". OCAD U Library Catalogue. Archived from the original on March 9, 2016. Retrieved July 18, 2014. Name changed to Trace: AIGA Journal of Design after v.18 no.2 (2000) ^ "Trace / ". OCAD U Library Catalogue. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved July 18, 2014. Subtitled: AIGA Journal of Design. Publication ceased as of April 2003.. ^ "About Loop". Loop (7). AIGA. June 2013. Archived from the original on July 25, 2014. Retrieved July 18, 2014. ^ "Voice: AIGA Journal of Design". Archived from the original on March 28, 2004. Retrieved July 18, 2014. Consulting Editor Steven Heller. ^ "Voice: AIGA Journal of Design". Archived from the original on May 15, 2011. Retrieved July 18, 2014. Editor Steven Heller. ^ a b AIGA. "What AIGA is doing and why: 2011" (PDF). p. 35. Retrieved July 19, 2014. ^ Muir, Clive (June 2008). "Smiling With Customers". Business Communication Quarterly. 71 (2). SAGE Publications: 241–246. doi:10.1177/1080569908317320. S2CID 168078681. ^ Julier, Guy (May 2005). "Urban Designscapes and the Production of Aesthetic Consent". Urban Studies. 42 (5/6). Routledge: 869–887. Bibcode:2005UrbSt..42..869J. doi:10.1080/00420980500107474. S2CID 67779346. ^ AIGA. "FAQs: About aiga.org". Retrieved July 18, 2014. ^ Zeldman, Jeffrey (July 6, 2006). Designing with Web Standards (2nd ed.). New Riders. p. xx. ISBN 0-321-38555-1. ^ Parkins, Cameron (December 22, 2008). "AIGA Design Press: Digital Foundations, CC-Licensed Media Design Instruction". Creative Commons. Retrieved July 19, 2014. ^ "American Institute of Graphic Arts". OCLC WorldCat Identities. OCLC. Retrieved July 18, 2014. ^ AIGA China. "Design Business & Ethics, Chinese Edition". Archived from the original on July 25, 2014. Retrieved July 19, 2014. ^ Drumm, Perrin. "perrindrumm.com". perrindrumm.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020. ^ "Eye on Design | AIGA Eye on Design". eyeondesign.aiga.org. AIGA. ^ "About | Eye on Design". eyeondesign.aiga.org. AIGA. vteDesign Outline Designer DisciplinesCommunicationdesign Advertising Book design Brand design Exhibit design Film title design Graphic design Motion Postage stamp design Print design Illustration Information design Instructional design News design Photography Retail design Signage / Traffic sign design Typography / Type design Video design Visual merchandising Environmentaldesign Architecture Architectural lighting design Building design Passive solar Ecological design Environmental impact design Garden design Computer-aided Healthy community design Hotel design Interior architecture Interior design EID Keyline design Landscape architecture Sustainable Landscape design Spatial design Urban design Industrialdesign Automotive design Automotive suspension design CMF design Corrugated box design Electric guitar design Furniture design Sustainable Hardware interface design Motorcycle design Packaging and labeling Photographic lens design Product design Production design Sensory design Service design Interactiondesign Experience design EED Game design Level design Video game design Hardware interface design Icon design Immersive design Information design Sonic interaction design User experience design User interface design Web design Otherapplied arts Public art design Ceramic / glass design Fashion design Costume design Jewellery design Floral design Game art design Property design Scenic design Sound design Stage/set lighting design Textile design Otherdesign& engineering Algorithm design Behavioural design Boiler design Database design Drug design Electrical system design Experimental design Filter design Geometric design Work design Integrated circuit design Circuit design Physical design Power network design Mechanism design Nuclear weapon design Nucleic acid design Organization design Process design Processor design Protein design Research design Social design Software design Spacecraft design Strategic design Systems design Approaches Activity-centered Adaptive web Affective Brainstorming By committee By contract C-K theory Closure Co-design Concept-oriented Configuration Contextual Continuous Cradle-to-cradle Creative problem-solving Creativity techniques Critical Design fiction Defensive Design–bid–build Design–build architect-led Diffuse Domain-driven Ecological design Energy neutral Engineering design process Probabilistic design Error-tolerant Fault-tolerant Framework-oriented For assembly For behaviour change For manufacturability For Six Sigma For testing For X Functional Generative Geodesign HCD High-level Inclusive Integrated Integrated topside Intelligence-based Iterative KISS principle Low-level Metadesign Mind mapping Modular New Wave Object-oriented Open Parametric Participatory Platform-based Policy-based Process-centered Public interest Rational Regenerative Reliability engineering Research-based Responsibility-driven RWD Safe-life Sustainable Systemic SOD Tableless web Theory of constraints Top-down and bottom-up Transformation Transgenerational TRIZ Universal Design for All Usage-centered Use-centered User-centered Empathic User innovation Value-driven Value sensitive Privacy by Design choice computing controls culture flow leadership management marker methods pattern research science sprint strategy theory thinking ToolsIntellectual propertyOrganizationsAwardsTools AAD Architectural model Blueprint Comprehensive layout CAD CAID Virtual home design software CAutoD Design quality indicator Electronic design automation Flowchart Mockup Design specification Prototype Sketch Storyboard Technical drawing HTML editor Website wireframe Intellectualproperty Community design Design around Design infringement Design patent Fashion design copyright Geschmacksmuster Industrial design rights European Union Organizations American Institute of Graphic Arts Chartered Society of Designers Design and Industries Association Design Council International Forum Design Design Research Society Awards European Design Award German Design Award Good Design Award (Museum of Modern Art) Good Design Award (Chicago Athenaeum) Graphex IF Product Design Award James Dyson Award Prince Philip Designers Prize Related topics Agile Concept art Conceptual design Creative industries Cultural icon .design Enterprise architecture Form factor Futures studies Indie design Innovation management Intelligent design Lean startup New product development OODA loop Philosophy of design Process simulation Slow design STEAM fields Unintelligent design Visualization Wicked problem Design brief change classic competition architectural student director education elements engineer firm history knowledge language life load museum paradigm principles rationale review specification studies studio technology Commons Wikibooks Wikinews Wikiquote Wikisource Wiktionary Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National Israel Other IdRef

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Starting in 2022, AIGA reintroduced 365: AIGA Year in Design [20]","title":"Annual competitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Roman Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Mars"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Design-conference-2015-23"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AIGA-board-3"}],"text":"AIGA organized two conferences, the AIGA Design Conference and GAIN: AIGA Design and Business Conference. Both conferences were held biennially and the two were held in alternating years. The first AIGA Design Conference took place in Boston, Massachusetts in 1985.[21] Beginning in 2016, the AIGA Design Conference will be held annually with the 2016 conference held in Las Vegas.[22] Since 2016, conferences have been hosted by Roman Mars.[23][3]","title":"Conferences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"As of 2022, the national board consists of[24]Manuhuia Barcham (President)\nFrances Yllana (Secretary)\nSherra Bell (President's Council Chair)\nSheharazad Fleming\nOen Hammonds\nIsaiah Steinfeld\nXouchee Moua\nEileen Prado\nAnna Thomsen\nMaribeth Kradel-Weitzel\nCesar Rivera\nElise Roy\nArt Taylor\nVictor Davila","title":"National board members"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ico-D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ico-D"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Between 2005 and 2009, AIGA was briefly a member of Icograda (now called Ico-D). In 2010, it withdrew from the international organization, citing financial reasons.[25]","title":"Affiliations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"AIGA opened up membership beyond local chapters in 2014, for creative professionals living and working outside of the US.[citation needed]","title":"International membership"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Virginia Commonwealth University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Commonwealth_University"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Steven Heller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Heller_(graphic_design)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AIGA-what-why-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AIGA-org-35"}],"sub_title":"Journals","text":"In 1947 AIGA started publishing the AIGA Journal of Graphic Design (ISSN 0736-5322),[26] which in 2000 was renamed Trace: AIGA Journal of Design (ISSN 1471-3497).[27] The journal ceased publication in 2003.[28]Between 2000 and 2003, AIGA published Loop: AIGA Journal of Interaction Design Education, an “interactive, web-based” research journal on interaction and visual interface design co-sponsored by Virginia Commonwealth University’s Center for Design Studies.[29]Between 2004 and 2011, AIGA published Voice: AIGA Journal of Design, “an online publication for the discussion of design matters” listing Steven Heller as its editor.[30][31] Although the journal was stated in “What AIGA is doing and why”[32] and had been cited in scholarly research,[33][34] after AIGA revamped its website in May 2011,[35] it was subsumed under AIGA’s main site and ceased to exist as a distinct entity.","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AIGA-what-why-32"},{"link_name":"Michael Mandiberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Mandiberg"},{"link_name":"Creative Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Jeffrey Zeldman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Zeldman"},{"link_name":"Malcolm Grear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_Grear"},{"link_name":"Marty Neumeier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marty_Neumeier"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"Books","text":"As part of its strategy to “publish critical thinking about design and designing”, AIGA also “copublishes selected works by thought leaders in design”[36] under the imprint of “AIGA Design Press”.[32] Published titles includeThe Open Brand: When Push Comes to Pull in a Web-Made World (Kelly Mooney and Nita Rollins, 2008)\nDigital Foundations: Intro to Media Design with the Adobe Creative Suite (Xtine Burrough and Michael Mandiberg, 2008), which was released under a Creative Commons license[37]\nDesigning for Interaction: Creating Smart Applications and Clever Devices (Dan Saffer, 2006)\nDesigning With Web Standards (Jeffrey Zeldman, 2006)\nInside/Outside: From the Basics to the Practice of Design (Malcolm Grear, 2006)\nZAG: The Number-One Strategy of High-Performance Brands (Marty Neumeier, 2006)\nDo Good: How Design Can Change the World (David B. Berman, 2008)\nWriting for Visual Thinkers: A Guide for Artists and Designers (Andrea Marks, 2011)AIGA has also published the periodically updated AIGA professional practices in graphic design[38] including a translation to simplified Chinese.[39]","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"Other publication activities","text":"In 2014, AIGA's editorial director Perrin Drumm[40] created Eye on Design[41] as a source for new and emerging graphic designers. Founded first as an online blog, Eye on Design grew into a multimedia platform that included a tri-annual print magazine, conference, event series, weekly newsletter, and social media activations.[42]\"","title":"Publications"}]

[]

[{"title":"List of AIGA medalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AIGA_medalists"}]

[{"reference":"\"About AIGA\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/About/","url_text":"\"About AIGA\""}]},{"reference":"\"Find a chapter\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/chapters/","url_text":"\"Find a chapter\""}]},{"reference":"\"AIGA board of directors\". Archived from the original on 2014-07-14. Retrieved 2014-07-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140714121159/http://www.aiga.org/board-of-directors/","url_text":"\"AIGA board of directors\""},{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/board-of-directors/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"AIGA Staff\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aiga.org/aiga/content/about-aiga/aiga-staff/","url_text":"\"AIGA Staff\""}]},{"reference":"\"AIGA, the professional association for design, New York, NY, United States\". Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved 2022-11-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://artsandculture.google.com/partner/aiga","url_text":"\"AIGA, the professional association for design, New York, NY, United States\""}]},{"reference":"\"AIGA\". madmuseum.org. Retrieved 2016-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"http://madmuseum.org/series/aiga","url_text":"\"AIGA\""}]},{"reference":"\"ARTS CLUB WARNED OF 'THOUGHT TRUST'; While It Plans for Graphic Arts, Bacheller Also Warns of Our Europeanization. NEW THEMES FOR NOVELS Getting Away from Work, He Finds Butcher's Daughter Cultivates Only Ease and the Graces Now\". The New York Times. Retrieved 2016-11-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1913/11/13/104788833.html","url_text":"\"ARTS CLUB WARNED OF 'THOUGHT TRUST'; While It Plans for Graphic Arts, Bacheller Also Warns of Our Europeanization. NEW THEMES FOR NOVELS Getting Away from Work, He Finds Butcher's Daughter Cultivates Only Ease and the Graces Now\""}]},{"reference":"\"How Our Quarter Century Began\". AIGA | the professional association for design. Retrieved 2016-11-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/How-Our-Quarter-Century-Began/","url_text":"\"How Our Quarter Century Began\""}]},{"reference":"Steven Heller; Nathan Gluck. \"Seventy-five years of AIGA\". aiga.org. Retrieved 17 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/about-history-75thanniversary/","url_text":"\"Seventy-five years of AIGA\""}]},{"reference":"Blanchard, Margaret A. (2013-12-19). History of the Mass Media in the United States: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 9781135917425.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vupkAgAAQBAJ&q=aiga+history&pg=PA182","url_text":"History of the Mass Media in the United States: An Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781135917425","url_text":"9781135917425"}]},{"reference":"\"AIGA Medalists List\". AIGA | the professional association for design. Retrieved 2016-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aiga.org/medal","url_text":"\"AIGA Medalists List\""}]},{"reference":"\"District of Columbia Corporate Records\". The District of Columbia.","urls":[{"url":"http://corp.dcra.dc.gov/BizEntity.aspx/ViewEntityData?entityld=2787251","url_text":"\"District of Columbia Corporate Records\""}]},{"reference":"\"Symbol Signs\". AIGA. 2009. Archived from the original on October 10, 2009. Retrieved September 2, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm/symbol-signs","url_text":"\"Symbol Signs\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091010215420/http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm/symbol-signs","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Cased, AIGA's annual design competition\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/cased/","url_text":"\"Cased, AIGA's annual design competition\""}]},{"reference":"AIGA. \"Justified: AIGA Annual Design Competition\". Archived from the original on June 6, 2014. Retrieved June 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140606223127/http://www.aiga.org/justified/#about","url_text":"\"Justified: AIGA Annual Design Competition\""},{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/justified/#about","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"AIGA (February 17, 2012). \"AIGA and Design Observer Partner on \"50 Books/50 Covers\"\". Retrieved June 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/AIGA-and-Design-Observer-partner-on-50-Books-50-Covers/","url_text":"\"AIGA and Design Observer Partner on \"50 Books/50 Covers\"\""}]},{"reference":"Scher, Paula (6 April 2012). \"AIGA: Unjustified\". Print Magazine. Retrieved June 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paula_Scher","url_text":"Scher, Paula"},{"url":"http://www.printmag.com/featured/aiga-unjustified/","url_text":"\"AIGA: Unjustified\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Print_(magazine)","url_text":"Print Magazine"}]},{"reference":"AIGA. \"365 | Design Effectiveness Competition\". Retrieved June 3, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/about-365/","url_text":"\"365 | Design Effectiveness Competition\""}]},{"reference":"AIGA. \"365 | AIGA Year in Design\". Retrieved April 14, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aiga.org/professional-development/competitions-campaigns/365-aiga-year-in-design","url_text":"\"365 | AIGA Year in Design\""}]},{"reference":"\"\"A Tradition Over Time\". AIGA. Retrieved October 1, 2009\". Archived from the original on 2009-10-09. Retrieved 2009-10-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091009041909/http://designconference2009.aiga.org/timeline/","url_text":"\"\"A Tradition Over Time\". AIGA. Retrieved October 1, 2009\""},{"url":"http://designconference2009.aiga.org/timeline/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"AIGA Design Conference\". designconference.aiga.org. Retrieved 2016-08-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://designconference.aiga.org/#!/","url_text":"\"AIGA Design Conference\""}]},{"reference":"\"Join us in New Orleans for the AIGA Design Conference\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/AIGA-design-conference-2015/","url_text":"\"Join us in New Orleans for the AIGA Design Conference\""}]},{"reference":"\"Board of Directors | AIGA\". www.aiga.org. Retrieved 2022-11-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/board-of-directors","url_text":"\"Board of Directors | AIGA\""}]},{"reference":"Grefe, Richard (January 25, 2010). \"Why has AIGA withdrawn from Icograda?\". Retrieved July 15, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/why-has-aiga-withdrawn-from-icograda/","url_text":"\"Why has AIGA withdrawn from Icograda?\""}]},{"reference":"AIGA. \"AIGA History Timeline\". Retrieved July 18, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/history-timeline/","url_text":"\"AIGA History Timeline\""}]},{"reference":"\"AIGA journal of graphic design / [Periodical]\". OCAD U Library Catalogue. Archived from the original on March 9, 2016. Retrieved July 18, 2014. Name changed to Trace: AIGA Journal of Design after v.18 no.2 (2000)","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160309022035/http://ipac.ocad.on.ca/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=link=3100006~!90266~!3100001~!3100002","url_text":"\"AIGA journal of graphic design / [Periodical]\""},{"url":"http://ipac.ocad.on.ca/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=link=3100006~!90266~!3100001~!3100002","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Trace / [Periodical]\". OCAD U Library Catalogue. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved July 18, 2014. Subtitled: AIGA Journal of Design. Publication ceased as of April 2003.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160306211906/http://ipac.ocad.on.ca/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=link=3100006~!11624~!3100001~!3100002","url_text":"\"Trace / [Periodical]\""},{"url":"http://ipac.ocad.on.ca/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=link=3100006~!11624~!3100001~!3100002","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"About Loop\". Loop (7). AIGA. June 2013. Archived from the original on July 25, 2014. Retrieved July 18, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20140725214208/http://loop1.aiga.org/content.cfm?alias=aboutloop","url_text":"\"About Loop\""},{"url":"http://loop1.aiga.org/content.cfm?alias=aboutloop","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Voice: AIGA Journal of Design\". Archived from the original on March 28, 2004. Retrieved July 18, 2014. Consulting Editor Steven Heller","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040328225409/http://voice.aiga.org/","url_text":"\"Voice: AIGA Journal of Design\""},{"url":"http://voice.aiga.org/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Voice: AIGA Journal of Design\". Archived from the original on May 15, 2011. Retrieved July 18, 2014. Editor Steven Heller","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110515080542/http://voice.aiga.org/","url_text":"\"Voice: AIGA Journal of Design\""},{"url":"http://voice.aiga.org/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"AIGA. \"What AIGA is doing and why: 2011\" (PDF). p. 35. Retrieved July 19, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/planning-for-aigas-future/#what-AIGA-is-doing-and-why","url_text":"\"What AIGA is doing and why: 2011\""}]},{"reference":"Muir, Clive (June 2008). \"Smiling With Customers\". Business Communication Quarterly. 71 (2). SAGE Publications: 241–246. doi:10.1177/1080569908317320. S2CID 168078681.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAGE_Publications","url_text":"SAGE Publications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1080569908317320","url_text":"10.1177/1080569908317320"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:168078681","url_text":"168078681"}]},{"reference":"Julier, Guy (May 2005). \"Urban Designscapes and the Production of Aesthetic Consent\". Urban Studies. 42 (5/6). Routledge: 869–887. Bibcode:2005UrbSt..42..869J. doi:10.1080/00420980500107474. S2CID 67779346.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005UrbSt..42..869J","url_text":"2005UrbSt..42..869J"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00420980500107474","url_text":"10.1080/00420980500107474"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:67779346","url_text":"67779346"}]},{"reference":"AIGA. \"FAQs: About aiga.org\". Retrieved July 18, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aiga.org/faqs-about-aigaorg/","url_text":"\"FAQs: About aiga.org\""}]},{"reference":"Zeldman, Jeffrey (July 6, 2006). Designing with Web Standards (2nd ed.). New Riders. p. xx. ISBN 0-321-38555-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/designingwithweb0000zeld_0","url_text":"Designing with Web Standards"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-321-38555-1","url_text":"0-321-38555-1"}]},{"reference":"Parkins, Cameron (December 22, 2008). \"AIGA Design Press: Digital Foundations, CC-Licensed Media Design Instruction\". Creative Commons. Retrieved July 19, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://creativecommons.org/tag/aiga-design-press","url_text":"\"AIGA Design Press: Digital Foundations, CC-Licensed Media Design Instruction\""}]},{"reference":"\"American Institute of Graphic Arts\". OCLC WorldCat Identities. OCLC. Retrieved July 18, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n81-32755/","url_text":"\"American Institute of Graphic Arts\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC","url_text":"OCLC"}]},{"reference":"AIGA China. \"Design Business & Ethics, Chinese Edition\". Archived from the original on July 25, 2014. Retrieved July 19, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20140725214207/http://china.staging.aiga.org/content.cfm/design-business-and-ethics_res","url_text":"\"Design Business & Ethics, Chinese Edition\""},{"url":"http://china.staging.aiga.org/content.cfm/design-business-and-ethics_res","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Drumm, Perrin. \"perrindrumm.com\". perrindrumm.com. Retrieved 13 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.perrindrumm.com/","url_text":"\"perrindrumm.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eye on Design | AIGA Eye on Design\". eyeondesign.aiga.org. AIGA.","urls":[{"url":"https://eyeondesign.aiga.org/","url_text":"\"Eye on Design | AIGA Eye on Design\""}]},{"reference":"\"About | Eye on Design\". eyeondesign.aiga.org. AIGA.","urls":[{"url":"https://eyeondesign.aiga.org/about/","url_text":"\"About | Eye on Design\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coarse_wavelength-division_multiplexing

Wavelength-division multiplexing

["1 Systems","2 Coarse WDM","2.1 CWDM Applications","3 Dense WDM","3.1 DWDM systems","3.2 Wavelength-converting transponders","3.3 List of DWDM Channels[14][15]","3.4 Reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexer (ROADM)","3.5 Optical cross connects (OXCs)","4 Enhanced WDM","5 Shortwave WDM","6 Transceivers versus transponders","7 See also","8 References"]

Fiber-optic communications technology "DWDM" redirects here. For the radio station, see DWDM-FM. This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (December 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Multiplexing Analog modulation AM FM PM QAM SM SSB Circuit mode(constant bandwidth) TDM FDM / WDM SDMA Polarization Spatial OAM Statistical multiplexing(variable bandwidth) Packet switching Dynamic TDMA FHSS DSSS OFDMA SC-FDM MC-SS Related topics Channel access methods Medium access control vte In fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by using different wavelengths (i.e., colors) of laser light. This technique enables bidirectional communications over a single strand of fiber (also called wavelength-division duplexing) as well as multiplication of capacity. The term WDM is commonly applied to an optical carrier, which is typically described by its wavelength, whereas frequency-division multiplexing typically applies to a radio carrier, more often described by frequency. This is purely conventional because wavelength and frequency communicate the same information. Specifically, frequency (in Hertz, which is cycles per second) multiplied by wavelength (the physical length of one cycle) equals velocity of the carrier wave. In a vacuum, this is the speed of light (usually denoted by the lowercase letter, c). In glass fiber, velocity is substantially slower - usually about 0.7 times c. The data rate in practical systems is a fraction of the carrier frequency. Systems WDM operating principle WDM System in rack 19/21'' A WDM system uses a multiplexer at the transmitter to join the several signals together and a demultiplexer at the receiver to split them apart. With the right type of fiber, it is possible to have a device that does both simultaneously and can function as an optical add-drop multiplexer. The optical filtering devices used have conventionally been etalons (stable solid-state single-frequency Fabry–Pérot interferometers in the form of thin-film-coated optical glass). As there are three different WDM types, whereof one is called WDM, the notation xWDM is normally used when discussing the technology as such. The concept was first published in 1970 by Delange, and by 1980 WDM systems were being realized in the laboratory. The first WDM systems combined only two signals. Modern systems can handle 160 signals and can thus expand a basic 100 Gbit/s system over a single fiber pair to over 16 Tbit/s. A system of 320 channels is also present (12.5 GHz channel spacing, see below.) WDM systems are popular with telecommunications companies because they allow them to expand the capacity of the network without laying more fiber. By using WDM and optical amplifiers, they can accommodate several generations of technology development in their optical infrastructure without having to overhaul the backbone network. The capacity of a given link can be expanded simply by upgrading the multiplexers and demultiplexers at each end. This is often done by the use of optical-to-electrical-to-optical (O/E/O) translation at the very edge of the transport network, thus permitting interoperation with existing equipment with optical interfaces. Most WDM systems operate on single-mode fiber optical cables which have a core diameter of 9 μm. Certain forms of WDM can also be used in multi-mode fiber cables (also known as premises cables) which have core diameters of 50 or 62.5 μm. Early WDM systems were expensive and complicated to run. However, recent standardization and a better understanding of the dynamics of WDM systems have made WDM less expensive to deploy. Optical receivers, in contrast to laser sources, tend to be wideband devices. Therefore, the demultiplexer must provide the wavelength selectivity of the receiver in the WDM system. WDM systems are divided into three different wavelength patterns: normal (WDM), coarse (CWDM) and dense (DWDM). Normal WDM (sometimes called BWDM) uses the two normal wavelengths 1310 and 1550 nm on one fiber. Coarse WDM provides up to 16 channels across multiple transmission windows of silica fibers. Dense WDM (DWDM) uses the C-Band (1530 nm-1565 nm) transmission window but with denser channel spacing. Channel plans vary, but a typical DWDM system would use 40 channels at 100 GHz spacing or 80 channels with 50 GHz spacing. Some technologies are capable of 12.5 GHz spacing (sometimes called ultra-dense WDM). New amplification options (Raman amplification) enable the extension of the usable wavelengths to the L-band (1565–1625 nm), more or less doubling these numbers. Coarse wavelength-division multiplexing (CWDM), in contrast to DWDM, uses increased channel spacing to allow less sophisticated and thus cheaper transceiver designs. To provide 16 channels on a single fiber, CWDM uses the entire frequency band spanning the second and third transmission windows (1310/1550 nm respectively) including the critical frequencies where OH scattering may occur. OH-free silica fibers are recommended if the wavelengths between the second and third transmission windows are to be used. Avoiding this region, the channels 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57, 59, 61 remain and these are the most commonly used. With OS2 fibers the water peak problem is overcome, and all possible 18 channels can be used. WDM, CWDM and DWDM are based on the same concept of using multiple wavelengths of light on a single fiber but differ in the spacing of the wavelengths, number of channels, and the ability to amplify the multiplexed signals in the optical space. EDFA provide an efficient wideband amplification for the C-band, Raman amplification adds a mechanism for amplification in the L-band. For CWDM, wideband optical amplification is not available, limiting the optical spans to several tens of kilometers. Coarse WDM Series of SFP+ transceivers for 10 Gbit/s WDM communications Originally, the term coarse wavelength-division multiplexing (CWDM) was fairly generic and described a number of different channel configurations. In general, the choice of channel spacings and frequency in these configurations precluded the use of erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs). Prior to the relatively recent ITU standardization of the term, one common definition for CWDM was two or more signals multiplexed onto a single fiber, with one signal in the 1550 nm band and the other in the 1310 nm band. In 2002, the ITU standardized a channel spacing grid for CWDM (ITU-T G.694.2) using the wavelengths from 1270 nm through 1610 nm with a channel spacing of 20 nm. ITU G.694.2 was revised in 2003 to shift the channel centers by 1 nm so, strictly speaking, the center wavelengths are 1271 to 1611 nm. Many CWDM wavelengths below 1470 nm are considered unusable on older G.652 specification fibers, due to the increased attenuation in the 1270–1470 nm bands. Newer fibers which conform to the G.652.C and G.652.D standards, such as Corning SMF-28e and Samsung Widepass, nearly eliminate the water-related attenuation peak at 1383 nm and allow for full operation of all 18 ITU CWDM channels in metropolitan networks. The main characteristic of the recent ITU CWDM standard is that the signals are not spaced appropriately for amplification by EDFAs. This limits the total CWDM optical span to somewhere near 60 km for a 2.5 Gbit/s signal, which is suitable for use in metropolitan applications. The relaxed optical frequency stabilization requirements allow the associated costs of CWDM to approach those of non-WDM optical components. CWDM Applications CWDM is being used in cable television networks, where different wavelengths are used for the downstream and upstream signals. In these systems, the wavelengths used are often widely separated. For example, the downstream signal might be at 1310 nm while the upstream signal is at 1550 nm. The 10GBASE-LX4 10 Gbit/s physical layer standard is an example of a CWDM system in which four wavelengths near 1310 nm, each carrying a 3.125 gigabit-per-second (Gbit/s) data stream, are used to carry 10 Gbit/s of aggregate data. Passive CWDM is an implementation of CWDM that uses no electrical power. It separates the wavelengths using passive optical components such as bandpass filters and prisms. Many manufacturers are promoting passive CWDM to deploy fiber to the home. Dense WDM Dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) refers originally to optical signals multiplexed within the 1550 nm band so as to leverage the capabilities (and cost) of erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs), which are effective for wavelengths between approximately 1525–1565 nm (C band), or 1570–1610 nm (L band). EDFAs were originally developed to replace SONET/SDH optical-electrical-optical (OEO) regenerators, which they have made practically obsolete. EDFAs can amplify any optical signal in their operating range, regardless of the modulated bit rate. In terms of multi-wavelength signals, so long as the EDFA has enough pump energy available to it, it can amplify as many optical signals as can be multiplexed into its amplification band (though signal densities are limited by choice of modulation format). EDFAs therefore allow a single-channel optical link to be upgraded in bit rate by replacing only equipment at the ends of the link, while retaining the existing EDFA or series of EDFAs through a long haul route. Furthermore, single-wavelength links using EDFAs can similarly be upgraded to WDM links at reasonable cost. The EDFA's cost is thus leveraged across as many channels as can be multiplexed into the 1550 nm band. DWDM systems At this stage, a basic DWDM system contains several main components: WDM multiplexer for DWDM communications A DWDM terminal multiplexer. The terminal multiplexer contains a wavelength-converting transponder for each data signal, an optical multiplexer and where necessary an optical amplifier (EDFA). Each wavelength-converting transponder receives an optical data signal from the client layer, such as Synchronous optical networking or another type of data signal, converts this signal into the electrical domain and re-transmits the signal at a specific wavelength using a 1,550 nm band laser. These data signals are then combined into a multi-wavelength optical signal using an optical multiplexer, for transmission over a single fiber (e.g., SMF-28 fiber). The terminal multiplexer may or may not also include a local transmit EDFA for power amplification of the multi-wavelength optical signal. In the mid-1990s DWDM systems contained 4 or 8 wavelength-converting transponders; by 2000 or so, commercial systems capable of carrying 128 signals were available. An intermediate line repeater is placed approximately every 80–100 km to compensate for the loss of optical power as the signal travels along the fiber. The 'multi-wavelength optical signal' is amplified by an EDFA, which usually consists of several amplifier stages. An intermediate optical terminal, or optical add-drop multiplexer. This is a remote amplification site that amplifies the multi-wavelength signal that may have traversed up to 140 km or more before reaching the remote site. Optical diagnostics and telemetry are often extracted or inserted at such a site, to allow for localization of any fiber breaks or signal impairments. In more sophisticated systems (which are no longer point-to-point), several signals out of the multi-wavelength optical signal may be removed and dropped locally. A DWDM terminal demultiplexer. At the remote site, the terminal de-multiplexer consisting of an optical de-multiplexer and one or more wavelength-converting transponders separates the multi-wavelength optical signal back into individual data signals and outputs them on separate fibers for client-layer systems (such as SONET/SDH). Originally, this de-multiplexing was performed entirely passively, except for some telemetry, as most SONET systems can receive 1,550 nm signals. However, in order to allow for transmission to remote client-layer systems (and to allow for digital domain signal integrity determination) such de-multiplexed signals are usually sent to O/E/O output transponders prior to being relayed to their client-layer systems. Often, the functionality of output transponder has been integrated into that of input transponder, so that most commercial systems have transponders that support bi-directional interfaces on both their 1,550 nm (i.e., internal) side, and external (i.e., client-facing) side. Transponders in some systems supporting 40 GHz nominal operation may also perform forward error correction (FEC) via digital wrapper technology, as described in the ITU-T G.709 standard. Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC). This is data channel that uses an additional wavelength usually outside the EDFA amplification band (at 1,510 nm, 1,620 nm, 1,310 nm or another proprietary wavelength). The OSC carries information about the multi-wavelength optical signal as well as remote conditions at the optical terminal or EDFA site. It is also normally used for remote software upgrades and user (i.e., network operator) Network Management information. It is the multi-wavelength analog to SONET's DCC (or supervisory channel). ITU standards suggest that the OSC should utilize an OC-3 signal structure, though some vendors have opted to use Fast Ethernet or another signal format. Unlike the 1550 nm multi-wavelength signal containing client data, the OSC is always terminated at intermediate amplifier sites, where it receives local information before re-transmission. The introduction of the ITU-T G.694.1 frequency grid in 2002 has made it easier to integrate WDM with older but more standard SONET/SDH systems. WDM wavelengths are positioned in a grid having exactly 100 GHz (about 0.8 nm) spacing in optical frequency, with a reference frequency fixed at 193.10 THz (1,552.52 nm). The main grid is placed inside the optical fiber amplifier bandwidth, but can be extended to wider bandwidths. The first commercial deployment of DWDM was made by Ciena Corporation on the Sprint network in June 1996. Today's DWDM systems use 50 GHz or even 25 GHz channel spacing for up to 160 channel operation. DWDM systems have to maintain more stable wavelength or frequency than those needed for CWDM because of the closer spacing of the wavelengths. Precision temperature control of the laser transmitter is required in DWDM systems to prevent drift off a very narrow frequency window of the order of a few GHz. In addition, since DWDM provides greater maximum capacity it tends to be used at a higher level in the communications hierarchy than CWDM, for example on the Internet backbone and is therefore associated with higher modulation rates, thus creating a smaller market for DWDM devices with very high performance. These factors of smaller volume and higher performance result in DWDM systems typically being more expensive than CWDM. Recent innovations in DWDM transport systems include pluggable and software-tunable transceiver modules capable of operating on 40 or 80 channels. This dramatically reduces the need for discrete spare pluggable modules, when a handful of pluggable devices can handle the full range of wavelengths. Wavelength-converting transponders This section's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (December 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Wavelength-converting transponders originally translated the transmit wavelength of a client-layer signal into one of the DWDM system's internal wavelengths in the 1,550 nm band. Note that even external wavelengths in the 1,550 nm will most likely need to be translated, as they will almost certainly not have the required frequency stability tolerances nor will it have the optical power necessary for the system's EDFA. In the mid-1990s, however, wavelength-converting transponders rapidly took on the additional function of signal regeneration. Signal regeneration in transponders quickly evolved through 1R to 2R to 3R and into overhead-monitoring multi-bitrate 3R regenerators. These differences are outlined below: 1R Retransmission. Basically, early transponders were garbage in, garbage out in that their output was nearly an analog copy of the received optical signal, with little signal cleanup occurring. This limited the reach of early DWDM systems because the signal had to be handed off to a client-layer receiver (likely from a different vendor) before the signal deteriorated too far. Signal monitoring was basically confined to optical domain parameters such as received power. 2R Re-time and re-transmit. Transponders of this type were not very common and utilized a quasi-digital Schmitt-triggering method for signal clean-up. Some rudimentary signal-quality monitoring was done by such transmitters that basically looked at analogue parameters. 3R Re-time, re-transmit, re-shape. 3R Transponders were fully digital and normally able to view SONET/SDH section layer overhead bytes such as A1 and A2 to determine signal quality health. Many systems will offer 2.5 Gbit/s transponders, which will normally mean the transponder is able to perform 3R regeneration on OC-3/12/48 signals, and possibly gigabit Ethernet, and reporting on signal health by monitoring SONET/SDH section layer overhead bytes. Many transponders will be able to perform full multi-rate 3R in both directions. Some vendors offer 10 Gbit/s transponders, which will perform Section layer overhead monitoring to all rates up to and including OC-192. Muxponder The muxponder (from multiplexed transponder) has different names depending on vendor. It essentially performs some relatively simple time-division multiplexing of lower-rate signals into a higher-rate carrier within the system (a common example is the ability to accept 4 OC-48s and then output a single OC-192 in the 1,550 nm band). More recent muxponder designs have absorbed more and more TDM functionality, in some cases obviating the need for traditional SONET/SDH transport equipment. List of DWDM Channels For DWDM the range between C21-C60 is the most common range, for Mux/Demux in 8, 16, 40 or 96 sizes. 100GHz ITU Channels Channel # Center Frequency (THz) Wavelength (nm) 1 190.1 1577.03 2 190.2 1576.2 3 190.3 1575.37 4 190.4 1574.54 5 190.5 1573.71 6 190.6 1572.89 7 190.7 1572.06 8 190.8 1571.24 9 190.9 1570.42 10 191.0 1569.59 11 191.1 1568.77 12 191.2 1567.95 13 191.3 1567.13 14 191.4 1566.31 15 191.5 1565.5 16 191.6 1564.68 17 191.7 1563.86 18 191.8 1563.05 19 191.9 1562.23 20 192.0 1561.41 21 192.1 1560.61 22 192.2 1559.79 23 192.3 1558.98 24 192.4 1558.17 25 192.5 1557.36 26 192.6 1556.55 27 192.7 1555.75 28 192.8 1554.94 29 192.9 1554.13 30 193.0 1553.33 31 193.1 1552.52 32 193.2 1551.72 33 193.3 1550.92 34 193.4 1550.12 35 193.5 1549.32 36 193.6 1548.51 37 193.7 1547.72 38 193.8 1546.92 39 193.9 1546.12 40 194.0 1545.32 41 194.1 1544.53 42 194.2 1543.73 43 194.3 1542.94 44 194.4 1542.14 45 194.5 1541.35 46 194.6 1540.56 47 194.7 1539.77 48 194.8 1538.98 49 194.9 1538.19 50 195.0 1537.4 51 195.1 1536.61 52 195.2 1535.82 53 195.3 1535.04 54 195.4 1534.25 55 195.5 1533.47 56 195.6 1532.68 57 195.7 1531.9 58 195.8 1531.12 59 195.9 1530.33 60 196.0 1529.55 61 196.1 1528.77 62 196.2 1527.99 63 196.3 1527.22 64 196.4 1526.44 65 196.5 1525.66 66 196.6 1524.89 67 196.7 1524.11 68 196.8 1523.34 69 196.9 1522.56 70 197.0 1521.79 71 197.1 1521.02 72 197.2 1520.25 50GHz ITU Channels Channel # Center Frequency (THz) Wavelength (nm) 1 190.1 1577.03 1.5 190.15 1576.61 2 190.2 1576.2 2.5 190.25 1575.78 3 190.3 1575.37 3.5 190.35 1574.95 4 190.4 1574.54 4.5 190.45 1574.13 5 190.5 1573.71 5.5 190.55 1573.3 6 190.6 1572.89 6.5 190.65 1572.48 7 190.7 1572.06 7.5 190.75 1571.65 8 190.8 1571.24 8.5 190.85 1570.83 9 190.9 1570.42 9.5 190.95 1570.01 10 191 1569.59 10.5 191.05 1569.18 11 191.1 1568.77 11.5 191.15 1568.36 12 191.2 1567.95 12.5 191.25 1567.54 13 191.3 1567.13 13.5 191.35 1566.72 14 191.4 1566.31 14.5 191.45 1565.9 15 191.5 1565.5 15.5 191.55 1565.09 16 191.6 1564.68 16.5 191.65 1564.27 17 191.7 1563.86 17.5 191.75 1563.45 18 191.8 1563.05 18.5 191.85 1562.64 19 191.9 1562.23 19.5 191.95 1561.83 20 192 1561.42 20.5 192.05 1561.01 21 192.1 1560.61 21.5 192.15 1560.2 22 192.2 1559.79 22.5 192.25 1559.39 23 192.3 1558.98 23.5 192.35 1558.58 24 192.4 1558.17 24.5 192.45 1557.77 25 192.5 1557.36 25.5 192.55 1556.96 26 192.6 1556.56 26.5 192.65 1556.15 27 192.7 1555.75 27.5 192.75 1555.34 28 192.8 1554.94 28.5 192.85 1554.54 29 192.9 1554.13 29.5 192.95 1553.73 30 193 1553.33 30.5 193.05 1552.93 31 193.1 1552.52 31.5 193.15 1552.12 32 193.2 1551.72 32.5 193.25 1551.32 33 193.3 1550.92 33.5 193.35 1550.52 34 193.4 1550.12 34.5 193.45 1549.72 35 193.5 1549.32 35.5 193.55 1548.91 36 193.6 1548.52 36.5 193.65 1548.11 37 193.7 1547.72 37.5 193.75 1547.32 38 193.8 1546.92 38.5 193.85 1546,52 39 193.9 1546,12 39.5 193.95 1545.72 40 194 1545.32 40.5 194.05 1544.92 41 194.1 1544.53 41.5 194.15 1544.13 42 194.2 1543.73 42.5 194.25 1543.33 43 194.3 1542.94 43.5 194.35 1542.54 44 194.4 1542.14 44.5 194.45 1541.75 45 194.5 1541.35 45.5 194.55 1540.95 46 194.6 1540.56 46.5 194.65 1540.16 47 194.7 1539.77 47.5 194.75 1539.37 48 194.8 1538.98 48.5 194.85 1538.58 49 194.9 1538.19 49.5 194.95 1537.79 50 195 1537.4 50.5 195.05 1537 51 195.1 1536.61 51.5 195.15 1536.22 52 195.2 1535.82 52.5 195.25 1535.43 53 195.3 1535.04 53.5 195.35 1534.64 54 195.4 1534.25 54.5 195.45 1533.86 55 195.5 1533.47 55.5 195.55 1533.07 56 195.6 1532.68 56.5 195.65 1532.29 57 195.7 1531.9 57.5 195.75 1531.51 58 195.8 1531.12 58.5 195.85 1530.72 59 195.9 1530.33 59.5 195.95 1529.94 60 196 1529.55 60.5 196.05 1529.16 61 196.1 1528.77 61.5 196.15 1528.38 62 196.2 1527.99 62.5 196.25 1527.6 63 196.3 1527.22 63.5 196.35 1526.83 64 196.4 1526.44 64.5 196.45 1526.05 65 196.5 1525.66 65.5 196.55 1525.27 66 196.6 1524.89 66.5 196.65 1524.5 67 196.7 1524.11 67.5 196.75 1523.72 68 196.8 1523.34 68.5 196.85 1522.95 69 196.9 1522.56 69.5 196.95 1522.18 70 197 1521.79 70.5 197.05 1521.4 71 197.1 1521.02 71.5 197.15 1520.63 72 197.2 1520.25 72.5 197.25 1519.86 Reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexer (ROADM) Main article: Reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexer As mentioned above, intermediate optical amplification sites in DWDM systems may allow for the dropping and adding of certain wavelength channels. In most systems deployed as of August 2006 this is done infrequently, because adding or dropping wavelengths requires manually inserting or replacing wavelength-selective cards. This is costly, and in some systems requires that all active traffic be removed from the DWDM system, because inserting or removing the wavelength-specific cards interrupts the multi-wavelength optical signal. With a ROADM, network operators can remotely reconfigure the multiplexer by sending soft commands. The architecture of the ROADM is such that dropping or adding wavelengths does not interrupt the pass-through channels. Numerous technological approaches are utilized for various commercial ROADMs, the tradeoff being between cost, optical power, and flexibility. Optical cross connects (OXCs) Main article: Optical cross-connect This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008) When the network topology is a mesh, where nodes are interconnected by fibers to form an arbitrary graph, an additional fiber interconnection device is needed to route the signals from an input port to the desired output port. These devices are called optical crossconnectors (OXCs). Various categories of OXCs include electronic ("opaque"), optical ("transparent"), and wavelength-selective devices. Enhanced WDM Cisco's Enhanced WDM system is a network architecture that combines two different types of multiplexing technologies to transmit data over optical fibers. EWDM combines 1 Gbit/s Coarse Wave Division Multiplexing (CWDM) connections using SFPs and GBICs with 10 Gbit/s Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) connections using XENPAK, X2 or XFP DWDM modules. The Enhanced WDM system can use either passive or boosted DWDM connections to allow a longer range for the connection. In addition to this, C form-factor pluggable modules deliver 100 Gbit/s Ethernet suitable for high-speed Internet backbone connections. Shortwave WDM Shortwave WDM uses vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) transceivers with four wavelengths in the 846 to 953 nm range over single OM5 fiber, or two-fiber connectivity for OM3/OM4 fiber. Transceivers versus transponders Transceivers Since communication over a single wavelength is one-way (simplex communication), and most practical communication systems require two-way (duplex communication) communication, two wavelengths will be required if on the same fiber; if separate fibers are used in a so-called fiber pair, then the same wavelength is normally used and it is not WDM. As a result, at each end both a transmitter and a receiver will be required. A combination of a transmitter and a receiver is called a transceiver; it converts an electrical signal to and from an optical signal. WDM transceivers made for single-strand operation require the opposing transmitters to use different wavelengths. WDM transceivers additionally require an optical splitter/combiner to couple the transmitter and receiver paths onto the one fiber strand.Coarse WDM (CWDM) Transceiver Wavelengths: 1271 nm, 1291 nm, 1311 nm, 1331 nm, 1351 nm, 1371 nm, 1391 nm, 1411 nm, 1431 nm, 1451 nm, 1471 nm, 1491 nm, 1511 nm, 1531 nm, 1551 nm, 1571 nm, 1591 nm, 1611 nm.Dense WDM (DWDM) Transceivers: Channel 17 to Channel 61 according to ITU-T. Transponder In practice, the signal inputs and outputs will not be electrical but optical instead (typically at 1550 nm). This means that in effect wavelength converters are needed instead, which is exactly what a transponder is. A transponder can be made up of two transceivers placed after each other: the first transceiver converting the 1550 nm optical signal to/from an electrical signal, and the second transceiver converting the electrical signal to/from an optical signal at the required wavelength. Transponders that don't use an intermediate electrical signal (all-optical transponders) are in development. See also transponders (optical communications) for different functional views on the meaning of optical transponders. See also Add-drop multiplexer – Manipulates DWDM channel contents Arrayed waveguide grating – Optical multiplexer component Code-division multiple access – Channel access method used by various radio communication technologies Dark fiber – Unused optical fibre Frequency-division multiplexing – Signal processing technique in telecommunications IPoDWDM – IP-only optical network Multiwavelength optical networking – Proposed successor to SONET optical networks Optical Internetworking Forum – Non-profit organization Optical mesh network – Optical network using a mesh topology Optical Transport Network – Standard for optical data packagesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Orbital angular momentum multiplexing – Optical multiplexing technique Differential quadrature phase shift keying – Type of data encoding Photodiode – Converts light into current Polarization mode dispersion – Form of modal dispersion SELFOC Microlens – Optical technology Small form-factor pluggable transceiver – Modular communications interfacePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Spectrometer – Used to measure spectral components of light Super-channel – Enhanced DWDM Time-division multiplexing – Multiplexing technique for digital signals References ^ a b c Cai, Hong; Parks, Joseph. W (2015). "Optofluidic wavelength division multiplexing for single-virus detection". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (42): 12933–12937. Bibcode:2015PNAS..11212933O. doi:10.1073/pnas.1511921112. JSTOR 26465542. PMC 4620877. PMID 26438840. ^ Yuan, Ye; Wang, Chao (2019). "Multipath Transmission of Marine Electromagnetic Data Based on Distributed Sensors". Journal of Coastal Research. 97: 99–102. doi:10.2112/SI97-013.1. JSTOR 26853785. S2CID 208620293. ^ a b Li, Hongqin; Zhong, Zhicheng (2019). "Analysis and Simulation of Morphology Algorithm for Fiber Optic Hydrophone Array in Marine Seismic Exploration". Journal of Coastal Research. 94: 145–148. doi:10.2112/SI94-029.1. JSTOR 26853921. S2CID 202549795. ^ O. E. Delange, "Wideband optical communication systems, Part 11-Frequency division multiplexing". hoc. IEEE, vol. 58, p. 1683, October 1970. ^ "ITU-T G.694.2, WDM applications: CWDM wavelength grid". Archived from the original on 2012-11-10. ^ "ITU-T G.652, Transmission media and optical systems characteristics – Optical fibre cables". Archived from the original on 2012-11-10. ^ a b Hornes, Rudy. L (2008). "The Suppression of Four-Wave Mixing by Random Dispersion". SIAM Journal on Applied Mathematics. 69 (3): 690–703. doi:10.1137/070680539. JSTOR 40233639. ^ "ITU-T G.694.1, Spectral grids for WDM applications: DWDM frequency grid". Archived from the original on 2012-11-10. ^ DWDM ITU Table, 100 Ghz spacing" telecomengineering.com Archived 2008-07-04 at the Wayback Machine ^ Markoff, John (March 3, 1997). "Fiber-Optic Technology Draws Record Stock Value". The New York Times. ^ Hecht, Jeff (October 2016). "Boom, Bubble, Bust: The Fiber Optic Mania" (PDF). Optics and Photonics News. The Optical Society: 47. ^ "New Technology Allows 1,600% Capacity Boost on Sprint's Fiber-Optic Network; Ciena Corp. System Installed; Greatly Increases Bandwidth". Sprint. June 12, 1996. ^ "Infinera Corporation | Products | Infinera Line System 1". Archived from the original on 2012-03-27. Retrieved 2012-03-19. ^ "Flexoptix GmbH CWDM / DWDM CHANNELS". Retrieved 2022-07-22. ^ "FS DWDM/CWDM Wavelength ITU Channels Guide". 12 July 2018. Retrieved 2022-07-22. Siva Ram Murthy C.; Guruswamy M., "WDM Optical Networks, Concepts, Design, and Algorithms", Prentice Hall India, ISBN 81-203-2129-4. Tomlinson, W. J.; Lin, C., "Optical wavelength-division multiplexer for the 1–1.4-micron spectral region", Electronics Letters, vol. 14, May 25, 1978, p. 345–347. adsabs.harvard.edu Ishio, H. Minowa, J. Nosu, K., "Review and status of wavelength-division-multiplexing technology and its application", Journal of Lightwave Technology, Volume: 2, Issue: 4, Aug 1984, p. 448–463 Cheung, Nim K.; Nosu Kiyoshi; Winzer, Gerhard "Guest Editorial / Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing Techniques for High Capacity and Multiple Access Communication Systems", IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, Vol. 8 No. 6, August 1990 . Arora, A.; Subramaniam, S. "Wavelength Conversion Placement in WDM Mesh Optical Networks". Photonic Network Communications, Volume 4, Number 2, May 2002. Authority control databases: National Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DWDM-FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DWDM-FM"},{"link_name":"fiber-optic communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication"},{"link_name":"multiplexes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexing"},{"link_name":"optical carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_carrier"},{"link_name":"optical fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber"},{"link_name":"wavelengths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength"},{"link_name":"laser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser"},{"link_name":"light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"bidirectional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duplex_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"frequency-division multiplexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing"},{"link_name":"frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"speed of light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light"}],"text":"\"DWDM\" redirects here. For the radio station, see DWDM-FM.In fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a technology which multiplexes a number of optical carrier signals onto a single optical fiber by using different wavelengths (i.e., colors) of laser light.[1] This technique enables bidirectional communications over a single strand of fiber (also called wavelength-division duplexing) as well as multiplication of capacity.[1]The term WDM is commonly applied to an optical carrier, which is typically described by its wavelength, whereas frequency-division multiplexing typically applies to a radio carrier, more often described by frequency.[2] This is purely conventional because wavelength and frequency communicate the same information. Specifically, frequency (in Hertz, which is cycles per second) multiplied by wavelength (the physical length of one cycle) equals velocity of the carrier wave. In a vacuum, this is the speed of light (usually denoted by the lowercase letter, c). In glass fiber, velocity is substantially slower - usually about 0.7 times c. The data rate in practical systems is a fraction of the carrier frequency.","title":"Wavelength-division multiplexing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WDM_operating_principle.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dwdm_equipment.jpg"},{"link_name":"multiplexer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplexer"},{"link_name":"transmitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter"},{"link_name":"demultiplexer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demultiplexer"},{"link_name":"receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_(radio)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"optical add-drop multiplexer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_add-drop_multiplexer"},{"link_name":"etalons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etalon"},{"link_name":"Fabry–Pérot interferometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabry%E2%80%93P%C3%A9rot_interferometer"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Gbit/s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gbit/s"},{"link_name":"Tbit/s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tbit/s"},{"link_name":"telecommunications companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_company"},{"link_name":"optical amplifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_amplifier"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"single-mode fiber optical cables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-mode_optical_fiber"},{"link_name":"multi-mode fiber cables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-mode_optical_fiber"},{"link_name":"wideband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wideband"},{"link_name":"transmission windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#Transmission_windows"},{"link_name":"Raman amplification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_amplification"},{"link_name":"transmission windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication#Transmission_windows"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"EDFA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDFA"},{"link_name":"C-band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_band_(infrared)"}],"text":"WDM operating principleWDM System in rack 19/21''A WDM system uses a multiplexer at the transmitter to join the several signals together and a demultiplexer at the receiver to split them apart.[1] With the right type of fiber, it is possible to have a device that does both simultaneously and can function as an optical add-drop multiplexer. The optical filtering devices used have conventionally been etalons (stable solid-state single-frequency Fabry–Pérot interferometers in the form of thin-film-coated optical glass). As there are three different WDM types, whereof one is called WDM, the notation xWDM is normally used when discussing the technology as such.[3]The concept was first published in 1970 by Delange,[4] and by 1980 WDM systems were being realized in the laboratory. The first WDM systems combined only two signals. Modern systems can handle 160 signals and can thus expand a basic 100 Gbit/s system over a single fiber pair to over 16 Tbit/s. A system of 320 channels is also present (12.5 GHz channel spacing, see below.)WDM systems are popular with telecommunications companies because they allow them to expand the capacity of the network without laying more fiber. By using WDM and optical amplifiers, they can accommodate several generations of technology development in their optical infrastructure without having to overhaul the backbone network. The capacity of a given link can be expanded simply by upgrading the multiplexers and demultiplexers at each end.This is often done by the use of optical-to-electrical-to-optical (O/E/O) translation at the very edge of the transport network, thus permitting interoperation with existing equipment with optical interfaces.[3]Most WDM systems operate on single-mode fiber optical cables which have a core diameter of 9 μm. Certain forms of WDM can also be used in multi-mode fiber cables (also known as premises cables) which have core diameters of 50 or 62.5 μm.Early WDM systems were expensive and complicated to run. However, recent standardization and a better understanding of the dynamics of WDM systems have made WDM less expensive to deploy.Optical receivers, in contrast to laser sources, tend to be wideband devices. Therefore, the demultiplexer must provide the wavelength selectivity of the receiver in the WDM system.WDM systems are divided into three different wavelength patterns: normal (WDM), coarse (CWDM) and dense (DWDM). Normal WDM (sometimes called BWDM) uses the two normal wavelengths 1310 and 1550 nm on one fiber. Coarse WDM provides up to 16 channels across multiple transmission windows of silica fibers. Dense WDM (DWDM) uses the C-Band (1530 nm-1565 nm) transmission window but with denser channel spacing. Channel plans vary, but a typical DWDM system would use 40 channels at 100 GHz spacing or 80 channels with 50 GHz spacing. Some technologies are capable of 12.5 GHz spacing (sometimes called ultra-dense WDM). New amplification options (Raman amplification) enable the extension of the usable wavelengths to the L-band (1565–1625 nm), more or less doubling these numbers.Coarse wavelength-division multiplexing (CWDM), in contrast to DWDM, uses increased channel spacing to allow less sophisticated and thus cheaper transceiver designs. To provide 16 channels on a single fiber, CWDM uses the entire frequency band spanning the second and third transmission windows (1310/1550 nm respectively) including the critical frequencies where OH scattering may occur. OH-free silica fibers are recommended if the wavelengths between the second and third transmission windows are to be used[citation needed]. Avoiding this region, the channels 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57, 59, 61 remain and these are the most commonly used. With OS2 fibers the water peak problem is overcome, and all possible 18 channels can be used.WDM, CWDM and DWDM are based on the same concept of using multiple wavelengths of light on a single fiber but differ in the spacing of the wavelengths, number of channels, and the ability to amplify the multiplexed signals in the optical space. EDFA provide an efficient wideband amplification for the C-band, Raman amplification adds a mechanism for amplification in the L-band. For CWDM, wideband optical amplification is not available, limiting the optical spans to several tens of kilometers.","title":"Systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SFP_WDM_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"erbium doped fiber amplifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erbium_doped_fiber_amplifier"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"G.652","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.652"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Series of SFP+ transceivers for 10 Gbit/s WDM communicationsOriginally, the term coarse wavelength-division multiplexing (CWDM) was fairly generic and described a number of different channel configurations. In general, the choice of channel spacings and frequency in these configurations precluded the use of erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs). Prior to the relatively recent ITU standardization of the term, one common definition for CWDM was two or more signals multiplexed onto a single fiber, with one signal in the 1550 nm band and the other in the 1310 nm band.In 2002, the ITU standardized a channel spacing grid for CWDM (ITU-T G.694.2) using the wavelengths from 1270 nm through 1610 nm with a channel spacing of 20 nm. ITU G.694.2 was revised in 2003 to shift the channel centers by 1 nm so, strictly speaking, the center wavelengths are 1271 to 1611 nm.[5] Many CWDM wavelengths below 1470 nm are considered unusable on older G.652 specification fibers, due to the increased attenuation in the 1270–1470 nm bands. Newer fibers which conform to the G.652.C and G.652.D[6] standards, such as Corning SMF-28e and Samsung Widepass, nearly eliminate the water-related attenuation peak at 1383 nm and allow for full operation of all 18 ITU CWDM channels in metropolitan networks.The main characteristic of the recent ITU CWDM standard is that the signals are not spaced appropriately for amplification by EDFAs. This limits the total CWDM optical span to somewhere near 60 km for a 2.5 Gbit/s signal, which is suitable for use in metropolitan applications. The relaxed optical frequency stabilization requirements allow the associated costs of CWDM to approach those of non-WDM optical components.","title":"Coarse WDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cable television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_television"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"10GBASE-LX4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10GBASE-LX4"},{"link_name":"physical layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_layer"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-7"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"CWDM Applications","text":"CWDM is being used in cable television networks, where different wavelengths are used for the downstream and upstream signals. In these systems, the wavelengths used are often widely separated. For example, the downstream signal might be at 1310 nm while the upstream signal is at 1550 nm.[citation needed]The 10GBASE-LX4 10 Gbit/s physical layer standard is an example of a CWDM system in which four wavelengths near 1310 nm, each carrying a 3.125 gigabit-per-second (Gbit/s) data stream, are used to carry 10 Gbit/s of aggregate data.[7]Passive CWDM is an implementation of CWDM that uses no electrical power. It separates the wavelengths using passive optical components such as bandpass filters and prisms. Many manufacturers are promoting passive CWDM to deploy fiber to the home.[citation needed]","title":"Coarse WDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"erbium doped fiber amplifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_amplifier#Erbium-doped_optical_fiber_amplifiers"},{"link_name":"C band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_band_(infrared)"},{"link_name":"L band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L_band_(infrared)"},{"link_name":"SONET/SDH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_optical_networking"},{"link_name":"regenerators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_regeneration"}],"text":"Dense wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM) refers originally to optical signals multiplexed within the 1550 nm band so as to leverage the capabilities (and cost) of erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs), which are effective for wavelengths between approximately 1525–1565 nm (C band), or 1570–1610 nm (L band). EDFAs were originally developed to replace SONET/SDH optical-electrical-optical (OEO) regenerators, which they have made practically obsolete. EDFAs can amplify any optical signal in their operating range, regardless of the modulated bit rate. In terms of multi-wavelength signals, so long as the EDFA has enough pump energy available to it, it can amplify as many optical signals as can be multiplexed into its amplification band (though signal densities are limited by choice of modulation format). EDFAs therefore allow a single-channel optical link to be upgraded in bit rate by replacing only equipment at the ends of the link, while retaining the existing EDFA or series of EDFAs through a long haul route. Furthermore, single-wavelength links using EDFAs can similarly be upgraded to WDM links at reasonable cost. The EDFA's cost is thus leveraged across as many channels as can be multiplexed into the 1550 nm band.","title":"Dense WDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WDM_modules_3.jpg"},{"link_name":"SONET/SDH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_optical_networking"},{"link_name":"forward error correction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_error_correction"},{"link_name":"digital wrapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_Transport_Network"},{"link_name":"ITU-T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-T"},{"link_name":"G.709","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.709"},{"link_name":"Fast Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Ethernet"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"frequency grid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_grid"},{"link_name":"SONET/SDH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_optical_networking"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"needs update","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Internet backbone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_backbone"}],"sub_title":"DWDM systems","text":"At this stage, a basic DWDM system contains several main components:WDM multiplexer for DWDM communicationsA DWDM terminal multiplexer. The terminal multiplexer contains a wavelength-converting transponder for each data signal, an optical multiplexer and where necessary an optical amplifier (EDFA). Each wavelength-converting transponder receives an optical data signal from the client layer, such as Synchronous optical networking [SONET /SDH] or another type of data signal, converts this signal into the electrical domain and re-transmits the signal at a specific wavelength using a 1,550 nm band laser. These data signals are then combined into a multi-wavelength optical signal using an optical multiplexer, for transmission over a single fiber (e.g., SMF-28 fiber). The terminal multiplexer may or may not also include a local transmit EDFA for power amplification of the multi-wavelength optical signal. In the mid-1990s DWDM systems contained 4 or 8 wavelength-converting transponders; by 2000 or so, commercial systems capable of carrying 128 signals were available.\nAn intermediate line repeater is placed approximately every 80–100 km to compensate for the loss of optical power as the signal travels along the fiber. The 'multi-wavelength optical signal' is amplified by an EDFA, which usually consists of several amplifier stages.\nAn intermediate optical terminal, or optical add-drop multiplexer. This is a remote amplification site that amplifies the multi-wavelength signal that may have traversed up to 140 km or more before reaching the remote site. Optical diagnostics and telemetry are often extracted or inserted at such a site, to allow for localization of any fiber breaks or signal impairments. In more sophisticated systems (which are no longer point-to-point), several signals out of the multi-wavelength optical signal may be removed and dropped locally.\nA DWDM terminal demultiplexer. At the remote site, the terminal de-multiplexer consisting of an optical de-multiplexer and one or more wavelength-converting transponders separates the multi-wavelength optical signal back into individual data signals and outputs them on separate fibers for client-layer systems (such as SONET/SDH). Originally, this de-multiplexing was performed entirely passively, except for some telemetry, as most SONET systems can receive 1,550 nm signals. However, in order to allow for transmission to remote client-layer systems (and to allow for digital domain signal integrity determination) such de-multiplexed signals are usually sent to O/E/O output transponders prior to being relayed to their client-layer systems. Often, the functionality of output transponder has been integrated into that of input transponder, so that most commercial systems have transponders that support bi-directional interfaces on both their 1,550 nm (i.e., internal) side, and external (i.e., client-facing) side. Transponders in some systems supporting 40 GHz nominal operation may also perform forward error correction (FEC) via digital wrapper technology, as described in the ITU-T G.709 standard.\nOptical Supervisory Channel (OSC). This is data channel that uses an additional wavelength usually outside the EDFA amplification band (at 1,510 nm, 1,620 nm, 1,310 nm or another proprietary wavelength). The OSC carries information about the multi-wavelength optical signal as well as remote conditions at the optical terminal or EDFA site. It is also normally used for remote software upgrades and user (i.e., network operator) Network Management information. It is the multi-wavelength analog to SONET's DCC (or supervisory channel). ITU standards suggest that the OSC should utilize an OC-3 signal structure, though some vendors have opted to use Fast Ethernet or another signal format. Unlike the 1550 nm multi-wavelength signal containing client data, the OSC is always terminated at intermediate amplifier sites, where it receives local information before re-transmission.The introduction of the ITU-T G.694.1[8] frequency grid in 2002 has made it easier to integrate WDM with older but more standard SONET/SDH systems. WDM wavelengths are positioned in a grid having exactly 100 GHz (about 0.8 nm) spacing in optical frequency, with a reference frequency fixed at 193.10 THz (1,552.52 nm).[9] The main grid is placed inside the optical fiber amplifier bandwidth, but can be extended to wider bandwidths. The first commercial deployment of DWDM was made by Ciena Corporation on the Sprint network in June 1996.[10][11][12] Today's DWDM systems use 50 GHz or even 25 GHz channel spacing for up to 160 channel operation.[needs update][13]DWDM systems have to maintain more stable wavelength or frequency than those needed for CWDM because of the closer spacing of the wavelengths. Precision temperature control of the laser transmitter is required in DWDM systems to prevent drift off a very narrow frequency window of the order of a few GHz. In addition, since DWDM provides greater maximum capacity it tends to be used at a higher level in the communications hierarchy than CWDM, for example on the Internet backbone and is therefore associated with higher modulation rates, thus creating a smaller market for DWDM devices with very high performance. These factors of smaller volume and higher performance result in DWDM systems typically being more expensive than CWDM.Recent innovations in DWDM transport systems include pluggable and software-tunable transceiver modules capable of operating on 40 or 80 channels. This dramatically reduces the need for discrete spare pluggable modules, when a handful of pluggable devices can handle the full range of wavelengths.","title":"Dense WDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"signal regeneration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_regeneration"},{"link_name":"garbage in, garbage out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garbage_in,_garbage_out"},{"link_name":"Schmitt-triggering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmitt_trigger"},{"link_name":"SONET/SDH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_optical_networking"},{"link_name":"muxponder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muxponder"},{"link_name":"SONET/SDH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_optical_networking"}],"sub_title":"Wavelength-converting transponders","text":"Wavelength-converting transponders originally translated the transmit wavelength of a client-layer signal into one of the DWDM system's internal wavelengths in the 1,550 nm band. Note that even external wavelengths in the 1,550 nm will most likely need to be translated, as they will almost certainly not have the required frequency stability tolerances nor will it have the optical power necessary for the system's EDFA.In the mid-1990s, however, wavelength-converting transponders rapidly took on the additional function of signal regeneration. Signal regeneration in transponders quickly evolved through 1R to 2R to 3R and into overhead-monitoring multi-bitrate 3R regenerators. These differences are outlined below:1R\nRetransmission. Basically, early transponders were garbage in, garbage out in that their output was nearly an analog copy of the received optical signal, with little signal cleanup occurring. This limited the reach of early DWDM systems because the signal had to be handed off to a client-layer receiver (likely from a different vendor) before the signal deteriorated too far. Signal monitoring was basically confined to optical domain parameters such as received power.2R\nRe-time and re-transmit. Transponders of this type were not very common and utilized a quasi-digital Schmitt-triggering method for signal clean-up. Some rudimentary signal-quality monitoring was done by such transmitters that basically looked at analogue parameters.3R\nRe-time, re-transmit, re-shape. 3R Transponders were fully digital and normally able to view SONET/SDH section layer overhead bytes such as A1 and A2 to determine signal quality health. Many systems will offer 2.5 Gbit/s transponders, which will normally mean the transponder is able to perform 3R regeneration on OC-3/12/48 signals, and possibly gigabit Ethernet, and reporting on signal health by monitoring SONET/SDH section layer overhead bytes. Many transponders will be able to perform full multi-rate 3R in both directions. Some vendors offer 10 Gbit/s transponders, which will perform Section layer overhead monitoring to all rates up to and including OC-192.Muxponder\nThe muxponder (from multiplexed transponder) has different names depending on vendor. It essentially performs some relatively simple time-division multiplexing of lower-rate signals into a higher-rate carrier within the system (a common example is the ability to accept 4 OC-48s and then output a single OC-192 in the 1,550 nm band). More recent muxponder designs have absorbed more and more TDM functionality, in some cases obviating the need for traditional SONET/SDH transport equipment.","title":"Dense WDM"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"List of DWDM Channels[14][15]","text":"For DWDM the range between C21-C60 is the most common range, for Mux/Demux in 8, 16, 40 or 96 sizes.","title":"Dense WDM"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexer (ROADM)","text":"As mentioned above, intermediate optical amplification sites in DWDM systems may allow for the dropping and adding of certain wavelength channels. In most systems deployed as of August 2006 this is done infrequently, because adding or dropping wavelengths requires manually inserting or replacing wavelength-selective cards. This is costly, and in some systems requires that all active traffic be removed from the DWDM system, because inserting or removing the wavelength-specific cards interrupts the multi-wavelength optical signal.With a ROADM, network operators can remotely reconfigure the multiplexer by sending soft commands. The architecture of the ROADM is such that dropping or adding wavelengths does not interrupt the pass-through channels. Numerous technological approaches are utilized for various commercial ROADMs, the tradeoff being between cost, optical power, and flexibility.","title":"Dense WDM"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Optical cross connects (OXCs)","text":"When the network topology is a mesh, where nodes are interconnected by fibers to form an arbitrary graph, an additional fiber interconnection device is needed to route the signals from an input port to the desired output port. These devices are called optical crossconnectors (OXCs). Various categories of OXCs include electronic (\"opaque\"), optical (\"transparent\"), and wavelength-selective devices.","title":"Dense WDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco_Systems"},{"link_name":"XENPAK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XENPAK"},{"link_name":"X2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10_Gigabit_Ethernet"},{"link_name":"XFP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XFP"},{"link_name":"C form-factor pluggable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_form-factor_pluggable"}],"text":"Cisco's Enhanced WDM system is a network architecture that combines two different types of multiplexing technologies to transmit data over optical fibers.EWDM combines 1 Gbit/s Coarse Wave Division Multiplexing (CWDM) connections using SFPs and GBICs with 10 Gbit/s Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) connections using XENPAK, X2 or XFP DWDM modules. The Enhanced WDM system can use either passive or boosted DWDM connections to allow a longer range for the connection. In addition to this, C form-factor pluggable modules deliver 100 Gbit/s Ethernet suitable for high-speed Internet backbone connections.","title":"Enhanced WDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical-cavity_surface-emitting_laser"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-7"}],"text":"Shortwave WDM uses vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) transceivers with four wavelengths in the 846 to 953 nm range over single OM5 fiber, or two-fiber connectivity for OM3/OM4 fiber.[7]","title":"Shortwave WDM"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"simplex communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplex_communication"},{"link_name":"duplex communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duplex_communication"},{"link_name":"transponders (optical communications)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transponders#Optical_communications"}],"text":"Transceivers\nSince communication over a single wavelength is one-way (simplex communication), and most practical communication systems require two-way (duplex communication) communication, two wavelengths will be required if on the same fiber; if separate fibers are used in a so-called fiber pair, then the same wavelength is normally used and it is not WDM. As a result, at each end both a transmitter and a receiver will be required. A combination of a transmitter and a receiver is called a transceiver; it converts an electrical signal to and from an optical signal. WDM transceivers made for single-strand operation require the opposing transmitters to use different wavelengths. WDM transceivers additionally require an optical splitter/combiner to couple the transmitter and receiver paths onto the one fiber strand.Coarse WDM (CWDM) Transceiver Wavelengths: 1271 nm, 1291 nm, 1311 nm, 1331 nm, 1351 nm, 1371 nm, 1391 nm, 1411 nm, 1431 nm, 1451 nm, 1471 nm, 1491 nm, 1511 nm, 1531 nm, 1551 nm, 1571 nm, 1591 nm, 1611 nm.Dense WDM (DWDM) Transceivers: Channel 17 to Channel 61 according to ITU-T.\nTransponder\nIn practice, the signal inputs and outputs will not be electrical but optical instead (typically at 1550 nm). This means that in effect wavelength converters are needed instead, which is exactly what a transponder is. A transponder can be made up of two transceivers placed after each other: the first transceiver converting the 1550 nm optical signal to/from an electrical signal, and the second transceiver converting the electrical signal to/from an optical signal at the required wavelength. Transponders that don't use an intermediate electrical signal (all-optical transponders) are in development.See also transponders (optical communications) for different functional views on the meaning of optical transponders.","title":"Transceivers versus transponders"}]

[{"image_text":"WDM operating principle","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/WDM_operating_principle.svg/400px-WDM_operating_principle.svg.png"},{"image_text":"WDM System in rack 19/21''","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Dwdm_equipment.jpg/261px-Dwdm_equipment.jpg"},{"image_text":"Series of SFP+ transceivers for 10 Gbit/s WDM communications","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/SFP_WDM_2.jpg/220px-SFP_WDM_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"WDM multiplexer for DWDM communications","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/WDM_modules_3.jpg/220px-WDM_modules_3.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Add-drop multiplexer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Add-drop_multiplexer"},{"title":"Arrayed waveguide grating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrayed_waveguide_grating"},{"title":"Code-division multiple access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access"},{"title":"Dark fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_fibre"},{"title":"Frequency-division multiplexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing"},{"title":"IPoDWDM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPoDWDM"},{"title":"Multiwavelength optical networking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiwavelength_optical_networking"},{"title":"Optical Internetworking Forum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_Internetworking_Forum"},{"title":"Optical mesh network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_mesh_network"},{"title":"Optical Transport Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_Transport_Network"},{"title":"Orbital angular momentum multiplexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing"},{"title":"Differential quadrature phase shift keying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-shift_keying"},{"title":"Photodiode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodiode"},{"title":"Polarization mode dispersion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarization_mode_dispersion"},{"title":"SELFOC Microlens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SELFOC_Microlens"},{"title":"Small form-factor pluggable transceiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_form-factor_pluggable_transceiver"},{"title":"Spectrometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrometer"},{"title":"Super-channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super-channel"},{"title":"Time-division multiplexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing"}]

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The Optical Society: 47.","urls":[{"url":"https://internethistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/OSA_Boom.Bubble.Bust_Fiber.Optic_.Mania_.pdf","url_text":"\"Boom, Bubble, Bust: The Fiber Optic Mania\""}]},{"reference":"\"New Technology Allows 1,600% Capacity Boost on Sprint's Fiber-Optic Network; Ciena Corp. System Installed; Greatly Increases Bandwidth\". Sprint. June 12, 1996.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thefreelibrary.com/NEW+TECHNOLOGY+ALLOWS+1,600+PERCENT+CAPACITY+BOOST+ON+SPRINT'S...-a018380396","url_text":"\"New Technology Allows 1,600% Capacity Boost on Sprint's Fiber-Optic Network; Ciena Corp. System Installed; Greatly Increases Bandwidth\""}]},{"reference":"\"Infinera Corporation | Products | Infinera Line System 1\". Archived from the original on 2012-03-27. Retrieved 2012-03-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120327022231/http://www.infinera.com/products/ILS2.html","url_text":"\"Infinera Corporation | Products | Infinera Line System 1\""},{"url":"http://www.infinera.com/products/ils2.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Flexoptix GmbH CWDM / DWDM CHANNELS\". Retrieved 2022-07-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.flexoptix.net/en/dwdm-channels/","url_text":"\"Flexoptix GmbH CWDM / DWDM CHANNELS\""}]},{"reference":"\"FS DWDM/CWDM Wavelength ITU Channels Guide\". 12 July 2018. Retrieved 2022-07-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://community.fs.com/news/cwdmdwdm-itu-channels-guide.html","url_text":"\"FS DWDM/CWDM Wavelength ITU Channels Guide\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_function

Elementary function

["1 Examples","1.1 Basic examples","1.2 Composite examples","1.3 Non-elementary functions","2 Closure","3 Differential algebra","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]

Mathematical function For the complexity class, see ELEMENTARY. For the logical system, see Elementary function arithmetic. In mathematics, an elementary function is a function of a single variable (typically real or complex) that is defined as taking sums, products, roots and compositions of finitely many polynomial, rational, trigonometric, hyperbolic, and exponential functions, and their inverses (e.g., arcsin, log, or x1/n). All elementary functions are continuous on their domains. Elementary functions were introduced by Joseph Liouville in a series of papers from 1833 to 1841. An algebraic treatment of elementary functions was started by Joseph Fels Ritt in the 1930s. Many textbooks and dictionaries do not give a precise definition of the elementary functions, and mathematicians differ on it. Examples Basic examples Elementary functions of a single variable x include: Constant functions: 2 ,   π ,   e , {\displaystyle 2,\ \pi ,\ e,} etc. Rational powers of x: x ,   x 2 ,   x   ( x 1 2 ) ,   x 2 3 , {\displaystyle x,\ x^{2},\ {\sqrt {x}}\ (x^{\frac {1}{2}}),\ x^{\frac {2}{3}},} etc. Exponential functions: e x ,   a x {\displaystyle e^{x},\ a^{x}} Logarithms: log ⁡ x ,   log a ⁡ x {\displaystyle \log x,\ \log _{a}x} Trigonometric functions: sin ⁡ x ,   cos ⁡ x ,   tan ⁡ x , {\displaystyle \sin x,\ \cos x,\ \tan x,} etc. Inverse trigonometric functions: arcsin ⁡ x ,   arccos ⁡ x , {\displaystyle \arcsin x,\ \arccos x,} etc. Hyperbolic functions: sinh ⁡ x ,   cosh ⁡ x , {\displaystyle \sinh x,\ \cosh x,} etc. Inverse hyperbolic functions: arsinh ⁡ x ,   arcosh ⁡ x , {\displaystyle \operatorname {arsinh} x,\ \operatorname {arcosh} x,} etc. All functions obtained by adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing a finite number of any of the previous functions All functions obtained by root extraction of a polynomial with coefficients in elementary functions All functions obtained by composing a finite number of any of the previously listed functions Certain elementary functions of a single complex variable z, such as z {\displaystyle {\sqrt {z}}} and log ⁡ z {\displaystyle \log z} , may be multivalued. Additionally, certain classes of functions may be obtained by others using the final two rules. For example, the exponential function e z {\displaystyle e^{z}} composed with addition, subtraction, and division provides the hyperbolic functions, while initial composition with i z {\displaystyle iz} instead provides the trigonometric functions. Composite examples Examples of elementary functions include: Addition, e.g. (x+1) Multiplication, e.g. (2x) Polynomial functions e tan ⁡ x 1 + x 2 sin ⁡ ( 1 + ( log ⁡ x ) 2 ) {\displaystyle {\frac {e^{\tan x}}{1+x^{2}}}\sin \left({\sqrt {1+(\log x)^{2}}}\right)} − i log ⁡ ( x + i 1 − x 2 ) {\displaystyle -i\log \left(x+i{\sqrt {1-x^{2}}}\right)} The last function is equal to arccos ⁡ x {\displaystyle \arccos x} , the inverse cosine, in the entire complex plane. All monomials, polynomials, rational functions and algebraic functions are elementary. The absolute value function, for real x {\displaystyle x} , is also elementary as it can be expressed as the composition of a power and root of x {\displaystyle x} : | x | = x 2 {\textstyle |x|={\sqrt {x^{2}}}} . Non-elementary functions Many mathematicians exclude non-analytic functions such as the absolute value function or discontinuous functions such as the step function, but others allow them. Some have proposed extending the set to include, for example, the Lambert W function. Some examples of functions that are not elementary: tetration the gamma function non-elementary Liouvillian functions, including the exponential (Ei), logarithmic integral (Li or li) and Fresnel (S and C) integrals. the error function, e r f ( x ) = 2 π ∫ 0 x e − t 2 d t , {\displaystyle \mathrm {erf} (x)={\frac {2}{\sqrt {\pi }}}\int _{0}^{x}e^{-t^{2}}\,dt,} a fact that may not be immediately obvious, but can be proven using the Risch algorithm. other nonelementary integrals, including the Dirichlet integral and elliptic integral. Closure It follows directly from the definition that the set of elementary functions is closed under arithmetic operations, root extraction and composition. The elementary functions are closed under differentiation. They are not closed under limits and infinite sums. Importantly, the elementary functions are not closed under integration, as shown by Liouville's theorem, see nonelementary integral. The Liouvillian functions are defined as the elementary functions and, recursively, the integrals of the Liouvillian functions. Differential algebra The mathematical definition of an elementary function, or a function in elementary form, is considered in the context of differential algebra. A differential algebra is an algebra with the extra operation of derivation (algebraic version of differentiation). Using the derivation operation new equations can be written and their solutions used in extensions of the algebra. By starting with the field of rational functions, two special types of transcendental extensions (the logarithm and the exponential) can be added to the field building a tower containing elementary functions. A differential field F is a field F0 (rational functions over the rationals Q for example) together with a derivation map u → ∂u. (Here ∂u is a new function. Sometimes the notation u′ is used.) The derivation captures the properties of differentiation, so that for any two elements of the base field, the derivation is linear ∂ ( u + v ) = ∂ u + ∂ v {\displaystyle \partial (u+v)=\partial u+\partial v} and satisfies the Leibniz product rule ∂ ( u ⋅ v ) = ∂ u ⋅ v + u ⋅ ∂ v . {\displaystyle \partial (u\cdot v)=\partial u\cdot v+u\cdot \partial v\,.} An element h is a constant if ∂h = 0. If the base field is over the rationals, care must be taken when extending the field to add the needed transcendental constants. A function u of a differential extension F of a differential field F is an elementary function over F if the function u is algebraic over F, or is an exponential, that is, ∂u = u ∂a for a ∈ F, or is a logarithm, that is, ∂u = ∂a / a for a ∈ F. (see also Liouville's theorem) See also Algebraic function – Mathematical function Closed-form expression – Mathematical formula involving a given set of operations Differential Galois theory – Study of Galois symmetry groups of differential fields Elementary function arithmetic – System of arithmetic in proof theory Liouville's theorem (differential algebra) – Says when antiderivatives of elementary functions can be expressed as elementary functions Tarski's high school algebra problem – Mathematical problem Transcendental function – Analytic function that does not satisfy a polynomial equation Tupper's self-referential formula – Formula that visually represents itself when graphed Notes ^ Spivak, Michael. (1994). Calculus (3rd ed.). Houston, Tex.: Publish or Perish. p. 359. ISBN 0914098896. OCLC 31441929. ^ Liouville 1833a. ^ Liouville 1833b. ^ Liouville 1833c. ^ Ritt 1950. ^ a b Subbotin, Igor Ya.; Bilotskii, N. N. (March 2008). "Algorithms and Fundamental Concepts of Calculus" (PDF). Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching. 1 (1): 82–94. ^ Ordinary Differential Equations. Dover. 1985. p. 17. ISBN 0-486-64940-7. ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Elementary Function." From MathWorld ^ Risch, Robert H. (1979). "Algebraic Properties of the Elementary Functions of Analysis". American Journal of Mathematics. 101 (4): 743–759. doi:10.2307/2373917. ISSN 0002-9327. ^ Stewart, Seán (2005). "A new elementary function for our curricula?" (PDF). Australian Senior Mathematics Journal. 19 (2): 8–26. References Liouville, Joseph (1833a). "Premier mémoire sur la détermination des intégrales dont la valeur est algébrique". Journal de l'École Polytechnique. tome XIV: 124–148. Liouville, Joseph (1833b). "Second mémoire sur la détermination des intégrales dont la valeur est algébrique". Journal de l'École Polytechnique. tome XIV: 149–193. Liouville, Joseph (1833c). "Note sur la détermination des intégrales dont la valeur est algébrique". Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik. 10: 347–359. Ritt, Joseph (1950). Differential Algebra. AMS. Rosenlicht, Maxwell (1972). "Integration in finite terms". American Mathematical Monthly. 79 (9): 963–972. doi:10.2307/2318066. JSTOR 2318066. Further reading Davenport, James H. (2007). "What Might "Understand a Function" Mean?". Towards Mechanized Mathematical Assistants. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4573. pp. 55–65. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-73086-6_5. ISBN 978-3-540-73083-5. S2CID 8049737. External links Elementary functions at Encyclopaedia of Mathematics Weisstein, Eric W. "Elementary function". MathWorld. Authority control databases: National Japan

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Additionally, certain classes of functions may be obtained by others using the final two rules. For example, the exponential function \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n z\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{z}}\n \n composed with addition, subtraction, and division provides the hyperbolic functions, while initial composition with \n \n \n \n i\n z\n \n \n {\\displaystyle iz}\n \n instead provides the trigonometric functions.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"inverse cosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_trigonometric_functions#Logarithmic_forms"},{"link_name":"complex plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_plane"},{"link_name":"monomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomial"},{"link_name":"polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"rational functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_function"},{"link_name":"algebraic functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_function"},{"link_name":"absolute value function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_value"},{"link_name":"dubious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement"},{"link_name":"discuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Elementary_function#Dubious"}],"sub_title":"Composite examples","text":"Examples of elementary functions include:Addition, e.g. (x+1)\nMultiplication, e.g. (2x)\nPolynomial functions\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n tan\n ⁡\n x\n \n \n \n 1\n +\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n sin\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n \n 1\n +\n (\n log\n ⁡\n x\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {e^{\\tan x}}{1+x^{2}}}\\sin \\left({\\sqrt {1+(\\log x)^{2}}}\\right)}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n −\n i\n log\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n x\n +\n i\n \n \n 1\n −\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle -i\\log \\left(x+i{\\sqrt {1-x^{2}}}\\right)}The last function is equal to \n \n \n \n arccos\n ⁡\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\arccos x}\n \n, the inverse cosine, in the entire complex plane.All monomials, polynomials, rational functions and algebraic functions are elementary.The absolute value function, for real \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n, is also elementary as it can be expressed as the composition of a power and root of \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n: \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n x\n \n |\n \n =\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle |x|={\\sqrt {x^{2}}}}\n \n.[dubious – discuss]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"analytic functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_function"},{"link_name":"absolute value function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_value"},{"link_name":"step function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step_function"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"Lambert W function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert_W_function"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"tetration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetration"},{"link_name":"gamma function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function"},{"link_name":"Liouvillian functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liouvillian_function#Examples"},{"link_name":"exponential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_integral"},{"link_name":"logarithmic integral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithmic_integral"},{"link_name":"Fresnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnel_integral"},{"link_name":"error function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function"},{"link_name":"further explanation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Risch algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risch_algorithm"},{"link_name":"nonelementary integrals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonelementary_integral"},{"link_name":"Dirichlet integral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirichlet_integral"},{"link_name":"elliptic integral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_integral"}],"sub_title":"Non-elementary functions","text":"Many mathematicians exclude non-analytic functions such as the absolute value function or discontinuous functions such as the step function,[9][6] but others allow them. Some have proposed extending the set to include, for example, the Lambert W function.[10]Some examples of functions that are not elementary:tetration\nthe gamma function\nnon-elementary Liouvillian functions, including\nthe exponential (Ei), logarithmic integral (Li or li) and Fresnel (S and C) integrals.\nthe error function, \n \n \n \n \n e\n r\n f\n \n (\n x\n )\n =\n \n \n 2\n \n π\n \n \n \n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n x\n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n \n t\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n d\n t\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {erf} (x)={\\frac {2}{\\sqrt {\\pi }}}\\int _{0}^{x}e^{-t^{2}}\\,dt,}\n \n a fact that may not be immediately obvious,[further explanation needed] but can be proven using the Risch algorithm.\nother nonelementary integrals, including the Dirichlet integral and elliptic integral.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"closed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closure_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"differentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative"},{"link_name":"limits and infinite sums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"integration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiderivative"},{"link_name":"Liouville's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liouville%27s_theorem_(differential_algebra)"},{"link_name":"nonelementary integral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonelementary_integral"},{"link_name":"Liouvillian functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liouvillian_function"}],"text":"It follows directly from the definition that the set of elementary functions is closed under arithmetic operations, root extraction and composition. The elementary functions are closed under differentiation. They are not closed under limits and infinite sums. Importantly, the elementary functions are not closed under integration, as shown by Liouville's theorem, see nonelementary integral. The Liouvillian functions are defined as the elementary functions and, recursively, the integrals of the Liouvillian functions.","title":"Closure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"differential algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_algebra"},{"link_name":"extensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_extension"},{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"rational functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_function"},{"link_name":"rationals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_number"},{"link_name":"Leibniz product rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_rule"},{"link_name":"algebraic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_function"},{"link_name":"Liouville's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liouville%27s_theorem_(differential_algebra)"}],"text":"The mathematical definition of an elementary function, or a function in elementary form, is considered in the context of differential algebra. A differential algebra is an algebra with the extra operation of derivation (algebraic version of differentiation). Using the derivation operation new equations can be written and their solutions used in extensions of the algebra. By starting with the field of rational functions, two special types of transcendental extensions (the logarithm and the exponential) can be added to the field building a tower containing elementary functions.A differential field F is a field F0 (rational functions over the rationals Q for example) together with a derivation map u → ∂u. (Here ∂u is a new function. Sometimes the notation u′ is used.) The derivation captures the properties of differentiation, so that for any two elements of the base field, the derivation is linear∂\n (\n u\n +\n v\n )\n =\n ∂\n u\n +\n ∂\n v\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\partial (u+v)=\\partial u+\\partial v}and satisfies the Leibniz product rule∂\n (\n u\n ⋅\n v\n )\n =\n ∂\n u\n ⋅\n v\n +\n u\n ⋅\n ∂\n v\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\partial (u\\cdot v)=\\partial u\\cdot v+u\\cdot \\partial v\\,.}An element h is a constant if ∂h = 0. If the base field is over the rationals, care must be taken when extending the field to add the needed transcendental constants.A function u of a differential extension F[u] of a differential field F is an elementary function over F if the function uis algebraic over F, or\nis an exponential, that is, ∂u = u ∂a for a ∈ F, or\nis a logarithm, that is, ∂u = ∂a / a for a ∈ F.(see also Liouville's theorem)","title":"Differential algebra"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0914098896","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0914098896"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"31441929","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/31441929"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Liouville 1833a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLiouville1833a"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Liouville 1833b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLiouville1833b"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Liouville 1833c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLiouville1833c"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Ritt 1950","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRitt1950"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_6-1"},{"link_name":"\"Algorithms and Fundamental Concepts of Calculus\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//assets.nu.edu/assets/resources/pageResources/Journal_of_Research_March081.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Ordinary Differential Equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/ordinarydifferen00tene_0/page/17"},{"link_name":"17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/ordinarydifferen00tene_0/page/17"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-486-64940-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-64940-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"Weisstein, Eric W. \"Elementary Function.\" From MathWorld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mathworld.wolfram.com/ElementaryFunction.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"\"Algebraic Properties of the Elementary Functions of Analysis\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2373917"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/2373917","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F2373917"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0002-9327","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9327"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"A new elementary function for our curricula?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ720055.pdf"}],"text":"^ Spivak, Michael. (1994). Calculus (3rd ed.). Houston, Tex.: Publish or Perish. p. 359. ISBN 0914098896. OCLC 31441929.\n\n^ Liouville 1833a.\n\n^ Liouville 1833b.\n\n^ Liouville 1833c.\n\n^ Ritt 1950.\n\n^ a b Subbotin, Igor Ya.; Bilotskii, N. N. (March 2008). \"Algorithms and Fundamental Concepts of Calculus\" (PDF). Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching. 1 (1): 82–94.\n\n^ Ordinary Differential Equations. Dover. 1985. p. 17. ISBN 0-486-64940-7.\n\n^ Weisstein, Eric W. \"Elementary Function.\" From MathWorld\n\n^ Risch, Robert H. (1979). \"Algebraic Properties of the Elementary Functions of Analysis\". American Journal of Mathematics. 101 (4): 743–759. doi:10.2307/2373917. ISSN 0002-9327.\n\n^ Stewart, Seán (2005). \"A new elementary function for our curricula?\" (PDF). Australian Senior Mathematics Journal. 19 (2): 8–26.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/978-3-540-73086-6_5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-73086-6_5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-540-73083-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-73083-5"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"8049737","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8049737"}],"text":"Davenport, James H. (2007). \"What Might \"Understand a Function\" Mean?\". Towards Mechanized Mathematical Assistants. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4573. pp. 55–65. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-73086-6_5. ISBN 978-3-540-73083-5. S2CID 8049737.","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"title":"Algebraic function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_function"},{"title":"Closed-form expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed-form_expression"},{"title":"Differential Galois theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_Galois_theory"},{"title":"Elementary function arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_function_arithmetic"},{"title":"Liouville's theorem (differential algebra)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liouville%27s_theorem_(differential_algebra)"},{"title":"Tarski's high school algebra problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarski%27s_high_school_algebra_problem"},{"title":"Transcendental function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_function"},{"title":"Tupper's self-referential formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupper%27s_self-referential_formula"}]

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ISBN 0-486-64940-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ordinarydifferen00tene_0/page/17","url_text":"Ordinary Differential Equations"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ordinarydifferen00tene_0/page/17","url_text":"17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-64940-7","url_text":"0-486-64940-7"}]},{"reference":"Risch, Robert H. (1979). \"Algebraic Properties of the Elementary Functions of Analysis\". American Journal of Mathematics. 101 (4): 743–759. doi:10.2307/2373917. ISSN 0002-9327.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2373917","url_text":"\"Algebraic Properties of the Elementary Functions of Analysis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2373917","url_text":"10.2307/2373917"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9327","url_text":"0002-9327"}]},{"reference":"Stewart, Seán (2005). \"A new elementary function for our curricula?\" (PDF). Australian Senior Mathematics Journal. 19 (2): 8–26.","urls":[{"url":"https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ720055.pdf","url_text":"\"A new elementary function for our curricula?\""}]},{"reference":"Liouville, Joseph (1833a). \"Premier mémoire sur la détermination des intégrales dont la valeur est algébrique\". Journal de l'École Polytechnique. tome XIV: 124–148.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Liouville","url_text":"Liouville, Joseph"},{"url":"http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k433678n/f127.item.r=Liouville","url_text":"\"Premier mémoire sur la détermination des intégrales dont la valeur est algébrique\""}]},{"reference":"Liouville, Joseph (1833b). \"Second mémoire sur la détermination des intégrales dont la valeur est algébrique\". Journal de l'École Polytechnique. tome XIV: 149–193.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Liouville","url_text":"Liouville, Joseph"},{"url":"http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k433678n/f152.item.r=Liouville","url_text":"\"Second mémoire sur la détermination des intégrales dont la valeur est algébrique\""}]},{"reference":"Liouville, Joseph (1833c). \"Note sur la détermination des intégrales dont la valeur est algébrique\". Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik. 10: 347–359.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Liouville","url_text":"Liouville, Joseph"},{"url":"http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/en/dms/loader/img/?PID=GDZPPN002139332","url_text":"\"Note sur la détermination des intégrales dont la valeur est algébrique\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_f%C3%BCr_die_reine_und_angewandte_Mathematik","url_text":"Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik"}]},{"reference":"Ritt, Joseph (1950). Differential Algebra. AMS.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Ritt","url_text":"Ritt, Joseph"},{"url":"https://www.ams.org/online_bks/coll33/","url_text":"Differential Algebra"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mathematical_Society","url_text":"AMS"}]},{"reference":"Rosenlicht, Maxwell (1972). \"Integration in finite terms\". American Mathematical Monthly. 79 (9): 963–972. doi:10.2307/2318066. JSTOR 2318066.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_Rosenlicht","url_text":"Rosenlicht, Maxwell"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mathematical_Monthly","url_text":"American Mathematical Monthly"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2318066","url_text":"10.2307/2318066"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2318066","url_text":"2318066"}]},{"reference":"Davenport, James H. (2007). \"What Might \"Understand a Function\" Mean?\". Towards Mechanized Mathematical Assistants. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 4573. pp. 55–65. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-73086-6_5. ISBN 978-3-540-73083-5. S2CID 8049737.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-540-73086-6_5","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-540-73086-6_5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-73083-5","url_text":"978-3-540-73083-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8049737","url_text":"8049737"}]},{"reference":"Weisstein, Eric W. \"Elementary function\". MathWorld.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_W._Weisstein","url_text":"Weisstein, Eric W."},{"url":"https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ElementaryFunction.html","url_text":"\"Elementary function\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathWorld","url_text":"MathWorld"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conduction_band

Valence and conduction bands

["1 Band gap","2 Electrical conductivity","3 Band edge shifts of semiconductor nanoparticles","4 See also","5 References","5.1 Citations","5.2 General references","6 External links"]

Electron energy bands which determine the electrical conductivity of a material This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (December 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Filling of the electronic states in various types of materials at equilibrium. Here, height is energy while width is the density of available states for a certain energy in the material listed. The shade follows the Fermi–Dirac distribution (black: all states filled, white: no state filled). In metals and semimetals the Fermi level EF lies inside at least one band. In insulators and semiconductors the Fermi level is inside a band gap; however, in semiconductors the bands are near enough to the Fermi level to be thermally populated with electrons or holes. "intrin." indicates intrinsic semiconductors. edit In solid-state physics, the valence band and conduction band are the bands closest to the Fermi level, and thus determine the electrical conductivity of the solid. In nonmetals, the valence band is the highest range of electron energies in which electrons are normally present at absolute zero temperature, while the conduction band is the lowest range of vacant electronic states. On a graph of the electronic band structure of a semiconducting material, the valence band is located below the Fermi level, while the conduction band is located above it. The distinction between the valence and conduction bands is meaningless in metals, because conduction occurs in one or more partially filled bands that take on the properties of both the valence and conduction bands. Band gap Main article: Band gap In semiconductors and insulators the two bands are separated by a band gap, while in conductors the bands overlap. A band gap is an energy range in a solid where no electron states can exist due to the quantization of energy. Within the concept of bands, the energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band is the band gap. Electrical conductivity of non-metals is determined by the susceptibility of electrons to be excited from the valence band to the conduction band. Electrical conductivity Semiconductor band structureSee electrical conduction and semiconductor for a more detailed description of band structure. In solids, the ability of electrons to act as charge carriers depends on the availability of vacant electronic states. This allows the electrons to increase their energy (i.e., accelerate) when an electric field is applied. Similarly, holes (empty states) in the almost filled valence band also allow for conductivity. As such, the electrical conductivity of a solid depends on its capability to flow electrons from the valence to the conduction band. Hence, in the case of a semimetal with an overlap region, the electrical conductivity is high. If there is a small band gap (Eg), then the flow of electrons from valence to conduction band is possible only if an external energy (thermal, etc.) is supplied; these groups with small Eg are called semiconductors. If the Eg is sufficiently high, then the flow of electrons from valence to conduction band becomes negligible under normal conditions; these groups are called insulators. There is some conductivity in semiconductors, however. This is due to thermal excitation—some of the electrons get enough energy to jump the band gap in one go. Once they are in the conduction band, they can conduct electricity, as can the hole they left behind in the valence band. The hole is an empty state that allows electrons in the valence band some degree of freedom. Band edge shifts of semiconductor nanoparticles The edge shifting of size-dependent conduction and/or valence band is a phenomenon being studied in the field of semiconductor nanocrystals. The radius limit of occurrence of the semiconductor nanocrystal is the effective Bohr radius of the nanocrystal. The conduction and/or valence band edges shift to higher energy levels under this radius limit due to discrete optical transitions when semiconductor nanocrystal is restricted by the exciton. As a result of this edge shifting, the size of the conduction and/or valence band is decreased. This size-dependent edge shifting of conduction and/or valence band can provide plenty of useful information regarding the size or concentration of the semiconductor nanoparticles or band structures. See also Electrical conduction for more information about conduction in solids, and another description of band structure. Fermi sea HOMO/LUMO Semiconductor for a full explanation of the band structure of materials. Valleytronics References Citations ^ Cox, P. A. (1987). The electronic structure and chemistry of solids. Oxford : Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-855204-1. OCLC 14213060. ^ Jasieniak, Jacek; Califano, Marco; Watkins, Scott E. (2011-06-22). "Size-Dependent Valence and Conduction Band-Edge Energies of Semiconductor Nanocrystals". ACS Nano. 5 (7): 5888–5902. doi:10.1021/nn201681s. ISSN 1936-0851. PMID 21662980. General references Kittel, Charles (2005). Introduction to Solid State Physics. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-41526-X. Kornic, Steve (11 April 1997). "The Valence Band". Chembio. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021. Nave, Carl R. (Rod) (1999). "Band Theory for Solids". Hyperphysics. Retrieved 8 December 2021. External links Direct Band Gap Energy Calculator Authority control databases: National Germany

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Band_filling_diagram.svg"},{"link_name":"equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"density of available states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_of_states"},{"link_name":"Fermi–Dirac distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Dirac_statistics"},{"link_name":"metals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal"},{"link_name":"semimetals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semimetal"},{"link_name":"Fermi level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_level"},{"link_name":"insulators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"band gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gap"},{"link_name":"thermally populated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi%E2%80%93Dirac_statistics"},{"link_name":"holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_hole"},{"link_name":"intrinsic semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_semiconductor"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Band_structure_filling_diagram&action=edit"},{"link_name":"solid-state physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_physics"},{"link_name":"bands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_band_structure"},{"link_name":"Fermi level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_level"},{"link_name":"electrical conductivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductivity"},{"link_name":"nonmetals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonmetal_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"valence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_electron"},{"link_name":"electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"energies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy"},{"link_name":"absolute zero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_zero"},{"link_name":"electronic states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_state"},{"link_name":"electronic band structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_band_structure"}],"text":"Filling of the electronic states in various types of materials at equilibrium. Here, height is energy while width is the density of available states for a certain energy in the material listed. The shade follows the Fermi–Dirac distribution (black: all states filled, white: no state filled). In metals and semimetals the Fermi level EF lies inside at least one band. In insulators and semiconductors the Fermi level is inside a band gap; however, in semiconductors the bands are near enough to the Fermi level to be thermally populated with electrons or holes. \"intrin.\" indicates intrinsic semiconductors. editIn solid-state physics, the valence band and conduction band are the bands closest to the Fermi level, and thus determine the electrical conductivity of the solid. In nonmetals, the valence band is the highest range of electron energies in which electrons are normally present at absolute zero temperature, while the conduction band is the lowest range of vacant electronic states. On a graph of the electronic band structure of a semiconducting material, the valence band is located below the Fermi level, while the conduction band is located above it.The distinction between the valence and conduction bands is meaningless in metals, because conduction occurs in one or more partially filled bands that take on the properties of both the valence and conduction bands.","title":"Valence and conduction bands"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"band gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gap"},{"link_name":"conductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductor"},{"link_name":"quantization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantization_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"In semiconductors and insulators the two bands are separated by a band gap, while in conductors the bands overlap. A band gap is an energy range in a solid where no electron states can exist due to the quantization of energy. Within the concept of bands, the energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band is the band gap.[1] Electrical conductivity of non-metals is determined by the susceptibility of electrons to be excited from the valence band to the conduction band.","title":"Band gap"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Semiconductor_band_structure_(lots_of_bands_2).svg"},{"link_name":"electrical conduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conduction"},{"link_name":"semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"charge carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_carrier"},{"link_name":"accelerate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerate"},{"link_name":"electric field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_field"},{"link_name":"electrical conductivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductivity"},{"link_name":"semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductors"},{"link_name":"insulators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_hole"}],"text":"Semiconductor band structureSee electrical conduction and semiconductor for a more detailed description of band structure.In solids, the ability of electrons to act as charge carriers depends on the availability of vacant electronic states. This allows the electrons to increase their energy (i.e., accelerate) when an electric field is applied. Similarly, holes (empty states) in the almost filled valence band also allow for conductivity.As such, the electrical conductivity of a solid depends on its capability to flow electrons from the valence to the conduction band. Hence, in the case of a semimetal with an overlap region, the electrical conductivity is high. If there is a small band gap (Eg), then the flow of electrons from valence to conduction band is possible only if an external energy (thermal, etc.) is supplied; these groups with small Eg are called semiconductors. If the Eg is sufficiently high, then the flow of electrons from valence to conduction band becomes negligible under normal conditions; these groups are called insulators.There is some conductivity in semiconductors, however. This is due to thermal excitation—some of the electrons get enough energy to jump the band gap in one go. Once they are in the conduction band, they can conduct electricity, as can the hole they left behind in the valence band. The hole is an empty state that allows electrons in the valence band some degree of freedom.","title":"Electrical conductivity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"semiconductor nanocrystals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_dot"},{"link_name":"Bohr radius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_radius"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"The edge shifting of size-dependent conduction and/or valence band is a phenomenon being studied in the field of semiconductor nanocrystals. The radius limit of occurrence of the semiconductor nanocrystal is the effective Bohr radius of the nanocrystal. The conduction and/or valence band edges shift to higher energy levels under this radius limit due to discrete optical transitions when semiconductor nanocrystal is restricted by the exciton. As a result of this edge shifting, the size of the conduction and/or valence band is decreased. This size-dependent edge shifting of conduction and/or valence band can provide plenty of useful information regarding the size or concentration of the semiconductor nanoparticles or band structures.[2]","title":"Band edge shifts of semiconductor nanoparticles"}]

[{"image_text":"Filling of the electronic states in various types of materials at equilibrium. Here, height is energy while width is the density of available states for a certain energy in the material listed. The shade follows the Fermi–Dirac distribution (black: all states filled, white: no state filled). In metals and semimetals the Fermi level EF lies inside at least one band. In insulators and semiconductors the Fermi level is inside a band gap; however, in semiconductors the bands are near enough to the Fermi level to be thermally populated with electrons or holes. \"intrin.\" indicates intrinsic semiconductors. edit","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Band_filling_diagram.svg/400px-Band_filling_diagram.svg.png"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-dielectric_self-supporting

All-dielectric self-supporting cable

["1 Construction details","2 Accessories and installation","3 Application issues","4 References"]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "All-dielectric self-supporting cable" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) All-dielectric self-supporting (ADSS) cable is a type of optical fiber cable that is strong enough to support itself between structures without using conductive metal elements. It is used by electrical utility companies as a communications medium, installed along existing overhead transmission lines and often sharing the same support structures as the electrical conductors. ADSS is an alternative to OPGW and OPAC with lower installation cost. The cables are designed to be strong enough to allow lengths of up to 700 metres to be installed between support towers. ADSS cable is designed to be lightweight and small in diameter to reduce the load on tower structures due to cable weight, wind, and ice. In the design of the cable, the internal glass optical fibers are supported with little or no strain, to maintain low optical loss throughout the life of the cable. The cable is jacketed to prevent moisture from degrading the fibers. The jacket also protects the polymer strength elements from the effect of solar ultraviolet light. Using single-mode fibers and light wavelengths of either 1310 or 1550 nanometres, circuits up to 100 km long are possible without repeaters. A single cable can carry as many as 864 fibers. Construction details No metal wires are used in an ADSS cable. Optical fibers are either supported in loose buffer tubes, or arranged in a ribbon configuration. To prevent strain on the fibers, most types provide the fibres with excess slack length compared to the length of the supporting member. For longer spans, the most common design gets its strength from aramid fiber yarns, which are coated to prevent water wicking. The aramid yarn strength member surrounds a core made up of multiple buffer tubes, each containing multiple fibers, all surrounding a plastic core. The outer sheath provides protection from water and sunlight. Another version consists of a large central tube containing multiple flat, thin structures called fiber ribbons; these consists of 6 or 12 fibers laminated between layers of a tape-like material. Another type of design uses four glass-reinforced plastic strength member strands, and loose buffer tubes cabled into an assembly and protected by a jacket. Accessories and installation Fittings used with ADSS cable may be tension type, used at dead-ends where the cable terminates or changes direction, or may be suspension type, only holding the weight of a span with tension transmitted through the next span of cable. Reinforcing rods are used at dead-ends and may sometimes be used on either side of a suspension support. Wind-induced aeolian vibration may be a factor on longer spans since ADSS cables have light weight, relatively high tension, and little self-damping. Anti-vibration dampers may be installed on each span near the support points if needed. Accessories must not be clamped directly to the cable but instead over reinforcing rods, to protect the cable from electrical and mechanical damage. Termination boxes are used to enclose and protect splices between the ADSS cable and "inside plant" cable runs. ADSS cable can be installed using live-line methods on an energized transmission line. Fiber cables are generally supported on the lower cross-arms of the tower, which provides good clearance to the ground. When the fibers are installed in the middle of a tower, the fiber cable is unlikely to hit energized conductors. Lower weights and forces are used for installation, compared with metallic cables, so lighter equipment can be used. Installation technique is similar to installing overhead conductors, with care taken to prevent excessively tight bending of the cable, and adjustment of the sag of individual spans as for metallic cables. Application issues Cables must be designed for the worst-case combinations of temperature, ice load, and wind. An installed cable must not sag so low that it can be damaged by traffic under the line. On long spans where utilities already experience conductor galloping caused by sustained high wind, dampers may need to be installed on ADSS cable also. The cable specifications should allow for operation at the lowest expected temperature. Transmission lines are sometimes exposed to damage by gunfire, especially in rural areas. Shotgun pellets may occasionally sever fibers or damage the sheath, allowing water into the cable. This is usually in areas where ADSS cables are strung low over known hunting areas. Glass under tension and exposed to acid environments loses strength; this applies to both the optical fibers and the glass reinforcement of polymers. The cable jacket and gel coating of fibres provides protection from chemical attack. The ADSS cable is suspended in the electrical field due to the phase conductors; this varies from a maximum at mid-span to zero at the grounded metal supports of the cable. In dry conditions, no current flows on the jacket of the cable, but moisture reduces the jacket insulation. Uneven distribution of moisture can result in formation of high-resistance "dry bands" which have a relatively high voltage across them. Dry bands tend to form at the supports. Voltage across the dry band can cause carbon tracks to form and erosion of the jacket material. If the voltage across the dry band is high enough, an arc may form which can damage the jacket. Dry-band arcing is more likely for cables installed under higher transmission voltage lines (220 kV and above). Even a few incidents of arcing along a dry band can cause severe permanent damage to the jacket, leading to subsequent failure of the cable. Relatively low sustained arc currents of a few milliamperes can cause eventual aging degradation of the cable. The magnitude of current available in an arc (and probability of damage) depends on the geometry of the installation and is not simply correlated with the voltage of the transmission line. Wetting conditions near industrial plants or saltwater will have more severe effect on the jacket resistance than in freshwater rain or fog. The two usual means of protecting cables from dry-banding damage in very high voltage environments involve using a tracking-resistant cable jacket material and relocating the cable to more favorable locations on the structure. References ^ Richard C. Dorf (ed), Electronics, Power Electronics, Optoelectronics, Microwaves, Electromagnetics, and Radar CRC Press, 2006 ISBN 0849373395 page 21-27 ^ Joye, Carson. "ADSS Advantages to Strand and Lash Fiber Cables in Aerial Electric Utility Applications". AFL Global (division of Fujikura). Retrieved 31 January 2020. ^ a b c G. F. Moore (ed.), Electric Cables Handbook Third Edition, Blackwell Science, 1997 ISBN 0-632-04075-0 Chapter 51 All-dielectric Self-supporting Cables pp. 730-744 ^ a b c "PowerGuide® Loose Tube Fiber Optic Cables" (PDF). OFS Optics (division of Furukawa Electric). Retrieved 30 January 2020. ^ "ADSS Long Span". Prysmian Group. Retrieved 30 January 2020. ^ "All-Dielectric Self-Supporting (AFL-ADSS®) Fiber Optic Cable". AFL Global (division of Fujikura). Retrieved 30 January 2020. ^ "SOLO® ADSS Loose Tube, Gel-Filled, Dual-Jacket Cable". Corning Inc. Retrieved 30 January 2020.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"optical fiber cable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber_cable"},{"link_name":"electrical utility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_utility"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White_paper-2"},{"link_name":"OPGW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_ground_wire"},{"link_name":"OPAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_attached_cable"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BICC97-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OFS-4"}],"text":"All-dielectric self-supporting (ADSS) cable is a type of optical fiber cable that is strong enough to support itself between structures without using conductive metal elements. It is used by electrical utility companies as a communications medium, installed along existing overhead transmission lines and often sharing the same support structures as the electrical conductors.[1][2]ADSS is an alternative to OPGW and OPAC with lower installation cost. The cables are designed to be strong enough to allow lengths of up to 700 metres to be installed between support towers. ADSS cable is designed to be lightweight and small in diameter to reduce the load on tower structures due to cable weight, wind, and ice.[3]In the design of the cable, the internal glass optical fibers are supported with little or no strain, to maintain low optical loss throughout the life of the cable. The cable is jacketed to prevent moisture from degrading the fibers. The jacket also protects the polymer strength elements from the effect of solar ultraviolet light.Using single-mode fibers and light wavelengths of either 1310 or 1550 nanometres, circuits up to 100 km long are possible without repeaters. A single cable can carry as many as 864 fibers.[4]","title":"All-dielectric self-supporting cable"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BICC97-3"},{"link_name":"aramid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramid"},{"link_name":"buffer tubes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffer_(optical_fiber)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OFS-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prysmian-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AFL-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Corning-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OFS-4"}],"text":"No metal wires are used in an ADSS cable. Optical fibers are either supported in loose buffer tubes, or arranged in a ribbon configuration. To prevent strain on the fibers, most types provide the fibres with excess slack length compared to the length of the supporting member.[3]For longer spans, the most common design gets its strength from aramid fiber yarns, which are coated to prevent water wicking. The aramid yarn strength member surrounds a core made up of multiple buffer tubes, each containing multiple fibers, all surrounding a plastic core.[4][5][6][7] The outer sheath provides protection from water and sunlight. Another version consists of a large central tube containing multiple flat, thin structures called fiber ribbons; these consists of 6 or 12 fibers laminated between layers of a tape-like material.[4]Another type of design uses four glass-reinforced plastic strength member strands, and loose buffer tubes cabled into an assembly and protected by a jacket.","title":"Construction details"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"aeolian vibration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolian_harp"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BICC97-3"}],"text":"Fittings used with ADSS cable may be tension type, used at dead-ends where the cable terminates or changes direction, or may be suspension type, only holding the weight of a span with tension transmitted through the next span of cable. Reinforcing rods are used at dead-ends and may sometimes be used on either side of a suspension support. Wind-induced aeolian vibration may be a factor on longer spans since ADSS cables have light weight, relatively high tension, and little self-damping. Anti-vibration dampers may be installed on each span near the support points if needed. Accessories must not be clamped directly to the cable but instead over reinforcing rods, to protect the cable from electrical and mechanical damage. Termination boxes are used to enclose and protect splices between the ADSS cable and \"inside plant\" cable runs.[3]ADSS cable can be installed using live-line methods on an energized transmission line. Fiber cables are generally supported on the lower cross-arms of the tower, which provides good clearance to the ground. When the fibers are installed in the middle of a tower, the fiber cable is unlikely to hit energized conductors. Lower weights and forces are used for installation, compared with metallic cables, so lighter equipment can be used.Installation technique is similar to installing overhead conductors, with care taken to prevent excessively tight bending of the cable, and adjustment of the sag of individual spans as for metallic cables.","title":"Accessories and installation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"conductor galloping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductor_gallop"},{"link_name":"arc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_arc"}],"text":"Cables must be designed for the worst-case combinations of temperature, ice load, and wind. An installed cable must not sag so low that it can be damaged by traffic under the line. On long spans where utilities already experience conductor galloping caused by sustained high wind, dampers may need to be installed on ADSS cable also. The cable specifications should allow for operation at the lowest expected temperature.Transmission lines are sometimes exposed to damage by gunfire, especially in rural areas. Shotgun pellets may occasionally sever fibers or damage the sheath, allowing water into the cable. This is usually in areas where ADSS cables are strung low over known hunting areas.Glass under tension and exposed to acid environments loses strength; this applies to both the optical fibers and the glass reinforcement of polymers. The cable jacket and gel coating of fibres provides protection from chemical attack.The ADSS cable is suspended in the electrical field due to the phase conductors; this varies from a maximum at mid-span to zero at the grounded metal supports of the cable. In dry conditions, no current flows on the jacket of the cable, but moisture reduces the jacket insulation. Uneven distribution of moisture can result in formation of high-resistance \"dry bands\" which have a relatively high voltage across them. Dry bands tend to form at the supports. Voltage across the dry band can cause carbon tracks to form and erosion of the jacket material. If the voltage across the dry band is high enough, an arc may form which can damage the jacket. Dry-band arcing is more likely for cables installed under higher transmission voltage lines (220 kV and above). Even a few incidents of arcing along a dry band can cause severe permanent damage to the jacket, leading to subsequent failure of the cable. Relatively low sustained arc currents of a few milliamperes can cause eventual aging degradation of the cable. The magnitude of current available in an arc (and probability of damage) depends on the geometry of the installation and is not simply correlated with the voltage of the transmission line. Wetting conditions near industrial plants or saltwater will have more severe effect on the jacket resistance than in freshwater rain or fog. The two usual means of protecting cables from dry-banding damage in very high voltage environments involve using a tracking-resistant cable jacket material and relocating the cable to more favorable locations on the structure.","title":"Application issues"}]

[]

[{"reference":"Joye, Carson. \"ADSS Advantages to Strand and Lash Fiber Cables in Aerial Electric Utility Applications\". AFL Global (division of Fujikura). Retrieved 31 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://learn.aflglobal.com/fiber-to-the-people/adss-advantages-to-strand-and-lash-fiber-cables-in-aerial-electric-utility-applications?mkt_tok=eyJpIjoiTkRVNE9XRmpNRFl6T0dJMSIsInQiOiJjWHF6UTg3UjlUWm9qdjF1UTkrUlc4YUFWY25yTngxNXlyU1dPTVBZMUhIbEZCZm5BQzc5NWpwamVxZjJaZzFpZHFGdzNvRnduZjZSd2lEa055N2g5N1l5cytRUTQ4XC9aMU8xTE1HUzM3ek1aVVdVVFJ6SVFBVGpJWnozQ2hsOVkifQ%3D%3D","url_text":"\"ADSS Advantages to Strand and Lash Fiber Cables in Aerial Electric Utility Applications\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujikura","url_text":"Fujikura"}]},{"reference":"\"PowerGuide® Loose Tube Fiber Optic Cables\" (PDF). OFS Optics (division of Furukawa Electric). Retrieved 30 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://fiber-optic-catalog.ofsoptics.com/documents/pdf/PowerGuide-Cable-Family-Brochure-osp-154-web.pdf","url_text":"\"PowerGuide® Loose Tube Fiber Optic Cables\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furukawa_Electric","url_text":"Furukawa Electric"}]},{"reference":"\"ADSS Long Span\". Prysmian Group. Retrieved 30 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://na.prysmiangroup.com/content/adss-long-span","url_text":"\"ADSS Long Span\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prysmian_Group","url_text":"Prysmian Group"}]},{"reference":"\"All-Dielectric Self-Supporting (AFL-ADSS®) Fiber Optic Cable\". AFL Global (division of Fujikura). Retrieved 30 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aflglobal.com/productlist/Product-Lines/Fiber-Optic-Cable/Standard_ADSS_Fiber_Optic_Cable/doc/ADSS-Standard.aspx","url_text":"\"All-Dielectric Self-Supporting (AFL-ADSS®) Fiber Optic Cable\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujikura","url_text":"Fujikura"}]},{"reference":"\"SOLO® ADSS Loose Tube, Gel-Filled, Dual-Jacket Cable\". Corning Inc. Retrieved 30 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://ecatalog.corning.com/optical-communications/US/en/Fiber-Optic-Cables/Outdoor/Outdoor-Aerial-Cables/SOLO%C2%AE-ADSS-Loose-Tube%2C-Gel-Filled%2C-Dual-Jacket-Cable/p/solo-adss-loose-tube-gel-filled-dual-jacket-cable","url_text":"\"SOLO® ADSS Loose Tube, Gel-Filled, Dual-Jacket Cable\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_Inc.","url_text":"Corning Inc."}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasithi_Plateau

Lasithi Plateau

["1 Geography","2 History","3 Archaeological sites","4 Economy","5 Population genetics studies","6 Gallery","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]

Coordinates: 35°11′N 25°28′E / 35.183°N 25.467°E / 35.183; 25.467Municipality in GreeceOropedio Lasithiou Οροπέδιο ΛασιθίουMunicipalityPanorama of the Lasithi Plateau SealOropedio LasithiouLocation within the region Coordinates: 35°11′N 25°28′E / 35.183°N 25.467°E / 35.183; 25.467CountryGreeceAdministrative regionCreteRegional unitLasithiArea • Municipality130.0 km2 (50.2 sq mi)Population (2021) • Municipality2,258 • Density17/km2 (45/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+2 (EET) • Summer (DST)UTC+3 (EEST)Vehicle registrationANWebsiteOropedio.gr The Lasithi Plateau (Greek: Οροπέδιο Λασιθίου, Oropedio Lasithiou) is a high endorheic plateau, located in the Lasithi regional unit in eastern Crete, Greece. Since the 1997 Kapodistrias reform, it is a municipality whose seat is Tzermiado  and the second biggest village is Agios Georgios. The municipality has an area of 129.9 km2. Geography Lasithi windmill. The Lasithi Plateau stretches 11 km (6.8 mi) in the E-W direction and 6 km (3.7 mi) in the N-S direction. It is approximately 70 km (43 mi) east from Heraklion and lies at an average altitude of 840 m (2,760 ft). Winters can be harsh and snow on the plain and surrounding mountains can persist until mid-spring. The plateau is famous for its white-sailed windmills, (more accurately, wind-pumps), made to a local design, that have been used since the 1920s to irrigate the land. Despite there being around 10,000 in the past, most of them have been abandoned in recent times in favour of modern diesel and electric pumps. Because the water table is close to the surface of the ground, the bodies of the dead are often housed above ground during burial, in stone mausoleums, or decorative stone boxes. This is because the plateau is endorheic, and there is impermeable rock just below the surface of the ground. Floodwater from the plateau is diverted via a 3.5 km tunnel to Aposelemis Dam reservoir. History Lasithi Plateau by Marco Boschini, 1651 Monument in Kroustalenia commemorating the destruction of Lasithi by Ottoman and Egyptian forces in May 1867. The fertile soil of the plateau, due to alluvial run-off from melting snow, has attracted inhabitants since Neolithic times (6000 BC). Minoans and Dorians followed and the plateau has been continuously inhabited since then, except a period that started in 1293 and lasted for over two centuries during the Venetian occupation of Crete. During that time and due to frequent rebellions and strong resistance, villages were demolished, cultivation prohibited, and natives were forced to leave and forbidden to return under penalty of death. A Venetian manuscript of the thirteenth century describes the troublesome plateau of Lasithi as spina nel cuore (di Venezia) - a thorn in the heart of Venice. Later, in the early 15th century, Venetian rulers allowed refugees from the Greek mainland (eastern Peloponnese) to settle in the plain and cultivate the land again. To ensure good crops, Venetians designed a large system of drainage ditches (linies, Greek: λίνιες) that were constructed between 1514 - 1560 and are still in use. The ditches transfer the water to Honos (Greek: Χώνος), a sinkhole in the west edge of the plateau, that feeds the river Aposelemis. During the Greek War of Independence in January 1823, Hassan Pasha led an army of Ottoman and Egyptian forces sent by Muhammad Ali that seized the plateau killing most residents who had not fled to the mountains. In May 1867 during the great Cretan revolt, Ottoman and Egyptian forces under the command of Pashas Omar and Ismail Selim marched towards the Lasithi plateau. Their aim was to strike a decisive blow on the revolutionaries who used it as their hideout. After fierce fighting, the outnumbered rebels were defeated and forced to retreat to the slopes of Dikti. Between 21 and 29 of May, many village dwellers were slaughtered or taken as slaves, their homes were set ablaze after being looted and livestock and crops were destroyed. The monastery of Kroustalenia that was the seat of the revolutionary committee was also demolished. During the Axis occupation of Greece in 1941–1944, the peaks surrounding the plateau were used as hideouts by local resistance fighters. Archaeological sites There are several caves of archaeological interest in the plateau and surrounding mountains. The Psychro Cave (Greek: Δικταίον Άντρον, also Diktaean / Diktaian Cave) in the Dikti mountains near the village of Psychro (Greek: Ψυχρό) is reputedly the birthplace of Zeus according to Greek Mythology. Zeus is also said to have used the cave as his hiding place after abducting Europa. The archeological site of Karfi, believed to be the last outpost of the Minoan civilization is located in the mountains immediately north of the plateau. Economy Permanent residents derive most of their income from agriculture and animal farming, a smaller number from tourism. Population genetics studies Because of its isolated nature, the Lasithi plateau has attracted the attention of population geneticists. A 2007 Y-DNA study showed that Y-DNA samples from the Lasithi plateau differed significantly from those of lowland Crete, and may be indicative of it having served as a refugium of the Minoan civilization. A 2013 mtDNA study of bone samples from a Minoan ossuary in the Lasithi Plateau, dated to 4,400-3,700 years ago, showed that Minoan samples were closest to samples drawn from the modern population of the plateau, as well as other Greek, western and northern European samples, while being distant from North African and Egyptian samples. According to the authors, these results are consistent with the hypothesis the plateau served as a Minoan refugium, and that the current inhabitants of the plateau carry the maternal signature of the Minoan population. Gallery The Plateau seen from the north See also Limnakaro a smaller plateau, south of the Lasithi plateau Dikti References ^ "Αποτελέσματα Απογραφής Πληθυσμού - Κατοικιών 2021, Μόνιμος Πληθυσμός κατά οικισμό" (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority. 29 March 2024. ^ Watrous, 1982, p.33 ^ Watrous, Livingston Vance (1982). Lasithi: A History of Settlement on a Highland Plain in Crete (PDF). Hesperia Supplement. Vol. 18. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies in Athens. ^ Dixon, Jeffrey S.; Sarkees, Meredith Reid (2015). A Guide to Intra-state Wars. Correlates of war series. SAGE Publications. p. 273. ISBN 9780872897755. ^ Γ. Παναγιωτάκης: Οι μάχες του Οροπεδίου Λασιθίου, Πατρίς onLine, 2 Ιουνίου 2006 ^ Martinez, Laisel (2007). "Paleolithic Y-haplogroup heritage predominates in a Cretan highland plateau". European Journal of Human Genetics. 15 (4). Nature Publishing Group: 485–493. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201769. PMID 17264870. ^ Hughey, Jeffrey (2013). "A European population in Minoan Bronze Age Crete". Nature Communications. 4 (5): 1861. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.1861H. doi:10.1038/ncomms2871. PMC 3674256. PMID 23673646. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lasithi Plateau. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Lasithi plateau. Windmills in operation (1975) on YouTube 17th century map of Lasithi by Marco Boschini Current weather conditions People From Lasithi Plateau living in Heraklion vteAdministrative division of the Crete Region Area 8,336 km2 (3,219 sq mi) Population 623,065 (as of 2011) Municipalities 24 (since 2011) Capital Heraklion Regional unit of Chania Apokoronas Chania Gavdos Kantanos-Selino Kissamos Platanias Sfakia Regional unit of Heraklion Archanes-Asterousia Faistos Gortyna Heraklion Hersonissos Malevizi Minoa Pediada Viannos Regional unit of Lasithi Agios Nikolaos Ierapetra Oropedio Lasithiou Siteia Regional unit of Rethymno Agios Vasileios Amari Anogeia Mylopotamos Rethymno Regional governor Stavros Arnaoutakis (reelected 2014) Decentralized Administration Crete vteSubdivisions of the municipality of Oropedio LasithiouMunicipal unit of Oropedio Lasithiou Agios Georgios Agios Konstantinos Avrakontes Kaminaki Kato Metochi Lagou Marmaketo Mesa Lasithi Plati Psychro Tzermiado Authority control databases: National Czech Republic

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"endorheic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorheic_basin"},{"link_name":"plateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plateau"},{"link_name":"Lasithi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasithi"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Kapodistrias reform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapodistrias_reform"},{"link_name":"municipality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_government"},{"link_name":"Tzermiado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tzermiado&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"el","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%BF_%CE%9B%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85"},{"link_name":"Agios Georgios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agios_Georgios,_Lasithi"}],"text":"Municipality in GreeceThe Lasithi Plateau (Greek: Οροπέδιο Λασιθίου, Oropedio Lasithiou) is a high endorheic plateau, located in the Lasithi regional unit in eastern Crete, Greece. Since the 1997 Kapodistrias reform, it is a municipality whose seat is Tzermiado [el] and the second biggest village is Agios Georgios. The municipality has an area of 129.9 km2.","title":"Lasithi Plateau"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windmill_at_Lassithi_plateau.jpg"},{"link_name":"Heraklion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraklion"},{"link_name":"windmills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmills"},{"link_name":"wind-pumps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windpump"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"endorheic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endorheic"},{"link_name":"Aposelemis Dam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aposelemis_Dam"}],"text":"Lasithi windmill.The Lasithi Plateau stretches 11 km (6.8 mi) in the E-W direction and 6 km (3.7 mi) in the N-S direction. It is approximately 70 km (43 mi) east from Heraklion and lies at an average altitude of 840 m (2,760 ft). Winters can be harsh and snow on the plain and surrounding mountains can persist until mid-spring. The plateau is famous for its white-sailed windmills, (more accurately, wind-pumps), made to a local design, that have been used since the 1920s to irrigate the land.[2] Despite there being around 10,000 in the past, most of them have been abandoned in recent times in favour of modern diesel and electric pumps. Because the water table is close to the surface of the ground, the bodies of the dead are often housed above ground during burial, in stone mausoleums, or decorative stone boxes. This is because the plateau is endorheic, and there is impermeable rock just below the surface of the ground. Floodwater from the plateau is diverted via a 3.5 km tunnel to Aposelemis Dam reservoir.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lassiti.jpg"},{"link_name":"Marco Boschini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Boschini"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1867_Lassithi_Monument.jpg"},{"link_name":"alluvial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alluvial"},{"link_name":"Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"},{"link_name":"BC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Christ"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Minoans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoans"},{"link_name":"Dorians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorians"},{"link_name":"Venetian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"rebellions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebellions"},{"link_name":"Peloponnese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peloponnese"},{"link_name":"ditches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditch"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"sinkhole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinkhole"},{"link_name":"Greek War of Independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence"},{"link_name":"Pasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasha"},{"link_name":"Ottoman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Muhammad Ali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Cretan revolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_Revolt_(1866%E2%80%931869)"},{"link_name":"Omar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Pasha"},{"link_name":"Ismail Selim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismail_Selim_Pasha"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Dikti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dikti"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Axis occupation of Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_Occupation_of_Greece"},{"link_name":"resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_resistance"}],"text":"Lasithi Plateau by Marco Boschini, 1651Monument in Kroustalenia commemorating the destruction of Lasithi by Ottoman and Egyptian forces in May 1867.The fertile soil of the plateau, due to alluvial run-off from melting snow, has attracted inhabitants since Neolithic times (6000 BC).[3] Minoans and Dorians followed and the plateau has been continuously inhabited since then, except a period that started in 1293 and lasted for over two centuries during the Venetian occupation of Crete. During that time and due to frequent rebellions and strong resistance, villages were demolished, cultivation prohibited, and natives were forced to leave and forbidden to return under penalty of death. A Venetian manuscript of the thirteenth century describes the troublesome plateau of Lasithi as spina nel cuore (di Venezia) - a thorn in the heart of Venice.\nLater, in the early 15th century, Venetian rulers allowed refugees from the Greek mainland (eastern Peloponnese) to settle in the plain and cultivate the land again. To ensure good crops, Venetians designed a large system of drainage ditches (linies, Greek: λίνιες) that were constructed between 1514 - 1560 and are still in use. The ditches transfer the water to Honos (Greek: Χώνος), a sinkhole in the west edge of the plateau, that feeds the river Aposelemis.During the Greek War of Independence in January 1823, Hassan Pasha led an army of Ottoman and Egyptian forces sent by Muhammad Ali that seized the plateau killing most residents who had not fled to the mountains. In May 1867 during the great Cretan revolt, Ottoman and Egyptian forces under the command of Pashas Omar and Ismail Selim marched towards the Lasithi plateau.[4] Their aim was to strike a decisive blow on the revolutionaries who used it as their hideout. After fierce fighting, the outnumbered rebels were defeated and forced to retreat to the slopes of Dikti. Between 21 and 29 of May, many village dwellers were slaughtered or taken as slaves, their homes were set ablaze after being looted and livestock and crops were destroyed.[5] The monastery of Kroustalenia that was the seat of the revolutionary committee was also demolished.During the Axis occupation of Greece in 1941–1944, the peaks surrounding the plateau were used as hideouts by local resistance fighters.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Psychro Cave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychro_Cave"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Dikti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dikti"},{"link_name":"Psychro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychro"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"Greek Mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Mythology"},{"link_name":"Europa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europa_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Karfi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karfi"},{"link_name":"Minoan civilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization"}],"text":"There are several caves of archaeological interest in the plateau and surrounding mountains. The Psychro Cave (Greek: Δικταίον Άντρον, also Diktaean / Diktaian Cave) in the Dikti mountains near the village of Psychro (Greek: Ψυχρό) is reputedly the birthplace of Zeus according to Greek Mythology. Zeus is also said to have used the cave as his hiding place after abducting Europa. The archeological site of Karfi, believed to be the last outpost of the Minoan civilization is located in the mountains immediately north of the plateau.","title":"Archaeological sites"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Permanent residents derive most of their income from agriculture and animal farming, a smaller number from tourism.","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Y-DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Y-chromosome_DNA_haplogroup"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"mtDNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MtDNA"},{"link_name":"ossuary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossuary"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Because of its isolated nature, the Lasithi plateau has attracted the attention of population geneticists. A 2007 Y-DNA study showed that Y-DNA samples from the Lasithi plateau differed significantly from those of lowland Crete, and may be indicative of it having served as a refugium of the Minoan civilization.[6] A 2013 mtDNA study of bone samples from a Minoan ossuary in the Lasithi Plateau, dated to 4,400-3,700 years ago, showed that Minoan samples were closest to samples drawn from the modern population of the plateau, as well as other Greek, western and northern European samples, while being distant from North African and Egyptian samples. According to the authors, these results are consistent with the hypothesis the plateau served as a Minoan refugium, and that the current inhabitants of the plateau carry the maternal signature of the Minoan population.[7]","title":"Population genetics studies"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lasithi-Plateau_2015-09-27.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lasithi-Plateau_2015-09-27.jpg"}],"text":"The Plateau seen from the north","title":"Gallery"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiny_Entertainment

Shiny Entertainment

["1 History","1.1 Background and formation (1980s–1993)","1.2 Earthworm Jim and acquisition by Interplay (1994–1995)","1.3 Further games (1996–2001)","1.4 Sale to Infogrames and Foundation 9, and merger (2002–2007)","2 Games developed","3 References","4 External links"]

American video game developer Shiny Entertainment, Inc.The primary logo for Shiny Entertainment, created by producing and then using a rubber stamp, and revised when the company moved into 3D gamesCompany typeSubsidiaryIndustryVideo gamesFoundedOctober 1993; 30 years ago (1993-10)FounderDavid PerryDefunctOctober 9, 2007 (2007-10-09)FateMerged with The CollectiveSuccessorDouble Helix GamesHeadquartersLaguna Beach, California, U.S.Key peopleDavid Perry (president; 1993–2006)Michael Persson (studio head; 2006–2007)ProductsEarthworm Jim seriesMDKMessiahSacrificeEnter the MatrixParentInterplay Entertainment(1995–2002)Atari(2002–2006)Foundation 9 Entertainment(2006–2007) Shiny Entertainment, Inc. was an American video game developer based in Laguna Beach, California. Founded in October 1993 by David Perry, Shiny was the creator of video games such as Earthworm Jim, MDK and Enter the Matrix. Perry sold the company to Interplay Productions in 1995, which sold the studio to Infogrames, Inc. in 2002. After Foundation 9 Entertainment acquired Shiny in 2006, the company was merged with The Collective in October 2007, creating Double Helix Games. History Background and formation (1980s–1993) David Perry, a video game programmer from Northern Ireland, created his first video game in 1982, when he was 15, for the Sinclair ZX81 that he had at home. This led him to move to London, England, shortly following his 17th birthday, where would work with several early video game developers on games for the ZX Spectrum. One of these companies was Probe Software, where Perry worked on The Terminator, published by Virgin Games.: 349  By 1991, Perry had moved to Irvine, California, to work for the internal development studio of Virgin Games' American branch.: 351  At Virgin Games, Perry worked on three successful promotional games: Global Gladiators for McDonald's, Cool Spot for 7 Up, and Disney's Aladdin.: 1–2  All three games were profitable enough that Perry, after two years at Virgin Games, opted to leave the company.: 2  At the time, he had received employment offers from the Sega Technical Institute and Playmates Toys; the latter was a toy company that had produced toys based on the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles license and was looking to move into video games from that same license.: 2  Perry turned down both offers, instead working out an agreement with Playmates that would see the company fund an independent studio with several million dollars, in exchange for the publishing rights to the first three games developed by that studio.: 2  Playmates agreed, and Perry, once he had gained lawful permanent resident status in the U.S., set up Shiny Entertainment using Playmates' funds in October 1993. Offices for the company were set up in Laguna Beach, California, and Perry was appointed as the company's president. Several developers formerly of Virgin Games followed Perry and joined Shiny, bringing its employee count to "around nine".: 4–5  The name "Shiny" was taken from the song "Shiny Happy People" by R.E.M., which was popular around the time of the company's inception, while the "Entertainment" suffix was chosen because Perry believed that, should the studio attempt to co-operate with Hollywood film production companies, such companies would rather work with an "entertainment" company than with a "games" company. Despite this precaution, Shiny was often mistaken for a pornography production company. Earthworm Jim and acquisition by Interplay (1994–1995) According to Perry, the young Shiny was not sure what to do, having neither a game project, nor a business plan.: 3  However, since Playmates was new to the video game industry, Playmates Interactive, the publishing arm set up by the toy company, had no high expectations.: 2  Playmates aided Shiny in finding licenses for potential game projects, and Shiny came close to developing a game based on the Knight Rider TV series, but eventually settled on creating an original game.: 2  When the company was about to hire Doug TenNapel, an animator formerly of DreamWorks, TenNapel demonstrated his skills by creating a sketch for a game character that would later become Earthworm Jim. The character's abilities were worked out by Perry and TenNapel, and the surrounding game, also called Earthworm Jim, became Shiny's first development project.: 2  To help with the game's promotion, Playmates set out to create Earthworm Jim toys, but required that a TV series should be produced to market the toys.: 7  Perry subsequently met with executives of Universal Studios, who agreed to produce the series if there were toys to accompany it.: 8  The deadlock was resolved when Perry invited the heads of Universal and Playmates for dinner, agreeing each party would fulfill their part of the deal.: 8  The game was released on console in 1994 to much success, spawning several sequels, spin-offs and ports to other platforms. Following a sequel to Earthworm Jim, Earthworm Jim 2, Shiny ought to produce a game with 3D computer graphics, however, Perry was concerned that his team, which had only worked on 2D games, would find it difficult to produce a 3D game.: 6  Seeking help from other companies, Perry was offered deals by Nintendo and Sony to exclusively develop for these companies' console, but he instead agreed to sell Shiny to another video game publisher, Interplay Productions.: 6  The deal was announced by Interplay at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 1995, with Shiny retaining their identity and management under the new ownership. Following this buy-out, half of Shiny's employees, including TenNapel, left Shiny to form The Neverhood, Inc., another game developer. Meanwhile, Perry instituted a strict no-sequels policy at Shiny to ensure that new games developed by the studio would be surprising and associated with the developer, rather than with a franchise. Further games (1996–2001) The next game produced by Shiny was MDK, produced fully in 3D. The studio's team successfully switched from 2D to 3D development, and MDK, released in 1997, became a very successful game.: 6, 8  Aside from being used as a benchmark test for new graphics cards by various magazines, Shiny scored between 40 and 60 deals to include support for peripherals, including joysticks and 3D glasses, as well as deal with Apple Inc. that saw MDK pre-installed on every first-generation iMac.: 8  Perry believed that selling Shiny because he was unconfident of his team's ability to produce a 3D game was the worst mistake he had ever made. After MDK shipped, Shiny employees Nick Bruty and Bob Stevenson left the company to form Planet Moon Studios with the same development principles as Shiny. Further Shiny games—Wild 9, R/C Stunt Copter, Messiah, and Sacrifice—were developed in parallel at the company, leading to what Perry said was simultaneously diluting focus and talent, and none of the games sold as well as MDK.: 8  Sale to Infogrames and Foundation 9, and merger (2002–2007) In April 2002, during financial instability at Interplay, Shiny was sold off to Infogrames, Inc. (later renamed Atari, Inc.) for US$47 million. Enter the Matrix, which was in development at Shiny at time, also changed hands to the buyer. Under Atari, Perry conceptualized a game named Plague, which Atari forced him to significantly size down to meet budget requirements. This led Perry to leave the company on February 16, 2006. He was succeeded by Michael Persson, who became the studio's studio head. Perry went on to found GameConsultants.com, a consultancy firm for video game investors, in May 2006, and by September had joined Acclaim Games and was working on a massively multiplayer online game called 2Moons. Shortly following Perry's resignation, Atari announced that it was reducing its staff count by 20% and sell all of its internal studios, both actions also affecting Shiny. Perry's role as not an employee of Atari meant that he could aid Shiny find the best possible buyer. Thus, on October 2, 2006, Atari agreed to sell Shiny to Foundation 9 Entertainment under the terms that Shiny would at some point co-locate with The Collective, another Foundation 9 studio. On October 9, 2007, Foundation 9 announced that Shiny and The Collective were being merged; both studios had relocated their teams to new 60,000-square-foot (5,600 m2) offices in Irvine, California, from where the merged company would operate under the lead of Persson. In March 2008, the new studio was named Double Helix Games. Games developed Year Title Notes 1994 Earthworm Jim 1995 Earthworm Jim 2 1997 MDK 1998 Wild 9 1999 R/C Stunt Copter 2000 Messiah Sacrifice 2003 Enter the Matrix Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines Supportive development for Black Ops Entertainment 2005 The Matrix: Path of Neo 2007 The Golden Compass References ^ a b c d Keefer, John (March 31, 2006). "GameSpy Retro: Developer Origins, Page 10 of 19". GameSpy. Archived from the original on June 9, 2007. ^ a b c d e Donnelly, Joe (November 25, 2015). "The making of: Earthworm Jim". PCGamesN. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Ramsay, Morgan (June 3, 2015). "Chapter 1: David Perry". Online Game Pioneers at Work. Apress. ISBN 9781430241867. ^ Retro Gamer Team (July 25, 2014). "The Making Of Eartworm Jim". Retro Gamer. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Freeman, Will (August 13, 2012). "David Perry – The life of a legend". Develop. Archived from the original on October 20, 2012. ^ "Top developer's code for success". BBC News. July 4, 2003. Archived from the original on April 2, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019. ^ a b "A Shiny Look for Interplay". GamePro. No. 73. IDG Communications. August 1995. p. 116. ^ "Gaming Gossip". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 74. Ziff Davis. September 1995. p. 44. ^ "Is There Life After Jim?". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 88. Ziff Davis. November 1996. pp. 152, 154. ^ Cocker, Guy (July 12, 2012). "David Perry: Selling Shiny to Interplay 'worst mistake I ever made'". GameSpot. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019. ^ Kaharl, Jonathan (November 21, 2018). "Armed and Dangerous". Hardcore Gaming 101. ^ Peel, Jeremy (October 15, 2015). "Making it in Unreal: how the madness of MDK and Giants: Citizen Kabuto feeds into First Wonder". PCGamesN. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019. ^ a b Gibson, Steve (April 25, 2002). "Shiny Entertainment Sold". Shacknews. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019. ^ a b c Jenkins, David (February 20, 2006). "Dave Perry Quits Shiny To Help Facilitate Sale". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019. ^ Sheffield, Brandon (October 10, 2006). "Life After Atari – What's Next for Shiny?". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019. ^ Loughrey, Paul (May 16, 2006). "Shiny Entertainment founder forms new company". GamesIndustry.biz. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019. ^ Wen, Howard (September 18, 2006). "Worthy of Acclaim: Why David Perry Left Shiny to Go to the Moon". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on August 23, 2016. Retrieved April 28, 2019. ^ Dobson, Jason (October 2, 2006). "Foundation 9 Acquires Shiny From Atari". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on January 31, 2018. Retrieved April 14, 2019. ^ Hatfield, Daemon (October 9, 2007). "Shiny, Collective Merged into Mega Studio". IGN. Archived from the original on April 28, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019. ^ Boyer, Brandon (March 27, 2008). "Foundation 9 Makes Double Helix Of The Collective, Shiny". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on May 13, 2012. Retrieved April 14, 2019. ^ Navarro, Alex (November 18, 2003). "Terminator 3 Review". GameSpot. External links Portals: Greater Los Angeles Companies Video games Official website at the Wayback Machine (archived October 10, 2007) Authority control databases International VIAF National France BnF data United States Other MusicBrainz label

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Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Neverhood"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Earthworm Jim and acquisition by Interplay (1994–1995)","text":"According to Perry, the young Shiny was not sure what to do, having neither a game project, nor a business plan.[3]: 3 [5] However, since Playmates was new to the video game industry, Playmates Interactive, the publishing arm set up by the toy company, had no high expectations.[3]: 2  Playmates aided Shiny in finding licenses for potential game projects, and Shiny came close to developing a game based on the Knight Rider TV series, but eventually settled on creating an original game.[3]: 2 [5] When the company was about to hire Doug TenNapel, an animator formerly of DreamWorks, TenNapel demonstrated his skills by creating a sketch for a game character that would later become Earthworm Jim.[5] The character's abilities were worked out by Perry and TenNapel, and the surrounding game, also called Earthworm Jim, became Shiny's first development project.[3]: 2 [5] To help with the game's promotion, Playmates set out to create Earthworm Jim toys, but required that a TV series should be produced to market the toys.[3]: 7  Perry subsequently met with executives of Universal Studios, who agreed to produce the series if there were toys to accompany it.[3]: 8  The deadlock was resolved when Perry invited the heads of Universal and Playmates for dinner, agreeing each party would fulfill their part of the deal.[3]: 8  The game was released on console in 1994 to much success, spawning several sequels, spin-offs and ports to other platforms.[2]Following a sequel to Earthworm Jim, Earthworm Jim 2, Shiny ought to produce a game with 3D computer graphics, however, Perry was concerned that his team, which had only worked on 2D games, would find it difficult to produce a 3D game.[3]: 6 [5] Seeking help from other companies, Perry was offered deals by Nintendo and Sony to exclusively develop for these companies' console, but he instead agreed to sell Shiny to another video game publisher, Interplay Productions.[3]: 6 [5][7] The deal was announced by Interplay at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 1995, with Shiny retaining their identity and management under the new ownership.[7] Following this buy-out, half of Shiny's employees, including TenNapel, left Shiny to form The Neverhood, Inc., another game developer.[8] Meanwhile, Perry instituted a strict no-sequels policy at Shiny to ensure that new games developed by the studio would be surprising and associated with the developer, rather than with a franchise.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MDK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDK"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Develop-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ramsay_2015-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Develop-5"},{"link_name":"benchmark test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benchmark_test"},{"link_name":"graphics cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_card"},{"link_name":"3D glasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_glasses"},{"link_name":"Apple Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"iMac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMac"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ramsay_2015-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Develop-5"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Nick Bruty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Bruty"},{"link_name":"Planet Moon Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_Moon_Studios"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Wild 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_9"},{"link_name":"R/C Stunt Copter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R/C_Stunt_Copter"},{"link_name":"Messiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messiah_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Sacrifice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrifice_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ramsay_2015-3"}],"sub_title":"Further games (1996–2001)","text":"The next game produced by Shiny was MDK, produced fully in 3D.[5] The studio's team successfully switched from 2D to 3D development, and MDK, released in 1997, became a very successful game.[3]: 6, 8 [5] Aside from being used as a benchmark test for new graphics cards by various magazines, Shiny scored between 40 and 60 deals to include support for peripherals, including joysticks and 3D glasses, as well as deal with Apple Inc. that saw MDK pre-installed on every first-generation iMac.[3]: 8 [5] Perry believed that selling Shiny because he was unconfident of his team's ability to produce a 3D game was the worst mistake he had ever made.[10] After MDK shipped, Shiny employees Nick Bruty and Bob Stevenson left the company to form Planet Moon Studios with the same development principles as Shiny.[11][12] Further Shiny games—Wild 9, R/C Stunt Copter, Messiah, and Sacrifice—were developed in parallel at the company, leading to what Perry said was simultaneously diluting focus and talent, and none of the games sold as well as MDK.[3]: 8","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Infogrames, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infogrames,_Inc."},{"link_name":"US$","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Develop-5"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shacknews-13"},{"link_name":"Enter the Matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enter_the_Matrix"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Develop-5"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shacknews-13"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Develop-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Develop-5"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gamasutra-14"},{"link_name":"studio head","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_head"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"consultancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consultancy"},{"link_name":"Acclaim Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acclaim_Games"},{"link_name":"massively multiplayer online game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_game"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gamasutra-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gamasutra-14"},{"link_name":"Foundation 9 Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_9_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"The Collective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Collective_(company)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Irvine, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvine,_California"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Double Helix Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_Helix_Games"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Sale to Infogrames and Foundation 9, and merger (2002–2007)","text":"In April 2002, during financial instability at Interplay, Shiny was sold off to Infogrames, Inc. (later renamed Atari, Inc.) for US$47 million.[5][13] Enter the Matrix, which was in development at Shiny at time, also changed hands to the buyer.[5][13] Under Atari, Perry conceptualized a game named Plague, which Atari forced him to significantly size down to meet budget requirements.[5] This led Perry to leave the company on February 16, 2006.[5][14] He was succeeded by Michael Persson, who became the studio's studio head.[15] Perry went on to found GameConsultants.com, a consultancy firm for video game investors, in May 2006, and by September had joined Acclaim Games and was working on a massively multiplayer online game called 2Moons.[16][17]Shortly following Perry's resignation, Atari announced that it was reducing its staff count by 20% and sell all of its internal studios, both actions also affecting Shiny.[14] Perry's role as not an employee of Atari meant that he could aid Shiny find the best possible buyer.[14] Thus, on October 2, 2006, Atari agreed to sell Shiny to Foundation 9 Entertainment under the terms that Shiny would at some point co-locate with The Collective, another Foundation 9 studio.[18] On October 9, 2007, Foundation 9 announced that Shiny and The Collective were being merged; both studios had relocated their teams to new 60,000-square-foot (5,600 m2) offices in Irvine, California, from where the merged company would operate under the lead of Persson.[19] In March 2008, the new studio was named Double Helix Games.[20]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Games developed"}]

[]

[{"reference":"Keefer, John (March 31, 2006). \"GameSpy Retro: Developer Origins, Page 10 of 19\". GameSpy. Archived from the original on June 9, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070609133224/http://www.gamespy.com/articles/697/697083p10.html","url_text":"\"GameSpy Retro: Developer Origins, Page 10 of 19\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpy","url_text":"GameSpy"},{"url":"http://www.gamespy.com/articles/697/697083p10.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Donnelly, Joe (November 25, 2015). \"The making of: Earthworm Jim\". PCGamesN. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcgamesn.com/earthworm-jim-series/the-making-of-earthworm-jim","url_text":"\"The making of: Earthworm Jim\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCGamesN","url_text":"PCGamesN"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190427150638/https://www.pcgamesn.com/earthworm-jim-series/the-making-of-earthworm-jim","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Ramsay, Morgan (June 3, 2015). \"Chapter 1: David Perry\". Online Game Pioneers at Work. Apress. ISBN 9781430241867.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zEYnCgAAQBAJ","url_text":"Online Game Pioneers at Work"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apress","url_text":"Apress"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781430241867","url_text":"9781430241867"}]},{"reference":"Retro Gamer Team (July 25, 2014). \"The Making Of Eartworm Jim\". Retro Gamer. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.retrogamer.net/retro_games90/the-making-of-eartworm-jim/","url_text":"\"The Making Of Eartworm Jim\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retro_Gamer","url_text":"Retro Gamer"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190427145140/https://www.retrogamer.net/retro_games90/the-making-of-eartworm-jim/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Freeman, Will (August 13, 2012). \"David Perry – The life of a legend\". Develop. Archived from the original on October 20, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121020060812/http://www.develop-online.net/features/1689/Perry","url_text":"\"David Perry – The life of a legend\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Develop_(magazine)","url_text":"Develop"},{"url":"http://www.develop-online.net/features/1689/Perry","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Top developer's code for success\". BBC News. July 4, 2003. Archived from the original on April 2, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/3041572.stm","url_text":"\"Top developer's code for success\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News","url_text":"BBC News"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190402141912/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/3041572.stm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"A Shiny Look for Interplay\". GamePro. No. 73. IDG Communications. August 1995. p. 116.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/GamePro_Issue_073_August_1995/page/n117","url_text":"\"A Shiny Look for Interplay\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro","url_text":"GamePro"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDG_Communications","url_text":"IDG Communications"}]},{"reference":"\"Gaming Gossip\". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 74. Ziff Davis. September 1995. p. 44.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Gaming_Monthly","url_text":"Electronic Gaming Monthly"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziff_Davis","url_text":"Ziff Davis"}]},{"reference":"\"Is There Life After Jim?\". Electronic Gaming Monthly. No. 88. Ziff Davis. November 1996. pp. 152, 154.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Gaming_Monthly","url_text":"Electronic Gaming Monthly"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziff_Davis","url_text":"Ziff Davis"}]},{"reference":"Cocker, Guy (July 12, 2012). \"David Perry: Selling Shiny to Interplay 'worst mistake I ever made'\". GameSpot. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamespot.com/articles/david-perry-selling-shiny-to-interplay-worst-mistake-i-ever-made/1100-6386605/","url_text":"\"David Perry: Selling Shiny to Interplay 'worst mistake I ever made'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpot","url_text":"GameSpot"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190427145136/https://www.gamespot.com/articles/david-perry-selling-shiny-to-interplay-worst-mistake-i-ever-made/1100-6386605/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kaharl, Jonathan (November 21, 2018). \"Armed and Dangerous\". Hardcore Gaming 101.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hardcoregaming101.net/armed-and-dangerous/","url_text":"\"Armed and Dangerous\""}]},{"reference":"Peel, Jeremy (October 15, 2015). \"Making it in Unreal: how the madness of MDK and Giants: Citizen Kabuto feeds into First Wonder\". PCGamesN. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcgamesn.com/first-wonder/making-it-in-unreal-how-the-madness-of-mdk-and-giants-citizen-kabuto-feeds-into-first-wonder","url_text":"\"Making it in Unreal: how the madness of MDK and Giants: Citizen Kabuto feeds into First Wonder\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCGamesN","url_text":"PCGamesN"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190427162352/https://www.pcgamesn.com/first-wonder/making-it-in-unreal-how-the-madness-of-mdk-and-giants-citizen-kabuto-feeds-into-first-wonder","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gibson, Steve (April 25, 2002). \"Shiny Entertainment Sold\". Shacknews. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.shacknews.com/article/20063/shiny-entertainment-sold","url_text":"\"Shiny Entertainment Sold\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shacknews","url_text":"Shacknews"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190427145134/https://www.shacknews.com/article/20063/shiny-entertainment-sold","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Jenkins, David (February 20, 2006). \"Dave Perry Quits Shiny To Help Facilitate Sale\". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/99179/Dave_Perry_Quits_Shiny_To_Help_Facilitate_Sale.php","url_text":"\"Dave Perry Quits Shiny To Help Facilitate Sale\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamasutra","url_text":"Gamasutra"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190427150646/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/99179/Dave_Perry_Quits_Shiny_To_Help_Facilitate_Sale.php","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sheffield, Brandon (October 10, 2006). \"Life After Atari – What's Next for Shiny?\". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/130224/life_after_atari__whats_next_for_.php","url_text":"\"Life After Atari – What's Next for Shiny?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamasutra","url_text":"Gamasutra"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190427145136/https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/130224/life_after_atari__whats_next_for_.php","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Loughrey, Paul (May 16, 2006). \"Shiny Entertainment founder forms new company\". GamesIndustry.biz. Archived from the original on April 27, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/shiny-entertainment-founder-forms-new-company","url_text":"\"Shiny Entertainment founder forms new company\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamesIndustry.biz","url_text":"GamesIndustry.biz"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190427145139/https://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/shiny-entertainment-founder-forms-new-company","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Wen, Howard (September 18, 2006). \"Worthy of Acclaim: Why David Perry Left Shiny to Go to the Moon\". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on August 23, 2016. Retrieved April 28, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/130239/worthy_of_acclaim_why_david_perry_.php","url_text":"\"Worthy of Acclaim: Why David Perry Left Shiny to Go to the Moon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamasutra","url_text":"Gamasutra"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160823002635/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/130239/worthy_of_acclaim_why_david_perry_.php","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Dobson, Jason (October 2, 2006). \"Foundation 9 Acquires Shiny From Atari\". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on January 31, 2018. Retrieved April 14, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/102045/Foundation_9_Acquires_Shiny_From_Atari.php","url_text":"\"Foundation 9 Acquires Shiny From Atari\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamasutra","url_text":"Gamasutra"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180131024303/https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/102045/Foundation_9_Acquires_Shiny_From_Atari.php","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hatfield, Daemon (October 9, 2007). \"Shiny, Collective Merged into Mega Studio\". IGN. Archived from the original on April 28, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ign.com/articles/2007/10/09/shiny-collective-merged-into-mega-studio","url_text":"\"Shiny, Collective Merged into Mega Studio\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN","url_text":"IGN"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190428194013/https://www.ign.com/articles/2007/10/09/shiny-collective-merged-into-mega-studio","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Boyer, Brandon (March 27, 2008). \"Foundation 9 Makes Double Helix Of The Collective, Shiny\". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on May 13, 2012. Retrieved April 14, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/108975/Foundation_9_Makes_Double_Helix_Of_The_Collective_Shiny.php","url_text":"\"Foundation 9 Makes Double Helix Of The Collective, Shiny\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamasutra","url_text":"Gamasutra"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120513094553/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/108975/Foundation_9_Makes_Double_Helix_Of_The_Collective_Shiny.php","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Navarro, Alex (November 18, 2003). \"Terminator 3 Review\". GameSpot.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gamespot.com/reviews/terminator-3-review/1900-6083860/","url_text":"\"Terminator 3 Review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpot","url_text":"GameSpot"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_New_York

Nintendo New York

["1 History","1.1 Game Boy damaged in the Gulf War","2 Sister locations","2.1 Licensed","3 References","4 External links","4.1 Related links"]

Flagship store of Nintendo corporation Nintendo New YorkCompany typeSubsidiaryIndustryDistribution, retailFoundedNovember 16, 2001; 22 years ago (2001-11-16) (as The Pokémon Center)May 14, 2005; 19 years ago (2005-05-14) (as Nintendo World)February 19, 2016; 8 years ago (2016-02-19) (as Nintendo New York)HeadquartersNew York City, New York, U.S.ProductsNintendo products, video games, and merchandiseOwnerNintendoWebsitewww.nintendonyc.com Nintendo New York (previously known as Nintendo World and The Pokémon Center) is the flagship specialty store of video game corporation Nintendo. Located in 10 Rockefeller Plaza, at Rockefeller Center in New York City, the two-story, 10,000-square-foot (930 m2) store opened on May 14, 2005. The store sells a wide variety of Nintendo video games and merchandise, including apparel, hardware, and accessories that are exclusive to the store, such as Japanese Mario character plushies, and special guides to a wide variety of Nintendo games. The store includes a dedicated Pokémon section. On the second level of the store, there are kiosks with various Nintendo Switch games running, allowing anyone to play. The second story also serves as a museum featuring past Nintendo game systems and peripherals. Notable items include the Power Glove, an original Nintendo Entertainment System, and a Nintendo Famicom from Japan. Nintendo New York regularly holds tournaments and shows for new games, giving early releases and prizes to winners. In addition, they have held screenings for multiple official Nintendo broadcasts including Nintendo Directs. History The space was formerly called The Pokémon Center, which opened on November 16, 2001. It ran until January 2005, when it closed for remodeling, reopening as the Nintendo World store 4 months later. On September 25, 2005, developer Shigeru Miyamoto visited the Nintendo World store to commemorate the release of Nintendogs and the 20th anniversary of Super Mario Bros. On July 10, 2010, Dragon Quest creator Yuji Horii visited the Nintendo World store to commemorate the release of Dragon Quest IX: Sentinels of the Starry Skies. On November 1, 2010, the Nintendo World store re-opened after a three-week makeover that included various upgrades, including the addition of new Nintendo DSi systems, adjusted lighting, and an expanded museum area. Part of the makeover included getting ready for the 25th anniversary celebration of Super Mario Bros. on November 7, 2010. Guests to the celebration included Nintendo of America President Reggie Fils-Aimé and Shigeru Miyamoto. On November 17, 2012, the Nintendo World store had a big launch event for the Wii U, with hundreds of people in attendance. Reggie Fils-Aimé (who grew up in the NY area) made an appearance at the event. From November 21, 2014 until January 15, 2015, anyone with a copy of Pokémon Omega Ruby or Alpha Sapphire could receive an Eon ticket for their individual game to have an in-game encounter with Latias or Latios, depending on their version of the game. Once the Eon ticket had been obtained, it could be passed on to other players with a copy of the game for free via StreetPass. On January 19, 2016, the Nintendo World store was closed for renovation and re-opened its doors on February 19, 2016, with new features in the store. On its re-opening, the store was renamed "Nintendo New York." On March 14, 2020, Nintendo NY shortened their hours open to the public. Two days later, on March 16, 2020, they announced on Twitter that they would be officially on full closure due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City. On August 5, 2020, Nintendo NY announced they would be reopening the store on August 8. However, visitors must follow the correct guidelines during the pandemic and if they want to enter the store they must book a reservation online. On June 1, 2020, the store's windows were vandalized during a riot in wake of the George Floyd protests. Game Boy damaged in the Gulf War The bomb-damaged Game Boy unit in public display The museum on the second story once displayed a Game Boy previously owned by Dr. Stephan Scoggins, a medic who was deployed during the Gulf War and known as a first cousin to rappers Kanye West and The WRLDFMS Tony Williams. The front of the console was severely burned and melted in his barracks during a bombing, and while still in service, Scoggins sent the console to Nintendo of America's magazine Nintendo Power hoping they could replace it. While the technicians that received the console determined it was a "lost cause", they discovered it could still be powered on and that the Start and Select buttons still worked, inserting a copy of Tetris to test it with. Nintendo Power sent Scoggins a replacement Game Boy "as a special 'Desert Storm' courtesy", and his letter asking for a replacement along with pictures of the console were featured in an issue of the magazine. The damaged Game Boy was later displayed at the store since its opening as a testament to the console's durability, remaining powered on and receiving timely maintenance until it was confirmed in 2023 that it was returned to Nintendo of America's headquarters in Redmond, Washington. Sister locations The Nintendo of America headquarters in Redmond, Washington has a private store for employees. On November 22, 2019, Nintendo opened their first sister location in Japan called Nintendo Tokyo. The new flagship store is located inside the newly rebuilt Shibuya Parco department store. The Pokémon Company later announced a new Pokémon Center store opening adjacent to Nintendo Tokyo in late November 2019, the same day as Shibuya Parco's (re)opening date. Nintendo announced on November 5, 2021 that they would open another sister location in Japan called Nintendo Osaka, by the end of 2022. It opened in November 2022. It is located on the thirteenth floor of the Daimaru Umeda department store in Kita-ku, as a store-within-a-store. On April 14, 2023, Nintendo announced they are launching their third Japanese store called Nintendo Kyoto on October 17, 2023, which will be located within the Takashimaya Department Store building in Kyoto, Nintendo's hometown. Additionally, Nintendo launched official pop-up stores in 2021 at various Japanese cities, and later in 2023 in Seoul, Singapore, and Hong Kong. Nintendo will open its second US retail store in San Francisco's Union Square neighborhood in 2025. Licensed In May 2012, Shas Samurai, Nintendo's official representative in Saudi Arabia, opened a "Nintendo World Store" at Al Faisaliah Mall in Riyadh. In June 2019, Nintendo's official Israeli distributor TorGaming Ltd. launched a licensed Nintendo retail store at Dizengoff Center in Tel Aviv. The store was Dizengoff Center's second largest launch. In March 2020, a store dedicated to the Nintendo Switch called "NSEW" has opened in Hong Kong in cooperation with Nintendo. References ^ a b Sarrazin, Marc-André (April 21, 2005). "Nintendo World Store Opening Party — Nintendo Spin". NintendoSpin.com. Archived from the original on July 14, 2011. Retrieved 2009-08-10. ^ a b c Schreier, Jason (November 1, 2010). "Photos: New York's Nintendo World Store Sports Slick Makeover". Wired. Retrieved 12 November 2010. ^ "Nintendo NYC". Placecot MiX. Archived from the original on 2017-04-05. Retrieved 2017-04-04. ^ James Ransom-Wiley (September 25, 2005). "Shigeru Miyamoto at Nintendo World". Joystiq.com. ^ JC Fletcher (July 1, 2010). "Yuji Horii at Dragon Quest IX launch event". Joystiq.com. ^ Thomsen, Michael. "Mario Turns 25 at the Nintendo World Store in New York". IGN. Archived from the original on November 12, 2010. Retrieved 12 November 2010. ^ Madden, Orla (17 November 2012). "Reggie Surprises Nintendo World Store Campers 24 Hours Before Wii U Launch". Retrieved 24 September 2016. ^ "Nintendo's flagship store reopens with a new name and new look". Engadget. 2016-02-19. Retrieved 2016-02-19. ^ "Live from the Nintendo New York store reopening". Nintendo Inquirer. 2016-02-19. Archived from the original on 2016-02-19. Retrieved 2016-02-19. ^ "Nintendo NY Reopens in Rockefeller Plaza on Friday, Feb. 19; Photos Available on Business Wire's Website and AP PhotoExpress". Business Wire. 2016-02-19. Retrieved 2016-02-19. ^ "The Nintendo NY Store Has Now Reopened". My Nintendo News. 2016-02-19. Retrieved 2016-02-19. ^ "Nintendo NY opens its doors to fans from around the world". Polygon. 2016-02-19. Retrieved 2016-02-19. ^ Nintendo NY (January 15, 2016). "We're gearing up for our big remodel that will begin on Tuesday, 1/19! Get excited #NintendoNYC fans!" (Tweet) – via Twitter. ^ "15-Foot Gaming Screen Part of Nintendo World Store's Major Renovation". GameSpot. 2016-01-06. Retrieved 2016-01-18. ^ "Nintendo World Store Getting Big Renovation". IGN. 2016-01-07. Retrieved 2016-01-18. ^ "Nintendo New York Store Closes Indefinitely In Midst Of Coronavirus Pandemic". DualShockers. 2020-03-17. Retrieved 2020-04-25. ^ Voigt, Austin (2020-06-02). "Nintendo New York Store Windows Smashed During Riots In Manhattan". Nintendo Life. Retrieved 2020-09-14. ^ Sherill, Cameron (April 21, 2019). "This Game Boy Survived a Bombing in the Gulf War". Esquire. Retrieved April 2, 2022. ^ Bueno, Daniel (June 30, 2023). "The Gulf War Game Boy Says Goodbye to Nintendo New York Store". Siliconera. Retrieved July 1, 2023. ^ Scoggins, Stephan. "Biography". Dr. Stephan Scoggins. Retrieved July 1, 2023. ^ We Are The Mighty (10 March 2021). "This is What Happened with the Game Boy that Works After Being Blown Up". G.I. Jobs. Retrieved July 1, 2023. ^ Totilo, Stephen (August 25, 2011). "The Coolest Things in Nintendo's American Headquarters (And One Uncool Thing)". Kotaku. Retrieved June 5, 2024. ^ Webb, Kevin (November 19, 2019). "Nintendo's first store in Japan opens this Friday, and it looks like a Nintendo-lover's paradise — here's what it's like inside". Business Insider. Retrieved February 18, 2020. ^ Iggy (June 18, 2019). "Pokemon Center Shibuya And Nintendo Tokyo Will Open In Late November". NintendoSoup. Retrieved August 17, 2019. ^ "Game on: Nintendo announces new Osaka store opening in 2022". Mainichi Shimbun. November 9, 2021. Retrieved April 5, 2022. ^ Yoerider (14 April 2023). "New Official Nintendo Store "Nintendo Kyoto" Coming To Japan October 2023". NintendoSoup. Retrieved 21 September 2023. ^ GALA-MOS (17 June 2021). "Nintendo Tokyo Pop-Up Stores Announced For Various Cities Across Japan". NintendoSoup. Retrieved 11 December 2023. ^ "「Nintendo POP-UP STORE in SEOUL」 오픈!". Official Nintendo of Korea news page (in Korean). 1 September 2023. Retrieved 11 December 2023. ^ GALA-MOS (2 September 2023). "Nintendo POP-UP STORE in SEOUL Announced, Opens October 20". NintendoSoup. Retrieved 11 December 2023. ^ Yoerider (18 October 2023). "Nintendo Pop-Up Store Coming To Singapore This November". NintendoSoup. Retrieved 11 December 2023. ^ "「Nintendo POP-UP STORE in HONG KONG」將首次登陸香港！". Official Nintendo (Hong Kong) Ltd. news page (in Traditional Chinese). 3 November 2023. Retrieved 11 December 2023. ^ Yoerider (5 November 2023). "Nintendo Pop-UP Store In Hong Kong Announced, Opens December 2023". NintendoSoup. Retrieved 11 December 2023. ^ Roth, Emma (May 24, 2024). "Nintendo is opening its second US store in San Francisco". The Verge. Retrieved June 5, 2024. ^ Bin Mahfoudh, Ahmad (May 16, 2012). "جولة داخل متجر Nintendo الرسمي في الرياض". TrueGaming (in Arabic). Retrieved August 17, 2019. ^ "Nintendo store listing on official Al Faisaliah Mall website". Al Faisaliah Mall. Retrieved August 17, 2019. ^ Moses, Shany (June 25, 2019). "Nintendo 2nd worldwide store opens in Israel". Globes. Retrieved August 17, 2019. ^ Iggy (March 18, 2020). "Nintendo Switch Store Opens In Hong Kong". NintendoSoup. Retrieved November 4, 2020. External links Video games portalNew York City portal Official website Archive copy of The Pokémon Center's official website at the Wayback Machine (archived November 18, 2001) Archive copy of Nintendo World Store's official website at the Wayback Machine (archived April 6, 2005) Related links Official website of Nintendo Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto Nintendo Tokyo/Osaka's online store Official Nintendo pop-up store webpages: Seoul Singapore Hong Kong vteNintendoPresidentsNintendo Co., Ltd. Fusajiro Yamauchi (1889–1929) Sekiryo Kaneda (1929–1949) Hiroshi Yamauchi (1949–2002) Satoru Iwata (2002–2015) Tatsumi Kimishima (2015–2018) Shuntaro Furukawa (2018–present) Nintendo of America Minoru Arakawa (1980–2002) Tatsumi Kimishima (2002–2006) Reggie Fils-Aimé (2006–2019) Doug Bowser (2019–present) PeopleActive Shigeru Miyamoto Koji Kondo Yoshio Sakamoto Tadashi Sugiyama Yasuhisa Yamamura Takashi Tezuka Akito Nakatsuka Kensuke Tanabe Hideki Konno Kenichi Sugino Satoru Shibata Kenji Yamamoto Hiroji Kiyotake Katsuya Eguchi Yoshiaki Koizumi Eiji Aonuma Shigefumi Hino Hiroyuki Kimura Toru Minegishi Kazumi Totaka Mahito Yokota Risa Tabata Aya Kyogoku Hidemaro Fujibayashi Bill Trinen Takayoshi Sato Former Genyo Takeda Masayuki Uemura Yōichi Kotabe Hirokazu Tanaka Satoru Okada Gunpei Yokoi Hirokazu Yasuhara Takaya Imamura ProductsVideo games Video games mobile games Consoles Controllers Characters Toys Love Tester Nintendo Tumbler Puzzle Ultra Hand Ultra Machine Services Nintendo eShop Nintendo Network Nintendo Network Services Club Nintendo Nintendo Account My Nintendo Nintendo Switch Online Software divisions Entertainment Planning & Development Platform Technology Development Publications Nintendo Fun Club Nintendo La Rivista Ufficiale Nintendo Magazine System Nintendo Player's Guide Nintendo Power Nintendo World Official Nintendo Magazine Events Camp Hyrule Classic Tetris World Championship Iwata Asks interviews Nintendo Campus Challenge Nintendo Direct Nintendo PowerFest '94 Nintendo World Championships NES Edition LocationsOperating Nintendo New York Shigureden Super Nintendo World Defunct Nintendo Mégadôme Upcoming Nintendo Museum Related History Data leak Marketing Nintendo Selects Nintendo Space World Nintendo and fan games Bergsala Symphonic Legends – Music from Nintendo vteRockefeller CenterBuildingsOriginal complex 30 Rockefeller Plaza Rainbow Room 1250 Avenue of the Americas 1270 Avenue of the Americas Radio City Music Hall Simon & Schuster Building Center Theatre British Empire Building International Building International Building North La Maison Francaise Palazzo d'Italia 600 Fifth Avenue 1 Rockefeller Plaza 10 Rockefeller Plaza 50 Rockefeller Plaza Later buildings 75 Rockefeller Plaza 1211 Avenue of the Americas 1221 Avenue of the Americas 1251 Avenue of the Americas 1271 Avenue of the Americas History Elgin Botanic Garden Construction Art Atlas Lunch atop a Skyscraper Man at the Crossroads Prometheus Other structures 608 Fifth Avenue Christmas tree Nintendo New York NBC Studios Rockefeller Plaza St. Nicholas Church Subway station Notable figures Raymond Hood Wallace Harrison Ivy Lee Rockefeller family John D. Rockefeller John D. Rockefeller Jr. Nelson Rockefeller Owners Beacon Capital Partners Rockefeller Group Tishman Speyer Books Great Fortune: The Epic of Rockefeller Center

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It ran until January 2005, when it closed for remodeling, reopening as the Nintendo World store 4 months later.[1]On September 25, 2005, developer Shigeru Miyamoto visited the Nintendo World store to commemorate the release of Nintendogs and the 20th anniversary of Super Mario Bros.[4]On July 10, 2010, Dragon Quest creator Yuji Horii visited the Nintendo World store to commemorate the release of Dragon Quest IX: Sentinels of the Starry Skies.[5]On November 1, 2010, the Nintendo World store re-opened after a three-week makeover that included various upgrades, including the addition of new Nintendo DSi systems, adjusted lighting, and an expanded museum area.[2] Part of the makeover included getting ready for the 25th anniversary celebration of Super Mario Bros. on November 7, 2010.[2] Guests to the celebration included Nintendo of America President Reggie Fils-Aimé and Shigeru Miyamoto.[6]On November 17, 2012, the Nintendo World store had a big launch event for the Wii U, with hundreds of people in attendance. Reggie Fils-Aimé (who grew up in the NY area) made an appearance at the event.[7]From November 21, 2014 until January 15, 2015, anyone with a copy of Pokémon Omega Ruby or Alpha Sapphire could receive an Eon ticket for their individual game to have an in-game encounter with Latias or Latios, depending on their version of the game. Once the Eon ticket had been obtained, it could be passed on to other players with a copy of the game for free via StreetPass.On January 19, 2016, the Nintendo World store was closed for renovation and re-opened its doors on February 19, 2016, with new features in the store.[8][9][10][11][12] On its re-opening, the store was renamed \"Nintendo New York.\"[13][14][15]On March 14, 2020, Nintendo NY shortened their hours open to the public. Two days later, on March 16, 2020, they announced on Twitter that they would be officially on full closure due to the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City.[16] On August 5, 2020, Nintendo NY announced they would be reopening the store on August 8. However, visitors must follow the correct guidelines during the pandemic and if they want to enter the store they must book a reservation online.On June 1, 2020, the store's windows were vandalized during a riot in wake of the George Floyd protests.[17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Game-Boy-Gulf-War-Damaged.jpg"},{"link_name":"Game Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy"},{"link_name":"Gulf War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War"},{"link_name":"Kanye West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanye_West"},{"link_name":"The WRLDFMS Tony Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_WRLDFMS_Tony_Williams"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Power"},{"link_name":"Tetris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetris_(Game_Boy_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Redmond, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redmond,_Washington"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Game Boy damaged in the Gulf War","text":"The bomb-damaged Game Boy unit in public displayThe museum on the second story once displayed a Game Boy previously owned by Dr. Stephan Scoggins, a medic who was deployed during the Gulf War and known as a first cousin to rappers Kanye West and The WRLDFMS Tony Williams.[citation needed] The front of the console was severely burned and melted in his barracks during a bombing, and while still in service, Scoggins sent the console to Nintendo of America's magazine Nintendo Power hoping they could replace it. While the technicians that received the console determined it was a \"lost cause\", they discovered it could still be powered on and that the Start and Select buttons still worked, inserting a copy of Tetris to test it with. Nintendo Power sent Scoggins a replacement Game Boy \"as a special 'Desert Storm' courtesy\", and his letter asking for a replacement along with pictures of the console were featured in an issue of the magazine. The damaged Game Boy was later displayed at the store since its opening as a testament to the console's durability, remaining powered on and receiving timely maintenance until it was confirmed in 2023 that it was returned to Nintendo of America's headquarters in Redmond, Washington.[18][19][20][21]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nintendo of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_of_America"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"The Pokémon Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pok%C3%A9mon_Company"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NS_cites_Nintendo_Tokyo_opening_with_PC_store-24"},{"link_name":"Osaka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka"},{"link_name":"store-within-a-store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Store-within-a-store"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Takashimaya Department Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takashimaya"},{"link_name":"Kyoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"pop-up stores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop-up_retail"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NintendoSoup_cites_Tokyo_pop-ups-27"},{"link_name":"Seoul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoul"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NOK_cites_Seoul_pop-up-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NintendoSoup_cites_Seoul_pop-up-29"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NintendoSoup_cites_Singapore_pop-up-30"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NHL_cites_Hong_Kong_pop-up-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NintendoSoup_cites_Hong_Kong_pop-up-32"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"Union Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Square,_San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"The Nintendo of America headquarters in Redmond, Washington has a private store for employees.[22]On November 22, 2019, Nintendo opened their first sister location in Japan called Nintendo Tokyo. The new flagship store is located inside the newly rebuilt Shibuya Parco department store.[23] The Pokémon Company later announced a new Pokémon Center store opening adjacent to Nintendo Tokyo in late November 2019, the same day as Shibuya Parco's (re)opening date.[24] Nintendo announced on November 5, 2021 that they would open another sister location in Japan called Nintendo Osaka, by the end of 2022. It opened in November 2022. It is located on the thirteenth floor of the Daimaru Umeda department store in Kita-ku, as a store-within-a-store.[25] On April 14, 2023, Nintendo announced they are launching their third Japanese store called Nintendo Kyoto on October 17, 2023, which will be located within the Takashimaya Department Store building in Kyoto, Nintendo's hometown.[26]Additionally, Nintendo launched official pop-up stores in 2021 at various Japanese cities,[27] and later in 2023 in Seoul,[28][29] Singapore,[30] and Hong Kong.[31][32]Nintendo will open its second US retail store in San Francisco's Union Square neighborhood in 2025.[33]","title":"Sister locations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Saudi Arabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia"},{"link_name":"Al Faisaliah Mall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Faisaliyah_Center"},{"link_name":"Riyadh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riyadh"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TG_cites_Faisaliah_store-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Faisaliah_store_page-35"},{"link_name":"Israeli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel"},{"link_name":"Dizengoff Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizengoff_Center"},{"link_name":"Tel Aviv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Globes_cites_Tel_Aviv_store-36"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Switch"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NS_cites_Hong_Kong_store-37"}],"sub_title":"Licensed","text":"In May 2012, Shas Samurai, Nintendo's official representative in Saudi Arabia, opened a \"Nintendo World Store\" at Al Faisaliah Mall in Riyadh.[34][35] In June 2019, Nintendo's official Israeli distributor TorGaming Ltd. launched a licensed Nintendo retail store at Dizengoff Center in Tel Aviv. The store was Dizengoff Center's second largest launch.[36] In March 2020, a store dedicated to the Nintendo Switch called \"NSEW\" has opened in Hong Kong in cooperation with Nintendo.[37]","title":"Sister locations"}]

[{"image_text":"The bomb-damaged Game Boy unit in public display","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Game-Boy-Gulf-War-Damaged.jpg/110px-Game-Boy-Gulf-War-Damaged.jpg"}]

[{"reference":"Sarrazin, Marc-André (April 21, 2005). \"Nintendo World Store Opening Party — Nintendo Spin\". NintendoSpin.com. Archived from the original on July 14, 2011. Retrieved 2009-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110714185247/http://www.nintendospin.com/news/nintendo-world-store-opening-party/","url_text":"\"Nintendo World Store Opening Party — Nintendo Spin\""},{"url":"http://www.nintendospin.com/news/nintendo-world-store-opening-party/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Schreier, Jason (November 1, 2010). \"Photos: New York's Nintendo World Store Sports Slick Makeover\". Wired. Retrieved 12 November 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/gamelife/2010/11/nintendo-world-store/?pid=519&pageid=30467&viewall=true","url_text":"\"Photos: New York's Nintendo World Store Sports Slick Makeover\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)","url_text":"Wired"}]},{"reference":"\"Nintendo NYC\". Placecot MiX. 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Retrieved 12 November 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101112221336/http://wii.ign.com/articles/113/1132876p1.html","url_text":"\"Mario Turns 25 at the Nintendo World Store in New York\""},{"url":"http://wii.ign.com/articles/113/1132876p1.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Madden, Orla (17 November 2012). \"Reggie Surprises Nintendo World Store Campers 24 Hours Before Wii U Launch\". Retrieved 24 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nintendolife.com/news/2012/11/reggie_surprises_nintendo_world_store_campers_24_hours_before_wii_u_launch","url_text":"\"Reggie Surprises Nintendo World Store Campers 24 Hours Before Wii U Launch\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nintendo's flagship store reopens with a new name and new look\". Engadget. 2016-02-19. 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Retrieved 2016-02-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20160219005954/en/Nintendo-NY-Reopens-Rockefeller-Plaza-Friday-Feb.","url_text":"\"Nintendo NY Reopens in Rockefeller Plaza on Friday, Feb. 19; Photos Available on Business Wire's Website and AP PhotoExpress\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Wire","url_text":"Business Wire"}]},{"reference":"\"The Nintendo NY Store Has Now Reopened\". My Nintendo News. 2016-02-19. Retrieved 2016-02-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mynintendonews.com/2016/02/19/the-nintendo-ny-store-has-now-reopened/comment-page-1/","url_text":"\"The Nintendo NY Store Has Now Reopened\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nintendo NY opens its doors to fans from around the world\". Polygon. 2016-02-19. 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Retrieved August 17, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.globes.co.il/en/article-nintendo-opens-second-store-worldwide-in-israel-1001291033","url_text":"\"Nintendo 2nd worldwide store opens in Israel\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globes_(newspaper)","url_text":"Globes"}]},{"reference":"Iggy (March 18, 2020). \"Nintendo Switch Store Opens In Hong Kong\". NintendoSoup. Retrieved November 4, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://nintendosoup.com/nintendo-switch-store-opens-in-hong-kong/","url_text":"\"Nintendo Switch Store Opens In Hong Kong\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duration_(project_management)

Duration (project management)

["1 See also"]

This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Duration" project management – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Duration of a project's terminal element is the number of calendar periods it takes from the time the execution of element starts to the moment it is completed. Duration should not be confused with work. E.g. it takes three days for a snail-mail letter to arrive at point B from point A, whereas the work put into mailing it may be 0.5 hours. Strictly speaking, the phrase Duration of terminal element X is 5 days is incomplete. It fails to specify the following: the probability with which the completion is expected in the time allotted (since any estimate is only a prediction about the uncertain future, see critical chain) the resources to be used (sometimes using more resources or different resources speeds things up) the assumptions which were made the author of the estimation the date the estimate was made the work schedule of the resources etc. So the improved statement could read: I, Marek Kowalczyk, as of 27 March 2005 strongly believe that if I fully applied myself to competing terminal element X and worked 8 hours a day every day, including holidays, and had all the materials at hand, then I would have completed it in 5 calendar days.' See metamodeling. It may seem unwieldy to use such complicated statements, but lack of detail often leads to misunderstanding. See also Student syndrome

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[]

[{"title":"Student syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_syndrome"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TotalEnergies

TotalEnergies

["1 History","1.1 1924–1985: Compagnie française des pétroles","1.2 1985–2003: Total CFP and rebranding to Total","1.3 2003–2021","1.4 2021–present: Rebranding to TotalEnergies","2 Organization","2.1 Business trends","2.2 Business segments","2.3 Head office","3 Operations","3.1 Investments","3.2 Acquisitions","3.3 Western Sahara oil exploration","3.4 Energy Deal with ADNOC","4 Controversies","4.1 Environmental and safety records","4.2 Bribery","4.3 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine","4.4 Africa","5 Automobile and motorcycle OEM partnerships","6 Sponsorship","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References","10 External links"]

French multinational energy and petroleum company This article is about the petroleum company. For the cycling team, sponsored by TotalEnergies SE, see Team TotalEnergies. TotalEnergies SETour Total in Courbevoie, France, the headquarters of TotalEnergies.FormerlyTotal SECompany typePublicTraded asEuronext Paris: TTENYSE: TTE (ADR)CAC 40 componentISINFR0000120271IndustryEnergy: Oil and gasPredecessorOmnium Français des PetrolesElf AquitainePetrofina Founded28 March 1924; 100 years ago (1924-03-28)SuccessorArkema HeadquartersTour Total, Courbevoie, FranceArea servedWorldwideKey peoplePatrick Pouyanné (chairman & CEO)ProductsPetroleumnatural gasLNGoil refiningchemicalssolarbiomassServicesFuel stationsRevenue US$237.1 billion (2023)Operating income US$33.43 billion (2023)Net income US$21.51 billion (2023)Total assets US$283.6 billion (2023)Total equity US$119.4 billion (2023)Number of employees102,579 (2023)Websitetotalenergies.com TotalEnergies SE is a French multinational integrated energy and petroleum company founded in 1924 and is one of the seven supermajor oil companies. Its businesses cover the entire oil and gas chain, from crude oil and natural gas exploration and production to power generation, transportation, refining, petroleum product marketing, and international crude oil and product trading. TotalEnergies is also a large-scale chemicals manufacturer. TotalEnergies has its head office in the Tour Total in La Défense district in Courbevoie, west of Paris. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. In the 2023 Forbes Global 2000, TotalEnergies was ranked as the 21st largest public company in the world. History 1924–1985: Compagnie française des pétroles The company was founded after World War I, when petrol was seen as vital in case of a new war with Germany. The then-French President Raymond Poincaré rejected the idea of forming a partnership with Royal Dutch Shell in favour of creating an entirely French oil company. At Poincaré's behest, Col. Ernest Mercier, with the support of 90 banks and companies, founded Total in 1924, as the Compagnie française des pétroles (CFP) (in English, the French Petroleum Company). As per the agreement reached during the San Remo conference of 1920, the French state received the 25% share held by Deutsche Bank in the Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC) as part of the compensation for war damages caused by Germany during World War I. The French government's stake in TPC was transferred to CFP, and the Red Line agreement in 1928 rearranged the shareholding of CFP in TPC (later renamed the Iraq Petroleum Company in 1929) to 23.75%. The company from the start was regarded as a private sector company in view of its listing on the Paris Stock Exchange in 1929. During the 1930s, the company was engaged in exploration and production, primarily from the Middle East. Its first refinery began operating in Normandy in 1933. After World War II, CFP engaged in oil exploration in Venezuela, Canada, and Africa while pursuing energy sources within France. Exploration in Algeria, then a French colony, began in 1946, with Algeria becoming a leading source of oil in the 1950s. In 1954, CFP introduced its downstream product – Total brand of gasoline in Africa and Europe. Total entered the United States in 1971 by acquiring Leonard Petroleum of Alma, Michigan and several Standard Oil of Indiana stations in Metro Detroit. In 1980, Total Petroleum (North America) Ltd., a company controlled 50% by CFP, bought the American refining and marketing assets of Vickers Petroleum as part of a sell-off by Esmark of its energy holdings. This purchase gave Total refining capacity, transportation, and a network of 350 service stations in 20 states. 1985–2003: Total CFP and rebranding to Total Total Plaza, the headquarters of the subsidiary Total Petrochemicals USA, in Downtown Houston Total's leadership had been aware of the deleterious effects of global warming since at least 1971; The company nevertheless openly denied the findings of climate science until the 1990s; Total also pursued a number of strategies to cover up the threat and contribution to the climate crisis. The company renamed itself Total CFP in 1985, to build on the popularity of its gasoline brand. Later in 1991, the name was changed to Total, when it became a public company listed on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1991, the French government held more than 30 percent of the company's stock but by 1996 had reduced its stake to less than 1 percent. In the period between 1990 and 1994, foreign ownership of the firm increased from 23 percent to 44 percent. Meanwhile, Total continued to expand its retail presence in North America under several brand names. In 1989, Denver, Colorado–based Total Petroleum, Total CFP's North American unit, purchased 125 Road Runner retail locations from Texarkana, Texas–based Truman Arnold Companies. By 1993, Total Petroleum was operating 2,600 retail stores under the Vickers, Apco, Road Runner, and Total brands. That year, the company began remodeling and rebranding all of its North American gasoline and convenience stores to use the Total name. Four years later, Total sold its North American refining and retail operations to Ultramar Diamond Shamrock for $400 million in stock and $414 million in assumed debt. After Total's takeover of Petrofina of Belgium in 1999, it became known as Total Fina. Afterwards, it also acquired Elf Aquitaine. First named TotalFinaElf after the merger in 2000, its name reverted to Total in 2003. During that rebranding, the globe logo was unveiled. Big Oil companies Company Revenue (USD) Profit (USD) Brands ExxonMobil $286 billion $23 billion MobilEssoImperial Oil Shell plc $273 billion $20 billion Jiffy LubePennzoil TotalEnergies $185 billion $16 billion Elf AquitaineSunPower BP $164 billion $7.6 billion AmocoAral AG Chevron $163 billion $16 billion TexacoCaltexHavoline Marathon $141 billion $10 billion ARCO Phillips 66 $115 billion $1.3 billion 76ConocoJET Valero $108 billion $0.9 billion — Eni $77 billion $5.8 billion — ConocoPhillips $48.3 billion $8.1 billion — 2003–2021 In 2003, Total signed for a 30% stake in the gas exploration venture in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) – South Rub' al-Khali joint venture along with Royal Dutch Shell and Saudi Aramco. The stake was later bought out by its partners. In 2006, Saudi Aramco and Total signed a memorandum of understanding to develop the Jubail Refinery and Petrochemical project in Saudi Arabia which targeted 400,000 barrels per day (bpd). Two years later, the two companies officially established a joint venture called Saudi Aramco Total Refining and Petrochemical Company (SATORP)- in which a 62.5% stake was held by Saudi Aramco and the balance 37.5% held by Total. Total withdrew in 2006 from all Iranian development work because of United Nations concerns that resulted in sanctions over possible weaponization of the Nuclear program of Iran. During the 2009–2010 Iraqi oil services contracts tender, a consortium led by CNPC (37.5%), which also included TOTAL (18.75%) and Petronas (18.75%) was awarded a production contract for the "Halfaya field" in the south of Iraq, which contains an estimated 4.1 billion barrels (650,000,000 m3) of oil. In 2010 Total and Erg merged their respective subsidiaries Total Italia and Erg Petroli, forming TotalErg, 49% controlled by the French group and 51% by the Italian one. As of 2010, Total had over 96,000 employees and operated in more than 130 countries. In 2010, Total announced plans to pull out of the forecourt market in the United Kingdom. In 2012, Total announced it was selling its 20% stake and operating mandate in its Nigerian offshore project to a unit of China Petrochemical Corp for $2.5 billion. In 2013, Total started the operation at Kashagan with North Caspian Operating Company. It is the biggest discovery of oil reserves since 1968. In 2013, Total increased its stake in Novatek to 16.96%. In 2013, Total and its joint venture partner agreed to buy Chevron Corporation's retail distribution business in Pakistan for an undisclosed amount. In January 2014, Total became the first major oil and gas firm to acquire exploration rights for shale gas in the UK after it bought a 40 percent interest in two licences in the Gainsborough Trough area of northern England for $48 million. In July 2014, the company disclosed it was in talks to sell its LPG distribution business in France to Pennsylvania-based UGI Corporation for €450 million ($615 million). On 20 October 2014, at 23:57 MST, a Dassault Falcon 50 business jet heading to Paris caught fire and exploded during takeoff after colliding with a snow removal vehicle in Vnukovo International Airport, killing four, including three crew members and CEO of Total S.A. Christophe de Margerie on board. Alcohol presence was confirmed in the blood of the driver of the vehicle on the ground. Patrick Pouyanne, who was Total's Refining Chief at that time, was appointed as CEO, and also as chairman of Total in 2015. In 2015, Total unveiled plans to cut 180 jobs in the United Kingdom, reduce refinery capacity and slow spending on North Sea fields after it fell to a $5.7bn final-quarter loss. The company said it would also sell off $5bn worth of assets worldwide and cut exploration costs by 30%. In 2016, Total signed a $224M deal to buy Lampiris, the third-largest Belgian supplier of gas and renewable energy to expand its gas and power distribution activities. In 2016, Total bought French battery maker Saft Groupe S.A. in a $1.1bn deal, to boost its development in renewable energy and electricity businesses. In 2016, Total agreed to acquire $2.2-billion in upstream and downstream assets from Petrobras as part of the firms' strategic alliance announced earlier that year. For Total, these new partnerships with Petrobras reinforce Total's position in Brazil through access to new fields in the Santos Basin while entering the gas value chain. Between 2013 and 2017, Total organized the ARGOS Challenge, a robotic competition with the aim to develop robots for their oil and gas production sites. It was won by an Austrian-German team using a variant of the taurob tracker robot. In 2017, Total signed a deal for a total amount of $4.8b with Iran for the development and production of South Pars, the world's largest gas field. The deal was the first foreign investment in Iran since in the 2015 sanctions over Iran's nuclear weaponisation were lifted by the JCPOA. In 2017, Total announced the acquisition of Maersk Oil for $7.45 billion in a share and debt transaction. This deal positioned Total as the second operator in the North Sea. In 2017, Total signed an agreement with EREN Renewable energy to acquire an interest of 23% in EREN RE for an amount of €237.5 million. In November 2017, Total announced the launch on the French residential market of Total Spring, a natural gas and green power offering that is 10% cheaper than regulated tariffs. Total is thus pursuing its strategy of downstream integration in the gas and power value chain in Europe. On 10 January 2018 TotalErg was acquired by Gruppo API, with the exception of the Special Fluids division, acquired by the newly formed Total Italia. In 2018, Total officially withdrew from the Iranian South Pars gas field because of sanctions pressure from the US. In 2019, Total announced the sale of a 30% stake in the Trapil pipeline network to crude oil storage operator Pisto SAS for €260 million. Later that year, Total signed deals to transfer 30% and 28.33% of its assets in Namibia's Block 2913B and Block 2912 respectively to QatarEnergy. The company will also transfer 40% of its existing 25% interests in the Orinduik and Kanuku blocks of Guyana and 25% interest in Blocks L11A, L11B, and L12 of Kenya to QatarEnergy. In July 2020 the company changed its name from Total SA to Total SE as part of registration as a European company. In 2020, the company announced its intention to cut 500 voluntary jobs in France. In 2021, Total left the American Petroleum Institute lobby, due to differences in the common vision of how to tackle the fight against climate change. In 2021, Total said that it had registered an income of $3 billion for the period of January–March, which is close to the levels registered before the pandemic. 2021–present: Rebranding to TotalEnergies In 2021, the company announced a name change to TotalEnergies as an intended illustration of its investments in the production of green electricity. At the Ordinary and Extraordinary Shareholders’ Meeting in May of that year, shareholders approved the name change to TotalEnergies. In 2022, TotalEnergies announced it would end all operations in Myanmar, citing rampant human rights abuses and deteriorating rule of law since the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état and has also called for international sanctions targeting the oil and gas sector in the country, which is one of the main sources of revenue for Myanmar's government. As of 11 March 2022, Total was one of the only Western oil companies to continue operating in Russia after the Russian Invasion of Ukraine. In June 2022, TotalEnergies signed a partnership with QatarEnergy for the worlds largest LNG expansion project, the North Field East (NFE). Holding the largest stake, 6.25%, TotalEnergies will hold the equivalent of one of the four trains. In September 2022, an additional agreement was signed to include the North Field South (NFS) which is the second phase of the NFE. This gave TotalEnergies a stake of 9.375% of the 25% stakes available to international companies. On 30 March 2023, Total sold a shipment of LNG which it sourced from UAE to CNOOC on the Shanghai Petroleum and Natural Gas Exchange. It was reportedly the first trade to be settled in the renminbi (Chinese yuan) currency on the SHPGX. In July 2023, Iraq signed a $27 billion energy agreement with TotalEnergies to develop the country’s energy sector and boost output of oil, gas and renewables. Additionally, Indian Oil Corp, has signed liquefied natural gas (LNG) import deals with ADNOC LNG and TotalEnergies in the same month. In October 2023, TotalEnergies sold its Canadian operations to Suncor Energy for C$1.47 billion($1.07 billion). TotalEnergies has agreed to buy liquefied natural gas from Qatar for 27 years, cementing the European nation’s commitment to fossil fuels beyond 2050. In 2023, Total invested $300 million in a renewable energy joint venture with Adani Green Energy. The joint venture's portfolio capacity is 1,050 MW - 300 MW of operating capacity, 500 MW of solar projects under construction and 250 MW of projects under development, as well as solar and wind power projects in India. At the end of January 2024, TotalEnergies reached an agreement with OMV to purchase a 50% stake in its joint venture in Malaysia (SapuraOMV) for $903 million. The deal includes the repayment of a $350 million loan from OMV to the joint venture. On 21 February 2024, TotalEnergies and Airbus entered a strategic partnership to meet emission-reduction goals through the use of sustainable aviation fuels (SAF). TotalEnergies will provide more than 50% of Airbus’ European fuel requirements. Compared to fossil fuels, SAF can reduce CO2 emissions by up to 90%. TotalEnergies and QatarEnergy entered an agreement on 6 March 2024 to purchase participating interests in South Africa’s Orange Basin offshore oil field. Under the agreement, TotalEnergies will have the exclusive right to operate its wells in Block 3B/4B with a 33% interest holding, while QatarEnergy will receive a 24% interest in the same block. In 22 April 2024, OmanLNG and TotalEnergies signed a deal in which OmanLNG will provide 800,000 metric tons of liquified natural gas. Organization See also: Subsidiaries and affiliates of TotalEnergies Business trends The key trends of TotalEnergies are (as at the financial year ending December 31): Year Revenue(US$ bn) Net income(US$ bn) Assets(US$ bn) Employees 2011 228 16.8 224 96,104 2012 249 14.6 235 97,126 2013 235 11.5 237 98,799 2014 212 4.2 229 100,307 2015 143 5.0 224 96,019 2016 127 6.1 230 102,168 2017 149 8.6 242 98,277 2018 184 11.4 256 104,460 2019 176 11.2 273 107,776 2020 119 –7.2 266 105,476 2021 184 16.0 293 101,309 2022 263 20.5 303 101,279 2023 237 21.3 283 101,279 Business segments Headquarters of Total Cambodia in Phnom Penh (Cambodia) In 2016, Total set up a new organization to achieve its ambition to become a responsible energy major. It is composed of the following segments: Exploration & Production; Gas, Renewables & Power; Refining & Chemicals; Trading & Shipping; Marketing & Services; and Total Global Services. In 2016 Total created two new corporate divisions: People & Social Responsibility (Human Resources; Health, Safety & Environment; the Security Division; and a new Civil Society Engagement Division) and Strategy & Innovation (Strategy & Climate Division, responsible for ensuring that strategy incorporates the 2 °C global warming scenario, Public Affairs, Audit, Research & Development, the Chief Digital Officer and the Senior Vice President Technology). Head office A total filling station in Wetherby, West Yorkshire The company's headquarters is in the Tour Total in the La Défense district in Courbevoie, France, near Paris. The building was originally constructed between 1983 and 1985 for Elf Aquitaine; Total SA acquired the building after its merger with Elf in 2000. Operations In May 2014, the company shelved its Joslyn North oil sands project in the Athabasca region of Alberta, Canada indefinitely, citing concerns about operating costs. An estimated $11 billion has been spent on the project, in which Total is the largest shareholder with 38.5%. Suncor Energy holds 36.75%, Occidental Petroleum owns 15% and Japan's Inpex has a 10% interest. Total is involved in 23 projects of exploration and production in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, South America and Russia. Investments In 1937, Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), 23.75 percent owned by Total, signed an oil concession agreement with the Sultan of Muscat. IPC offered financial support to raise an armed force that would assist the Sultan in occupying the interior region of Oman, an area that geologists believed to be rich in oil. This led to the 1954 outbreak of Jebel Akhdar War in Oman that lasted for more than 5 years. Total has been a significant investor in the Iranian energy sector since 1990. In 2017, Total and the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) signed a contract for the development and production of South Pars, the world's largest gas field. The project will have a production capacity of 2 billion cubic feet per day. The produced gas will supply the Iranian domestic market starting in 2021. During the European Union's sanctions against the military dictatorship Myanmar, Total is able to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand. Total is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for the condoning and use of the country's civilian slavery to construct the pipeline. The documentary 'Total Denial' shows the background of this project. The NGO Burma Campaign UK is currently campaigning against this project. Acquisitions In 2011, Total agreed to buy 60% of photovoltaics company SunPower for US$1.38 billion. By the 2013 annual reporting date, Total owned 64.65%. In 2016, Total agreed to purchase French battery maker Saft Groupe S.A. for 1.1 billion euros. In 2016, Total signed a $224M deal to buy Lampiris, the third-largest Belgian supplier of gas and renewable energy to expand its gas and power distribution activities. In December 2016, Total acquired about 23% of Tellurian for an amount of 207 million dollars, to develop an integrated gas project. In 2017, Total announced it would buy Maersk Oil from A.P. Moller-Maersk in a deal expected to close in the first quarter of 2018. In 2018, Total announced it was buying 74% of the French electricity and gas provider Direct Énergie from their main stockholders, for 1.4 billion euros. In 2022, Total announced it had added 4GW to its renewable energy portfolio through the acquisition of the Austin-based company, Core Solar. The following month, Total entered an agreement with GIP to acquire a 50% stake in Clearway, one of the largest renewable energy owners in the United States. As part of the transaction, GIP took a 50% minus one share stake in SunPower. In October 2023, TotalEnergies announced it was purchasing Quadra, a Germany based clean energy aggregator, for an undisclosed amount. In 2023, TotalEnergies acquired three gas-fired power plants with a total capacity of 1.5 GW in Texas from TexGen for $635 million. Western Sahara oil exploration In 2001, Total signed a contract for oil-reconnaissance in areas offshore Western Sahara (near Dakhla), with the Moroccan "Office National de Recherches et d’Exploitations Petrolières" (ONAREP). In 2002, Hans Corell (the United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Legal Affairs) stated in a letter to the president of the Security Council that whenever the contracts are only for exploration they're not illegal, but if further exploration or exploitation are against the interests and wishes of the people of Western Sahara, they would be in violation of the principles of international law. Finally, Total decided to not renew their license off Western Sahara. Energy Deal with ADNOC In a move to cope with the 2021-2022 global energy crisis, which started with the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic and aggravated with Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine, France’s TotalEnergies and UAE’s ADNOC signed a strategic deal to partner on energy projects “for cooperation in the area of energy supplies”. The deal was secured on the second day of the UAE leader Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al-Nahyan’s visit to Paris in 2022. The visit marked the UAE president’s first overseas state visit since assuming the post earlier that year. The deal was aimed at identifying and targeting potential joint investment projects in the UAE, France, and elsewhere in the sectors of renewables, hydrogen, and nuclear energy, as told by the French government in one of its statements. According to French President Emmanuel Macron’s aides, France had been eager to secure diesel supply from the UAE. The deal also received criticism from human rights groups that persisted Macron not to give the-then “crown prince a pass on the UAE’s atrocious human rights record”, as per the statement published by Human Rights Watch on its website. Controversies Environmental and safety records In 1999, the Total SA company was fined €375,000 for the MV Erika oil spill that stretched 400 kilometers from La Rochelle to the western tip of Brittany. The company was only fined that amount because they were only partially liable because Total SA did not own the ship. The plaintiffs had sought more than $1.5 billion in damages. More than 100 groups and local governments joined in the suit. The Total company was fined just over $298,000. The majority of the money will go to the French government, several environmental groups, and various regional governments. The Total SA company was also fined $550,000 for the amount of marine pollution that came from it. After the oil spill they tried to restore their image and have opened a sea turtle conservation project in Masirah in recent years. Prior to the verdict in which Total was found guilty one of the counterparts in the incident, Malta Maritime Authority (MMA), was not to be tried for having any hand in the incident. In 2005, Total submitted a report to the Paris courts which stated that Total had gathered a group of experts which stated the tanker was corroded and that Total was responsible for it. The courts sought a second expert reviewing this information, which was turned down. In 2001, the AZF chemical plant exploded in Toulouse, France, while belonging to the Grande Paroisse branch of Total. In 2008, Total was required to pay €192 million in compensation to victims of the pollution caused by the sinking of the ship Erika. This was in addition to the €200 million that Total spent to help clean up the spill. The company appealed twice against the verdict, losing both times. In 2016, Total was ranked as the second-best of 92 oil, gas, and mining companies on indigenous rights in the Arctic. According to the CDP Carbon Majors Report 2017, the company was one of the top 100 companies producing carbon emissions globally, responsible for .9% of global emissions from 1998 to 2015. In 2021, Total was ranked as the 2nd most environmentally responsible company out of 120 oil, gas, and mining companies involved in resource extraction north of the Arctic Circle in the Arctic Environmental Responsibility Index (AERI). According to a 2021 study, Total personnel were aware about the role that their products played in global warming as early as 1971, as well as throughout the 1980s. Despite this awareness, the company promoted doubt regarding the science of global warming by the late 1980s, and ultimately settled on a position in the late 1990s of publicly accepting climate science, while still promoting doubt and trying to delay climate action. Bribery Total has been accused of bribery on multiple occasions. Total is being implicated in a bribe commission scandal which is currently emerging in Malta. It has emerged that Total had told Maltese agents that it would not be interested in doing business with them unless their team included George Farrugia, who is under investigation in the procurement scandal. George Farrugia has recently been given a presidential pardon in exchange for information about this scandal. Enemalta, Malta's energy supplier, swiftly barred Total and its agents, Trafigura from bidding and tenders. An investigation is currently underway and three people have been arraigned. On 16 December 2008, the managing director of the Italian division of Total, Lionel Levha, and ten other executives were arrested by the public Prosecutor's office of Potenza, Italy, for a corruption charge of €15 million to undertake the oilfield in Basilicata on contract. Also arrested was the local deputy of Partito Democratico Salvatore Margiotta and an Italian entrepreneur. In 2010, Total was accused of bribing Iraqi officials during former president Saddam Hussein's regime to secure oil supplies. A United Nations report later revealed that Iraqi officials had received bribes from oil companies to secure contracts worth over $10bn. On 26 February 2016, the Paris Court of Appeals considered Total guilty and ordered the company to pay a fine of €750,000 for corrupting Iraqi civil servants. The court's ruling overturns an earlier acquittal in the case. In 2013, a case was settled that concerned charges that Total bribed an Iranian official with $60 million, which they documented as a "consulting charge," and which unfairly gave them access to Iran's Sirri A and Sirri E oil and gas fields. The bribery gave them a competitive advantage, earning them an estimated $150 million in profits. The Securities Exchange Commission and the Department of Justice settled the charges, expecting Total to pay $398 million. 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine which began on February 24, many international, particularly Western companies pulled out of Russia. On March 1, TotalEnergies announced it "will no longer provide capital for new projects in Russia" but has retained ownership of its 19.4% stake in privately owned Novatek, 20% stake in the Yamal project and 10% stake in Arctic LNG 2. This has led to criticism as insufficient, particularly given complete divestment of other major Western energy companies, and the European Union announcement of becoming more energy independent from Russia. Similarly in August 2022, an investigation by Global Witness showed that a Siberian gas field part-owned by TotalEnergies has been supplying a refinery, which is producing jet fuel for Russian warplanes. This contradicts Total´s claims that this was unrelated to Russian military operations in Ukraine. Africa In December 2022, the NGOs Friends of the Earth, Survie and four Ugandan NGOs sent the oil group Total to court and accused it of violating the law on the duty of vigilance of large French companies in terms of human rights and environment. The Tilenga Project, which TotalEnergies is undertaking in conjunction with China National Offshore Oil Corporation consists of drilling for oil in the Murchison Falls National Park, a habitat for diverse species of birds and animals. The project also involves building a pipeline from the site in land-locked Uganda to Tanga in Tanzania. Critics of the project are concerned that, since the proposed pipeline passes through Lake Victoria and close to a number of wildlife areas in Tanzania and Kenya, oil spills could threaten the lake and could have adverse effects on the wildlife, some of which is endangered, in various national parks. Automobile and motorcycle OEM partnerships TotalEnergies is an official recommended fuel and lubricants for all prominent Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance members, including Renault (shared with BP), Nissan (shared with ExxonMobil), Infiniti, Dacia, Alpine and Datsun, Kia, three Stellantis marques (Citroën, Peugeot and DS), Honda (including Acura, shared with BP and ExxonMobil), Aston Martin, Mazda (shared with BP and its subsidiary Castrol), Sany and Tata Motors (shared with Petronas) for automobiles only as well as Peugeot Motocycles, Kawasaki Motors (fuel only), Energica, and Honda for motorcycles only. Sponsorship Sébastien Loeb car with total sponsorship Total has provided fuel and lubricants to professional auto racing teams. Total has been a longtime partner of Citroën Sport in the World Rally Championship, Dakar Rally and World Touring Car Championship. Sébastien Loeb won nine WRC drivers titles, whereas Ari Vatanen and Pierre Lartigue won four editions of the Dakar Rally. Total has been a partner of Peugeot Sport in Formula One from 1995 to 2000, the British Touring Car Championship in 1995 and 1996 and since 2001 in the World Rally Championship, Intercontinental Rally Challenge, 24 Hours of Le Mans, Intercontinental Le Mans Cup, Dakar Rally and Pikes Peak International Hill Climb. Total is also a partner of Peugeot Sport for its customer racing TCR Touring Car programme and its Le Mans Hypercar project in the FIA World Endurance Championship. Total was a partner of Renault Sport in Formula One from 2009 to 2016. Their logo appeared on the Red Bull Racing cars between 2009 and 2016, the Renault F1 cars in 2009, 2010 and 2016, and the Lotus F1 cars from 2011 to 2014. Total also partnered Caterham F1 Team in 2011–2014, Scuderia Toro Rosso in 2014–2015 and Williams F1 Team in 2012–2013. Also, Total was the title sponsor of the Copa Sudamericana football tournament in 2013 and 2014. In 2017, Total was appointed by FIA and ACO as official fuel supplier of the World Endurance Championship and 24 Hours of Le Mans from 2018–19 season onwards. Total is one of the official sponsors from 2013 to 2022 for one of the most popular and influential Mexican football teams, Club America. In terms of educational development, Total provides scholarships worth millions of euros annually to international students to study in France. These programs are mainly for master's degrees. Doctoral scholarships are also offered but in limited numbers. The students mainly come from Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Middle East where Total Operates. Students from Africa are mainly from Nigeria. The scholarship involves the payment of Tuition and a monthly allowance of 1400 Euros (2014 disbursement). The allowance is able to cater for feeding, transportation, and accommodation for the students. The drop in oil prices in 2015 has led to the reduction of the number of scholars. In 2016, Total secured an eight-year sponsorship package from the Confederation of African Football (CAF) to support 10 of its principal competitions. Total will start with the Africa Cup of Nations to be held in Gabon, therefore, renaming it Total Africa Cup of Nations. Following Total's purchase of Direct Énergie in the summer of 2018, the Direct Énergie cycling team changed its name the following year to Total Direct Énergie ahead of that year's edition of Paris–Roubaix. In 2021 the team changed its name again to Team TotalEnergies in time for that year's Tour de France. In 2019, the company's Chief Executive Officer, Patrick Pouyanne pledged that Total would make a €100 million contribution to the reconstruction of the Notre-Dame cathedral after it was extensively damaged in a fire. In 2020, the company confirmed a two-year sponsorship deal with CR Flamengo, being the first time a partner of a Brazilian football team. 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Retrieved 2015-11-04. ^ Overland, Indra (2016). "Ranking Oil, Gas and Mining Companies on Indigenous Rights in the Arctic". ResearchGate. Arran. Retrieved 2 August 2018. ^ The Carbon Majors Database CDP Carbon Majors Report 2017 (PDF). CDP and Climate Accountability Institute. 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-12-04. Retrieved 2021-04-09. ^ Overland, Indra; Bourmistrov, Anatoli; Dale, Brigt; Irlbacher-Fox, Stephanie; Juraev, Javlon; Podgaiskii, Eduard; Stammler, Florian; Tsani, Stella; Vakulchuk, Roman; Wilson, Emma C. (2021). "The Arctic Environmental Responsibility Index : A method to rank heterogenous extractive industry companies for governance purposes". Business Strategy and the Environment. 30 (4): 1623–1643. doi:10.1002/bse.2698. hdl:11250/2832230. ISSN 0964-4733. S2CID 233618866. ^ Bonneuil, Christophe; Choquet, Pierre-Louis; Franta, Benjamin (2021). "Early warnings and emerging accountability: Total's responses to global warming, 1971–2021". Global Environmental Change. 71: 102386. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102386. ISSN 0959-3780. S2CID 239563490. ^ "Murder in Malta". The New Yorker. 11 December 2020. ^ "Tangenti per il petrolio in Basilicata: arrestati l'ad Total e un deputato del Pd". il Giornale (in Italian). 16 December 2008. Retrieved 16 December 2008. ^ "Tangenti, arrrestato l'amministratore delegato di Total Italia". La7 (in Italian). 16 December 2008. Archived from the original on 17 December 2008. Retrieved 16 December 2008. ^ "Total faces corruption investigation". 7 April 2010. Retrieved 8 April 2010. ^ "Total to Pay $398 Million for Corrupt Practices". JD Journal. 2013-05-30. Retrieved 2015-11-04. ^ Mallet, Benjamin; Lough, Richard (2022-03-01). "TotalEnergies stays put in Russia, but no capital for new projects". Reuters. Retrieved 2022-03-13. ^ "Exclusive-Activist Clearway urges TotalEnergies to exit Russia or face vote". euronews. 2022-03-12. Retrieved 2022-03-13. ^ Clinch, Matt (2022-03-01). "'History will judge them': Ukraine foreign minister slams Big Oil's links to Russia". CNBC. Retrieved 2022-03-13. ^ Thomas, Allister (2022-03-02). "'Toothless, useless': TotalEnergies slammed by former Shell Ukraine boss". Energy Voice. Retrieved 2022-03-13. ^ "French cash, Russian fuel, Ukrainian blood". Global Witness. August 24, 2022. Retrieved 2022-09-08. ^ "TotalEnergies de nouveau face à la justice pour son mégaprojet d'exploitation pétrolière en Ouganda". Le Monde.fr. 7 December 2022. ^ Moisan, Dorothée (19 April 2022). "Uganda oil project casts shadow over Total's eco-friendly image". The Guardian. ^ Latif Dahir, Abdi (14 March 2023). "An Oil Rush Threatens Natural Splendors Across East Africa". The New York Times. ^ "Team Peugeot TotalEnergies unveils its driver line-ups at Le Mans". www.media.stellantis.com. Retrieved 2023-08-07. ^ "FIA WEC Secures Five Year Total Deal". sportspromedia.com. 20 April 2017. Retrieved 20 April 2017. ^ "Bienvenido Total * Club América - Sitio Oficial". Club América - Sitio Oficial (in Spanish). 2013-01-18. Retrieved 2023-09-20. ^ Long, Jonny (11 April 2019). "Total Direct Energie reveal new kit after title sponsor change". Cycling Weekly. Retrieved 5 March 2022. ^ Bonville-Ginn, Tim (16 June 2021). "Total Direct Energie change name and kit design after sponsor rebrand". Cycling Weekly. Retrieved 5 March 2022. ^ "Total CEO says company pledges 100 million euro to rebuild Notre-Dame". Reuters. 2019-04-16. Retrieved 2023-07-11. ^ "Total fecha patrocínio com o Clube de Regatas do Flamengo". Total Brasil | Postos de Combustível, Oléos lubrificantes automotivos e industriais. (in Brazilian Portuguese). 2020-01-17. Retrieved 2020-01-19. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to TotalEnergies. Official website Documents and clippings about TotalEnergies in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW vtePetroleum industry Petroleum Primary energy Benchmarks Argus Sour Bonny Light Brent Dubai Indian Basket Indonesian Isthmus-34 Light Japan Cocktail OPEC Reference Basket Tapis Urals West Texas Intermediate Western Canadian Select DataNatural gas Consumption Production Reserves Imports Exports Price Petroleum Consumption Production Reserves Imports Exports Posted oil price Price of gasoline and diesel Exploration Core sampling Geophysics Integrated asset modelling Petroleum engineering Reservoir simulation Seismic to simulation Petroleum geology Petrophysics Reflection seismology Seismic inversion Seismic source Drilling Blowout Completion Squeeze job Differential sticking Directional drilling Geosteering Drill stem test Drilling engineering Drilling fluid invasion Lost circulation Measurement Shale oil extraction Ljungström method Tracers Underbalanced drilling Well logging Production Petroleum fiscal regime Concessions Production sharing agreements Artificial lift Gas lift Pumpjack Submersible pump (ESP) Downstream Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) Gas reinjection Steam injection Midstream Petroleum product Pipeline Refining Upstream Water injection Well intervention XT History 1967 Oil Embargo 1973 oil crisis 1979 oil crisis 1980s oil glut 1990 oil price shock 2000s energy crisis 2010s oil glut 2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war Nationalization GECF OPEC Seven Sisters Standard Oil Canada France India Iraq Norway Saudi Arabia United States Venezuela Provincesand fields List of natural gas fields List of oil fields Caspian Sea East Midlands Oil Province East Texas Gulf of Mexico Niger Delta North Sea Permian Basin Persian Gulf Prudhoe Bay Russia Venezuela Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin Other topics Abbreviations Classification sweet oil sour oil Oil shale gas Orphan wells Peak oil fossil fuel phase-out timing Petrocurrency Petrodollar recycling Petrofiction Shale band Shale gas Swing producer Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoir heavy crude oil sands oil shale tight oil Companies andorganisationsMajorpetroleumcompaniesSupermajors BP Chevron Eni ExxonMobil Shell TotalEnergies National oilcompanies Abu Dhabi National Oil Company ANCAP Bharat Petroleum China National Offshore Oil Corporation China National Petroleum Corporation Ecopetrol Equinor Gazprom Hindustan Petroleum Indian Oil Corporation Iraq National Oil Company KazMunayGas Kuwait Petroleum Corporation Lotos Naftogaz National Iranian Oil Company National Iranian South Oil Company NNPC Limited Oil & Gas Development Company Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Orlen PDVSA Pemex Pertamina Petrobangla Petrobras PetroChina Petronas Petrovietnam PTT Public Company Limited QatarEnergy Rosneft Saudi Aramco Sinopec SOCAR Sonangol Sonatrach TPAO YPF Energy trading Enron Glencore Gunvor Mercuria Naftiran Intertrade Trafigura Vitol Others APA Corporation Cenovus Energy Cepsa ConocoPhillips Devon Energy Eneos Holdings Galp Energia Hess Corporation Husky Energy Imperial Oil Lukoil Marathon Oil Marathon Petroleum Occidental Petroleum OMV Phillips 66 Port Harcourt Refining Company Reliance Industries Repsol Suncor Energy Sunoco Surgutneftegas TechnipFMC TNK-BP Tullow Oil Tüpraş Valero Energy Majorservicescompanies Amec Foster Wheeler Baker Hughes Cameron International CGG CH2M Chicago Bridge & Iron Company China Oilfield Services Enbridge GE Power Halliburton Nabors Industries Naftiran Intertrade NOV Inc. Petrofac Saipem Schlumberger Snam Subsea 7 TC Energy Transocean Valaris Limited Weatherford International John Wood Group Others American Petroleum Institute Canadian petroleum companies Intercontinental Exchange Futures International Association of Oil & Gas Producers International Energy Agency Society of Petroleum Engineers World Petroleum Council Category vte EURO STOXX 50 companies of the Euro AreaLast updated: 18 September 2023 Adidas Adyen Ahold Delhaize Air Liquide Airbus Allianz Anheuser-Busch InBev ASML Axa BBVA BASF Bayer BMW BNP Paribas Danone Deutsche Börse Deutsche Telekom DHL Group Enel Eni EssilorLuxottica Ferrari Flutter Entertainment Hermès Iberdrola Inditex Infineon Technologies ING Group Intesa Sanpaolo Kering L'Oréal LVMH Mercedes-Benz Munich Re Nokia Nordea Pernod Ricard Prosus Safran Saint-Gobain Sanofi Santander SAP Schneider Electric Siemens Stellantis TotalEnergies Vinci UniCredit Volkswagen vte CAC 40 companies of FranceLast updated: 30 September 2023 Air Liquide Airbus Alstom ArcelorMittal Axa BNP Paribas Bouygues Capgemini Carrefour Crédit Agricole Danone Dassault Systèmes Edenred Engie EssilorLuxottica Eurofins Scientific Hermès Kering L'Oréal Legrand LVMH Michelin Orange Pernod Ricard Publicis Renault Safran Saint-Gobain Sanofi Schneider Electric Société Générale Stellantis STMicroelectronics Teleperformance Thales TotalEnergies Unibail-Rodamco-Westfield Veolia Vinci Worldline Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National Norway France BnF data Germany Israel United States Australia Artists KulturNav

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Team TotalEnergies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_TotalEnergies"},{"link_name":"multinational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_corporation"},{"link_name":"petroleum company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil_exploration_and_production_companies"},{"link_name":"supermajor oil companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Oil"},{"link_name":"crude oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_oil"},{"link_name":"gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline"},{"link_name":"power generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_generation"},{"link_name":"refining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refining"},{"link_name":"chemicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_industry"},{"link_name":"Tour Total","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour_Total"},{"link_name":"La Défense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_D%C3%A9fense"},{"link_name":"Courbevoie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courbevoie"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"Euro Stoxx 50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro_Stoxx_50"},{"link_name":"stock market index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_market_index"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Forbes Global 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes_Global_2000"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"This article is about the petroleum company. For the cycling team, sponsored by TotalEnergies SE, see Team TotalEnergies.TotalEnergies SE is a French multinational integrated energy and petroleum company founded in 1924 and is one of the seven supermajor oil companies. Its businesses cover the entire oil and gas chain, from crude oil and natural gas exploration and production to power generation, transportation, refining, petroleum product marketing, and international crude oil and product trading. TotalEnergies is also a large-scale chemicals manufacturer.TotalEnergies has its head office in the Tour Total in La Défense district in Courbevoie, west of Paris. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index.[2] In the 2023 Forbes Global 2000, TotalEnergies was ranked as the 21st largest public company in the world.[3]","title":"TotalEnergies"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Raymond Poincaré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Poincar%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Royal Dutch Shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell"},{"link_name":"Ernest Mercier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Mercier"},{"link_name":"San Remo conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Remo_conference"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Bank"},{"link_name":"Turkish Petroleum Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_Petroleum_Company"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GT-DEX-1920-78-4"},{"link_name":"Red Line agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Line_Agreement"},{"link_name":"Iraq Petroleum Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_Petroleum_Company"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GT-DEX-1928-63-5"},{"link_name":"private sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_sector"},{"link_name":"Paris Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"Normandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandy"},{"link_name":"Algeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TOT-H-02-6"},{"link_name":"downstream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downstream_(petroleum_industry)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TOT-H-02-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TOT-H-01-7"},{"link_name":"Alma, Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma,_Michigan"},{"link_name":"Standard Oil of Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoco"},{"link_name":"Metro Detroit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metro_Detroit"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Vickers Petroleum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vickers_Petroleum"},{"link_name":"Esmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JBS_USA"},{"link_name":"service stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filling_station"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cobizhall-11"}],"sub_title":"1924–1985: Compagnie française des pétroles","text":"The company was founded after World War I, when petrol was seen as vital in case of a new war with Germany. The then-French President Raymond Poincaré rejected the idea of forming a partnership with Royal Dutch Shell in favour of creating an entirely French oil company. At Poincaré's behest, Col. Ernest Mercier, with the support of 90 banks and companies, founded Total in 1924, as the Compagnie française des pétroles (CFP) (in English, the French Petroleum Company).As per the agreement reached during the San Remo conference of 1920, the French state received the 25% share held by Deutsche Bank in the Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC) as part of the compensation for war damages caused by Germany during World War I. The French government's stake in TPC was transferred to CFP,[4] and the Red Line agreement in 1928 rearranged the shareholding of CFP in TPC (later renamed the Iraq Petroleum Company in 1929) to 23.75%.[5] The company from the start was regarded as a private sector company in view of its listing on the Paris Stock Exchange in 1929.During the 1930s, the company was engaged in exploration and production, primarily from the Middle East. Its first refinery began operating in Normandy in 1933. After World War II, CFP engaged in oil exploration in Venezuela, Canada, and Africa while pursuing energy sources within France. Exploration in Algeria, then a French colony, began in 1946, with Algeria becoming a leading source of oil in the 1950s.[6]In 1954, CFP introduced its downstream product – Total brand of gasoline in Africa and Europe.[6][7]Total entered the United States in 1971 by acquiring Leonard Petroleum of Alma, Michigan and several Standard Oil of Indiana stations in Metro Detroit.[8]In 1980, Total Petroleum (North America) Ltd., a company controlled 50% by CFP, bought the American refining and marketing assets of Vickers Petroleum as part of a sell-off by Esmark of its energy holdings. This purchase gave Total refining capacity, transportation, and a network of 350 service stations in 20 states.[9][10][11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TotalPlazaHouston.JPG"},{"link_name":"Total Plaza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Plaza"},{"link_name":"Total Petrochemicals USA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Petrochemicals_USA"},{"link_name":"Downtown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downtown_Houston"},{"link_name":"Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston"},{"link_name":"global warming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming"},{"link_name":"climate crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_crisis"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TOT-H-01-7"},{"link_name":"New York Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TOT-H-01-7"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Denver, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Texarkana, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texarkana,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rrstores-14"},{"link_name":"Apco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APCO_Oil_Corporation"},{"link_name":"convenience stores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convenience_store"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prnews-15"},{"link_name":"Ultramar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultramar"},{"link_name":"Diamond Shamrock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_Shamrock"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt1997-16"},{"link_name":"takeover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeover"},{"link_name":"Petrofina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrofina"},{"link_name":"Elf Aquitaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elf_Aquitaine"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"USD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USD"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"ExxonMobil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExxonMobil"},{"link_name":"Mobil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobil"},{"link_name":"Esso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esso"},{"link_name":"Imperial Oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Oil"},{"link_name":"Shell plc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_plc"},{"link_name":"Jiffy Lube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiffy_Lube"},{"link_name":"Pennzoil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennzoil"},{"link_name":"TotalEnergies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Elf Aquitaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elf_Aquitaine"},{"link_name":"SunPower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SunPower"},{"link_name":"BP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BP"},{"link_name":"Amoco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoco"},{"link_name":"Aral AG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aral_AG"},{"link_name":"Chevron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevron_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Texaco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texaco"},{"link_name":"Caltex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caltex"},{"link_name":"Havoline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havoline"},{"link_name":"Marathon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon_Petroleum"},{"link_name":"ARCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARCO"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Phillips 66","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillips_66"},{"link_name":"76","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/76_(gas_station)"},{"link_name":"Conoco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conoco"},{"link_name":"JET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_(brand)"},{"link_name":"Valero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valero_Energy"},{"link_name":"Eni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eni"},{"link_name":"ConocoPhillips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ConocoPhillips"}],"sub_title":"1985–2003: Total CFP and rebranding to Total","text":"Total Plaza, the headquarters of the subsidiary Total Petrochemicals USA, in Downtown HoustonTotal's leadership had been aware of the deleterious effects of global warming since at least 1971; The company nevertheless openly denied the findings of climate science until the 1990s; Total also pursued a number of strategies to cover up the threat and contribution to the climate crisis.[12]The company renamed itself Total CFP in 1985, to build on the popularity of its gasoline brand.[7] Later in 1991, the name was changed to Total, when it became a public company listed on the New York Stock Exchange. In 1991, the French government held more than 30 percent of the company's stock but by 1996 had reduced its stake to less than 1 percent.[7][13] In the period between 1990 and 1994, foreign ownership of the firm increased from 23 percent to 44 percent.Meanwhile, Total continued to expand its retail presence in North America under several brand names. In 1989, Denver, Colorado–based Total Petroleum, Total CFP's North American unit, purchased 125 Road Runner retail locations from Texarkana, Texas–based Truman Arnold Companies.[14] By 1993, Total Petroleum was operating 2,600 retail stores under the Vickers, Apco, Road Runner, and Total brands. That year, the company began remodeling and rebranding all of its North American gasoline and convenience stores to use the Total name.[15] Four years later, Total sold its North American refining and retail operations to Ultramar Diamond Shamrock for $400 million in stock and $414 million in assumed debt.[16]After Total's takeover of Petrofina of Belgium in 1999, it became known as Total Fina. Afterwards, it also acquired Elf Aquitaine. First named TotalFinaElf after the merger in 2000, its name reverted to Total in 2003. During that rebranding, the globe logo was unveiled.[17]Big Oil companies[a]\n\n\nCompany\n\nRevenue (USD)[18]\n\nProfit (USD)\n\nBrands\n\n\nExxonMobil\n\n$286 billion\n\n$23 billion\n\nMobilEssoImperial Oil\n\n\nShell plc\n\n$273 billion\n\n$20 billion\n\nJiffy LubePennzoil\n\n\nTotalEnergies\n\n$185 billion\n\n$16 billion\n\nElf AquitaineSunPower\n\n\nBP\n\n$164 billion\n\n$7.6 billion\n\nAmocoAral AG\n\n\nChevron\n\n$163 billion\n\n$16 billion\n\nTexacoCaltexHavoline\n\n\nMarathon\n\n$141 billion\n\n$10 billion\n\nARCO[19]\n\n\nPhillips 66\n\n$115 billion\n\n$1.3 billion\n\n76ConocoJET\n\n\nValero\n\n$108 billion\n\n$0.9 billion\n\n—\n\n\nEni\n\n$77 billion\n\n$5.8 billion\n\n—\n\n\nConocoPhillips\n\n$48.3 billion\n\n$8.1 billion\n\n—","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Royal Dutch Shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell"},{"link_name":"Saudi Aramco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Aramco"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"memorandum of understanding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorandum_of_understanding"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GT-DEX-2008-09-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GT-DEX-2008-08-23"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"Nuclear program of Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-apgm-24"},{"link_name":"2009–2010 Iraqi oil services contracts tender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Iraq#2009_Oil_services_contracts"},{"link_name":"CNPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNPC"},{"link_name":"Petronas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronas"},{"link_name":"Halfaya field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halfaya_Field"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GT-DEX-2010-62-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GT-DEX-2010-63-26"},{"link_name":"Erg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erg_(company)"},{"link_name":"Total Italia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Italia"},{"link_name":"Erg Petroli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erg_(company)"},{"link_name":"TotalErg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TotalErg"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"China Petrochemical Corp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Petrochemical_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"North Caspian Operating Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Caspian_Operating_Company"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Novatek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novatek"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Chevron Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevron_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"shale gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shale_gas"},{"link_name":"Gainsborough Trough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Midlands_Oil_Province#Gainsborough_based_fields"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"UGI Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UGI_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UGItotalSA-40"},{"link_name":"MST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Standard_Time"},{"link_name":"Dassault Falcon 50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dassault_Falcon_50"},{"link_name":"snow removal vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_removal_vehicle"},{"link_name":"Vnukovo International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vnukovo_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"Christophe de Margerie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christophe_de_Margerie"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Patrick Pouyanne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Pouyanne"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Saft Groupe S.A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saft_Groupe_S.A."},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Petrobras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrobras"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Santos Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santos_Basin"},{"link_name":"ARGOS Challenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARGOS_Challenge"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"taurob tracker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurob_tracker"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"South Pars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Pars/North_Dome_Gas-Condensate_field"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-48"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tair-49"},{"link_name":"Iran's nuclear weaponisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"JCPOA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JCPOA"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tair-49"},{"link_name":"Maersk Oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maersk_Oil"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"EREN Renewable energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EREN_Renewable_energy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"acquired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_acquisition"},{"link_name":"Gruppo API","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruppo_API"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-54"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-55"},{"link_name":"Total Italia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_Italia_(2018_company)"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dwir-57"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Namibia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibia"},{"link_name":"QatarEnergy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QatarEnergy"},{"link_name":"Guyana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyana"},{"link_name":"Kenya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"American Petroleum Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"}],"sub_title":"2003–2021","text":"In 2003, Total signed for a 30% stake in the gas exploration venture in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) – South Rub' al-Khali joint venture along with Royal Dutch Shell and Saudi Aramco.[20] The stake was later bought out by its partners.In 2006, Saudi Aramco and Total signed a memorandum of understanding to develop the Jubail Refinery and Petrochemical project in Saudi Arabia which targeted 400,000 barrels per day (bpd). Two years later, the two companies officially established a joint venture called Saudi Aramco Total Refining and Petrochemical Company (SATORP)- in which a 62.5% stake was held by Saudi Aramco and the balance 37.5% held by Total.[21][22]Total withdrew in 2006 from all Iranian development work because of United Nations concerns that resulted in sanctions over possible weaponization of the Nuclear program of Iran.[23]During the 2009–2010 Iraqi oil services contracts tender, a consortium led by CNPC (37.5%), which also included TOTAL (18.75%) and Petronas (18.75%) was awarded a production contract for the \"Halfaya field\" in the south of Iraq, which contains an estimated 4.1 billion barrels (650,000,000 m3) of oil.[24][25]In 2010 Total and Erg merged their respective subsidiaries Total Italia and Erg Petroli, forming TotalErg, 49% controlled by the French group and 51% by the Italian one.[26][27][28][29][30]As of 2010, Total had over 96,000 employees and operated in more than 130 countries.[31] In 2010, Total announced plans to pull out of the forecourt market in the United Kingdom.[32]In 2012, Total announced it was selling its 20% stake and operating mandate in its Nigerian offshore project to a unit of China Petrochemical Corp for $2.5 billion.[33]In 2013, Total started the operation at Kashagan with North Caspian Operating Company.[34] It is the biggest discovery of oil reserves since 1968. In 2013, Total increased its stake in Novatek to 16.96%.[35][36] In 2013, Total and its joint venture partner agreed to buy Chevron Corporation's retail distribution business in Pakistan for an undisclosed amount.[37]In January 2014, Total became the first major oil and gas firm to acquire exploration rights for shale gas in the UK after it bought a 40 percent interest in two licences in the Gainsborough Trough area of northern England for $48 million.[38] In July 2014, the company disclosed it was in talks to sell its LPG distribution business in France to Pennsylvania-based UGI Corporation for €450 million ($615 million).[39]On 20 October 2014, at 23:57 MST, a Dassault Falcon 50 business jet heading to Paris caught fire and exploded during takeoff after colliding with a snow removal vehicle in Vnukovo International Airport, killing four, including three crew members and CEO of Total S.A. Christophe de Margerie on board. Alcohol presence was confirmed in the blood of the driver of the vehicle on the ground.[citation needed] Patrick Pouyanne, who was Total's Refining Chief at that time, was appointed as CEO,[40] and also as chairman of Total in 2015.In 2015, Total unveiled plans to cut 180 jobs in the United Kingdom, reduce refinery capacity and slow spending on North Sea fields after it fell to a $5.7bn final-quarter loss. The company said it would also sell off $5bn worth of assets worldwide and cut exploration costs by 30%.[41]In 2016, Total signed a $224M deal to buy Lampiris, the third-largest Belgian supplier of gas and renewable energy to expand its gas and power distribution activities.[42]In 2016, Total bought French battery maker Saft Groupe S.A. in a $1.1bn deal, to boost its development in renewable energy and electricity businesses.[43]In 2016, Total agreed to acquire $2.2-billion in upstream and downstream assets from Petrobras as part of the firms' strategic alliance announced earlier that year.[44] For Total, these new partnerships with Petrobras reinforce Total's position in Brazil through access to new fields in the Santos Basin while entering the gas value chain.Between 2013 and 2017, Total organized the ARGOS Challenge, a robotic competition with the aim to develop robots for their oil and gas production sites.[45] It was won by an Austrian-German team using a variant of the taurob tracker robot.[46]In 2017, Total signed a deal for a total amount of $4.8b with Iran for the development and production of South Pars, the world's largest gas field.[47][48] The deal was the first foreign investment in Iran since in the 2015 sanctions over Iran's nuclear weaponisation were lifted by the JCPOA.[48]In 2017, Total announced the acquisition of Maersk Oil for $7.45 billion in a share and debt transaction.[49] This deal positioned Total as the second operator in the North Sea.[50]In 2017, Total signed an agreement with EREN Renewable energy to acquire an interest of 23% in EREN RE for an amount of €237.5 million.[51]In November 2017, Total announced the launch on the French residential market of Total Spring, a natural gas and green power offering that is 10% cheaper than regulated tariffs. Total is thus pursuing its strategy of downstream integration in the gas and power value chain in Europe.[52]On 10 January 2018 TotalErg was acquired by Gruppo API,[53][54] with the exception of the Special Fluids division, acquired by the newly formed Total Italia.[55]In 2018, Total officially withdrew from the Iranian South Pars gas field because of sanctions pressure from the US.[56]In 2019, Total announced the sale of a 30% stake in the Trapil pipeline network to crude oil storage operator Pisto SAS for €260 million.[57] Later that year, Total signed deals to transfer 30% and 28.33% of its assets in Namibia's Block 2913B and Block 2912 respectively to QatarEnergy. The company will also transfer 40% of its existing 25% interests in the Orinduik and Kanuku blocks of Guyana and 25% interest in Blocks L11A, L11B, and L12 of Kenya to QatarEnergy.[58]In July 2020 the company changed its name from Total SA to Total SE as part of registration as a European company.[59]In 2020, the company announced its intention to cut 500 voluntary jobs in France.[60]In 2021, Total left the American Petroleum Institute lobby, due to differences in the common vision of how to tackle the fight against climate change.[61][62]In 2021, Total said that it had registered an income of $3 billion for the period of January–March, which is close to the levels registered before the pandemic.[63]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Myanmar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar"},{"link_name":"2021 Myanmar coup d'état","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Myanmar_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Russian Invasion of Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"QatarEnergy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QatarEnergy"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"UAE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UAE"},{"link_name":"CNOOC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNOOC"},{"link_name":"renminbi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renminbi"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"Iraq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Indian Oil Corp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oil_Corporation"},{"link_name":"liquefied natural gas (LNG)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Dhabi_National_Oil_Company"},{"link_name":"ADNOC LNG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Dhabi_National_Oil_Company"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Suncor Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suncor_Energy"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Adani Green Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adani_Green_Energy"},{"link_name":"MW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt#Megawatt"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"OMV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OMV"},{"link_name":"Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"Airbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"}],"sub_title":"2021–present: Rebranding to TotalEnergies","text":"In 2021, the company announced a name change to TotalEnergies as an intended illustration of its investments in the production of green electricity.[64][65] At the Ordinary and Extraordinary Shareholders’ Meeting in May of that year, shareholders approved the name change to TotalEnergies.[66]In 2022, TotalEnergies announced it would end all operations in Myanmar, citing rampant human rights abuses and deteriorating rule of law since the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état and has also called for international sanctions targeting the oil and gas sector in the country, which is one of the main sources of revenue for Myanmar's government.[67]As of 11 March 2022, Total was one of the only Western oil companies to continue operating in Russia after the Russian Invasion of Ukraine.[68][69]In June 2022, TotalEnergies signed a partnership with QatarEnergy for the worlds largest LNG expansion project, the North Field East (NFE). Holding the largest stake, 6.25%, TotalEnergies will hold the equivalent of one of the four trains.[70] In September 2022, an additional agreement was signed to include the North Field South (NFS) which is the second phase of the NFE. This gave TotalEnergies a stake of 9.375% of the 25% stakes available to international companies.[71][72]On 30 March 2023, Total sold a shipment of LNG which it sourced from UAE to CNOOC on the Shanghai Petroleum and Natural Gas Exchange. It was reportedly the first trade to be settled in the renminbi (Chinese yuan) currency on the SHPGX.[73][74]In July 2023, Iraq signed a $27 billion energy agreement with TotalEnergies to develop the country’s energy sector and boost output of oil, gas and renewables.[75] Additionally, Indian Oil Corp, has signed liquefied natural gas (LNG) import deals with ADNOC LNG and TotalEnergies in the same month.[76]In October 2023, TotalEnergies sold its Canadian operations to Suncor Energy for C$1.47 billion($1.07 billion).[77] TotalEnergies has agreed to buy liquefied natural gas from Qatar for 27 years, cementing the European nation’s commitment to fossil fuels beyond 2050.[78]In 2023, Total invested $300 million in a renewable energy joint venture with Adani Green Energy. The joint venture's portfolio capacity is 1,050 MW - 300 MW of operating capacity, 500 MW of solar projects under construction and 250 MW of projects under development, as well as solar and wind power projects in India.[79]\nAt the end of January 2024, TotalEnergies reached an agreement with OMV to purchase a 50% stake in its joint venture in Malaysia (SapuraOMV) for $903 million. The deal includes the repayment of a $350 million loan from OMV to the joint venture.[80]On 21 February 2024, TotalEnergies and Airbus entered a strategic partnership to meet emission-reduction goals through the use of sustainable aviation fuels (SAF). TotalEnergies will provide more than 50% of Airbus’ European fuel requirements. Compared to fossil fuels, SAF can reduce CO2 emissions by up to 90%.[81][82]TotalEnergies and QatarEnergy entered an agreement on 6 March 2024 to purchase participating interests in South Africa’s Orange Basin offshore oil field. Under the agreement, TotalEnergies will have the exclusive right to operate its wells in Block 3B/4B with a 33% interest holding, while QatarEnergy will receive a 24% interest in the same block.[83][84]In 22 April 2024, OmanLNG and TotalEnergies signed a deal in which OmanLNG will provide 800,000 metric tons of liquified natural gas.[85]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Subsidiaries and affiliates of TotalEnergies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsidiaries_and_affiliates_of_TotalEnergies"}],"text":"See also: Subsidiaries and affiliates of TotalEnergies","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"}],"sub_title":"Business trends","text":"The key trends of TotalEnergies are (as at the financial year ending December 31):[86][87]","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hong.Kong.Center.Total.Cambodge.1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Phnom Penh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phnom_Penh"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BusinessWire.com-89"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BusinessWire.com-89"}],"sub_title":"Business segments","text":"Headquarters of Total Cambodia in Phnom Penh (Cambodia)In 2016, Total set up a new organization to achieve its ambition to become a responsible energy major.[88] It is composed of the following segments: Exploration & Production;[89] Gas, Renewables & Power; Refining & Chemicals; Trading & Shipping; Marketing & Services; and Total Global Services.In 2016 Total created two new corporate divisions: People & Social Responsibility (Human Resources; Health, Safety & Environment; the Security Division; and a new Civil Society Engagement Division) and Strategy & Innovation (Strategy & Climate Division, responsible for ensuring that strategy incorporates the 2 °C global warming scenario, Public Affairs, Audit, Research & Development, the Chief Digital Officer and the Senior Vice President Technology).[88]","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Total_Filling_Station_-_North_Street_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1173435.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wetherby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetherby"},{"link_name":"Tour Total","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour_Total"},{"link_name":"La Défense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_D%C3%A9fense"},{"link_name":"Courbevoie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courbevoie"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TTHQ-92"},{"link_name":"Elf Aquitaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elf_Aquitaine"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TTHQ-92"}],"sub_title":"Head office","text":"A total filling station in Wetherby, West YorkshireThe company's headquarters is in the Tour Total in the La Défense district in Courbevoie, France, near Paris.[90][91] The building was originally constructed between 1983 and 1985 for Elf Aquitaine; Total SA acquired the building after its merger with Elf in 2000.[91]","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"oil sands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_sands"},{"link_name":"Athabasca region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athabasca_oil_sands"},{"link_name":"Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta"},{"link_name":"Suncor Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suncor_Energy"},{"link_name":"Occidental Petroleum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occidental_Petroleum"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Inpex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inpex"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TotalJoslyn-93"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"}],"text":"In May 2014, the company shelved its Joslyn North oil sands project in the Athabasca region of Alberta, Canada indefinitely, citing concerns about operating costs. An estimated $11 billion has been spent on the project, in which Total is the largest shareholder with 38.5%. Suncor Energy holds 36.75%, Occidental Petroleum owns 15% and Japan's Inpex has a 10% interest.[92]Total is involved in 23 projects of exploration and production[93] in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, South America and Russia.","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iraq Petroleum Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_Petroleum_Company"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RLA-95"},{"link_name":"Jebel Akhdar War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jebel_Akhdar_War"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OmansInsurgencies-96"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"National Iranian Oil Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Iranian_Oil_Company"},{"link_name":"South Pars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Pars/North_Dome_Gas-Condensate_field"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-48"},{"link_name":"European Union's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"Myanmar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar"},{"link_name":"Yadana natural gas pipeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yadana_Project"},{"link_name":"Burma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Burma Campaign UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Campaign_UK"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"}],"sub_title":"Investments","text":"In 1937, Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), 23.75 percent owned by Total,[94] signed an oil concession agreement with the Sultan of Muscat. IPC offered financial support to raise an armed force that would assist the Sultan in occupying the interior region of Oman, an area that geologists believed to be rich in oil. This led to the 1954 outbreak of Jebel Akhdar War in Oman that lasted for more than 5 years.[95]Total has been a significant investor in the Iranian energy sector since 1990.[96] In 2017, Total and the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) signed a contract for the development and production of South Pars, the world's largest gas field. The project will have a production capacity of 2 billion cubic feet per day. The produced gas will supply the Iranian domestic market starting in 2021.[47]During the European Union's sanctions against the military dictatorship Myanmar, Total is able to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand. Total is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for the condoning and use of the country's civilian slavery to construct the pipeline. The documentary 'Total Denial' shows the background of this project.[97] The NGO Burma Campaign UK is currently[when?] campaigning against this project.","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"photovoltaics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics"},{"link_name":"SunPower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SunPower"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bloomberg290411-99"},{"link_name":"Saft Groupe S.A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saft_Groupe_S.A."},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WSJ05092016-100"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Maersk Oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maersk_Oil"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"Direct Énergie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_%C3%89nergie"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"GW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigawatt"},{"link_name":"Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"GIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Infrastructure_Partners"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"}],"sub_title":"Acquisitions","text":"In 2011, Total agreed to buy 60% of photovoltaics company SunPower for US$1.38 billion.[98] By the 2013 annual reporting date, Total owned 64.65%.In 2016, Total agreed to purchase French battery maker Saft Groupe S.A. for 1.1 billion euros.[99]In 2016, Total signed a $224M deal to buy Lampiris, the third-largest Belgian supplier of gas and renewable energy to expand its gas and power distribution activities.[100]In December 2016, Total acquired about 23% of Tellurian for an amount of 207 million dollars, to develop an integrated gas project.[101]In 2017, Total announced it would buy Maersk Oil from A.P. Moller-Maersk in a deal expected to close in the first quarter of 2018.[102]In 2018, Total announced it was buying 74% of the French electricity and gas provider Direct Énergie from their main stockholders, for 1.4 billion euros.[103]In 2022, Total announced it had added 4GW to its renewable energy portfolio through the acquisition of the Austin-based company, Core Solar.[104] The following month, Total entered an agreement with GIP to acquire a 50% stake in Clearway, one of the largest renewable energy owners in the United States.[105] As part of the transaction, GIP took a 50% minus one share stake in SunPower.[106]In October 2023, TotalEnergies announced it was purchasing Quadra, a Germany based clean energy aggregator, for an undisclosed amount.[107]In 2023, TotalEnergies acquired three gas-fired power plants with a total capacity of 1.5 GW in Texas from TexGen for $635 million.[108]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Western Sahara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Sahara"},{"link_name":"Dakhla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakhla,_Western_Sahara"},{"link_name":"Hans Corell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Corell"},{"link_name":"Security Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_Council"},{"link_name":"Western Sahara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Sahara"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"}],"sub_title":"Western Sahara oil exploration","text":"In 2001, Total signed a contract for oil-reconnaissance in areas offshore Western Sahara (near Dakhla), with the Moroccan \"Office National de Recherches et d’Exploitations Petrolières\" (ONAREP). In 2002, Hans Corell (the United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Legal Affairs) stated in a letter to the president of the Security Council that whenever the contracts are only for exploration they're not illegal, but if further exploration or exploitation are against the interests and wishes of the people of Western Sahara, they would be in violation of the principles of international law.[109]\nFinally, Total decided to not renew their license off Western Sahara.[110]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2021-2022 global energy crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021-2022_global_energy_crisis"},{"link_name":"ADNOC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Dhabi_National_Oil_Company"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"}],"sub_title":"Energy Deal with ADNOC","text":"In a move to cope with the 2021-2022 global energy crisis, which started with the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic and aggravated with Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine, France’s TotalEnergies and UAE’s ADNOC signed a strategic deal to partner on energy projects “for cooperation in the area of energy supplies”.The deal was secured on the second day of the UAE leader Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al-Nahyan’s visit to Paris in 2022. The visit marked the UAE president’s first overseas state visit since assuming the post earlier that year.The deal was aimed at identifying and targeting potential joint investment projects in the UAE, France, and elsewhere in the sectors of renewables, hydrogen, and nuclear energy, as told by the French government in one of its statements. According to French President Emmanuel Macron’s aides, France had been eager to secure diesel supply from the UAE.[111]The deal also received criticism from human rights groups that persisted Macron not to give the-then “crown prince a pass on the UAE’s atrocious human rights record”, as per the statement published by Human Rights Watch on its website.[112]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MV Erika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Erika"},{"link_name":"La Rochelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Rochelle"},{"link_name":"Brittany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittany"},{"link_name":"Masirah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masirah"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"AZF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AZF_(factory)"},{"link_name":"Toulouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toulouse"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Erika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Erika"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"carbon emissions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-116"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"}],"sub_title":"Environmental and safety records","text":"In 1999, the Total SA company was fined €375,000 for the MV Erika oil spill that stretched 400 kilometers from La Rochelle to the western tip of Brittany. The company was only fined that amount because they were only partially liable because Total SA did not own the ship. The plaintiffs had sought more than $1.5 billion in damages. More than 100 groups and local governments joined in the suit. The Total company was fined just over $298,000. The majority of the money will go to the French government, several environmental groups, and various regional governments. The Total SA company was also fined $550,000 for the amount of marine pollution that came from it. After the oil spill they tried to restore their image and have opened a sea turtle conservation project in Masirah in recent years.[citation needed]Prior to the verdict in which Total was found guilty one of the counterparts in the incident, Malta Maritime Authority (MMA), was not to be tried for having any hand in the incident. In 2005, Total submitted a report to the Paris courts which stated that Total had gathered a group of experts which stated the tanker was corroded and that Total was responsible for it. The courts sought a second expert reviewing this information, which was turned down.[113]In 2001, the AZF chemical plant exploded in Toulouse, France, while belonging to the Grande Paroisse branch of Total.[citation needed]In 2008, Total was required to pay €192 million in compensation to victims of the pollution caused by the sinking of the ship Erika. This was in addition to the €200 million that Total spent to help clean up the spill. The company appealed twice against the verdict, losing both times.In 2016, Total was ranked as the second-best of 92 oil, gas, and mining companies on indigenous rights in the Arctic.[114] According to the CDP Carbon Majors Report 2017, the company was one of the top 100 companies producing carbon emissions globally, responsible for .9% of global emissions from 1998 to 2015.[115] In 2021, Total was ranked as the 2nd most environmentally responsible company out of 120 oil, gas, and mining companies involved in resource extraction north of the Arctic Circle in the Arctic Environmental Responsibility Index (AERI).[116]According to a 2021 study, Total personnel were aware about the role that their products played in global warming as early as 1971, as well as throughout the 1980s. Despite this awareness, the company promoted doubt regarding the science of global warming by the late 1980s, and ultimately settled on a position in the late 1990s of publicly accepting climate science, while still promoting doubt and trying to delay climate action.[117]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta"},{"link_name":"Enemalta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enemalta"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Potenza, Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potenza,_Italy"},{"link_name":"Basilicata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilicata"},{"link_name":"Partito Democratico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partito_Democratico"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ilgiornale-120"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-la7-121"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"Paris Court of Appeals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"}],"sub_title":"Bribery","text":"Total has been accused of bribery on multiple occasions.Total is being implicated in a bribe commission scandal which is currently[when?] emerging in Malta. It has emerged that Total had told Maltese agents that it would not be interested in doing business with them unless their team included George Farrugia, who is under investigation in the procurement scandal. George Farrugia has recently been given a presidential pardon in exchange for information about this scandal. Enemalta, Malta's energy supplier, swiftly barred Total and its agents, Trafigura from bidding and tenders. An investigation is currently underway and three people have been arraigned.[118][citation needed]On 16 December 2008, the managing director of the Italian division of Total, Lionel Levha, and ten other executives were arrested by the public Prosecutor's office of Potenza, Italy, for a corruption charge of €15 million to undertake the oilfield in Basilicata on contract. Also arrested was the local deputy of Partito Democratico Salvatore Margiotta and an Italian entrepreneur.[119][120]In 2010, Total was accused of bribing Iraqi officials during former president Saddam Hussein's regime to secure oil supplies. A United Nations report later revealed that Iraqi officials had received bribes from oil companies to secure contracts worth over $10bn.[121] On 26 February 2016, the Paris Court of Appeals considered Total guilty and ordered the company to pay a fine of €750,000 for corrupting Iraqi civil servants. The court's ruling overturns an earlier acquittal in the case.In 2013, a case was settled that concerned charges that Total bribed an Iranian official with $60 million, which they documented as a \"consulting charge,\" and which unfairly gave them access to Iran's Sirri A and Sirri E oil and gas fields. The bribery gave them a competitive advantage, earning them an estimated $150 million in profits. The Securities Exchange Commission and the Department of Justice settled the charges, expecting Total to pay $398 million.[122]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Novatek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novatek"},{"link_name":"Yamal project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamal_project"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"Global Witness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Witness"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"}],"sub_title":"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine","text":"Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine which began on February 24, many international, particularly Western companies pulled out of Russia. On March 1, TotalEnergies announced it \"will no longer provide capital for new projects in Russia\" but has retained ownership of its 19.4% stake in privately owned Novatek, 20% stake in the Yamal project and 10% stake in Arctic LNG 2.[123] This has led to criticism as insufficient, particularly given complete divestment of other major Western energy companies, and the European Union announcement of becoming more energy independent from Russia.[124][125][126]\nSimilarly in August 2022, an investigation by Global Witness showed that a Siberian gas field part-owned by TotalEnergies has been supplying a refinery, which is producing jet fuel for Russian warplanes. This contradicts Total´s claims that this was unrelated to Russian military operations in Ukraine.[127]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"China National Offshore Oil Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_Offshore_Oil_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Murchison Falls National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murchison_Falls_National_Park"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"}],"sub_title":"Africa","text":"In December 2022, the NGOs Friends of the Earth, Survie and four Ugandan NGOs sent the oil group Total to court and accused it of violating the law on the duty of vigilance of large French companies in terms of human rights and environment.[128] The Tilenga Project, which TotalEnergies is undertaking in conjunction with China National Offshore Oil Corporation consists of drilling for oil in the Murchison Falls National Park, a habitat for diverse species of birds and animals.[129] The project also involves building a pipeline from the site in land-locked Uganda to Tanga in Tanzania. Critics of the project are concerned that, since the proposed pipeline passes through Lake Victoria and close to a number of wildlife areas in Tanzania and Kenya, oil spills could threaten the lake and could have adverse effects on the wildlife, some of which is endangered, in various national parks.[130]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault%E2%80%93Nissan%E2%80%93Mitsubishi_Alliance"},{"link_name":"Renault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault"},{"link_name":"BP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BP"},{"link_name":"Nissan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan"},{"link_name":"ExxonMobil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExxonMobil"},{"link_name":"Infiniti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiniti"},{"link_name":"Dacia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dacia"},{"link_name":"Alpine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobiles_Alpine"},{"link_name":"Datsun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datsun"},{"link_name":"Kia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kia"},{"link_name":"Stellantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellantis"},{"link_name":"Citroën","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citro%C3%ABn"},{"link_name":"Peugeot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peugeot"},{"link_name":"DS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DS_Automobiles"},{"link_name":"Honda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda"},{"link_name":"Acura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acura"},{"link_name":"Aston Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aston_Martin"},{"link_name":"Mazda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda"},{"link_name":"Castrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrol"},{"link_name":"Sany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sany"},{"link_name":"Tata Motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors"},{"link_name":"Petronas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronas"},{"link_name":"Peugeot Motocycles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peugeot_Motocycles"},{"link_name":"Kawasaki Motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawasaki_Motors"}],"text":"TotalEnergies is an official recommended fuel and lubricants for all prominent Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance members, including Renault (shared with BP), Nissan (shared with ExxonMobil), Infiniti, Dacia, Alpine and Datsun, Kia, three Stellantis marques (Citroën, Peugeot and DS), Honda (including Acura, shared with BP and ExxonMobil), Aston Martin, Mazda (shared with BP and its subsidiary Castrol), Sany and Tata Motors (shared with Petronas) for automobiles only as well as Peugeot Motocycles, Kawasaki Motors (fuel only), Energica, and Honda for motorcycles only.","title":"Automobile and motorcycle OEM partnerships"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:S%C3%A9bastien_Loeb_-_2007_Rally_Catalunya.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sébastien Loeb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Loeb"},{"link_name":"auto racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto_racing"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Citroën Sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citro%C3%ABn_World_Rally_Team"},{"link_name":"World Rally Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Rally_Championship"},{"link_name":"Dakar Rally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakar_Rally"},{"link_name":"World Touring Car Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Touring_Car_Championship"},{"link_name":"Sébastien Loeb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9bastien_Loeb"},{"link_name":"Ari Vatanen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ari_Vatanen"},{"link_name":"Pierre Lartigue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Lartigue"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Peugeot Sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peugeot_Sport"},{"link_name":"Formula One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_One"},{"link_name":"British Touring Car Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Touring_Car_Championship"},{"link_name":"Intercontinental Rally Challenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercontinental_Rally_Challenge"},{"link_name":"24 Hours of Le Mans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans"},{"link_name":"Intercontinental Le Mans Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercontinental_Le_Mans_Cup"},{"link_name":"Pikes Peak International Hill Climb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pikes_Peak_International_Hill_Climb"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Peugeot Sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peugeot_Sport"},{"link_name":"TCR Touring Car","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCR_Touring_Car"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Le Mans Hypercar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mans_Hypercar"},{"link_name":"FIA World Endurance Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIA_World_Endurance_Championship"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"Renault Sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_Sport"},{"link_name":"Red Bull Racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Bull_Racing"},{"link_name":"Renault F1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_F1"},{"link_name":"Lotus F1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_F1"},{"link_name":"Caterham F1 Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterham_F1_Team"},{"link_name":"Scuderia Toro Rosso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuderia_Toro_Rosso"},{"link_name":"Williams F1 Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_F1_Team"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Copa Sudamericana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copa_Sudamericana"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"24 Hours of Le Mans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans"},{"link_name":"2018–19 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_FIA_World_Endurance_Championship"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"Club America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Club_Am%C3%A9rica"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Confederation of African Football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation_of_African_Football"},{"link_name":"Africa Cup of Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa_Cup_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Direct Énergie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_TotalEnergies"},{"link_name":"that year's edition of Paris–Roubaix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Paris%E2%80%93Roubaix"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"that year's Tour de France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Tour_de_France"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"Notre-Dame cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris"},{"link_name":"fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris_fire"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"CR Flamengo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CR_Flamengo"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"}],"text":"Sébastien Loeb car with total sponsorshipTotal has provided fuel and lubricants to professional auto racing teams.[citation needed]Total has been a longtime partner of Citroën Sport in the World Rally Championship, Dakar Rally and World Touring Car Championship. Sébastien Loeb won nine WRC drivers titles, whereas Ari Vatanen and Pierre Lartigue won four editions of the Dakar Rally.[citation needed]Total has been a partner of Peugeot Sport in Formula One from 1995 to 2000, the British Touring Car Championship in 1995 and 1996 and since 2001 in the World Rally Championship, Intercontinental Rally Challenge, 24 Hours of Le Mans, Intercontinental Le Mans Cup, Dakar Rally and Pikes Peak International Hill Climb.[citation needed] Total is also a partner of Peugeot Sport for its customer racing TCR Touring Car programme[citation needed] and its Le Mans Hypercar project in the FIA World Endurance Championship.[131]Total was a partner of Renault Sport in Formula One from 2009 to 2016. Their logo appeared on the Red Bull Racing cars between 2009 and 2016, the Renault F1 cars in 2009, 2010 and 2016, and the Lotus F1 cars from 2011 to 2014. Total also partnered Caterham F1 Team in 2011–2014, Scuderia Toro Rosso in 2014–2015 and Williams F1 Team in 2012–2013.[citation needed]Also, Total was the title sponsor of the Copa Sudamericana football tournament in 2013 and 2014.[citation needed]In 2017, Total was appointed by FIA and ACO as official fuel supplier of the World Endurance Championship and 24 Hours of Le Mans from 2018–19 season onwards.[132]Total is one of the official sponsors from 2013 to 2022 for one of the most popular and influential Mexican football teams, Club America.[133]In terms of educational development, Total provides scholarships worth millions of euros annually to international students to study in France. These programs are mainly for master's degrees. Doctoral scholarships are also offered but in limited numbers. The students mainly come from Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Middle East where Total Operates. Students from Africa are mainly from Nigeria. The scholarship involves the payment of Tuition and a monthly allowance of 1400 Euros (2014 disbursement). The allowance is able to cater for feeding, transportation, and accommodation for the students. The drop in oil prices in 2015 has led to the reduction of the number of scholars.[citation needed]In 2016, Total secured an eight-year sponsorship package from the Confederation of African Football (CAF) to support 10 of its principal competitions. Total will start with the Africa Cup of Nations to be held in Gabon, therefore, renaming it Total Africa Cup of Nations.[citation needed]Following Total's purchase of Direct Énergie in the summer of 2018, the Direct Énergie cycling team changed its name the following year to Total Direct Énergie ahead of that year's edition of Paris–Roubaix.[134] In 2021 the team changed its name again to Team TotalEnergies in time for that year's Tour de France.[135]In 2019, the company's Chief Executive Officer, Patrick Pouyanne pledged that Total would make a €100 million contribution to the reconstruction of the Notre-Dame cathedral after it was extensively damaged in a fire.[136]In 2020, the company confirmed a two-year sponsorship deal with CR Flamengo, being the first time a partner of a Brazilian football team.[137]","title":"Sponsorship"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"Fortune 500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_500"}],"text":"^ Data is based on the 2022 Fortune 500.","title":"Notes"}]

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[{"title":"France portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:France"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg"},{"title":"Energy portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Energy"},{"title":"Companies portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Companies"},{"title":"2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Hertfordshire_Oil_Storage_Terminal_fire"},{"title":"2007 UK petrol contamination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_UK_petrol_contamination"},{"title":"Centre Scientifique et Technique Jean Féger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSTJF"},{"title":"ERAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entreprise_de_recherches_et_d%27activit%C3%A9s_p%C3%A9troli%C3%A8res"},{"title":"Fossil fuels lobby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuels_lobby"},{"title":"Lindsey Oil Refinery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindsey_Oil_Refinery"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Salzberg

Barry Salzberg

["1 Biography","2 References","3 External links"]

Barry SalzbergAlma materBrooklyn CollegeBrooklyn Law School (JD; 1977)New York University School of Law (LLM in tax)EmployerDeloitte Touche Tohmatsu LimitedTitleGlobal Chief Executive Officer Barry Salzberg (born October 1953) is an American businessman, accountant, and lawyer. Salzberg is full-time Professor at Columbia University and former global Chief Executive Officer of Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited, a position he held from June 2011 until May 2015. Biography Salzberg is Jewish, and grew up in a poor neighborhood in Brooklyn, the youngest of five siblings. His parents were clerks, and he and his older sister were the first in his family to attend university. His father died while Salzberg was in high school, so he worked to help his family financially, and continued to live at home and work while he attended college. He is the father of Matt Salzberg co-founder of Blue Apron. Salzberg earned an undergraduate B.S. degree in accounting from Brooklyn College in 1974, a JD from Brooklyn Law School (1977), and an LLM in tax from the New York University School of Law. Salzberg joined Deloitte in 1977, and became a partner of Deloitte U.S. in 1985. He was the Chief Executive Officer of Deloitte LLP (United States) from 2007 to 2011. References ^ "The top 100 most influential people" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 26, 2014. Retrieved September 21, 2014. ^ "Barry Salzberg". Companiesintheuk.co.uk. Archived from the original on August 27, 2014. Retrieved November 16, 2013. ^ a b c "Barry Salzberg | DTTL CEO". Deloitte. Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved October 16, 2013. ^ Bryant, Adam (May 21, 2011). "The Right Job? It's Much Like the Right Spouse". New York Times. Retrieved September 21, 2014. ^ a b c "Barry Salzberg: Executive Profile & Biography". Businessweek.com. June 1, 2011. Retrieved October 16, 2013. ^ "It's All About Focus". The New York Times. January 20, 2008. Retrieved September 21, 2014. ^ "Accountant Middle East – Barry Salzberg". Accountancyme.com. July 31, 2013. Archived from the original on August 24, 2013. Retrieved November 16, 2013. ^ "Deloitte CEO Barry Salzberg on Leadership as 'the Norm, Not the Exception'". Knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu. May 11, 2011. Retrieved November 16, 2013. ^ Editorial, Inc (June 13, 2014). "Father and Son CEOs on Authentic Leadership". Inc.com. Retrieved March 11, 2022. {{cite web}}: |first= has generic name (help) ^ "Barry Salzberg : CV" (PDF). 8.gsb.columbia.edu. Retrieved March 8, 2022. ^ "Award Dinner Honors Barry Salzberg '77". Brooklaw.edu. May 23, 2011. Archived from the original on August 12, 2013. Retrieved November 16, 2013. External links "Core Values: An Interview with Barry Salzberg, Chief Executive Officer, Deloitte LLP, Leaders Magazine, February 2011 5 reasons nice guy leaders actually finish first, "Fast Company", April 2014

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shotgun_sequencing

Shotgun sequencing

["1 Example","2 Whole genome shotgun sequencing","2.1 History","2.2 Paired-end sequencing","2.3 Approach","2.4 Assembly","2.5 Pros and cons","2.6 Coverage","3 Hierarchical shotgun sequencing","4 Newer sequencing technologies","5 Metagenomic shotgun sequencing","6 See also","7 References","7.1 Further reading","8 External links"]

Method used for sequencing random DNA strands In genetics, shotgun sequencing is a method used for sequencing random DNA strands. It is named by analogy with the rapidly expanding, quasi-random shot grouping of a shotgun. The chain-termination method of DNA sequencing ("Sanger sequencing") can only be used for short DNA strands of 100 to 1000 base pairs. Due to this size limit, longer sequences are subdivided into smaller fragments that can be sequenced separately, and these sequences are assembled to give the overall sequence. In shotgun sequencing, DNA is broken up randomly into numerous small segments, which are sequenced using the chain termination method to obtain reads. Multiple overlapping reads for the target DNA are obtained by performing several rounds of this fragmentation and sequencing. Computer programs then use the overlapping ends of different reads to assemble them into a continuous sequence. Shotgun sequencing was one of the precursor technologies that was responsible for enabling whole genome sequencing. Example For example, consider the following two rounds of shotgun reads: Strand Sequence Original AGCATGCTGCAGTCATGCTTAGGCTA First shotgun sequence AGCATGCTGCAGTCATGCT--------------------------TAGGCTA Second shotgun sequence AGCATG--------------------------CTGCAGTCATGCTTAGGCTA Reconstruction AGCATGCTGCAGTCATGCTTAGGCTA In this extremely simplified example, none of the reads cover the full length of the original sequence, but the four reads can be assembled into the original sequence using the overlap of their ends to align and order them. In reality, this process uses enormous amounts of information that are rife with ambiguities and sequencing errors. Assembly of complex genomes is additionally complicated by the great abundance of repetitive sequences, meaning similar short reads could come from completely different parts of the sequence. Many overlapping reads for each segment of the original DNA are necessary to overcome these difficulties and accurately assemble the sequence. For example, to complete the Human Genome Project, most of the human genome was sequenced at 12X or greater coverage; that is, each base in the final sequence was present on average in 12 different reads. Even so, current methods have failed to isolate or assemble reliable sequence for approximately 1% of the (euchromatic) human genome, as of 2004. Whole genome shotgun sequencing History Whole genome shotgun sequencing for small (4000- to 7000-base-pair) genomes was first suggested in 1979. The first genome sequenced by shotgun sequencing was that of cauliflower mosaic virus, published in 1981. Paired-end sequencing Broader application benefited from pairwise end sequencing, known colloquially as double-barrel shotgun sequencing. As sequencing projects began to take on longer and more complicated DNA sequences, multiple groups began to realize that useful information could be obtained by sequencing both ends of a fragment of DNA. Although sequencing both ends of the same fragment and keeping track of the paired data was more cumbersome than sequencing a single end of two distinct fragments, the knowledge that the two sequences were oriented in opposite directions and were about the length of a fragment apart from each other was valuable in reconstructing the sequence of the original target fragment. History. The first published description of the use of paired ends was in 1990 as part of the sequencing of the human HGPRT locus, although the use of paired ends was limited to closing gaps after the application of a traditional shotgun sequencing approach. The first theoretical description of a pure pairwise end sequencing strategy, assuming fragments of constant length, was in 1991. At the time, there was community consensus that the optimal fragment length for pairwise end sequencing would be three times the sequence read length. In 1995 Roach et al. introduced the innovation of using fragments of varying sizes, and demonstrated that a pure pairwise end-sequencing strategy would be possible on large targets. The strategy was subsequently adopted by The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) to sequence the genome of the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae in 1995, and then by Celera Genomics to sequence the Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) genome in 2000, and subsequently the human genome. Approach To apply the strategy, a high-molecular-weight DNA strand is sheared into random fragments, size-selected (usually 2, 10, 50, and 150 kb), and cloned into an appropriate vector. The clones are then sequenced from both ends using the chain termination method yielding two short sequences. Each sequence is called an end-read or read 1 and read 2 and two reads from the same clone are referred to as mate pairs. Since the chain termination method usually can only produce reads between 500 and 1000 bases long, in all but the smallest clones, mate pairs will rarely overlap. Assembly The original sequence is reconstructed from the reads using sequence assembly software. First, overlapping reads are collected into longer composite sequences known as contigs. Contigs can be linked together into scaffolds by following connections between mate pairs. The distance between contigs can be inferred from the mate pair positions if the average fragment length of the library is known and has a narrow window of deviation. Depending on the size of the gap between contigs, different techniques can be used to find the sequence in the gaps. If the gap is small (5-20kb) then the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify the region is required, followed by sequencing. If the gap is large (>20kb) then the large fragment is cloned in special vectors such as bacterial artificial chromosomes (BAC) followed by sequencing of the vector. Pros and cons Proponents of this approach argue that it is possible to sequence the whole genome at once using large arrays of sequencers, which makes the whole process much more efficient than more traditional approaches. Detractors argue that although the technique quickly sequences large regions of DNA, its ability to correctly link these regions is suspect, particularly for eukaryotic genomes with repeating regions. As sequence assembly programs become more sophisticated and computing power becomes cheaper, it may be possible to overcome this limitation. Coverage Main article: Coverage (genetics) Coverage (read depth or depth) is the average number of reads representing a given nucleotide in the reconstructed sequence. It can be calculated from the length of the original genome (G), the number of reads(N), and the average read length(L) as N × L / G {\displaystyle N\times L/G} . For example, a hypothetical genome with 2,000 base pairs reconstructed from 8 reads with an average length of 500 nucleotides will have 2x redundancy. This parameter also enables one to estimate other quantities, such as the percentage of the genome covered by reads (sometimes also called coverage). A high coverage in shotgun sequencing is desired because it can overcome errors in base calling and assembly. The subject of DNA sequencing theory addresses the relationships of such quantities. Sometimes a distinction is made between sequence coverage and physical coverage. Sequence coverage is the average number of times a base is read (as described above). Physical coverage is the average number of times a base is read or spanned by mate paired reads. Hierarchical shotgun sequencing In whole genome shotgun sequencing (top), the entire genome is sheared randomly into small fragments (appropriately sized for sequencing) and then reassembled. In hierarchical shotgun sequencing (bottom), the genome is first broken into larger segments. After the order of these segments is deduced, they are further sheared into fragments appropriately sized for sequencing. Although shotgun sequencing can in theory be applied to a genome of any size, its direct application to the sequencing of large genomes (for instance, the human genome) was limited until the late 1990s, when technological advances made practical the handling of the vast quantities of complex data involved in the process. Historically, full-genome shotgun sequencing was believed to be limited by both the sheer size of large genomes and by the complexity added by the high percentage of repetitive DNA (greater than 50% for the human genome) present in large genomes. It was not widely accepted that a full-genome shotgun sequence of a large genome would provide reliable data. For these reasons, other strategies that lowered the computational load of sequence assembly had to be utilized before shotgun sequencing was performed. In hierarchical sequencing, also known as top-down sequencing, a low-resolution physical map of the genome is made prior to actual sequencing. From this map, a minimal number of fragments that cover the entire chromosome are selected for sequencing. In this way, the minimum amount of high-throughput sequencing and assembly is required. The amplified genome is first sheared into larger pieces (50-200kb) and cloned into a bacterial host using BACs or P1-derived artificial chromosomes (PAC). Because multiple genome copies have been sheared at random, the fragments contained in these clones have different ends, and with enough coverage (see section above) finding the smallest possible scaffold of BAC contigs that covers the entire genome is theoretically possible. This scaffold is called the minimum tiling path.A BAC contig that covers the entire genomic area of interest makes up the tiling path. Once a tiling path has been found, the BACs that form this path are sheared at random into smaller fragments and can be sequenced using the shotgun method on a smaller scale. Although the full sequences of the BAC contigs is not known, their orientations relative to one another are known. There are several methods for deducing this order and selecting the BACs that make up a tiling path. The general strategy involves identifying the positions of the clones relative to one another and then selecting the fewest clones required to form a contiguous scaffold that covers the entire area of interest. The order of the clones is deduced by determining the way in which they overlap. Overlapping clones can be identified in several ways. A small radioactively or chemically labeled probe containing a sequence-tagged site (STS) can be hybridized onto a microarray upon which the clones are printed. In this way, all the clones that contain a particular sequence in the genome are identified. The end of one of these clones can then be sequenced to yield a new probe and the process repeated in a method called chromosome walking. Alternatively, the BAC library can be restriction-digested. Two clones that have several fragment sizes in common are inferred to overlap because they contain multiple similarly spaced restriction sites in common. This method of genomic mapping is called restriction or BAC fingerprinting because it identifies a set of restriction sites contained in each clone. Once the overlap between the clones has been found and their order relative to the genome known, a scaffold of a minimal subset of these contigs that covers the entire genome is shotgun-sequenced. Because it involves first creating a low-resolution map of the genome, hierarchical shotgun sequencing is slower than whole-genome shotgun sequencing, but relies less heavily on computer algorithms than whole-genome shotgun sequencing. The process of extensive BAC library creation and tiling path selection, however, make hierarchical shotgun sequencing slow and labor-intensive. Now that the technology is available and the reliability of the data demonstrated, the speed and cost efficiency of whole-genome shotgun sequencing has made it the primary method for genome sequencing. Newer sequencing technologies The classical shotgun sequencing was based on the Sanger sequencing method: this was the most advanced technique for sequencing genomes from about 1995–2005. The shotgun strategy is still applied today, however using other sequencing technologies, such as short-read sequencing and long-read sequencing. Short-read or "next-gen" sequencing produces shorter reads (anywhere from 25–500bp) but many hundreds of thousands or millions of reads in a relatively short time (on the order of a day). This results in high coverage, but the assembly process is much more computationally intensive. These technologies are vastly superior to Sanger sequencing due to the high volume of data and the relatively short time it takes to sequence a whole genome. Metagenomic shotgun sequencing Having reads of 400-500 base pairs length is sufficient to determine the species or strain of the organism where the DNA comes from, provided its genome is already known, by using for example a k-mer based taxonomic classifier software. With millions of reads from next generation sequencing of an environmental sample, it is possible to get a complete overview of any complex microbiome with thousands of species, like the gut flora. Advantages over 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing are: not being limited to bacteria; strain-level classification where amplicon sequencing only gets the genus; and the possibility to extract whole genes and specify their function as part of the metagenome. The sensitivity of metagenomic sequencing makes it an attractive choice for clinical use. It however emphasizes the problem of contamination of the sample or the sequencing pipeline. See also Clinical metagenomic sequencing DNA sequencing theory References ^ a b c Staden, R. 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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 113 (29): 7935–7937. Bibcode:2016PNAS..113.7935D. doi:10.1073/pnas.1608857113. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 4961156. PMID 27382176. ^ Edwards, Al; Caskey, C. Thomas (August 1991). "Closure strategies for random DNA sequencing". Methods. 3 (1): 41–47. doi:10.1016/S1046-2023(05)80162-8. ^ Edwards, Al; Voss, Hartmut; Rice, Peter; Civitello, Andrew; Stegemann, Josef; Schwager, Christian; Zimmermann, Juergen; Erfle, Holger; Caskey, C.Thomas; Ansorge, Wilhelm (April 1990). "Automated DNA sequencing of the human HPRT locus". Genomics. 6 (4): 593–608. doi:10.1016/0888-7543(90)90493-E. PMID 2341149. ^ Roach, Jared C.; Boysen, Cecilie; Wang, Kai; Hood, Leroy (March 1995). "Pairwise end sequencing: a unified approach to genomic mapping and sequencing". Genomics. 26 (2): 345–353. doi:10.1016/0888-7543(95)80219-C. PMID 7601461. ^ Fleischmann, RD; et al. (1995). "Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of Haemophilus influenzae Rd". 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A Primer of Genome Science. 3rd ed. P.84 ^ Bozdag, Serdar; Close, Timothy J.; Lonardi, Stefano (March 2013). "A Graph-Theoretical Approach to the Selection of the Minimum Tiling Path from a Physical Map". IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics. 10 (2): 352–360. doi:10.1109/tcbb.2013.26. ISSN 1545-5963. ^ a b c Dear, Paul H (9 September 2005). "Genome Mapping". Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. doi:10.1038/npg.els.0005353. ISBN 978-0-470-01617-6. ^ Voelkerding, Karl V; Dames, Shale A; Durtschi, Jacob D (1 April 2009). "Next-Generation Sequencing: From Basic Research to Diagnostics". Clinical Chemistry. 55 (4): 641–658. doi:10.1373/clinchem.2008.112789. PMID 19246620. ^ Metzker, Michael L. (January 2010). "Sequencing technologies — the next generation". Nature Reviews Genetics. 11 (1): 31–46. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.719.3885. doi:10.1038/nrg2626. PMID 19997069. S2CID 205484500. ^ Roumpeka, Despoina D.; Wallace, R. John; Escalettes, Frank; Fotheringham, Ian; Watson, Mick (6 March 2017). "A Review of Bioinformatics Tools for Bio-Prospecting from Metagenomic Sequence Data". Frontiers in Genetics. 8: 23. doi:10.3389/fgene.2017.00023. PMC 5337752. PMID 28321234. ^ Gu, Wei; Miller, Steve; Chiu, Charles Y. (24 January 2019). "Clinical Metagenomic Next-Generation Sequencing for Pathogen Detection". Annual Review of Pathology: Mechanisms of Disease. 14 (1): 319–338. doi:10.1146/annurev-pathmechdis-012418-012751. PMC 6345613. PMID 30355154. ^ Thoendel, Matthew; Jeraldo, Patricio; Greenwood-Quaintance, Kerryl E.; Yao, Janet; Chia, Nicholas; Hanssen, Arlen D.; Abdel, Matthew P.; Patel, Robin (June 2017). "Impact of Contaminating DNA in Whole-Genome Amplification Kits Used for Metagenomic Shotgun Sequencing for Infection Diagnosis". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 55 (6): 1789–1801. doi:10.1128/JCM.02402-16. PMC 5442535. PMID 28356418. Further reading "Shotgun sequencing comes of age". The Scientist. Archived from the original on May 14, 2011. Retrieved December 31, 2002. "Shotgun sequencing finds nanoorganisms - Probe of acid mine drainage turns up unsuspected virus-sized Archaea". SpaceRef.com. 22 December 2006. Retrieved December 23, 2006. External links  This article incorporates public domain material from NCBI Handbook. National Center for Biotechnology Information.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"genetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics"},{"link_name":"sequencing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequencing"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"shot grouping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shot_grouping"},{"link_name":"shotgun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shotgun"},{"link_name":"chain-termination method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanger_sequencing#Method"},{"link_name":"DNA sequencing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing"},{"link_name":"base pairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_pair"},{"link_name":"assembled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_assembly"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Staden-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Staden-1"},{"link_name":"whole genome sequencing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_genome_sequencing"}],"text":"In genetics, shotgun sequencing is a method used for sequencing random DNA strands. It is named by analogy with the rapidly expanding, quasi-random shot grouping of a shotgun.The chain-termination method of DNA sequencing (\"Sanger sequencing\") can only be used for short DNA strands of 100 to 1000 base pairs. Due to this size limit, longer sequences are subdivided into smaller fragments that can be sequenced separately, and these sequences are assembled to give the overall sequence.In shotgun sequencing,[1][2] DNA is broken up randomly into numerous small segments, which are sequenced using the chain termination method to obtain reads. Multiple overlapping reads for the target DNA are obtained by performing several rounds of this fragmentation and sequencing. Computer programs then use the overlapping ends of different reads to assemble them into a continuous sequence.[1]Shotgun sequencing was one of the precursor technologies that was responsible for enabling whole genome sequencing.","title":"Shotgun sequencing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"repetitive sequences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeated_sequence_(DNA)"},{"link_name":"Human Genome Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project"},{"link_name":"euchromatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euchromatin"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HGS2004-3"}],"text":"For example, consider the following two rounds of shotgun reads:In this extremely simplified example, none of the reads cover the full length of the original sequence, but the four reads can be assembled into the original sequence using the overlap of their ends to align and order them. In reality, this process uses enormous amounts of information that are rife with ambiguities and sequencing errors. Assembly of complex genomes is additionally complicated by the great abundance of repetitive sequences, meaning similar short reads could come from completely different parts of the sequence.Many overlapping reads for each segment of the original DNA are necessary to overcome these difficulties and accurately assemble the sequence. For example, to complete the Human Genome Project, most of the human genome was sequenced at 12X or greater coverage; that is, each base in the final sequence was present on average in 12 different reads. Even so, current methods have failed to isolate or assemble reliable sequence for approximately 1% of the (euchromatic) human genome, as of 2004.[3]","title":"Example"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Whole genome shotgun sequencing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Staden-1"},{"link_name":"cauliflower mosaic virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauliflower_mosaic_virus"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"History","text":"Whole genome shotgun sequencing for small (4000- to 7000-base-pair) genomes was first suggested in 1979.[1] The first genome sequenced by shotgun sequencing was that of cauliflower mosaic virus, published in 1981.[4][5]","title":"Whole genome shotgun sequencing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pairwise end sequencing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing_theory#Pairwise_end-sequencing"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"HGPRT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxanthine-guanine_phosphoribosyltransferase"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Roach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared_Roach"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"The Institute for Genomic Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Institute_for_Genomic_Research"},{"link_name":"Haemophilus influenzae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Celera Genomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celera_Genomics"},{"link_name":"Drosophila melanogaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Paired-end sequencing","text":"Broader application benefited from pairwise end sequencing, known colloquially as double-barrel shotgun sequencing. As sequencing projects began to take on longer and more complicated DNA sequences, multiple groups began to realize that useful information could be obtained by sequencing both ends of a fragment of DNA. Although sequencing both ends of the same fragment and keeping track of the paired data was more cumbersome than sequencing a single end of two distinct fragments, the knowledge that the two sequences were oriented in opposite directions and were about the length of a fragment apart from each other was valuable in reconstructing the sequence of the original target fragment.History. The first published description of the use of paired ends was in 1990[6] as part of the sequencing of the human HGPRT locus, although the use of paired ends was limited to closing gaps after the application of a traditional shotgun sequencing approach. The first theoretical description of a pure pairwise end sequencing strategy, assuming fragments of constant length, was in 1991.[7] At the time, there was community consensus that the optimal fragment length for pairwise end sequencing would be three times the sequence read length. In 1995 Roach et al.[8] introduced the innovation of using fragments of varying sizes, and demonstrated that a pure pairwise end-sequencing strategy would be possible on large targets. The strategy was subsequently adopted by The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) to sequence the genome of the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae in 1995,[9] and then by Celera Genomics to sequence the Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) genome in 2000,[10] and subsequently the human genome.","title":"Whole genome shotgun sequencing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cloned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clone_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_DNA"},{"link_name":"chain termination method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanger_sequencing#Method"},{"link_name":"mate pairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paired-end_tag"},{"link_name":"mate pairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paired-end_tag"}],"sub_title":"Approach","text":"To apply the strategy, a high-molecular-weight DNA strand is sheared into random fragments, size-selected (usually 2, 10, 50, and 150 kb), and cloned into an appropriate vector. The clones are then sequenced from both ends using the chain termination method yielding two short sequences. Each sequence is called an end-read or read 1 and read 2 and two reads from the same clone are referred to as mate pairs. Since the chain termination method usually can only produce reads between 500 and 1000 bases long, in all but the smallest clones, mate pairs will rarely overlap.","title":"Whole genome shotgun sequencing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sequence assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_assembly"},{"link_name":"mate pairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paired-end_tag"},{"link_name":"mate pair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paired-end_tag"},{"link_name":"polymerase chain reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction"},{"link_name":"bacterial artificial chromosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_artificial_chromosome"}],"sub_title":"Assembly","text":"The original sequence is reconstructed from the reads using sequence assembly software. First, overlapping reads are collected into longer composite sequences known as contigs. Contigs can be linked together into scaffolds by following connections between mate pairs. The distance between contigs can be inferred from the mate pair positions if the average fragment length of the library is known and has a narrow window of deviation. Depending on the size of the gap between contigs, different techniques can be used to find the sequence in the gaps. If the gap is small (5-20kb) then the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify the region is required, followed by sequencing. If the gap is large (>20kb) then the large fragment is cloned in special vectors such as bacterial artificial chromosomes (BAC) followed by sequencing of the vector.","title":"Whole genome shotgun sequencing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"genome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome"},{"link_name":"sequence assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_assembly"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Pros and cons","text":"Proponents of this approach argue that it is possible to sequence the whole genome at once using large arrays of sequencers, which makes the whole process much more efficient than more traditional approaches. Detractors argue that although the technique quickly sequences large regions of DNA, its ability to correctly link these regions is suspect, particularly for eukaryotic genomes with repeating regions. As sequence assembly programs become more sophisticated and computing power becomes cheaper, it may be possible to overcome this limitation.[citation needed]","title":"Whole genome shotgun sequencing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nucleotide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide"},{"link_name":"base calling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_calling"},{"link_name":"DNA sequencing theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing_theory"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MeyersonFig1-11"}],"sub_title":"Coverage","text":"Coverage (read depth or depth) is the average number of reads representing a given nucleotide in the reconstructed sequence. It can be calculated from the length of the original genome (G), the number of reads(N), and the average read length(L) as \n \n \n \n N\n ×\n L\n \n /\n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle N\\times L/G}\n \n. For example, a hypothetical genome with 2,000 base pairs reconstructed from 8 reads with an average length of 500 nucleotides will have 2x redundancy. This parameter also enables one to estimate other quantities, such as the percentage of the genome covered by reads (sometimes also called coverage). A high coverage in shotgun sequencing is desired because it can overcome errors in base calling and assembly. The subject of DNA sequencing theory addresses the relationships of such quantities.Sometimes a distinction is made between sequence coverage and physical coverage. Sequence coverage is the average number of times a base is read (as described above). Physical coverage is the average number of times a base is read or spanned by mate paired reads.[11]","title":"Whole genome shotgun sequencing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Whole_genome_shotgun_sequencing_versus_Hierarchical_shotgun_sequencing.png"},{"link_name":"human genome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_genome"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-genome_sequencing-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-venter-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-venter-13"},{"link_name":"physical map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_mapping#Physical_mapping"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-textbook-14"},{"link_name":"P1-derived artificial chromosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P1-derived_artificial_chromosome"},{"link_name":"BAC contigs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contig#BAC_contigs"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tiling_path.png"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-genome_map-16"},{"link_name":"sequence-tagged site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence-tagged_site"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-genome_map-16"},{"link_name":"BAC library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAC_library#Genomic_libraries"},{"link_name":"restriction-digested","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restriction_digest"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-genome_map-16"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-textbook-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-venter-13"}],"text":"In whole genome shotgun sequencing (top), the entire genome is sheared randomly into small fragments (appropriately sized for sequencing) and then reassembled. In hierarchical shotgun sequencing (bottom), the genome is first broken into larger segments. After the order of these segments is deduced, they are further sheared into fragments appropriately sized for sequencing.Although shotgun sequencing can in theory be applied to a genome of any size, its direct application to the sequencing of large genomes (for instance, the human genome) was limited until the late 1990s, when technological advances made practical the handling of the vast quantities of complex data involved in the process.[12] Historically, full-genome shotgun sequencing was believed to be limited by both the sheer size of large genomes and by the complexity added by the high percentage of repetitive DNA (greater than 50% for the human genome) present in large genomes.[13] It was not widely accepted that a full-genome shotgun sequence of a large genome would provide reliable data. For these reasons, other strategies that lowered the computational load of sequence assembly had to be utilized before shotgun sequencing was performed.[13]\nIn hierarchical sequencing, also known as top-down sequencing, a low-resolution physical map of the genome is made prior to actual sequencing. From this map, a minimal number of fragments that cover the entire chromosome are selected for sequencing.[14] In this way, the minimum amount of high-throughput sequencing and assembly is required.The amplified genome is first sheared into larger pieces (50-200kb) and cloned into a bacterial host using BACs or P1-derived artificial chromosomes (PAC). Because multiple genome copies have been sheared at random, the fragments contained in these clones have different ends, and with enough coverage (see section above) finding the smallest possible scaffold of BAC contigs that covers the entire genome is theoretically possible. This scaffold is called the minimum tiling path.A BAC contig that covers the entire genomic area of interest makes up the tiling path.Once a tiling path has been found, the BACs that form this path are sheared at random into smaller fragments and can be sequenced using the shotgun method on a smaller scale.[15]Although the full sequences of the BAC contigs is not known, their orientations relative to one another are known. There are several methods for deducing this order and selecting the BACs that make up a tiling path. The general strategy involves identifying the positions of the clones relative to one another and then selecting the fewest clones required to form a contiguous scaffold that covers the entire area of interest. The order of the clones is deduced by determining the way in which they overlap.[16] Overlapping clones can be identified in several ways. A small radioactively or chemically labeled probe containing a sequence-tagged site (STS) can be hybridized onto a microarray upon which the clones are printed.[16] In this way, all the clones that contain a particular sequence in the genome are identified. The end of one of these clones can then be sequenced to yield a new probe and the process repeated in a method called chromosome walking.Alternatively, the BAC library can be restriction-digested. Two clones that have several fragment sizes in common are inferred to overlap because they contain multiple similarly spaced restriction sites in common.[16] This method of genomic mapping is called restriction or BAC fingerprinting because it identifies a set of restriction sites contained in each clone. Once the overlap between the clones has been found and their order relative to the genome known, a scaffold of a minimal subset of these contigs that covers the entire genome is shotgun-sequenced.[14]Because it involves first creating a low-resolution map of the genome, hierarchical shotgun sequencing is slower than whole-genome shotgun sequencing, but relies less heavily on computer algorithms than whole-genome shotgun sequencing. The process of extensive BAC library creation and tiling path selection, however, make hierarchical shotgun sequencing slow and labor-intensive. Now that the technology is available and the reliability of the data demonstrated,[13] the speed and cost efficiency of whole-genome shotgun sequencing has made it the primary method for genome sequencing.","title":"Hierarchical shotgun sequencing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"short-read sequencing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing#Next-generation_methods"},{"link_name":"long-read sequencing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-read_sequencing"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"The classical shotgun sequencing was based on the Sanger sequencing method: this was the most advanced technique for sequencing genomes from about 1995–2005. The shotgun strategy is still applied today, however using other sequencing technologies, such as short-read sequencing and long-read sequencing.Short-read or \"next-gen\" sequencing produces shorter reads (anywhere from 25–500bp) but many hundreds of thousands or millions of reads in a relatively short time (on the order of a day).[17]\nThis results in high coverage, but the assembly process is much more computationally intensive. These technologies are vastly superior to Sanger sequencing due to the high volume of data and the relatively short time it takes to sequence a whole genome.[18]","title":"Newer sequencing technologies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"k-mer based","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-mer#Genetics_and_Genomics"},{"link_name":"taxonomic classifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)#Classifying_organisms"},{"link_name":"gut flora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gut_flora"},{"link_name":"amplicon sequencing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplicon_sequencing"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"clinical use","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_metagenomic_sequencing"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Having reads of 400-500 base pairs length is sufficient to determine the species or strain of the organism where the DNA comes from, provided its genome is already known, by using for example a k-mer based taxonomic classifier software. With millions of reads from next generation sequencing of an environmental sample, it is possible to get a complete overview of any complex microbiome with thousands of species, like the gut flora. Advantages over 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing are: not being limited to bacteria; strain-level classification where amplicon sequencing only gets the genus; and the possibility to extract whole genes and specify their function as part of the metagenome.[19] The sensitivity of metagenomic sequencing makes it an attractive choice for clinical use.[20] It however emphasizes the problem of contamination of the sample or the sequencing pipeline.[21]","title":"Metagenomic shotgun sequencing"}]

[{"image_text":"In whole genome shotgun sequencing (top), the entire genome is sheared randomly into small fragments (appropriately sized for sequencing) and then reassembled. In hierarchical shotgun sequencing (bottom), the genome is first broken into larger segments. After the order of these segments is deduced, they are further sheared into fragments appropriately sized for sequencing.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Whole_genome_shotgun_sequencing_versus_Hierarchical_shotgun_sequencing.png/220px-Whole_genome_shotgun_sequencing_versus_Hierarchical_shotgun_sequencing.png"},{"image_text":"A BAC contig that covers the entire genomic area of interest makes up the tiling path.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Tiling_path.png/220px-Tiling_path.png"}]

[{"title":"Clinical metagenomic sequencing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_metagenomic_sequencing"},{"title":"DNA sequencing theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing_theory"}]

[{"reference":"Staden, R. (1979). \"A strategy of DNA sequencing employing computer programs\". Nucleic Acids Research. 6 (7): 2601–2610. doi:10.1093/nar/6.7.2601. PMC 327874. PMID 461197.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC327874","url_text":"\"A strategy of DNA sequencing employing computer programs\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fnar%2F6.7.2601","url_text":"10.1093/nar/6.7.2601"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC327874","url_text":"327874"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/461197","url_text":"461197"}]},{"reference":"Anderson, Stephen (1981). \"Shotgun DNA sequencing using cloned DNase I-generated fragments\". Nucleic Acids Research. 9 (13): 3015–3027. doi:10.1093/nar/9.13.3015. PMC 327328. PMID 6269069.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC327328","url_text":"\"Shotgun DNA sequencing using cloned DNase I-generated fragments\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fnar%2F9.13.3015","url_text":"10.1093/nar/9.13.3015"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC327328","url_text":"327328"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6269069","url_text":"6269069"}]},{"reference":"International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (21 October 2004). \"Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome\". Nature. 431 (7011): 931–945. Bibcode:2004Natur.431..931H. doi:10.1038/nature03001. 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Diagnosis\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJCM.02402-16","external_links_name":"10.1128/JCM.02402-16"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5442535","external_links_name":"5442535"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28356418","external_links_name":"28356418"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110514111214/http://www.the-scientist.com/news/20021231/06/","external_links_name":"\"Shotgun sequencing comes of age\""},{"Link":"http://www.the-scientist.com/news/20021231/06","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=21532","external_links_name":"\"Shotgun sequencing finds nanoorganisms - Probe of acid mine drainage turns up unsuspected virus-sized Archaea\""},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=handbook.TOC&depth=2","external_links_name":"NCBI Handbook"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_event_manager

Security event management

["1 Overview","2 Event logs","3 Security analysis","4 Regulatory requirements","5 Standardization","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

Security event management (SEM), and the related SIM and SIEM, are computer security disciplines that use data inspection tools to centralize the storage and interpretation of logs or events generated by other software running on a network. Overview The acronyms SEM, SIM and SIEM have sometimes been used interchangeably,: 3  but generally refer to the different primary focus of products: Log management: Focus on simple collection and storage of log messages and audit trails Security information management (SIM): Long-term storage as well as analysis and reporting of log data. Security event manager (SEM): Real-time monitoring, correlation of events, notifications and console views. Security information and event management (SIEM): Combines SIM and SEM and provides real-time analysis of security alerts generated by network hardware and applications. Event logs Many systems and applications which run on a computer network generate events which are kept in event logs. These logs are essentially lists of activities that occurred, with records of new events being appended to the end of the logs as they occur. Protocols, such as syslog and SNMP, can be used to transport these events, as they occur, to logging software that is not on the same host on which the events are generated. The better SEMs provide a flexible array of supported communication protocols to allow for the broadest range of event collection. It is beneficial to send all events to a centralized SEM system for the following reasons: Access to all logs can be provided through a consistent central interface. The SEM can provide secure, forensically sound storage and archival of event logs (this is also a classic log management function). Powerful reporting tools can be run on the SEM to mine the logs for useful information. Events can be parsed as they hit the SEM for significance, and alerts and notifications can be immediately sent out to interested parties as warranted. Related events which occur on multiple systems can be detected which would be very difficult to detect if each system had a separate log. Events which are sent from a system to a SEM remain on the SEM even if the sending system fails or the logs on it are accidentally or intentionally erased. Security analysis Although centralised logging has existed for long time, SEMs are a relatively new idea, pioneered in 1999 by a small company called E-Security, and are still evolving rapidly. The key feature of a Security Event Management tool is the ability to analyse the collected logs to highlight events or behaviors of interest, for example an Administrator or Super User logon, outside of normal business hours. This may include attaching contextual information, such as host information (value, owner, location, etc.), identity information (user info related to accounts referenced in the event like first/last name, workforce ID, manager's name, etc.), and so forth. This contextual information can be leveraged to provide better correlation and reporting capabilities and is often referred to as Meta-data. Products may also integrate with external remediation, ticketing, and workflow tools to assist with the process of incident resolution. The better SEMs will provide a flexible, extensible set of integration capabilities to ensure that the SEM will work with most customer environments. Regulatory requirements This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (May 2018) SEMs are often sold to help satisfy U.S. regulatory requirements such as those of Sarbanes–Oxley, PCI-DSS, GLBA. Standardization One of the major problems in the SEM space is the difficulty in consistently analyzing event data. Every vendor, and indeed in many cases different products by one vendor, uses a different proprietary event data format and delivery method. Even in cases where a "standard" is used for some part of the chain, like Syslog, the standards don't typically contain enough guidance to assist developers in how to generate events, administrators in how to gather them correctly and reliably, and consumers to analyze them effectively. As an attempt to combat this problem, a couple of parallel standardization efforts are underway. First, The Open Group is updating their circa 1997 XDAS standard, which never made it past draft status. This new effort, dubbed XDAS v2, will attempt to formalize an event format including which data should be included in events and how it should be expressed. The XDAS v2 standard will not include event delivery standards but other standards in development by the Distributed Management Task Force may provide a wrapper. In addition, MITRE developed efforts to unify event reporting with the Common Event Expression (CEE) which was somewhat broader in scope as it attempted to define an event structure as well as delivery methods. The project, however, ran out of funding in 2014. See also Computer security incident management Security information management Comparison of network monitoring systems Security information and event management References ^ "Security Event Management". Archived from the original on 2014-10-19. Retrieved 2013-07-17. SIEM ^ "Preparing for Security Event Management" (PDF). 360 Information Security Ltd. Archived from the original (PDF) on Jun 22, 2023. ^ a b Swift, David (26 December 2006). "A Practical Application of SIM/SEM/SIEM, Automating Threat Identification" (PDF). SANS Institute. Retrieved 14 June 2024. ^ Kelley, Diana (March 2004). "Report: Security Management Convergence via SIM (Security Information Management)—A Requirements Perspective". Journal of Network and Systems Management. 12 (1): 137–144. doi:10.1023/B:JONS.0000015702.05980.d2. ISSN 1064-7570. S2CID 1204926. ^ http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-92/SP800-92.pdf ^ "SIEM: A Market Snapshot". Dr.Dobb's Journal. 5 February 2007. ^ The Future of SIEM - The market will begin to diverge ^ "Novell buys e-Security", 2006, ZDNet External links SIEM Analytics List of top SIEM and Event Log Manager Tools

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These logs are essentially lists of activities that occurred, with records of new events being appended to the end of the logs as they occur. Protocols, such as syslog and SNMP, can be used to transport these events, as they occur, to logging software that is not on the same host on which the events are generated. The better SEMs provide a flexible array of supported communication protocols to allow for the broadest range of event collection.It is beneficial to send all events to a centralized SEM system for the following reasons:Access to all logs can be provided through a consistent central interface.\nThe SEM can provide secure, forensically sound storage and archival of event logs (this is also a classic log management function).\nPowerful reporting tools can be run on the SEM to mine the logs for useful information.\nEvents can be parsed as they hit the SEM for significance, and alerts and notifications can be immediately sent out to interested parties as warranted.\nRelated events which occur on multiple systems can be detected which would be very difficult to detect if each system had a separate log.\nEvents which are sent from a system to a SEM remain on the SEM even if the sending system fails or the logs on it are accidentally or intentionally erased.","title":"Event logs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Super User logon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superuser"}],"text":"Although centralised logging has existed for long time, SEMs are a relatively new idea, pioneered in 1999 by a small company called E-Security,[8] and are still evolving rapidly. The key feature of a Security Event Management tool is the ability to analyse the collected logs to highlight events or behaviors of interest, for example an Administrator or Super User logon, outside of normal business hours. This may include attaching contextual information, such as host information (value, owner, location, etc.), identity information (user info related to accounts referenced in the event like first/last name, workforce ID, manager's name, etc.), and so forth. This contextual information can be leveraged to provide better correlation and reporting capabilities and is often referred to as Meta-data. Products may also integrate with external remediation, ticketing, and workflow tools to assist with the process of incident resolution. The better SEMs will provide a flexible, extensible set of integration capabilities to ensure that the SEM will work with most customer environments.","title":"Security analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sarbanes–Oxley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarbanes%E2%80%93Oxley_Act"},{"link_name":"PCI-DSS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI_DSS"},{"link_name":"GLBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramm%E2%80%93Leach%E2%80%93Bliley_Act"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"SEMs are often sold to help satisfy U.S. regulatory requirements such as those of Sarbanes–Oxley, PCI-DSS, GLBA.[citation needed]","title":"Regulatory requirements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Syslog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syslog"},{"link_name":"The Open Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Open_Group"},{"link_name":"XDAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=XDAS&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Distributed Management Task Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_Management_Task_Force"},{"link_name":"MITRE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MITRE"},{"link_name":"Common Event Expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//cee.mitre.org/"}],"text":"One of the major problems in the SEM space is the difficulty in consistently analyzing event data. Every vendor, and indeed in many cases different products by one vendor, uses a different proprietary event data format and delivery method. Even in cases where a \"standard\" is used for some part of the chain, like Syslog, the standards don't typically contain enough guidance to assist developers in how to generate events, administrators in how to gather them correctly and reliably, and consumers to analyze them effectively.As an attempt to combat this problem, a couple of parallel standardization efforts are underway. First, The Open Group is updating their circa 1997 XDAS standard, which never made it past draft status. This new effort, dubbed XDAS v2, will attempt to formalize an event format including which data should be included in events and how it should be expressed.[citation needed] The XDAS v2 standard will not include event delivery standards but other standards in development by the Distributed Management Task Force may provide a wrapper.In addition, MITRE developed efforts to unify event reporting with the Common Event Expression (CEE) which was somewhat broader in scope as it attempted to define an event structure as well as delivery methods. The project, however, ran out of funding in 2014.","title":"Standardization"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified_Harvard_architecture

Modified Harvard architecture

["1 Harvard architecture","2 Von Neumann architecture","3 Modified Harvard architecture","3.1 Split-cache (or almost-von-Neumann) architecture","3.2 Instruction-memory-as-data architecture","3.3 Data-memory-as-instruction architecture","4 Comparisons","5 Modern uses of the modified Harvard architecture","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References"]

Computer architecture treating code and data similarly, though not usually identically This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help clarify the article. There might be a discussion about this on the talk page. (December 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Modified Harvard architecture" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A modified Harvard architecture is a variation of the Harvard computer architecture that, unlike the pure Harvard architecture, allows memory that contains instructions to be accessed as data. Most modern computers that are documented as Harvard architecture are, in fact, modified Harvard architecture. Harvard architecture Main article: Harvard architecture The original Harvard architecture computer, the Harvard Mark I, employed entirely separate memory systems to store instructions and data. The CPU fetched the next instruction and loaded or stored data simultaneously and independently. This is in contrast to a von Neumann architecture computer, in which both instructions and data are stored in the same memory system and (without the complexity of a CPU cache) must be accessed in turn. The physical separation of instruction and data memory is sometimes held to be the distinguishing feature of modern Harvard architecture computers. With microcontrollers (entire computer systems integrated onto single chips), the use of different memory technologies for instructions (e.g. flash memory) and data (typically read/write memory) in von Neumann machines is becoming popular. The true distinction of a Harvard machine is that instruction and data memory occupy different address spaces. In other words, a memory address does not uniquely identify a storage location (as it does in a von Neumann machine); it is also necessary to know the memory space (instruction or data) to which the address belongs. Von Neumann architecture Main article: Von Neumann architecture A computer with a von Neumann architecture has the advantage over Harvard machines as described above in that code can also be accessed and treated the same as data, and vice versa. This allows, for example, data to be read from disk storage into memory and then executed as code, or self-optimizing software systems using technologies such as just-in-time compilation to write machine code into their own memory and then later execute it. Another example is self-modifying code, which allows a program to modify itself. A disadvantage of these methods are issues with executable space protection, which increase the risks from malware and software defects. Modified Harvard architecture Accordingly, some pure Harvard machines are specialty products. Most modern computers instead implement a modified Harvard architecture. Those modifications are various ways to loosen the strict separation between code and data, while still supporting the higher performance concurrent data and instruction access of the Harvard architecture. Split-cache (or almost-von-Neumann) architecture The most common modification builds a memory hierarchy with separate CPU caches for instructions and data at lower levels of the hierarchy. There is a single address space for instructions and data, providing the von Neumann model, but the CPU fetches instructions from the instruction cache and fetches data from the data cache. Most programmers never need to be aware of the fact that the processor core implements a (modified) Harvard architecture, although they benefit from its speed advantages. Only programmers who generate and store instructions into memory need to be aware of issues such as cache coherency, if the store doesn't modify or invalidate a cached copy of the instruction in an instruction cache. Instruction-memory-as-data architecture Another change preserves the "separate address space" nature of a Harvard machine, but provides special machine operations to access the contents of the instruction memory as data. Because data is not directly executable as instructions, such machines are not always viewed as "modified" Harvard architecture: Read access: initial data values can be copied from the instruction memory into the data memory when the program starts. Or, if the data is not to be modified (it might be a constant value, such as pi, or a text string), it can be accessed by the running program directly from instruction memory without taking up space in data memory (which is often at a premium). Write access: a capability for reprogramming is generally required; few computers are purely ROM-based. For example, a microcontroller usually has operations to write to the flash memory used to hold its instructions. This capability may be used for purposes including software updates. EEPROM/PROM replacement is an alternative method. Data-memory-as-instruction architecture A few Harvard architecture processors, such as the Maxim Integrated MAXQ, can execute instructions fetched from any memory segment – unlike the original Harvard processor, which can only execute instructions fetched from the program memory segment. Such processors, like other Harvard architecture processors – and unlike pure von Neumann architecture – can read an instruction and read a data value simultaneously, if they're in separate memory segments, since the processor has (at least) two separate memory segments with independent data buses. The most obvious programmer-visible difference between this kind of modified Harvard architecture and a pure von Neumann architecture is that – when executing an instruction from one memory segment – the same memory segment cannot be simultaneously accessed as data. Comparisons Three characteristics may be used to distinguish modified Harvard machines from pure Harvard and von Neumann machines: Instruction and data memories occupy different address spaces For pure Harvard machines, there is an address "zero" in instruction space that refers to an instruction storage location and a separate address "zero" in data space that refers to a distinct data storage location. By contrast, von Neumann and split-cache modified Harvard machines store both instructions and data in a single address space, so address "zero" refers to only one location and whether the binary pattern in that location is interpreted as an instruction or data is defined by how the program is written. However, just like pure Harvard machines, instruction-memory-as-data modified Harvard machines have separate address spaces, so have separate addresses "zero" for instruction and data space, so this does not distinguish that type of modified Harvard machines from pure Harvard machines. Instruction and data memories have separate hardware pathways to the central processing unit (CPU) This is the point of pure or modified Harvard machines, and why they co-exist with the more flexible and general von Neumann architecture: separate memory pathways to the CPU allow instructions to be fetched and data to be accessed at the same time, improving throughput. The pure Harvard machines have separate pathways with separate address spaces. Split-cache modified Harvard machines have such separate access paths for CPU caches or other tightly coupled memories, but a unified access path covers the rest of the memory hierarchy. A von Neumann processor has only that unified access path. From a programmer's point of view, a modified Harvard processor in which instruction and data memories share an address space is usually treated as a von Neumann machine until cache coherency becomes an issue, as with self-modifying code and program loading. This can be confusing, but such issues are usually visible only to systems programmers and integrators. Other modified Harvard machines are like pure Harvard machines in this regard. Instruction and data memories may be accessed in different ways The original Harvard machine, the Mark I, stored instructions on a punched paper tape and data in electro-mechanical counters. This, however, was entirely due to the limitations of technology available at the time. Today a Harvard machine such as the PIC microcontroller might use 12-bit wide flash memory for instructions, and 8-bit wide SRAM for data. In contrast, a von Neumann microcontroller such as an ARM7TDMI, or a modified Harvard ARM9 core, necessarily provides uniform access to flash memory and SRAM (as 8 bit bytes, in those cases). Modern uses of the modified Harvard architecture Outside of applications where a cacheless DSP or microcontroller is required, most modern processors have a CPU cache which partitions instruction and data. There are also processors which are Harvard machines by the most rigorous definition (that program and data memory occupy different address spaces), and are only modified in the weak sense that there are operations to read and/or write program memory as data. For example, LPM (Load Program Memory) and SPM (Store Program Memory) instructions in the Atmel AVR implement such a modification. Similar solutions are found in other microcontrollers such as the PIC and Z8Encore!, many families of digital signal processors such as the TI C55x cores, and more. Because instruction execution is still restricted to the program address space, these processors are very unlike von Neumann machines. External wiring can also convert a strictly Harvard CPU core into a modified Harvard one, for example by simply combining `PSEN#` (program space read) and `RD#` (external data space read) signals externally through an AND gate on an Intel 8051 family microcontroller, the microcontroller are said to be "von Neumann connected," as the external data and program address spaces become unified. Having separate address spaces creates certain difficulties in programming with high-level languages that do not directly support the notion that tables of read-only data might be in a different address space from normal writable data (and thus need to be read using different instructions). The C programming language can support multiple address spaces either through non-standard extensions or through the now standardized extensions to support embedded processors. See also Harvard architecture Von Neumann architecture Notes ^ The maintainers of the standard C library for the GCC port to the Atmel AVR microcontroller, which has separate address spaces for code and data, state in Data in Program Space that separate address spaces imply a Harvard architecture. They go on to explain that the C language only has one pointer address space, and thus was not designed for Harvard architecture machines. They then describe the non-standard extensions adopted by GCC for the AVR and the AVR C library to allow access to data stored in instruction (program) memory. They even explain why the const keyword cannot be pressed into service to distinguish data objects to be placed in instruction memory. References ^ A Manual of Operation for the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS. p. 4. ^ "AVR109: Self Programming" (PDF) (Application note). Atmel. June 2004. Retrieved 29 January 2015. ^ "MAXQ Family User's Guide". Maxim Integrated. September 2008. Sections 1.2 "Harvard Memory Architecture" and 2.5 "Pseudo-Von Neumann Memory Access". ^ Konark Goel et al. About MAXQ GCC port. vteProcessor technologiesModels Abstract machine Stored-program computer Finite-state machine with datapath Hierarchical Deterministic finite automaton Queue automaton Cellular automaton Quantum cellular automaton Turing machine Alternating Turing machine Universal Post–Turing Quantum Nondeterministic Turing machine Probabilistic Turing machine Hypercomputation Zeno machine Belt machine Stack machine Register machines Counter Pointer Random-access Random-access stored program Architecture Microarchitecture Von Neumann Harvard modified Dataflow Transport-triggered Cellular Endianness Memory access NUMA HUMA Load–store Register/memory Cache hierarchy Memory hierarchy Virtual memory Secondary storage Heterogeneous Fabric Multiprocessing Cognitive Neuromorphic Instruction setarchitecturesTypes Orthogonal instruction set CISC RISC Application-specific EDGE TRIPS VLIW EPIC MISC OISC NISC ZISC VISC architecture Quantum computing Comparison Addressing modes Instructionsets Motorola 68000 series VAX PDP-11 x86 ARM Stanford MIPS MIPS MIPS-X Power POWER PowerPC Power ISA Clipper architecture SPARC SuperH DEC Alpha ETRAX CRIS M32R Unicore Itanium OpenRISC RISC-V MicroBlaze LMC System/3x0 S/360 S/370 S/390 z/Architecture Tilera ISA VISC architecture Epiphany architecture Others ExecutionInstruction pipelining Pipeline stall Operand forwarding Classic RISC pipeline Hazards Data dependency Structural Control False sharing Out-of-order Scoreboarding Tomasulo's algorithm Reservation station Re-order buffer Register renaming Wide-issue Speculative Branch prediction Memory dependence prediction ParallelismLevel Bit Bit-serial Word Instruction Pipelining Scalar Superscalar Task Thread Process Data Vector Memory Distributed Multithreading Temporal Simultaneous Hyperthreading Simultaneous and heterogenous Speculative Preemptive Cooperative Flynn's taxonomy SISD SIMD Array processing (SIMT) Pipelined processing Associative processing SWAR MISD MIMD SPMD Processorperformance Transistor count Instructions per cycle (IPC) Cycles per instruction (CPI) Instructions per second (IPS) Floating-point operations per second (FLOPS) Transactions per second (TPS) Synaptic updates per second (SUPS) Performance per watt (PPW) Cache performance metrics Computer performance by orders of magnitude Types Central processing unit (CPU) Graphics processing unit (GPU) GPGPU Vector Barrel Stream Tile processor Coprocessor PAL ASIC FPGA FPOA CPLD Multi-chip module (MCM) System in a package (SiP) Package on a package (PoP) By application Embedded system Microprocessor Microcontroller Mobile Ultra-low-voltage ASIP Soft microprocessor Systemson chip System on a chip (SoC) Multiprocessor (MPSoC) Cypress PSoC Network on a chip (NoC) Hardwareaccelerators Coprocessor AI accelerator Graphics processing unit (GPU) Image processor Vision processing unit (VPU) Physics processing unit (PPU) Digital signal processor (DSP) Tensor Processing Unit (TPU) Secure cryptoprocessor Network processor Baseband processor Word size 1-bit 4-bit 8-bit 12-bit 15-bit 16-bit 24-bit 32-bit 48-bit 64-bit 128-bit 256-bit 512-bit bit slicing others variable Core count Single-core Multi-core Manycore Heterogeneous architecture Components Core Cache CPU cache Scratchpad memory Data cache Instruction cache replacement policies coherence Bus Clock rate Clock signal FIFO Functionalunits Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) Address generation unit (AGU) Floating-point unit (FPU) Memory management unit (MMU) Load–store unit Translation lookaside buffer (TLB) Branch predictor Branch target predictor Integrated memory controller (IMC) Memory management unit Instruction decoder Logic Combinational Sequential Glue Logic gate Quantum Array Registers Processor register Status register Stack register Register file Memory buffer Memory address register Program counter Control unit Hardwired control unit Instruction unit Data buffer Write buffer Microcode ROM Counter Datapath Multiplexer Demultiplexer Adder Multiplier CPU Binary decoder Address decoder Sum-addressed decoder Barrel shifter Circuitry Integrated circuit 3D Mixed-signal Power management Boolean Digital Analog Quantum Switch Powermanagement PMU APM ACPI Dynamic frequency scaling Dynamic voltage scaling Clock gating Performance per watt (PPW) Related History of general-purpose CPUs Microprocessor chronology Processor design Digital electronics Hardware security module Semiconductor device fabrication Tick–tock model Pin grid array Chip carrier

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harvard computer architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_architecture"}],"text":"A modified Harvard architecture is a variation of the Harvard computer architecture that, unlike the pure Harvard architecture, allows memory that contains instructions to be accessed as data. Most modern computers that are documented as Harvard architecture are, in fact, modified Harvard architecture.","title":"Modified Harvard architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harvard Mark I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"von Neumann architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture"},{"link_name":"CPU cache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_cache"},{"link_name":"microcontrollers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller"},{"link_name":"flash memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory"},{"link_name":"read/write memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-write_memory"},{"link_name":"address spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space"}],"text":"The original Harvard architecture computer, the Harvard Mark I, employed entirely separate memory systems to store instructions and data. The CPU fetched the next instruction and loaded or stored data simultaneously[1] and independently. This is in contrast to a von Neumann architecture computer, in which both instructions and data are stored in the same memory system and (without the complexity of a CPU cache) must be accessed in turn.The physical separation of instruction and data memory is sometimes held to be the distinguishing feature of modern Harvard architecture computers. With microcontrollers (entire computer systems integrated onto single chips), the use of different memory technologies for instructions (e.g. flash memory) and data (typically read/write memory) in von Neumann machines is becoming popular. The true distinction of a Harvard machine is that instruction and data memory occupy different address spaces. In other words, a memory address does not uniquely identify a storage location (as it does in a von Neumann machine); it is also necessary to know the memory space (instruction or data) to which the address belongs.","title":"Harvard architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"disk storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_storage"},{"link_name":"just-in-time compilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just-in-time_compilation"},{"link_name":"self-modifying code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-modifying_code"},{"link_name":"executable space protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable_space_protection"},{"link_name":"malware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware"}],"text":"A computer with a von Neumann architecture has the advantage over Harvard machines as described above in that code can also be accessed and treated the same as data, and vice versa. This allows, for example, data to be read from disk storage into memory and then executed as code, or self-optimizing software systems using technologies such as just-in-time compilation to write machine code into their own memory and then later execute it. Another example is self-modifying code, which allows a program to modify itself.A disadvantage of these methods are issues with executable space protection, which increase the risks from malware and software defects.","title":"Von Neumann architecture"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Accordingly, some pure Harvard machines are specialty products. Most modern computers instead implement a modified Harvard architecture. Those modifications are various ways to loosen the strict separation between code and data, while still supporting the higher performance concurrent data and instruction access of the Harvard architecture.","title":"Modified Harvard architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"memory hierarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_hierarchy"},{"link_name":"CPU caches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_cache"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"cache coherency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_coherency"}],"sub_title":"Split-cache (or almost-von-Neumann) architecture","text":"The most common modification builds a memory hierarchy with separate CPU caches for instructions and data at lower levels of the hierarchy. There is a single address space for instructions and data, providing the von Neumann model, but the CPU fetches instructions from the instruction cache and fetches data from the data cache.[citation needed] Most programmers never need to be aware of the fact that the processor core implements a (modified) Harvard architecture, although they benefit from its speed advantages. Only programmers who generate and store instructions into memory need to be aware of issues such as cache coherency, if the store doesn't modify or invalidate a cached copy of the instruction in an instruction cache.","title":"Modified Harvard architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi"},{"link_name":"text string","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"},{"link_name":"microcontroller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller"},{"link_name":"flash memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"EEPROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEPROM"}],"sub_title":"Instruction-memory-as-data architecture","text":"Another change preserves the \"separate address space\" nature of a Harvard machine, but provides special machine operations to access the contents of the instruction memory as data. Because data is not directly executable as instructions, such machines are not always viewed as \"modified\" Harvard architecture:Read access: initial data values can be copied from the instruction memory into the data memory when the program starts. Or, if the data is not to be modified (it might be a constant value, such as pi, or a text string), it can be accessed by the running program directly from instruction memory without taking up space in data memory (which is often at a premium).\nWrite access: a capability for reprogramming is generally required; few computers are purely ROM-based. For example, a microcontroller usually has operations to write to the flash memory used to hold its instructions.[2] This capability may be used for purposes including software updates. EEPROM/PROM replacement is an alternative method.","title":"Modified Harvard architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Maxim Integrated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim_Integrated"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Data-memory-as-instruction architecture","text":"A few Harvard architecture processors, such as the Maxim Integrated MAXQ, can execute instructions fetched from any memory segment – unlike the original Harvard processor, which can only execute instructions fetched from the program memory segment.\nSuch processors, like other Harvard architecture processors – and unlike pure von Neumann architecture – can read an instruction and read a data value simultaneously, if they're in separate memory segments, since the processor has (at least) two separate memory segments with independent data buses.\nThe most obvious programmer-visible difference between this kind of modified Harvard architecture and a pure von Neumann architecture is that – when executing an instruction from one memory segment – the same memory segment cannot be simultaneously accessed as data.[3][4]","title":"Modified Harvard architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"memory hierarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_hierarchy"},{"link_name":"self-modifying code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-modifying_code"},{"link_name":"systems programmers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_programming"},{"link_name":"integrators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_integration"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Mark I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I"},{"link_name":"punched paper tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_tape"},{"link_name":"PIC microcontroller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIC_microcontroller"},{"link_name":"flash memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory"},{"link_name":"SRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_random_access_memory"},{"link_name":"ARM7TDMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM7TDMI"},{"link_name":"ARM9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM9"}],"text":"Three characteristics may be used to distinguish modified Harvard machines from pure Harvard and von Neumann machines:Instruction and data memories occupy different address spacesFor pure Harvard machines, there is an address \"zero\" in instruction space that refers to an instruction storage location and a separate address \"zero\" in data space that refers to a distinct data storage location. By contrast, von Neumann and split-cache modified Harvard machines store both instructions and data in a single address space, so address \"zero\" refers to only one location and whether the binary pattern in that location is interpreted as an instruction or data is defined by how the program is written. However, just like pure Harvard machines, instruction-memory-as-data modified Harvard machines have separate address spaces, so have separate addresses \"zero\" for instruction and data space, so this does not distinguish that type of modified Harvard machines from pure Harvard machines.Instruction and data memories have separate hardware pathways to the central processing unit (CPU)This is the point of pure or modified Harvard machines, and why they co-exist with the more flexible and general von Neumann architecture: separate memory pathways to the CPU allow instructions to be fetched and data to be accessed at the same time, improving throughput. The pure Harvard machines have separate pathways with separate address spaces. Split-cache modified Harvard machines have such separate access paths for CPU caches or other tightly coupled memories, but a unified access path covers the rest of the memory hierarchy. A von Neumann processor has only that unified access path. From a programmer's point of view, a modified Harvard processor in which instruction and data memories share an address space is usually treated as a von Neumann machine until cache coherency becomes an issue, as with self-modifying code and program loading. This can be confusing, but such issues are usually visible only to systems programmers and integrators.[clarification needed] Other modified Harvard machines are like pure Harvard machines in this regard.Instruction and data memories may be accessed in different waysThe original Harvard machine, the Mark I, stored instructions on a punched paper tape and data in electro-mechanical counters. This, however, was entirely due to the limitations of technology available at the time. Today a Harvard machine such as the PIC microcontroller might use 12-bit wide flash memory for instructions, and 8-bit wide SRAM for data. In contrast, a von Neumann microcontroller such as an ARM7TDMI, or a modified Harvard ARM9 core, necessarily provides uniform access to flash memory and SRAM (as 8 bit bytes, in those cases).","title":"Comparisons"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DSP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processors"},{"link_name":"microcontroller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller"},{"link_name":"CPU cache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_cache"},{"link_name":"Atmel AVR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmel_AVR"},{"link_name":"PIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIC_microcontroller"},{"link_name":"Z8Encore!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z8_Encore!"},{"link_name":"TI C55x cores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments_TMS320"},{"link_name":"Intel 8051","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8051"},{"link_name":"C programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_programming_language"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"extensions to support embedded processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_C"}],"text":"Outside of applications where a cacheless DSP or microcontroller is required, most modern processors have a CPU cache which partitions instruction and data.There are also processors which are Harvard machines by the most rigorous definition (that program and data memory occupy different address spaces), and are only modified in the weak sense that there are operations to read and/or write program memory as data. For example, LPM (Load Program Memory) and SPM (Store Program Memory) instructions in the Atmel AVR implement such a modification. Similar solutions are found in other microcontrollers such as the PIC and Z8Encore!, many families of digital signal processors such as the TI C55x cores, and more. Because instruction execution is still restricted to the program address space, these processors are very unlike von Neumann machines. External wiring can also convert a strictly Harvard CPU core into a modified Harvard one, for example by simply combining `PSEN#` (program space read) and `RD#` (external data space read) signals externally through an AND gate on an Intel 8051 family microcontroller, the microcontroller are said to be \"von Neumann connected,\" as the external data and program address spaces become unified.Having separate address spaces creates certain difficulties in programming with high-level languages that do not directly support the notion that tables of read-only data might be in a different address space from normal writable data (and thus need to be read using different instructions). The C programming language can support multiple address spaces either through non-standard extensions[a] or through the now standardized extensions to support embedded processors.","title":"Modern uses of the modified Harvard architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Data in Program Space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nongnu.org/avr-libc/user-manual/pgmspace.html"}],"text":"^ The maintainers of the standard C library for the GCC port to the Atmel AVR microcontroller, which has separate address spaces for code and data, state in Data in Program Space that separate address spaces imply a Harvard architecture. They go on to explain that the C language only has one pointer address space, and thus was not designed for Harvard architecture machines. They then describe the non-standard extensions adopted by GCC for the AVR and the AVR C library to allow access to data stored in instruction (program) memory. They even explain why the const keyword cannot be pressed into service to distinguish data objects to be placed in instruction memory.","title":"Notes"}]

[]

[{"title":"Harvard architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_architecture"},{"title":"Von Neumann architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture"}]

[{"reference":"A Manual of Operation for the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS. p. 4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/marki_operman_1946/page/n18/mode/1up?view=theater&ui=embed&wrapper=false&q=simultaneously","url_text":"A Manual of Operation for the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator"}]},{"reference":"\"AVR109: Self Programming\" (PDF) (Application note). Atmel. June 2004. Retrieved 29 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atmel.com/images/doc1644.pdf","url_text":"\"AVR109: Self Programming\""}]},{"reference":"\"MAXQ Family User's Guide\". Maxim Integrated. September 2008. Sections 1.2 \"Harvard Memory Architecture\" and 2.5 \"Pseudo-Von Neumann Memory Access\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.maximintegrated.com/en/design/technical-documents/userguides-and-manuals/4/4811.html","url_text":"\"MAXQ Family User's Guide\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim_Integrated","url_text":"Maxim Integrated"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NuCalc

NuCalc

["1 History","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]

Graphing calculator software NuCalc (Graphing Calculator)Graphing Calculator 4.0 under Mac OS X 10.7.4Developer(s)Pacific TechStable release5.2 Operating systemWindows, OS X, iOSTypePlottingLicenseProprietaryWebsitepacifict.com NuCalc, also known as Graphing Calculator, is a computer software tool made by Pacific Tech. It can graph inequalities and vector fields, and functions in two, three, or four dimensions. It supports several different coordinate systems, and can solve equations. It runs on OS X as Graphing Calculator, and on Windows. History The Graphing Calculator 1.0 software was bundled with all Power Macintosh computers since its introduction in 1994. Having shipped on more than 20 million machines, it is the most familiar version of the program. This version of Graphing Calculator was secretly developed at Apple by Ron Avitzur, an abandoned contractor who felt obligated to complete the project, and their friend and colleague Greg Robbins. NuCalc 1.0 is for 680x0 Macintosh. In 2005, This American Life featured Avitzur's story in episode 284, Should I Stay or Should I go?. At one time, it was a free download for Mac OS 9, Mac OS X 10.3, and Mac OS X 10.4. However, these may lack some features of 1.0 and may include promotion for the more advanced, commercial version of the software. A Windows version (offered for sale) was renamed NuCalc. The app has been ported from C++ to SwiftUI. See also Grapher — Apple's replacement is included with Mac OS X 10.4 References ^ "The Graphing Calculator story". Retrieved January 12, 2007. ^ "Should I Stay or Should I Go?". 11 March 2005. Retrieved September 21, 2010. ^ "Developer Spotlight: Porting Graphing Calculator from C++ to Swift". External links Official website Information and Download for the original Graphing Calculator 1.0 for PowerPC and 680x0 Macs Kahney, Leander (December 27, 2007). "Wired News - Worming Into Apple". Wired. Archived from the original on May 12, 2019. Retrieved March 10, 2017. Google Tech Talk of the story behind NuCalc vteClassic Mac OSVersions System 1 System 2, 3, and 4 System 5 System 6 System 7 Mac OS 7 Mac OS 8 Mac OS 9 Applications Calculator Chooser Drive Setup DVD Player Finder Graphing Calculator Keychain Access PictureViewer PowerTalk QuickTime Player Network Browser Scrapbook Sherlock Software Update Stickies System Information SimpleText Developer HyperCard MacsBug Macintosh Programmer's Workshop ResEdit Technology Alias Appearance Manager Apple menu At Ease Balloon help Bomb error Command key (⌘) Control Panel Control Strip Creator code Dogcow Extensions Hierarchical File System HFS Plus Keychain Labels Macintosh File System Macintosh Toolbox Managers MultiFinder Multiprocessing Services Option key (⌥) OSType PICT QuickDraw QuickTime Resource fork Sosumi sound Startup sequence System folder System suitcase Type code WorldScript Related articles Memory management Old World ROM New World ROM Software

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_software"},{"link_name":"Pacific Tech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Tech"},{"link_name":"inequalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inequality_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"vector fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_field"},{"link_name":"functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"dimensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension"},{"link_name":"coordinate systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation"},{"link_name":"OS X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS_X"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"}],"text":"NuCalc, also known as Graphing Calculator, is a computer software tool made by Pacific Tech. It can graph inequalities and vector fields, and functions in two, three, or four dimensions. It supports several different coordinate systems, and can solve equations. It runs on OS X as Graphing Calculator, and on Windows.","title":"NuCalc"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Power Macintosh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Macintosh"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"680x0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/680x0"},{"link_name":"This American Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_American_Life"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Mac OS 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_9"},{"link_name":"Mac OS X 10.3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_X_v10.3"},{"link_name":"Mac OS X 10.4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_X_v10.4"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"SwiftUI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swift_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The Graphing Calculator 1.0 software was bundled with all Power Macintosh computers since its introduction in 1994. Having shipped on more than 20 million machines, it is the most familiar version of the program. This version of Graphing Calculator was secretly developed at Apple by Ron Avitzur, an abandoned contractor who felt obligated to complete the project, and their friend and colleague Greg Robbins.[1] NuCalc 1.0 is for 680x0 Macintosh. In 2005, This American Life featured Avitzur's story in episode 284, Should I Stay or Should I go?.[2]At one time, it was a free download for Mac OS 9, Mac OS X 10.3, and Mac OS X 10.4. However, these may lack some features of 1.0 and may include promotion for the more advanced, commercial version of the software. A Windows version (offered for sale) was renamed NuCalc.The app has been ported from C++ to SwiftUI.[3]","title":"History"}]

[]

[{"title":"Grapher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapher"},{"title":"Mac OS X 10.4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_X_v10.4"}]

[{"reference":"\"The Graphing Calculator story\". Retrieved January 12, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pacifict.com/Story/","url_text":"\"The Graphing Calculator story\""}]},{"reference":"\"Should I Stay or Should I Go?\". 11 March 2005. Retrieved September 21, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/284/should-i-stay-or-should-i-go","url_text":"\"Should I Stay or Should I Go?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Developer Spotlight: Porting Graphing Calculator from C++ to Swift\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.swift.org/blog/graphing-calculator","url_text":"\"Developer Spotlight: Porting Graphing Calculator from C++ to Swift\""}]},{"reference":"Kahney, Leander (December 27, 2007). \"Wired News - Worming Into Apple\". Wired. Archived from the original on May 12, 2019. Retrieved March 10, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/news/mac/0,2125,66138,00.html","url_text":"\"Wired News - Worming Into Apple\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190512210639/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2F2004%2F12%2Fworming-into-apple%2F&strip=1&vwsrc=0","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techint

Techint

["1 History","2 Divisions","3 References","4 External links"]

TechintTechint's Rome headquartersCompany typePrivateIndustrySteel, Mining, Constructions, Engineering, HealthcareFounded1945; 79 years ago (1945)FounderAgostino RoccaHeadquartersBuenos Aires MilanKey peopleGianfelice RoccaPaolo RoccaProductsFlat-rolled steel, tubular steel, industrial machinery, public infrastructure, oil & gas, mining, energy, health servicesRevenue US$ 25.477 billion (2012)Number of employees59,196 (2012)Divisions Tenaris Ternium Techint E&C Tenova Takraf Tecpetrol Humanitas SubsidiariesFerroexpreso Pampeano (62%)Websitetechint.com Techint is an Argentine-Italian conglomerate founded in Milan in 1945 by Italian industrialist Agostino Rocca and headquartered in Buenos Aires (Argentina) and Milan (Italy). As of 2019 the Techint Group is composed of six main companies in the following areas of business: engineering, construction, steel, mining, oil & gas, industrial plants, healthcare. Techint, with its subsidiaries, is the largest steel making company in Argentina. Techint claims to be the world's largest manufacturer of seamless steel tubes, mainly used in the oil industry. As of 2013, the Techint Group had a workforce of 51,200 permanent employees. Techint operates with two main entities: Techint S.A., based in Buenos Aires, and Techint Compagnia Tecnica Internazionale S.p.A., based in Milan History Agostino Rocca, an executive at Ansaldo and later at Dalmine and SIAC (steel and iron industries) founded Compagnia Tecnica Internazionale (Italian for "Technical International Company") in Milan in September 1945, but developed its main activity worldwide. The original company name was changed after to Techint, its abbreviated telex code. The company began providing engineering services to a growing number of clients in Latin America -to where Agostino Rocca had traveled after World War II- and Europe. Construction activities soon followed: the first major Techint Engineering and Construction (E&C) project was a network of large diameter pipelines in Argentina and Brazil. Awarded a contract to build a 1,600 km (1,000 mi) gas pipeline from Comodoro Rivadavia to Buenos Aires in 1949 by President Juan Perón, Techint became a leading government contractor during Perón's ambitious infrastructure program in Argentina. Creating subsidiaries in Brazil (1947), Chile (1951), and Mexico (1954), the company opened its first seamless steel tube plant in Campana, in 1954; in 1969, Techint's Ensenada plant became the only Argentine manufacturer of cold rolled steel. In the 1980s important projects were undertaken in Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador and Mexico, and the company diversified into new fields of activity, building the first nuclear facilities and offshore platforms. In the early 1990s Techint purchased a stake in Argentina's then-leading steel manufacturer, the state-owned SOMISA. A significant part of Techint's core manufacturing strength has since been concentrated in the San Nicolás-Villa Constitución oil-and-steel corridor, where the company is involved in the production of cold rolled steel. In those years, the Techint Group invested in oil and gas blocks in Argentina through exploration and production company Tecpetrol. In Italy, the Techint Group entered the health services sector by building and managing Istituto Clinico Humanitas (ICH), a hospital and medical research institute near Milan. Tenaris, the company under which all the manufacturing and service activities in the steel pipe business are grouped today, went public at the end of 2002, quoted on the Buenos Aires, Mexico City and Milan stock exchanges; its American depositary receipts are listed on the New York Stock Exchange. On August 23, 2005, the Techint group bought 99.3% of Mexican Hylsamex for US $2.2 billion. In press release, Techint stated that the Mexican steel manufacturer, and its previous steel manufacturers Siderar (Argentina) and Sidor (Venezuela) would be under a new subsidiary called Ternium, headquartered in Luxembourg. On April 30, 2007, Ternium took control of Grupo IMSA, a major player in the Mexican steel industry. Venezuela nationalized Sidor in 2008, following a series of industrial disputes over the previous year. Compensation of around US$1.97 billion was agreed for the nationalisation of Ternium's 60% stake in Sidor, with the former keeping a 10% stake in the company, but frictions emerged with the Kirchner administration in Argentina over their reported refusal to raise objections to the nationalization with President Chávez. In 2016 the Techint Group entered the mining industry through the Tenova's acquisition of several companies operating in this field. Divisions Tenaris: NYSE: TS A global supplier of tubular products and services used in drilling, completion and production of oil and gas, in process and power plants, and in specialized industrial and automotive applications. Companies owned by the Techint group through Tenaris include: Dalmine (Italy), Siderca, and Siat (Argentina), Confab (Brazil), Tamsa (Mexico), Algoma (Canada), Silcotub (Romania). and has production facilities in the US and a joint venture with NKK (Japan), holding 51% of NKK shares since 1999, making it the first Japanese steel company in foreign majority ownership. Its total steel tube shipments exceeded 4.5 million tons in 2008. Ternium: A Latin American supplier of flat and long steel products, produced in three integrated steel mills located in Argentina, Mexico, USA and Guatemala with an overall capacity of nearly 9 million tons per year. Techint Engineering & Construction: A group of companies rooted in Italy and Latin American countries, as well as the Middle East, Asia and Africa, specialized in the design and construction of pipelines, oil and gas facilities, petrochemical plants, power plants and transmission lines, mining and metal complexes, and other infrastructure and civil projects. Tenova: Tenova's subsidiaries operate in five continents supplying direct reduction plants, submerged arc furnaces, cold rolling mills, strip processing lines, roll grinders, automated roll shops, engineering and EPCM services, mining and bulk handling systems (see: Tenova Takraf), minerals processing and modular plants, solid/liquid separation solutions, furnaces and smelting plants. Tecpetrol: Active in oil and gas exploration and production in several Latin American countries and the United States. Humanitas: runs some health care institutions. References ^ a b c d e f g h i "Techint Brochure 2011". Archived from the original on 2013-01-13. Retrieved 2012-10-19. ^ Harding, Colin (12 June 2003). "Roberto Rocca". The Independent. Archived from the original on 2022-05-26. Retrieved 24 October 2017. ^ a b http://www.techint.com/~/media/TechintCom/Brochures/techint bilancio.ashx ^ "Techint compró la acería mexicana Hylsamex por US$ 2.217 millones". clarin.com. 23 August 2005. ^ "Business & Financial News, Breaking US & International News - Reuters.com". reuters.com. ^ Ternium to Obtain Control of Mexico-Based Grupo Imsa (April 30, 2007) ^ "Metal Bulletin is part of Fastmarkets". Metal Bulletin. Retrieved 18 August 2021. ^ "Thousands strike at Venezuela's Sidor steel". Reuters. 31 January 2008. ^ "Venezuela says Ternium Sidor stake worth $800 mln". Reuters. 27 April 2008. ^ Harvey Beltrán. "Ternium agrees to receive Sidor payment in two installments". BNamericas. ^ "Crítica". criticadigital.com.ar (in Spanish). 27 May 2009. ^ "Techint – GC Powerlist". Retrieved 2024-03-28. ^ "Business & Financial News, Breaking US & International News - Reuters.com". reuters.com. ^ "NKK Monthly Release: August 1, 2000". jfe-holdings.co.jp. Archived from the original on 2003-05-06. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Techint. Official website

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Techint, with its subsidiaries, is the largest steel making company in Argentina.Techint claims to be the world's largest manufacturer of seamless steel tubes, mainly used in the oil industry.[1] As of 2013, the Techint Group had a workforce of 51,200 permanent employees.[1]Techint operates with two main entities: Techint S.A., based in Buenos Aires, and Techint Compagnia Tecnica Internazionale S.p.A., based in Milan","title":"Techint"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Agostino Rocca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agostino_Rocca"},{"link_name":"Ansaldo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gio._Ansaldo_%26_C."},{"link_name":"SIAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societ%C3%A0_Italiana_Acciaierie_Cornigliano"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-techint-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-techint.com-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-techint.com-3"},{"link_name":"gas pipeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_pipeline"},{"link_name":"Comodoro Rivadavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comodoro_Rivadavia"},{"link_name":"Buenos Aires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"Juan Perón","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Per%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Chile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Campana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campana,_Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"Ensenada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensenada,_Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"cold rolled steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_rolled_steel"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-techint-1"},{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Ecuador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecuador"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-techint-1"},{"link_name":"San Nicolás","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Nicol%C3%A1s,_Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"Villa Constitución","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Constituci%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"cold rolled steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_rolled_steel"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Tenaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenaris"},{"link_name":"American depositary receipts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_depositary_receipts"},{"link_name":"New York Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-techint-1"},{"link_name":"US $","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Argentina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina"},{"link_name":"Venezuela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela"},{"link_name":"Ternium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternium"},{"link_name":"Luxembourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Ternium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternium"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Kirchner administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirchnerism"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-critica-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Agostino Rocca, an executive at Ansaldo and later at Dalmine and SIAC (steel and iron industries) founded Compagnia Tecnica Internazionale (Italian for \"Technical International Company\") in Milan in September 1945, but developed its main activity worldwide. The original company name was changed after to Techint, its abbreviated telex code.[1][2][3]The company began providing engineering services to a growing number of clients in Latin America -to where Agostino Rocca had traveled after World War II- and Europe. Construction activities soon followed: the first major Techint Engineering and Construction (E&C) project was a network of large diameter pipelines in Argentina and Brazil.[3]Awarded a contract to build a 1,600 km (1,000 mi) gas pipeline from Comodoro Rivadavia to Buenos Aires in 1949 by President Juan Perón, Techint became a leading government contractor during Perón's ambitious infrastructure program in Argentina. Creating subsidiaries in Brazil (1947), Chile (1951), and Mexico (1954), the company opened its first seamless steel tube plant in Campana, in 1954; in 1969, Techint's Ensenada plant became the only Argentine manufacturer of cold rolled steel.[1]In the 1980s important projects were undertaken in Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador and Mexico, and the company diversified into new fields of activity, building the first nuclear facilities and offshore platforms.[1]In the early 1990s Techint purchased a stake in Argentina's then-leading steel manufacturer, the state-owned SOMISA. A significant part of Techint's core manufacturing strength has since been concentrated in the San Nicolás-Villa Constitución oil-and-steel corridor, where the company is involved in the production of cold rolled steel. In those years, the Techint Group invested in oil and gas blocks in Argentina through exploration and production company Tecpetrol.[citation needed]In Italy, the Techint Group entered the health services sector by building and managing Istituto Clinico Humanitas (ICH), a hospital and medical research institute near Milan.[citation needed]Tenaris, the company under which all the manufacturing and service activities in the steel pipe business are grouped today, went public at the end of 2002, quoted on the Buenos Aires, Mexico City and Milan stock exchanges; its American depositary receipts are listed on the New York Stock Exchange.[1]On August 23, 2005, the Techint group bought 99.3% of Mexican Hylsamex for US $2.2 billion.[4] In press release, Techint stated that the Mexican steel manufacturer, and its previous steel manufacturers Siderar (Argentina) and Sidor (Venezuela) would be under a new subsidiary called Ternium, headquartered in Luxembourg.[5]On April 30, 2007, Ternium took control of Grupo IMSA, a major player in the Mexican steel industry.[6][7]Venezuela nationalized Sidor in 2008, following a series of industrial disputes over the previous year.[8][9] Compensation of around US$1.97 billion was agreed for the nationalisation of Ternium's 60% stake in Sidor, with the former keeping a 10% stake in the company,[10] but frictions emerged with the Kirchner administration in Argentina over their reported refusal to raise objections to the nationalization with President Chávez.[11]In 2016 the Techint Group entered the mining industry through the Tenova's acquisition of several companies operating in this field.[12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tenaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenaris"},{"link_name":"NYSE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"TS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nyse.com/quote/XNYS:TS"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"NKK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JFE_Group"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-techint-1"},{"link_name":"Ternium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternium"},{"link_name":"Tenova Takraf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenova_Takraf"}],"text":"Tenaris: NYSE: TS A global supplier of tubular products and services used in drilling, completion and production of oil and gas, in process and power plants, and in specialized industrial and automotive applications. Companies owned by the Techint group through Tenaris include: Dalmine (Italy), Siderca, and Siat (Argentina), Confab (Brazil), Tamsa (Mexico), Algoma (Canada), Silcotub (Romania). and has production facilities in the US and a joint venture with NKK (Japan), holding 51% of NKK shares since 1999, making it the first Japanese steel company in foreign majority ownership.[13][14] Its total steel tube shipments exceeded 4.5 million tons in 2008.[1]\nTernium: A Latin American supplier of flat and long steel products, produced in three integrated steel mills located in Argentina, Mexico, USA and Guatemala with an overall capacity of nearly 9 million tons per year.\nTechint Engineering & Construction: A group of companies rooted in Italy and Latin American countries, as well as the Middle East, Asia and Africa, specialized in the design and construction of pipelines, oil and gas facilities, petrochemical plants, power plants and transmission lines, mining and metal complexes, and other infrastructure and civil projects.\nTenova: Tenova's subsidiaries operate in five continents supplying direct reduction plants, submerged arc furnaces, cold rolling mills, strip processing lines, roll grinders, automated roll shops, engineering and EPCM services, mining and bulk handling systems (see: Tenova Takraf), minerals processing and modular plants, solid/liquid separation solutions, furnaces and smelting plants.\nTecpetrol: Active in oil and gas exploration and production in several Latin American countries and the United States.\nHumanitas: runs some health care institutions.","title":"Divisions"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault_current_limiter

Fault current limiter

["1 Applications","2 Superconducting fault current limiter","3 Solid state fault current limiter","4 Inductive fault current limiter","5 Development of the superconducting fault current limiters","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

This article includes a list of references, related reading, or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A fault current limiter (FCL), also known as fault current controller (FCC), is a device which limits the prospective fault current when a fault occurs (e.g. in a power transmission network) without complete disconnection. The term includes superconducting, solid-state and inductive devices. Applications Electric power distribution systems include circuit breakers to disconnect power in case of a fault, but to maximize reliability, they wish to disconnect the smallest possible portion of the network. This means that even the smallest circuit breakers, as well as all wiring to them, must be able to disconnect large fault currents. A problem arises if the electricity supply is upgraded, by adding new generation capacity or by adding cross-connections. Because these increase the amount of power that can be supplied, all of the branch circuits must have their bus bars and circuit breakers upgraded to handle the new higher fault current limit. This poses a particular problem when distributed generation, such as wind farms and rooftop solar power, is added to an existing electric grid. It is desirable to be able to add additional power sources without large system-wide upgrades. A simple solution is to add electrical impedance to the circuit. This limits the rate at which current can increase, which limits the level the fault current can rise to before the breaker is opened. However, this also limits the ability of the circuit to satisfy rapidly changing demand, so the addition or removal of large loads causes unstable power. A fault current limiter is a nonlinear element which has a low impedance at normal current levels, but presents a higher impedance at fault current levels. Further, this change is extremely rapid, before a circuit breaker can trip a few milliseconds later. (High-power circuit breakers are synchronized to the alternating current zero crossing to minimize arcing.) While the power is unstable during the fault, it is not completely disconnected. After the faulting branch is disconnected, the fault current limiter automatically returns to normal operation. Superconducting fault current limiter Superconducting fault current limiters exploit the extremely rapid loss of superconductivity (called "quenching") above a critical combination of temperature, current density, and magnetic field. In normal operation, current flows through the superconductor without resistance and negligible impedance. If a fault develops, the superconductor quenches, its resistance rises sharply, and current is diverted to a parallel circuit with the desired higher impedance. (The structure is not usable as a circuit breaker, because the normally-conducting superconductive material does not have a high enough resistance. It is only high enough to cause sufficient heating to melt the material.) Superconducting fault current limiters are described as being in one of two major categories: resistive or inductive. In a resistive FCL, the current passes directly through the superconductor. When it quenches, the sharp rise in resistance reduces the fault current from what it would otherwise be (the prospective fault current). A resistive FCL can be either DC or AC. If it is AC, then there will be a steady power dissipation from AC losses (superconducting hysteresis losses) which must be removed by the cryogenic system. An AC FCL is usually made from wire wound non-inductively; otherwise the inductance of the device would create an extra constant power loss on the system. Inductive FCLs come in many variants, but the basic concept is a transformer with a resistive FCL as the secondary. In un-faulted operation, there is no resistance in the secondary and so the inductance of the device is low. A fault current quenches the superconductor, the secondary becomes resistive and the inductance of the whole device rises. The advantage of this design is that there is no heat ingress through current leads into the superconductor, and so the cryogenic power load may be lower. However, the large amount of iron required means that inductive FCLs are much bigger and heavier than resistive FCLs. The first successful field test of an HTS FCL of this type was by SC Power Systems, a division of Zenergy Power plc in 2009. The quench process is a two-step process. First, a small region quenches directly in response to a high current density. This section rapidly heats by Joule heating, and the increase in temperature quenches adjacent regions.GridON Ltd has developed the first commercial inductive FCL for distribution & transmission networks. Using a unique and proprietary concept of magnetic-flux alteration - requiring no superconducting or cryogenic components - the self-triggered FCL instantaneously increases its impedance tenfold upon fault condition. It limits the fault current for its entire duration and recovers to its normal condition immediately thereafter. This inductive FCL is scalable to extra high voltage ratings. Solid state fault current limiter This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2015) Inductive fault current limiter This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2015) Development of the superconducting fault current limiters FCLs are under active development. In 2007, there were at least six national and international projects using magnesium diboride wire or YBCO tape, and two using BSCCO-2212 rods. Countries active in FCL development are Germany, the UK, the US, Korea and China. In 2007, the US Department of Energy spent $29m on three FCL development projects. High temperature superconductors are required for practical FCLs. AC losses generate constant heat inside the superconductor, and the cost of cryogenic cooling at liquid helium temperatures required by low temperature superconductors makes the whole device uneconomic. First applications for FCLs are likely to be used to help control medium-voltage electricity distribution systems, followed by electric-drive ships: naval vessels, submarines and cruise ships. Larger FCLs may eventually be deployed in high-voltage transmission systems. See also Current limiting Power-system protection Superconductivity Magnesium diboride YBCO References ^ Fault current controller ^ "What are FCLs?" (PDF). energy.gov. Retrieved 24 June 2023. ^ "First Commercial Fault Current Limiter for Distribution & Transmission Networks" (PDF). GridON.com. External links Superconducting Fault Current Limiters UK Government 2007 Report on FCLs High-temperature superconductor fault current limiters: concepts, applications, and development status Fault Current Limiter and Their Types 2012: YBCO-tape FCL enters service in German private grid

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The term includes superconducting, solid-state and inductive devices.[2]","title":"Fault current limiter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Electric power distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_distribution"},{"link_name":"circuit breakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_breaker"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"distributed generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_generation"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"electrical impedance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_impedance"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"nonlinear element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_element"},{"link_name":"zero crossing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_crossing"},{"link_name":"arcing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_arc"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Electric power distribution systems include circuit breakers to disconnect power in case of a fault, but to maximize reliability, they wish to disconnect the smallest possible portion of the network. This means that even the smallest circuit breakers, as well as all wiring to them, must be able to disconnect large fault currents.[citation needed]A problem arises if the electricity supply is upgraded, by adding new generation capacity or by adding cross-connections. Because these increase the amount of power that can be supplied, all of the branch circuits must have their bus bars and circuit breakers upgraded to handle the new higher fault current limit.[citation needed]This poses a particular problem when distributed generation, such as wind farms and rooftop solar power, is added to an existing electric grid. It is desirable to be able to add additional power sources without large system-wide upgrades.[citation needed]A simple solution is to add electrical impedance to the circuit. This limits the rate at which current can increase, which limits the level the fault current can rise to before the breaker is opened. However, this also limits the ability of the circuit to satisfy rapidly changing demand, so the addition or removal of large loads causes unstable power.[citation needed]A fault current limiter is a nonlinear element which has a low impedance at normal current levels, but presents a higher impedance at fault current levels. Further, this change is extremely rapid, before a circuit breaker can trip a few milliseconds later. (High-power circuit breakers are synchronized to the alternating current zero crossing to minimize arcing.)[citation needed]While the power is unstable during the fault, it is not completely disconnected. After the faulting branch is disconnected, the fault current limiter automatically returns to normal operation.[citation needed]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"quenching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconducting_magnet#Magnet_quench"},{"link_name":"current density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_density"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"resistive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"inductive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductance"},{"link_name":"DC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_current"},{"link_name":"AC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current"},{"link_name":"hysteresis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hysteresis"},{"link_name":"cryogenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenic"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"transformer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer"},{"link_name":"successful field test of an HTS FCL of this type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//uc-ciee.org/downloads/FCL-Datasheet.pdf"},{"link_name":"permanent dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"Joule heating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule_heating"},{"link_name":"promotion?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTPROMOTION"},{"link_name":"GridON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GridON&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"extra high voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extra_high_voltage"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Superconducting fault current limiters exploit the extremely rapid loss of superconductivity (called \"quenching\") above a critical combination of temperature, current density, and magnetic field. In normal operation, current flows through the superconductor without resistance and negligible impedance.[citation needed]If a fault develops, the superconductor quenches, its resistance rises sharply, and current is diverted to a parallel circuit with the desired higher impedance. (The structure is not usable as a circuit breaker, because the normally-conducting superconductive material does not have a high enough resistance. It is only high enough to cause sufficient heating to melt the material.)[citation needed]Superconducting fault current limiters are described as being in one of two major categories: resistive or inductive.In a resistive FCL, the current passes directly through the superconductor. When it quenches, the sharp rise in resistance reduces the fault current from what it would otherwise be (the prospective fault current). A resistive FCL can be either DC or AC. If it is AC, then there will be a steady power dissipation from AC losses (superconducting hysteresis losses) which must be removed by the cryogenic system. An AC FCL is usually made from wire wound non-inductively; otherwise the inductance of the device would create an extra constant power loss on the system.[citation needed]Inductive FCLs come in many variants, but the basic concept is a transformer with a resistive FCL as the secondary. In un-faulted operation, there is no resistance in the secondary and so the inductance of the device is low. A fault current quenches the superconductor, the secondary becomes resistive and the inductance of the whole device rises. The advantage of this design is that there is no heat ingress through current leads into the superconductor, and so the cryogenic power load may be lower. However, the large amount of iron required means that inductive FCLs are much bigger and heavier than resistive FCLs. The first successful field test of an HTS FCL of this type[permanent dead link] was by SC Power Systems, a division of Zenergy Power plc in 2009.The quench process is a two-step process. First, a small region quenches directly in response to a high current density. This section rapidly heats by Joule heating, and the increase in temperature quenches adjacent regions.[promotion?]GridON Ltd has developed the first commercial inductive FCL for distribution & transmission networks. Using a unique and proprietary concept of magnetic-flux alteration - requiring no superconducting or cryogenic components - the self-triggered FCL instantaneously increases its impedance tenfold upon fault condition. It limits the fault current for its entire duration and recovers to its normal condition immediately thereafter. This inductive FCL is scalable to extra high voltage ratings.[3]","title":"Superconducting fault current limiter"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Solid state fault current limiter"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Inductive fault current limiter"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"magnesium diboride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_diboride"},{"link_name":"YBCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YBCO"},{"link_name":"BSCCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSCCO"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"High temperature superconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_temperature_superconductor"},{"link_name":"cryogenic cooling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenics"},{"link_name":"liquid helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_helium"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"FCLs are under active development. In 2007, there were at least six national and international projects using magnesium diboride wire or YBCO tape, and two using BSCCO-2212 rods. Countries active in FCL development are Germany, the UK, the US, Korea and China. In 2007, the US Department of Energy spent $29m on three FCL development projects.[citation needed]High temperature superconductors are required for practical FCLs. AC losses generate constant heat inside the superconductor, and the cost of cryogenic cooling at liquid helium temperatures required by low temperature superconductors makes the whole device uneconomic.[citation needed]First applications for FCLs are likely to be used to help control medium-voltage electricity distribution systems, followed by electric-drive ships: naval vessels, submarines and cruise ships. Larger FCLs may eventually be deployed in high-voltage transmission systems.[citation needed]","title":"Development of the superconducting fault current limiters"}]

[]

[{"title":"Current limiting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_limiting"},{"title":"Power-system protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power-system_protection"},{"title":"Superconductivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity"},{"title":"Magnesium diboride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_diboride"},{"title":"YBCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YBCO"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaris_10

Radeon 400 series

["1 Naming","1.1 OpenCL (API)","1.2 Vulkan (API)","2 New features","3 Chips","3.1 Polaris","4 Reviews","4.1 RX 480 reference card PCI Express power limit violations","5 Chipset table","5.1 Desktop","5.2 Mobile","6 Radeon Feature Matrix","7 See also","8 References"]

Series of graphics cards by AMD Radeon 400 seriesRelease date29 June 2016; 7 years ago (29 June 2016)CodenamePolarisArchitectureGCN 1st genGCN 2nd genGCN 4th genTransistors950M (Olan) 28 nm1.500M (Cape Verde) 28 nm2.080M (Bonaire) 28 nm3.000M (Baffin) 14 nm5.700M (Ellesmere) 14 nmFabrication processSamsung/GloFo 14 nm (FinFET)Some in 28 nm (CMOS)CardsEntry-levelRadeon R5 420Radeon R5 430Radeon R5 435Radeon R7 430Radeon R7 435Radeon R7 450Radeon RX 455Radeon RX 460Mid-rangeRadeon RX 470DRadeon RX 470Radeon RX 480API supportDirectXDirect3D 12.0 (feature level 12_0) Shader Model 6.7 (GCN 4th gen) or Shader Model 6.5OpenCLOpenCL 2.1OpenGLOpenGL 4.5 (4.6 Windows 7+ and Adrenalin 18.4.1+)VulkanVulkan 1.3 (GCN 4th gen) or Vulkan 1.2SPIR-VHistoryPredecessorRadeon 300 seriesSuccessorRadeon 500 seriesSupport statusGCN 4 cards supported The Radeon 400 series is a series of graphics processors developed by AMD. These cards were the first to feature the Polaris GPUs, using the new 14 nm FinFET manufacturing process, developed by Samsung Electronics and licensed to GlobalFoundries. The Polaris family initially included two new chips in the Graphics Core Next (GCN) family (Polaris 11 and Polaris 12). Polaris implements the 4th generation of the Graphics Core Next instruction set, and shares commonalities with the previous GCN microarchitectures. Naming The RX prefix is used for cards that offer over 1.5 teraflops of performance and 80 GB/s of memory throughput (with memory compression), and achieve at least 60 FPS at 1080p in popular games such as Dota 2 and League of Legends. Otherwise, it will be omitted. Like previous generations, the first numeral in the number refers to the generation (4 in this case) and the second numeral in the number refers to the tier of the card, of which there are six. Tier 4, the weakest tier in the 400 series, will lack the RX prefix and feature a 64-bit memory bus. Tiers 5 and 6 will have both RX prefixed and non-RX prefixed cards, indicating that while they will both feature a 128-bit memory bus and be targeted at 1080p gaming, the latter will fall short 1.5 teraflops of performance. Tiers 7 and 8 will each have a 256-bit memory bus and will be marketed as 1440p cards. The highest tier, tier 9, will feature a memory bus greater than 256-bit and shall be aimed at 4K gaming. Finally, the third numeral will indicate whether the card is in its first or second revision with either a 0 or 5, respectively. Therefore, for example, the RX 460 indicates that it has at least 1.5 teraflops of performance, 100 GB/s of memory throughput, has a 128-bit memory bus and will be able to achieve 60 FPS in the previously mentioned games at 1080p. OpenCL (API) OpenCL allows use of GPUs for highly parallel numeric computation accelerates many scientific software packages against CPU up to factor 10 or 100 and more. OpenCL 1.0 to 1.2 are supported for all chips with Terascale or GCN architectures. OpenCL 2.0 is supported with GCN 2nd gen. or higher. Any OpenCL 2.0 conformant card can gain OpenCL 2.1 and 2.2 support with only a driver update. Vulkan (API) API Vulkan 1.0 is supported for all GCN architecture cards. Vulkan 1.2 requires GCN 2nd gen or higher with the Adrenalin 20.1 and Linux Mesa 20.0 drivers and newer. New features This series is based on the fourth generation GCN architecture. It includes new hardware schedulers, a new primitive discard accelerator, a new display controller, and an updated UVD that can decode HEVC at 4K resolutions at 60 frames per second with 10 bits per color channel. On 8 December 2016, AMD released Crimson ReLive drivers (Version 16.12.1), which make GCN-GPUs support VP9 decode acceleration up to 4K@60 Hz and twinned with support for Dolby Vision and HDR10. Chips Polaris Polaris 10 features 2304 stream processors across 36 Compute Units (CUs), and supports up to 8GB of GDDR5 memory on a 256-bit memory interface. The GPU replaces the mid-range Tonga segment of the Radeon M300 line. According to AMD, their prime target with the design of Polaris was energy efficiency: Polaris 10 was initially planned to be a mid-range chip, to be featured in the RX 480, with a TDP of around 110-135W compared to its predecessor R9 380's 190W TDP. Despite this, the Polaris 10 chip is anticipated to run the latest DirectX 12 games "at a resolution of 1440p with a stable 60 frames per second." Polaris 11, on the other hand, is to succeed the "Curacao" GPU which powers various low-to-mid-range cards. It features 1024 stream processors over 16 CUs, coupled with up to 4GB of GDDR5 memory on a 128 bit memory interface. Polaris 11 has a TDP of 75W. Reviews Many reviewers praised the performance of the RX 480 8GB when evaluated in light of its $239 release price. The Tech Report stated that the RX 480 is the fastest card for the $200 segment at the time of its launch. HardOCP gave this card an Editor's Choice Silver award. PC Perspective gave it the PC Perspective Gold Award. RX 480 reference card PCI Express power limit violations Some reviewers discovered that the AMD Radeon RX 480 violates the PCI Express power draw specifications, which allows a maximum of 75 watts (66 watts on its 12v pins) being drawn from the motherboard's PCI Express slot. Chris Angelini of Tom's Hardware noticed that in a stress test it can draw up to an average of 90 watts from the slot and 86 watts in a typical gaming load. The peak usage can be up to 162 watts and 300 watts altogether with the power supply in a gaming load. TechPowerUp corroborated these results by noting it can also draw up to 166 watts from the power supply, past the limit of 75 watts for a 6-pin PCI Express power connector. Ryan Shrout of PC Perspective did a follow-up test after other reports and found out his review sample takes 80-84 watts from the motherboard at stock speed, and that the other PCI Express slots' 12 volt power supply pins were supplying only 11.5 volts during load on his Asus ROG Rampage V Extreme motherboard. He was not concerned about the voltage droop due to the specification's 8% voltage tolerance, but did note of possible problems in systems where multiple overclocked RX 480 cards are running in quad CrossFire, or in motherboards that are not designed to withstand high currents, such as budget and older models. AMD has released a driver that reprograms the voltage regulator module to draw less power from the motherboard, allowing the power draw from the motherboard to pass the PCI Express specification. While this worsens the overage on the 6-pin power connector, that violation is not much of a concern because these connectors have a greater safety margin in their power rating. The amount of power drawn from on the connector is dependent on a newly introduced "compatibility mode" in the driver. When on, compatibility mode reduces the total power consumption of the card, allowing both power sources to operate closer to their ratings. Standard mode yields essentially unchanged performance, while compatibility mode results in performance drops within the error of benchmarks. Some RX 480 cards designed by AMD's partners include an 8-pin power connector which can provide more power than the stock design. Chipset table Main articles: List of AMD graphics processing units, List of AMD processors with 3D graphics, and Graphics Core Next Supported display standards are: DisplayPort 1.4 HBR, HDMI 2.0b, HDR10 color Dual-Link DVI-D and DVI-I at resolutions up to 4096×2304 are also supported, despite ports not being present on the reference cards. Desktop Model(Codename) Release Date& Price Architecture& Fab Transistors& Die Size Core Fillrate Processing power(GFLOPS) Memory TBP Bus interface Config Clock (MHz) Texture (GT/s) Pixel (GP/s) Single Double Size (GiB) Bus type& width Clock (MT/s) Band-width (GB/s) Radeon R5 430(Oland Pro) June 30, 2016OEM GCN 1st gen28 nm 1040×10690 mm2 384:24:86 CU 730780 17.5218.72 5.846.24 560599 37.440 12 DDR3GDDR564-bit 18004500 28.836 50 W PCIe 3.0 ×8 Radeon R5 435(Oland) 320:20:85 CU 1030 20.6 8.24 659 41.2 2 DDR364-bit 2000 16 Radeon R7 430(Oland Pro) 384:24:86 CU 730780 17.5218.72 5.846.24 560599 37.440 124 DDR3GDDR5128-bit 18004500 28.872 Radeon R7 435(Oland) 320:20:85 CU 920 18.4 7.36 589 36.8 2 DDR364-bit 2000 16 Radeon R7 450(Cape Verde Pro) 1500×106123 mm2 512:32:168 CU 1050 33.6 16.8 1075 65.2 GDDR5128-bit 4500 72 65 W PCIe 3.0 ×16 Radeon RX 455(Bonaire Pro) GCN 2nd gen28 nm 2080×106160 mm2 768:48:1612 CU 50.4 1613 100.8 6500 104 100 W Radeon RX 460(Baffin) August 8, 2016$109 USD(2 GB)$139 USD(4 GB) GCN 4th genGloFo14LPP 3000×106123 mm2 896:56:1614 CU 10901200 6167.2 17.419.2 19532150 122132 24 7000 112 <75 W PCIe 3.0 ×8 Radeon RX 470D(Ellesmere) October 21, 2016CNY ¥1299(China Only) 5700×106232 mm2 1792:112:3228 CU 9261206 103.7135.1 29.638.6 33194322 207270 4 GDDR5256-bit 224 120 W PCIe 3.0 ×16 Radeon RX 470(Ellesmere Pro) August 4, 2016$179 USD 2048:128:3232 CU 118.5154.4 37934940 237309 48 6600 211 Radeon RX 480(Ellesmere XT) June 29, 2016$199 USD (4 GB)$239 USD (8 GB) 2304:144:3236 CU 11201266 161.3182.3 35.840.5 51615834 323365 70008000 224256 150 W vte ^ a b c Boost values (if available) are stated below the base value in italic. ^ Texture fillrate is calculated as the number of Texture Mapping Units multiplied by the base (or boost) core clock speed. ^ Pixel fillrate is calculated as the number of Render Output Units multiplied by the base (or boost) core clock speed. ^ Precision performance is calculated from the base (or boost) core clock speed based on a FMA operation. ^ Unified Shaders : Texture Mapping Units : Render Output Units and Compute Units (CU) ^ GlobalFoundries' 14 nm 14LPP FinFET process is second-sourced from Samsung Electronics. Mobile Model(Codename) Launch Architecture& Fab Core Fillrate Processing power(GFLOPS) Memory TDP Config Clock (MHz) Texture (GT/s) Pixel (GP/s) Bus type& width Size (GiB) Clock (MHz) Band-width (GB/s) RadeonR5 M420(Jet Pro) 15 May 2016 GCN 1st gen28 nm 320:20:8 780855 15.617.1 6.246.84 499547 DDR364-bit 2 1000 16.0 ~20 W RadeonR5 M430(Exo Pro) 15 May 2016 320:20:8 1030? 20.6 8.2 659.2659.2 DDR364-bit 2 1000 14.4 18 W RadeonR7 M435(Jet Pro) 15 May 2016 320:20:8 780855 15.617.1 6.246.84 499547 GDDR564-bit 4 1000 32 ~20 W RadeonR7 M440(Meso Pro) 15 May 2016 320:20:8 1021? 20.4 8.17 653653 DDR364-bit 4 1000 16 ~20 W RadeonR7 M445(Meso Pro) 14 May 2016 320:20:8 780920 15.618.4 6.247.36 499589 GDDR564-bit 4 1000 32 ~20 W RadeonR7 M460(Meso XT) April 2016 384:24:8 11001125 26.427.0 8.89.00 844864 DDR364-bit 2 900 14.4 Un­known RadeonRX 460(Baffin) August 2016 GCN 4th gen14 nm 896:56:16 Un­known Un­known Un­known Un­known GDDR5128-bit 2 1750 112 35 W? RadeonR7 M465(Litho XT) May 2016 GCN 1st gen28 nm 384:24:8 825960 19.823.0 6.67.68 634737 GDDR5128-bit 4 1150 32 Un­known RadeonR7 M465X(Tropo XT) May 2016 512:32:16 900925 28.829.6 14.414.80 921947 GDDR5128-bit 4 1125 72 Un­known RadeonR9 M470(Strato Pro) May 2016 GCN 2nd gen28 nm 768:48:16 9001000 43.248.0 14.416.00 13821536 GDDR5128-bit 4 1500 96 ~75 W RadeonR9 M470X(Strato XT) May 2016 896:56:16 10001100 56.061.6 16.0017.60 1792 1971 GDDR5128-bit 4 1500 96 ~75 W RadeonRX 470(Ellesmere Pro) August 2016 GCN 4th gen14 nm 2048:128:32 Un­known Un­known Un­known Un­known GDDR5256-bit 4 1650 211 85 W? RadeonRX 480M(Baffin) TBA 1024:xx:xx Un­known Un­known Un­known Un­known GDDR5128-bit Un­known Un­known Un­known 35 W RadeonR9 M485X(Antigua XT) May 2016 GCN 3rd gen28 nm 2048:128:32 723 92.5 23.14 2961 GDDR5256-bit 8 1250 160 ~100 W vte ^ a b c Boost values (if available) are stated below the base value in italic. ^ Texture fillrate is calculated as the number of Texture Mapping Units multiplied by the base (or boost) core clock speed. ^ Pixel fillrate is calculated as the number of Render Output Units multiplied by the base (or boost) core clock speed. ^ Precision performance is calculated from the base (or boost) core clock speed based on a FMA operation. ^ Unified Shaders : Texture Mapping Units : Render Output Units Radeon Feature Matrix The following table shows features of AMD/ATI's GPUs (see also: List of AMD graphics processing units). viewtalkedit Name of GPU series Wonder Mach 3D Rage Rage Pro Rage 128 R100 R200 R300 R400 R500 R600 RV670 R700 Evergreen NorthernIslands SouthernIslands SeaIslands VolcanicIslands ArcticIslands/Polaris Vega Navi 1x Navi 2x Navi 3x Released 1986 1991 Apr1996 Mar1997 Aug1998 Apr2000 Aug2001 Sep2002 May2004 Oct2005 May2007 Nov2007 Jun2008 Sep2009 Oct2010 Jan2012 Sep2013 Jun2015 Jun 2016, Apr 2017, Aug 2019 Jun 2017, Feb 2019 Jul2019 Nov2020 Dec2022 Marketing Name Wonder Mach 3DRage RagePro Rage128 Radeon7000 Radeon8000 Radeon9000 RadeonX700/X800 RadeonX1000 RadeonHD 2000 RadeonHD 3000 RadeonHD 4000 RadeonHD 5000 RadeonHD 6000 RadeonHD 7000 Radeon200 Radeon300 Radeon400/500/600 RadeonRX Vega, Radeon VII RadeonRX 5000 RadeonRX 6000 RadeonRX 7000 AMD support Kind 2D 3D Instruction set architecture Not publicly known TeraScale instruction set GCN instruction set RDNA instruction set Microarchitecture TeraScale 1(VLIW) TeraScale 2(VLIW5) TeraScale 2(VLIW5) up to 68xx TeraScale 3(VLIW4) in 69xx GCN 1stgen GCN 2ndgen GCN 3rdgen GCN 4thgen GCN 5thgen RDNA RDNA 2 RDNA 3 Type Fixed pipeline Programmable pixel & vertex pipelines Unified shader model Direct3D — 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.1 9.011 (9_2) 9.0b11 (9_2) 9.0c11 (9_3) 10.011 (10_0) 10.111 (10_1) 11 (11_0) 11 (11_1)12 (11_1) 11 (12_0)12 (12_0) 11 (12_1)12 (12_1) 11 (12_1)12 (12_2) Shader model — 1.4 2.0+ 2.0b 3.0 4.0 4.1 5.0 5.1 5.16.5 6.7 OpenGL — 1.1 1.2 1.3 2.1 3.3 4.5 (on Linux: 4.5 (Mesa 3D 21.0)) 4.6 (on Linux: 4.6 (Mesa 3D 20.0)) Vulkan — 1.0(Win 7+ or Mesa 17+) 1.2 (Adrenalin 20.1.2, Linux Mesa 3D 20.0) 1.3 (Adrenalin 22.1.2, Mesa 22.0) OpenCL — Close to Metal 1.1 (no Mesa 3D support) 1.2+ (on Linux: 1.1+ (no Image support on clover, with by rustiCL) with Mesa 3D, 1.2+ on GCN 1.Gen) 2.0+ (Adrenalin driver on Win7+)(on Linux ROCM, Linux Mesa 3D 1.2+ (no Image support in clover, but in rustiCL with Mesa 3D, 2.0+ and 3.0 with AMD drivers or AMD ROCm), 5th gen: 2.2 win 10+ and Linux RocM 5.0+ 2.2+ and 3.0 windows 8.1+ and Linux ROCM 5.0+ (Mesa 3D rustiCL 1.2+ and 3.0 (2.1+ and 2.2+ wip)) HSA / ROCm — ? Video decoding ASIC — Avivo/UVD UVD+ UVD 2 UVD 2.2 UVD 3 UVD 4 UVD 4.2 UVD 5.0 or 6.0 UVD 6.3 UVD 7 VCN 2.0 VCN 3.0 VCN 4.0 Video encoding ASIC — VCE 1.0 VCE 2.0 VCE 3.0 or 3.1 VCE 3.4 VCE 4.0 Fluid Motion ? Power saving ? PowerPlay PowerTune PowerTune & ZeroCore Power ? TrueAudio — Via dedicated DSP Via shaders FreeSync — 12 HDCP ? 1.4 2.2 2.3 PlayReady — 3.0 3.0 Supported displays 1–2 2 2–6 ? Max. resolution ? 2–6 ×2560×1600 2–6 ×4096×2160 @ 30 Hz 2–6 ×5120×2880 @ 60 Hz 3 ×7680×4320 @ 60 Hz 7680×4320 @ 60 Hz PowerColor 7680x4320 @165 HZ /drm/radeon — /drm/amdgpu — Experimental Optional ^ The Radeon 100 Series has programmable pixel shaders, but do not fully comply with DirectX 8 or Pixel Shader 1.0. See article on R100's pixel shaders. ^ R300, R400 and R500 based cards do not fully comply with OpenGL 2+ as the hardware does not support all types of non-power of two (NPOT) textures. ^ OpenGL 4+ compliance requires supporting FP64 shaders and these are emulated on some TeraScale chips using 32-bit hardware. ^ a b c The UVD and VCE were replaced by the Video Core Next (VCN) ASIC in the Raven Ridge APU implementation of Vega. ^ Video processing for video frame rate interpolation technique. In Windows it works as a DirectShow filter in your player. In Linux, there is no support on the part of drivers and / or community. ^ a b To play protected video content, it also requires card, operating system, driver, and application support. A compatible HDCP display is also needed for this. HDCP is mandatory for the output of certain audio formats, placing additional constraints on the multimedia setup. ^ More displays may be supported with native DisplayPort connections, or splitting the maximum resolution between multiple monitors with active converters. ^ a b DRM (Direct Rendering Manager) is a component of the Linux kernel. AMDgpu is the Linux kernel module. Support in this table refers to the most current version. See also AMD Radeon Pro AMD FirePro AMD FireMV AMD FireStream AMD Vega List of AMD graphics processing units References ^ "AMD Radeon Software Crimson Edition 16.3 Release Notes". AMD. Retrieved 20 April 2018. ^ "AMDGPU-PRO Driver for Linux Release Notes". 2016. Archived from the original on 11 December 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2018. ^ "Mesamatrix". mesamatrix.net. Retrieved 22 April 2018. ^ "RadeonFeature". X.Org Foundation. Retrieved 20 April 2018. ^ "AMD Adrenalin 18.4.1 Graphics Driver Released (OpenGL 4.6, Vulkan 1.1.70) | Geeks3D". May 2018. ^ "AMD Open Source Driver for Vulkan". GPUOpen. Retrieved 27 April 2022. ^ "AMD Radeon Software Crimson Edition 16.6.2 Release Notes". AMD. Retrieved 20 April 2018. ^ Moammer, Khalid (1 November 2015). "AMD Confirms 14nm CPUs, GPUs and APUs For 2016 – Working Samples Delivered by Globalfoundries". WCCFtech.com. Retrieved 9 November 2015. ^ WhyCry (30 June 2016). "AMD Radeon RX 400 series naming scheme explained". Videocardz.com. Retrieved 30 June 2016. ^ "The Khronos Group". The Khronos Group. 5 February 2019. ^ Shrout, Ryan (29 June 2016). "The AMD Radeon RX 480 Review - The Polaris Promise". PC Perspective. p. 2. Archived from the original on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2016. ^ Angelini, Chris (29 June 2016). "AMD Radeon RX 480 8GB Review". Tom's Hardware. p. 1. Retrieved 11 August 2016. ^ a b Angelini, Chris (29 June 2016). "AMD Radeon RX 480 8GB Review". Tom's Hardware. p. 2. Retrieved 11 August 2016. ^ AMD. "Radeon Software Crimson ReLive Edition 16.12.1 Release Notes". amd.com. amd.com. Retrieved 29 December 2016. ^ Jon Martindale. "AMD Crimson ReLive drivers should improve all GCN cards 8th Dec". kitguru.net. kitguru.net. Retrieved 29 January 2017. ^ Bayer, Thilo (4 July 2016). "Polaris 10: "There's nothing hidden on that product to unlock" - interview". PC Games Hardware. Retrieved 13 July 2016. ^ a b c Anwar, Gohar (15 April 2016). "AMD Polaris 10 & Polaris 11 TDP Info Leaked, "Baffin" is Incredibly Power Efficient with Just 50W TDP". TechFrag. Hizzmedia. Retrieved 1 May 2016. ^ Anwar, Gohar (30 April 2016). "AMD Polaris 10 and Polaris 11 OpenGL Benchmarks Leaked, Polaris 11 having Two SKUs". TechFrag. Hizzmedia. Retrieved 1 May 2016. ^ a b c d Angelini, Chris (8 August 2016). "AMD Radeon RX 460 Review". Tom's Hardware. Retrieved 8 August 2016. ^ Kampman, Jeff; Wild, Robert (29 June 2016). "AMD's Radeon RX 480 graphics card reviewed". The Tech Report. Retrieved 29 June 2016. ^ Justice, Brent (29 June 2016). Bennett, Kyle (ed.). "AMD Radeon RX 480 Video Card Review". HardOCP. Retrieved 29 June 2016. ^ Shrout, Ryan (29 June 2016). "The AMD Radeon RX 480 Review - The Polaris Promise". PC Perspective. Retrieved 29 June 2016. ^ a b Angelini, Chris (29 June 2016). "AMD Radeon RX 480 8GB Review". Tom's Hardware. Retrieved 29 June 2016. ^ W1zzard (29 June 2016). "AMD Radeon RX 480 8 GB". TechPowerUp. Retrieved 29 June 2016.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ a b Shrout, Ryan (30 June 2016). "Power Consumption Concerns on the Radeon RX 480". PC Perspective. Retrieved 30 June 2016. ^ a b Shrout, Ryan (7 July 2016). "AMD Radeon RX 480 Power Consumption Concerns Fixed with 16.7.1 Driver". PC Perspective. Retrieved 7 July 2016. ^ Smith, Ryan (7 July 2016). "AMD Posts Radeon 16.7.1 Drivers, Fixes RX 480 Power Consumption Issues". Anandtech.com. Retrieved 8 July 2016. ^ Williams, Daniel (26 July 2016). "MSI Show New Radeon RX 480 Gaming Cards". AnandTech. Retrieved 28 July 2016. ^ Chacos, Brad (22 July 2016). "Sapphire Nitro+ RX 480 review: Polaris rethought and refined". PC World. Retrieved 28 July 2016. ^ "Radeon RX 480 Graphics Card". AMD. Retrieved 19 August 2016. ^ a b "Radeon™ R5 Series Graphics Cards | OEM | AMD". www.amd.com. Retrieved 18 April 2017. ^ "AMD Radeon R5 430 OEM". ^ "AMD Radeon R5 435 OEM". ^ a b c d "Radeon™ R7 Series Graphics Cards | OEM | AMD". www.amd.com. Retrieved 18 April 2017. ^ "AMD Radeon R7 430 OEM". ^ "AMD Radeon R7 435 OEM". ^ "AMD Radeon R7 450 OEM". ^ "AMD Radeon RX 455 OEM". ^ a b Sexton, Michael (13 June 2016). "AMD Rounds Out Polaris Offerings With RX 470, RX 460 GPUs". Tom's Hardware. Purch Group. Retrieved 13 June 2016. ^ Smith, Ryan (15 June 2016). "A bit more on AMDs Polaris GPUs: 36 16 CUs". AnandTech. Purch Group. Retrieved 15 June 2016. ^ a b Smith, Ryan (28 July 2016). "AMD Announces RX 470 & RX 460 Specifications; Shipping in Early August". Anandtech. Retrieved 29 July 2016. ^ Justice, Brent (8 August 2016). "AMD Radeon RX 460 Official Specification Information". Hard OCP. Retrieved 8 August 2016. ^ "14LPP 14nm FinFET Technology". GLOBALFOUNDRIES. GLOBALFOUNDRIES. ^ Schor, David (22 July 2018). "VLSI 2018: GlobalFoundries 12nm Leading-Performance, 12LP". WikiChip Fuse. Retrieved 31 May 2019. ^ "AMD Radeon RX 470D". ^ "Radeon RX 480 Set to Drive Premium VR Experiences into the Hands of Millions of Consumers; Starting at Just $199" (Press release). Taipei, Taiwan. AMD Communications. 1 June 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016. ^ Smith, Ryan (1 June 2016). "AMD Teases Radeon RX 480: Launching June 29th for 199". Anandtech.com. Retrieved 1 June 2016. ^ Smith, Ryan (29 June 2016). "The AMD Radeon RX 480 Preview". Anandtech. Retrieved 29 June 2016. ^ "Radeon RX 480 Graphics Card". AMD. 29 June 2016. Retrieved 29 June 2016. ^ "AMD Radeon R5 M420 Specs". TechPowerUp. ^ "AMD Radeon R5 M430 Specs". TechPowerUp. ^ "AMD Radeon R5 M435 Specs". TechPowerUp. ^ "AMD Radeon R7 M440 Specs". TechPowerUp. ^ "AMD Radeon R7 M445 Specs". TechPowerUp. ^ http://news.lenovo.com/news-releases/lenovo-launches-new-travel-ready-windows-10-tablet-and-yoga-laptops.htm ^ "AMD Radeon R7 M460 Specs". TechPowerUp. ^ "Radeon™ RX 460 HD Graphics Cards for Desktop | AMD". AMD. ^ "AMD Radeon R7 M465 Specs". TechPowerUp. ^ "Radeon™ R7 Series Graphics Cards | AMD". AMD. ^ "AMD Radeon R7 M465X Specs". TechPowerUp. ^ "AMD Radeon R9 M470 Specs". TechPowerUp. ^ "AMD Radeon R9 M470X Specs". TechPowerUp. ^ "Radeon™ RX 470 Graphics Cards for Desktop | AMD". AMD. ^ "AMD Radeon R9 M485X Specs". TechPowerUp. ^ "AMD Radeon HD 6900 (AMD Cayman) series graphics cards". HWlab. hw-lab.com. 19 December 2010. Archived from the original on 23 August 2022. Retrieved 23 August 2022. New VLIW4 architecture of stream processors allowed to save area of each SIMD by 10%, while performing the same compared to previous VLIW5 architecture ^ "GPU Specs Database". TechPowerUp. Retrieved 23 August 2022. ^ "NPOT Texture (OpenGL Wiki)". Khronos Group. Retrieved 10 February 2021. ^ "AMD Radeon Software Crimson Edition Beta". AMD. Retrieved 20 April 2018. ^ "Mesamatrix". mesamatrix.net. Retrieved 22 April 2018. ^ "RadeonFeature". X.Org Foundation. Retrieved 20 April 2018. ^ "AMD Radeon RX 6800 XT Specs". TechPowerUp. Retrieved 1 January 2021. ^ "AMD Launches The Radeon PRO W7500/W7600 RDNA3 GPUs". Phoronix. 3 August 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2023. ^ "AMD Radeon Pro 5600M Grafikkarte". TopCPU.net (in German). Retrieved 4 September 2023. ^ a b c Killian, Zak (22 March 2017). "AMD publishes patches for Vega support on Linux". Tech Report. Retrieved 23 March 2017. ^ Larabel, Michael (15 September 2020). "AMD Radeon Navi 2 / VCN 3.0 Supports AV1 Video Decoding". Phoronix. Retrieved 1 January 2021. ^ Edmonds, Rich (4 February 2022). "ASUS Dual RX 6600 GPU review: Rock-solid 1080p gaming with impressive thermals". Windows Central. Retrieved 1 November 2022. ^ "Radeon's next-generation Vega architecture" (PDF). Radeon Technologies Group (AMD). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2017. ^ Larabel, Michael (7 December 2016). "The Best Features of the Linux 4.9 Kernel". Phoronix. Retrieved 7 December 2016. ^ "AMDGPU". Retrieved 29 December 2023. vteAMD graphicsRadeon-brandList of GPUs (GPU features template) and List of APUs (APU features template)Fixed pipeline Wonder Mach Rage All-in-Wonder (before 2000) Vertex and fragment shaders R100 R200 R300 R400 R500 All-in-Wonder (after 1999) Unified shadersTeraScale HD 2000 HD 3000 HD 4000 HD 5000 HD 6000 Unified shaders & memoryGCN HD 7000 HD 8000 200 300 400 500 RX Vega 600 RDNA RX 5000 RX 6000 RX 7000 Current technologies and softwareAudio/Video acceleration Unified Video Decoder (UVD) Video Coding Engine (VCE) Video Core Next (VCN) TrueAudio GPU technologies Eyefinity FreeSync PowerTune CrossFire Hybrid Graphics HyperMemory HyperZ HSA SoftwareCurrent AMD Radeon Software HD3D ROCm AMDGPU GPU PerfStudio GPUOpen TressFX HLSL2GLSL Obsolete AMD APP SDK Catalyst Close to Metal CodeAnalyst Mantle CodeXL Other brands and productsWorkstations & supercomputersCurrent Radeon Pro Radeon Instinct Obsolete FireGL/FirePro FireMV FireStream Consoles& handheld PCs Flipper (GameCube) Xenos (Xbox 360) Hollywood (Wii) Liverpool (PlayStation 4) Durango (Xbox One) Neo (PlayStation 4 Pro) Scorpio (Xbox One X) Atari VCS (2021) PlayStation 5 Xbox Series X/S Steam Deck

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"graphics processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processors"},{"link_name":"AMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD"},{"link_name":"GPUs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"14 nm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14_nanometer"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"FinFET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FinFET"},{"link_name":"Samsung Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_Electronics"},{"link_name":"GlobalFoundries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GlobalFoundries"},{"link_name":"chips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)"},{"link_name":"Graphics Core Next","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_Core_Next"},{"link_name":"instruction set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_set"}],"text":"The Radeon 400 series is a series of graphics processors developed by AMD. These cards were the first to feature the Polaris GPUs, using the new 14 nm[8] FinFET manufacturing process, developed by Samsung Electronics and licensed to GlobalFoundries. The Polaris family initially included two new chips in the Graphics Core Next (GCN) family (Polaris 11 and Polaris 12). Polaris implements the 4th generation of the Graphics Core Next instruction set, and shares commonalities with the previous GCN microarchitectures.","title":"Radeon 400 series"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1080p","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1080p"},{"link_name":"Dota 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dota_2"},{"link_name":"League of Legends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Legends"},{"link_name":"memory bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_bus"},{"link_name":"1440p","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_display_resolution#QHD_/_WQHD_(2560%C3%971440)"},{"link_name":"4K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4K_resolution"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-naming-9"}],"text":"The RX prefix is used for cards that offer over 1.5 teraflops of performance and 80 GB/s of memory throughput (with memory compression), and achieve at least 60 FPS at 1080p in popular games such as Dota 2 and League of Legends. Otherwise, it will be omitted. Like previous generations, the first numeral in the number refers to the generation (4 in this case) and the second numeral in the number refers to the tier of the card, of which there are six. Tier 4, the weakest tier in the 400 series, will lack the RX prefix and feature a 64-bit memory bus. Tiers 5 and 6 will have both RX prefixed and non-RX prefixed cards, indicating that while they will both feature a 128-bit memory bus and be targeted at 1080p gaming, the latter will fall short 1.5 teraflops of performance. Tiers 7 and 8 will each have a 256-bit memory bus and will be marketed as 1440p cards. The highest tier, tier 9, will feature a memory bus greater than 256-bit and shall be aimed at 4K gaming. Finally, the third numeral will indicate whether the card is in its first or second revision with either a 0 or 5, respectively. Therefore, for example, the RX 460 indicates that it has at least 1.5 teraflops of performance, 100 GB/s of memory throughput, has a 128-bit memory bus and will be able to achieve 60 FPS in the previously mentioned games at 1080p.[9]","title":"Naming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OpenCL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenCL"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-10"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"OpenCL (API)","text":"OpenCL allows use of GPUs for highly parallel numeric computation accelerates many scientific software packages against CPU up to factor 10 or 100 and more.\nOpenCL 1.0 to 1.2 are supported for all chips with Terascale or GCN architectures. OpenCL 2.0 is supported with GCN 2nd gen. or higher.[10] Any OpenCL 2.0 conformant card can gain OpenCL 2.1 and 2.2 support with only a driver update.[citation needed]","title":"Naming"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Vulkan (API)","text":"API Vulkan 1.0 is supported for all GCN architecture cards. Vulkan 1.2 requires GCN 2nd gen or higher with the Adrenalin 20.1 and Linux Mesa 20.0 drivers and newer.","title":"Naming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TomsHWS-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TomsUVD-13"},{"link_name":"UVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Video_Decoder"},{"link_name":"HEVC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Efficiency_Video_Coding"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TomsUVD-13"},{"link_name":"VP9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VP9"},{"link_name":"Dolby Vision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolby_Vision"},{"link_name":"HDR10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDR10"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"This series is based on the fourth generation GCN architecture. It includes new hardware schedulers,[11] a new primitive discard accelerator,[12] a new display controller,[13] and an updated UVD that can decode HEVC at 4K resolutions at 60 frames per second with 10 bits per color channel.[13] On 8 December 2016, AMD released Crimson ReLive drivers (Version 16.12.1), which make GCN-GPUs support VP9 decode acceleration up to 4K@60 Hz and twinned with support for Dolby Vision and HDR10.[14][15]","title":"New features"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Chips"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"stream processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_processing"},{"link_name":"Compute Units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compute_kernel"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"GDDR5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDDR5_SDRAM"},{"link_name":"Tonga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_Core_Next"},{"link_name":"Radeon M300","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_Radeon_Rx_300_series"},{"link_name":"TDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_design_power"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tdp-17"},{"link_name":"resolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Display_resolution"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tdp-17"},{"link_name":"GDDR5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDDR5_SDRAM"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Toms_RX460-19"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tdp-17"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Toms_RX460-19"}],"sub_title":"Polaris","text":"Polaris 10 features 2304 stream processors across 36 Compute Units (CUs),[16] and supports up to 8GB of GDDR5 memory on a 256-bit memory interface. The GPU replaces the mid-range Tonga segment of the Radeon M300 line. According to AMD, their prime target with the design of Polaris was energy efficiency: Polaris 10 was initially planned to be a mid-range chip, to be featured in the RX 480, with a TDP of around 110-135W[17] compared to its predecessor R9 380's 190W TDP. Despite this, the Polaris 10 chip is anticipated to run the latest DirectX 12 games \"at a resolution of 1440p with a stable 60 frames per second.\"[17]Polaris 11, on the other hand, is to succeed the \"Curacao\" GPU which powers various low-to-mid-range cards. It features 1024 stream processors over 16 CUs, coupled with up to 4GB of GDDR5 memory on a 128 bit memory interface.[18][19] Polaris 11 has a TDP of 75W.[17][19]","title":"Chips"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Tech Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tech_Report"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"Many reviewers praised the performance of the RX 480 8GB when evaluated in light of its $239 release price. The Tech Report stated that the RX 480 is the fastest card for the $200 segment at the time of its launch.[20] HardOCP gave this card an Editor's Choice Silver award.[21] PC Perspective gave it the PC Perspective Gold Award.[22]","title":"Reviews"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PCI Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI_Express"},{"link_name":"Tom's Hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%27s_Hardware"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-THGRX4808GReview-23"},{"link_name":"power supply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_supply"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-THGRX4808GReview-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PCPerFollowUp-25"},{"link_name":"voltage droop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage_droop"},{"link_name":"CrossFire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_CrossFire"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PCPerFollowUp-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PCPerDriver-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PCPerDriver-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"RX 480 reference card PCI Express power limit violations","text":"Some reviewers discovered that the AMD Radeon RX 480 violates the PCI Express power draw specifications, which allows a maximum of 75 watts (66 watts on its 12v pins) being drawn from the motherboard's PCI Express slot. Chris Angelini of Tom's Hardware noticed that in a stress test it can draw up to an average of 90 watts from the slot and 86 watts in a typical gaming load.[23] The peak usage can be up to 162 watts and 300 watts altogether with the power supply in a gaming load.[23] TechPowerUp corroborated these results by noting it can also draw up to 166 watts from the power supply, past the limit of 75 watts for a 6-pin PCI Express power connector.[24] Ryan Shrout of PC Perspective did a follow-up test after other reports and found out his review sample takes 80-84 watts from the motherboard at stock speed, and that the other PCI Express slots' 12 volt power supply pins were supplying only 11.5 volts during load on his Asus ROG Rampage V Extreme motherboard.[25] He was not concerned about the voltage droop due to the specification's 8% voltage tolerance, but did note of possible problems in systems where multiple overclocked RX 480 cards are running in quad CrossFire, or in motherboards that are not designed to withstand high currents, such as budget and older models.[25]AMD has released a driver that reprograms the voltage regulator module to draw less power from the motherboard, allowing the power draw from the motherboard to pass the PCI Express specification.[26] While this worsens the overage on the 6-pin power connector, that violation is not much of a concern because these connectors have a greater safety margin in their power rating.[26] The amount of power drawn from on the connector is dependent on a newly introduced \"compatibility mode\" in the driver. When on, compatibility mode reduces the total power consumption of the card, allowing both power sources to operate closer to their ratings. Standard mode yields essentially unchanged performance, while compatibility mode results in performance drops within the error of benchmarks.[27] Some RX 480 cards designed by AMD's partners include an 8-pin power connector which can provide more power than the stock design.[28][29]","title":"Reviews"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DisplayPort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DisplayPort"},{"link_name":"HDMI 2.0b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDMI#Version_2.0"},{"link_name":"HDR10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDR10"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Dual-Link DVI-D and DVI-I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Visual_Interface"}],"text":"Supported display standards are: DisplayPort 1.4 HBR, HDMI 2.0b, HDR10 color [30]\nDual-Link DVI-D and DVI-I at resolutions up to 4096×2304 are also supported, despite ports not being present on the reference cards.","title":"Chipset table"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:AMD_Radeon_Rx_400"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:AMD_Radeon_Rx_400"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:AMD_Radeon_Rx_400"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-boost_31-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-boost_31-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-boost_31-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-texture_fill_32-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-pixel_fill_33-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FLOPS_34-0"},{"link_name":"FMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiply%E2%80%93accumulate_operation#Fused_multiply%E2%80%93add"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-cconfig_35-0"},{"link_name":"Unified Shaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_shader_model"},{"link_name":"Texture Mapping Units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_mapping_unit"},{"link_name":"Render Output Units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Render_output_unit"},{"link_name":"Compute Units (CU)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_Core_Next#Compute_units"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-50"},{"link_name":"GlobalFoundries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GlobalFoundries"},{"link_name":"14 nm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14_nm"},{"link_name":"FinFET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FinFET"},{"link_name":"second-sourced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_source"},{"link_name":"Samsung Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_Electronics"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GF-Samsung-49"}],"sub_title":"Desktop","text":"vte^ a b c Boost values (if available) are stated below the base value in italic.\n\n^ Texture fillrate is calculated as the number of Texture Mapping Units multiplied by the base (or boost) core clock speed.\n\n^ Pixel fillrate is calculated as the number of Render Output Units multiplied by the base (or boost) core clock speed.\n\n^ Precision performance is calculated from the base (or boost) core clock speed based on a FMA operation.\n\n^ Unified Shaders : Texture Mapping Units : Render Output Units and Compute Units (CU)\n\n^ GlobalFoundries' 14 nm 14LPP FinFET process is second-sourced from Samsung Electronics.[44]","title":"Chipset table"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:AMD_Radeon_Rx_M4xx"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:AMD_Radeon_Rx_M4xx"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:AMD_Radeon_Rx_M4xx"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-boost_56-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-boost_56-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-boost_56-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-texture_fill_57-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-pixel_fill_58-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FLOPS_59-0"},{"link_name":"FMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiply%E2%80%93accumulate_operation#Fused_multiply%E2%80%93add"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-cconfig_60-0"},{"link_name":"Unified Shaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_shader_model"},{"link_name":"Texture Mapping Units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_mapping_unit"},{"link_name":"Render Output Units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Render_output_unit"}],"sub_title":"Mobile","text":"vte^ a b c Boost values (if available) are stated below the base value in italic.\n\n^ Texture fillrate is calculated as the number of Texture Mapping Units multiplied by the base (or boost) core clock speed.\n\n^ Pixel fillrate is calculated as the number of Render Output Units multiplied by the base (or boost) core clock speed.\n\n^ Precision performance is calculated from the base (or boost) core clock speed based on a FMA operation.\n\n^ Unified Shaders : Texture Mapping Units : Render Output Units","title":"Chipset table"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"AMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Micro_Devices"},{"link_name":"ATI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATI_Technologies"},{"link_name":"GPUs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"List of AMD graphics processing units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AMD_graphics_processing_units"},{"link_name":"VisualEditor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:AMD_GPU_features&veaction=edit"},{"link_name":"view","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:AMD_GPU_features"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:AMD_GPU_features"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:AMD_GPU_features"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-r100_shader_78-0"},{"link_name":"R100's pixel shaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radeon_R100_series#R100's_pixel_shaders"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-nonpot_79-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-nofp64_84-0"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-vcn_89-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-vcn_89-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-vcn_89-2"},{"link_name":"Raven Ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryzen#Raven_Ridge"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FliudMotion_91-0"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-DRM_92-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-DRM_92-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-max_displays_94-0"},{"link_name":"DisplayPort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DisplayPort"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-drm_96-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-drm_96-1"},{"link_name":"Direct Rendering Manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_Rendering_Manager"},{"link_name":"AMDgpu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMDgpu_(Linux_kernel_module)"}],"text":"The following table shows features of AMD/ATI's GPUs (see also: List of AMD graphics processing units).[ VisualEditor ] viewtalkedit^ The Radeon 100 Series has programmable pixel shaders, but do not fully comply with DirectX 8 or Pixel Shader 1.0. See article on R100's pixel shaders.\n\n^ R300, R400 and R500 based cards do not fully comply with OpenGL 2+ as the hardware does not support all types of non-power of two (NPOT) textures.\n\n^ OpenGL 4+ compliance requires supporting FP64 shaders and these are emulated on some TeraScale chips using 32-bit hardware.\n\n^ a b c The UVD and VCE were replaced by the Video Core Next (VCN) ASIC in the Raven Ridge APU implementation of Vega.\n\n^ Video processing for video frame rate interpolation technique. In Windows it works as a DirectShow filter in your player. In Linux, there is no support on the part of drivers and / or community.\n\n^ a b To play protected video content, it also requires card, operating system, driver, and application support. A compatible HDCP display is also needed for this. HDCP is mandatory for the output of certain audio formats, placing additional constraints on the multimedia setup.\n\n^ More displays may be supported with native DisplayPort connections, or splitting the maximum resolution between multiple monitors with active converters.\n\n^ a b DRM (Direct Rendering Manager) is a component of the Linux kernel. AMDgpu is the Linux kernel module. Support in this table refers to the most current version.","title":"Radeon Feature Matrix"}]

[]

[{"title":"AMD Radeon Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_Radeon_Pro"},{"title":"AMD FirePro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_FirePro"},{"title":"AMD FireMV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_FireMV"},{"title":"AMD FireStream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_FireStream"},{"title":"AMD Vega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_Vega"},{"title":"List of AMD graphics processing units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AMD_graphics_processing_units"}]

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Specs\""},{"Link":"http://web.archive.org/web/20220823180458/https://hw-lab.com/amd-radeon-hd-6900-series-amd-cayman.html/4","external_links_name":"\"AMD Radeon HD 6900 (AMD Cayman) series graphics cards\""},{"Link":"https://hw-lab.com/amd-radeon-hd-6900-series-amd-cayman.html/4","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.techpowerup.com/gpu-specs/?generation=Northern%20Islands&architecture=TeraScale%203&sort=generation","external_links_name":"\"GPU Specs Database\""},{"Link":"https://www.khronos.org/opengl/wiki/NPOT_Texture","external_links_name":"\"NPOT Texture (OpenGL Wiki)\""},{"Link":"https://support.amd.com/en-us/kb-articles/pages/amd-radeon-software-crimson-edition-beta.aspx","external_links_name":"\"AMD Radeon Software Crimson Edition 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Decoding\""},{"Link":"https://www.windowscentral.com/asus-dual-rx-6600-gpu-review","external_links_name":"\"ASUS Dual RX 6600 GPU review: Rock-solid 1080p gaming with impressive thermals\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180906124605/http://radeon.com/_downloads/vega-whitepaper-11.6.17.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Radeon's next-generation Vega architecture\""},{"Link":"http://radeon.com/_downloads/vega-whitepaper-11.6.17.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item&px=Linux-4.9-Kernel-Highlights","external_links_name":"\"The Best Features of the Linux 4.9 Kernel\""},{"Link":"https://wiki.gentoo.org/wiki/AMDGPU","external_links_name":"\"AMDGPU\""}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_VC-25

Boeing VC-25

["1 Development","2 Design and configuration","2.1 The \"White House\"","3 Operational history","3.1 VC-25A","3.2 VC-25B","4 Variants","5 Operators","6 Specifications (VC-25A)","7 Notable appearances in media","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]

US Air Force presidential transport aircraft VC-25 VC-25A 28000 over Mount Rushmore in February 2001 Role Presidential transportType of aircraft National origin United States Manufacturer Boeing First flight 16 May 1987 (VC-25A) Introduction 23 August 1990 (VC-25A) Status In service (VC-25A) In development (VC-25B) Primary user United States Air Force Produced 1986–1990 (VC-25A) Number built 2 (VC-25A) Developed from VC-25A: Boeing 747-200B VC-25B: Boeing 747-8I The Boeing VC-25 is a military version of the Boeing 747 airliner, modified for presidential transport and commonly operated by the United States Air Force (USAF) as Air Force One, the call sign of any U.S. Air Force aircraft carrying the president of the United States. Only two examples of this aircraft type are in service; they are highly modified Boeing 747-200Bs, designated VC-25A and having tail numbers 28000 and 29000. Although technically the Air Force One designation applies to the aircraft only while the president is on board, the term is commonly used to refer to the VC-25 in general. The two aircraft often operate in conjunction with Marine One helicopters, which ferry the president to airports whenever a vehicle motorcade would be inappropriate. Two new aircraft, based on the Boeing 747-8I and designated VC-25B, have been ordered by the USAF to replace the aging VC-25As. Development By 1985, the pair of Boeing 707-based VC-137s used as the presidential aircraft had been in service for 23 and 13 years respectively, and the USAF began searching for an eventual replacement. The Request for Proposal issued stated that the aircraft to be selected should have at least three engines and an unrefueled range of at least 6,000 miles (9,700 km). Both Boeing with its 747 and McDonnell Douglas with the DC-10 were in competition to be selected, with the Boeing entry the eventual winner. The fabrication of the current 747s began during the presidency of Ronald Reagan (1981–1989). The VC-25s were completed in 1986 and first flew in 1987. The interior designs were created by First Lady Nancy Reagan, who used designs reminiscent of the American Southwest. Problems with interior wiring for communication systems delayed delivery of the two aircraft until 1990, during the administration of George H. W. Bush. The Air Force reported that the operating cost for each VC-25A in 2014 was $210,877 (~$267,357 in 2023) per hour. Design and configuration President Barack Obama meets with Rep. Dennis Kucinich, D-Ohio, aboard Air Force One en route to Cleveland, Ohio, March 2010. The first family's private quarters. The couches can fold out into beds. The aircraft's port-side (left) corridor. The two chairs are typically occupied by Secret Service agents. The VC-25 is capable of flying 7,800 miles (12,600 km)—roughly one-third the distance around the world—without refueling. The VC-25A can accommodate more than 70 passengers. Each VC-25A cost approximately $325 million. While the VC-25 has two main decks and a cargo area, like a regular Boeing 747, its 4,000 square feet (370 m2) of floor space has been reconfigured for presidential duties. Its lowest level is mostly cargo space, carrying luggage and the onboard food supply. The main passenger area is on the second floor or main deck. The upper deck contains the cockpit and the communications center. Typically, the president boards and disembarks from the front, main deck entrance using a mobile stairway, while journalists and other passengers enter at the rear door of the main deck. However, the aircraft also has built-in airstairs that lead to the lower deck, typically used when security concerns make the use of a mobile stairway impractical. The "White House" The front section of the aircraft is informally called the "White House", a reference to the president's official residence in Washington, D.C. The president's executive suite includes sleeping quarters with two couches that can be converted into beds, lavatory and shower, vanity, double sink, and a private office, or the president's "Oval Office aboard Air Force One". If necessary, the president can address the nation from the office. This capability was added after the September 11 attacks, during which the aircraft had to land at Barksdale Air Force Base for President George W. Bush to address the nation. These offices, including the president's suite, are mostly located on the starboard (right) side, and a long corridor runs along the port (left) side. The aircraft also contains a conference room, originally designed as a situation room, but now used for meeting with staff while traveling. This room includes a 50-inch plasma screen television which can be used for teleconferencing. The aircraft has fully equipped office areas with telecommunication systems (including 87 telephones and 19 televisions). On board the VC-25 is a medical annex, which includes a fold-out operating table, emergency medical supplies, and a well-stocked pharmacy. George W. Bush had a treadmill added to Air Force One during his term in office. Every flight is staffed by a doctor and nurse. The aircraft is self-sufficient, such as carrying all the food it will need. Meals are prepared in two galleys, which together are equipped to feed up to 100 people at a time. The president gets a personal menu. An area where guests sit is near the center of the aircraft, outside the "White House". There are separate quarters for guests, senior staff, Secret Service and Air Force security personnel assigned to the plane, and the news media located in the aft area of the main deck. Protocol states that one may wander aft of one's assigned seat, but not forward of it. Communications equipment and the cockpit are on the upper deck. There are also secure and non-secure voice, fax and data communications facilities. While the aircraft's luggage capacity is adequate to carry the belongings of the passengers, the logistics train of the president means that the aircraft must fly preceded by an aerial convoy of several cargo transports, which carry the helicopters, motorcade vehicles, and other equipment required by the presidential entourage. Operational history VC-25A The VC-25A replaced the VC-137C (a military version of the Boeing 707) as the mainstay of the Air Force One fleet. On some occasions, the VC-25s serve as transport for the US vice president, for which service they use the Air Force Two call sign. The VC-25A aircraft are maintained and operated as military operations by the Presidential Airlift Group, part of Air Mobility Command's 89th Airlift Wing, based at Joint Base Andrews in Camp Springs, Maryland. The aircraft can also be operated as a military command center in the event of an incident such as a nuclear attack. Operational modifications include aerial refueling capability and countermeasures against anti-aircraft missiles. The electronics on board are connected with approximately 238 miles (383 km) of wiring, twice that of a regular 747. All wiring is covered with heavy shielding for protection from a nuclear electromagnetic pulse in the event of a nuclear attack. The aircraft also has electronic countermeasures (ECMs) to jam enemy radar, flares to avoid heat-seeking missiles, and chaff to avoid radar-guided missiles. All small arms and ammunition stores not in the physical possession of the Secret Service and Air Force security personnel on board the VC-25s are stowed and secured in separate locked compartments, each with a different locking mechanism for added security. Many of the VC-25's other capabilities are classified for security reasons. After a presidential inauguration resulting in a change in office, the outgoing president is provided transport on a VC-25 aircraft to their home destination. The aircraft for this flight does not use the Air Force One call sign because it is not carrying the president in office. For both Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush, the flight was known as Special Air Mission 28000, where the number represents the aircraft's tail number. The casket of President Gerald Ford being lowered from the cabin of SAM 29000 at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, 2006. The VC-25As have also been used to transport deceased former presidents, as the guest area aft of "the White House" has chairs and tables that can be removed and the casket laid in their place. The bodies of Ronald Reagan, Gerald Ford, and George H.W. Bush were transported to Washington for their state funerals, and then on to their final resting places. Colonel Mark Tillman, pilot for President George W. Bush, said, "We'll take care of the president from basically when he's in office to when he lays in state." For the funeral of President Ronald Reagan in 2004, Tillman said that the crew converted the front of the aircraft to look the way it would have appeared when Reagan was president; President and Nancy Reagan's Air Force One jackets were placed on the chairs to "make them feel at home". A specially designed hydraulic lifter (similar to the type used by airline catering) with the presidential seal affixed to the sides lifts the casket up to the portside aft door to enter the VC-25A. The tradition of placing the caskets in the passenger cabin dates back to the assassination of John F. Kennedy, when the crew did not want the president's body placed in the cargo hold, and again during the state funeral of Lyndon B. Johnson. The two VC-25As are slated for retirement, the first in 2027, and the second in 2028. VC-25B Illustration of the VC-25B color scheme announced March 2023 The VC-25A aircraft are aging and have become less cost-effective to operate. The USAF Air Mobility Command investigated possible replacements, with early press coverage suggesting that the USAF would consider the Boeing 747-8 and the Airbus A380. On 7 January 2009, Air Force Materiel Command issued a new Sources Sought notice for a replacement aircraft to enter service by 2017 with an additional two aircraft to follow in 2019 and 2021. On 28 January 2009, EADS North America representing EADS and its Airbus division confirmed it would not respond to the US Air Force notice, as assembling only three airplanes in the US would not make financial sense. This made Boeing the only aircraft manufacturer interested in supplying the replacement aircraft, and was reported to be exploring a 787 option also. On 28 January 2015, the Air Force announced the selection of the Boeing 747-8 to replace the aging VC-25A for presidential transport. On 10 May 2016, the Air Force posted online an amendment to its Air Force One contract authorizing Boeing to begin preliminary design activities. This version of the contract synopsis confirmed that the government will buy two modified 747-8 aircraft. Boeing was awarded a contract in January 2016 to identify cost reduction opportunities in areas including maintenance, aerial refueling and communications. On 15 July 2016, Boeing received another contract for pre-engineering and manufacturing development (EMD) risk-reduction to address "system specification, the environmental control system, the aircraft interior, the electrical and power system and sustainment and maintenance approaches" to reduce development risks and life-cycle costs. One of the two 747-8I aircraft that will be converted into the VC-25B, seen in July 2015 shortly after construction. On 1 August 2017, Defense One reported that in an effort to pay less for the replacement program, the USAF entered into a contract to purchase two 747-8 Intercontinental (747-8I) jets from Boeing, which had originally been ordered in 2011 by Transaero, a Russian airline. Before they could be delivered, the company filed for bankruptcy and was closed down; the two aircraft were stored at Southern California Logistics Airport in the Mojave desert to prevent corrosion. On 27 February 2018, the White House announced a US$3.9 billion (~$4.66 billion in 2023) agreement with Boeing to modify the two unsold 747-8s to replace the current VC-25As. The new aircraft will be designated VC-25B. These aircraft are to be retrofitted with telecommunications and security equipment to bring them to the required security level for the presidential aircraft. In April 2022, Boeing's CEO Dave Calhoun revealed that he expects the company to have a loss of $660 million on the VC-25B program, after the contract was renegotiated by President Trump. In June 2019, President Trump announced his plans to revamp the VC-25's livery from the traditional white and ultramarine shades to one of red, white, and blue. This would have been the first deviation from the Raymond Loewy livery scheme since it was introduced in 1962 on the VC-137C which was first used as Air Force One during the Kennedy administration. The Biden administration abandoned the new design, citing "additional engineering, as well as increased time and cost." A modified version of the traditional scheme was announced in March 2023. The 747s began undergoing modification work at Boeing's San Antonio facility in 2020. According to The Wall Street Journal, the development process has been hit by multiple "production mishaps", including the discovery of empty tequila mini-bottles on one of the aircraft, and the use of jacks that were not rated to support the weight of the aircraft. While the jacking did not result in damage to the planes, "the Pentagon's contractor-management agency formally requested Boeing improve its operations." While the initial delivery date was set to 2024, the Pentagon expects the jets to be two to three years late, with the Air Force projecting delivery of the first VC-25B in 2027, and the other in 2028, as of a 2023 press release. Once the new aircraft are delivered, the VC-25As will be retired and placed in museums. Variants Boeing VC-25 Air Force One video VC-25A based on the Boeing 747-200B VC-25B based on the Boeing 747-8 Intercontinental Operators  United States United States Air Force 89th Airlift Wing, Presidential Airlift Group (PAG) - Andrews AFB, Maryland Specifications (VC-25A) Data from Boeing BDSGeneral characteristics Crew: 26: flight crew (pilot, co-pilot, flight engineer, navigator), cabin crew, communications, maintenance, and security Capacity: 76 passengers Length: 231 ft 10 in (70.66 m) Wingspan: 196 ft 8 in (59.94 m) Height: 63 ft 5 in (19.33 m) Max takeoff weight: 833,000 lb (377,842 kg) Powerplant: 4 × General Electric CF6-80C2B1 turbofan engines, 56,700 lbf (252 kN) thrust each Performance Maximum speed: 547.5 kn (630.1 mph, 1,014.0 km/h) at 35,000 ft (10,668 m) Maximum speed: Mach 0.92 Cruise speed: 500 kn (580 mph, 930 km/h) / M0.84 at 35,000 ft (10,668 m) Range: 6,800 nmi (7,800 mi, 12,600 km) Service ceiling: 45,100 ft (13,700 m) Notable appearances in media Main article: Aircraft in fiction § Boeing 747 The VC-25 "Air Force One" is a prominent symbol of the U.S. presidency and its powers; with the White House and presidential seal, it is among the most recognized presidential symbols. Air Force One has often appeared in popular culture and fiction, including the setting of the 1997 action movie Air Force One where the aircraft had an escape pod and a parachute ramp, unlike the actual presidential aircraft. See also Air Force One photo op incident Air Force Two Air transports of heads of state and government Related development Boeing 747 Boeing E-4B Nightwatch Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era VC-137C SAM 26000 VC-137C SAM 27000 Boeing C-32 Boeing C-40 Clipper Airbus A330 MRTT Vespina References Notes ^ Thomas, H. "U.S. considers Air Force One from Airbus." Archived 6 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine heraldnet.com, 17 January 2009. Retrieved: 26 June 2009. ^ a b c Jenkins 2000, pp. 55–56. ^ Williams, Rudi. "Reagan Makes First, Last Flight in Jet He Ordered." Archived 8 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine U.S. Department of Defense, 10 June 2004. Retrieved: 28 July 2013. ^ Butler, Amy, and Guy Norris, "Foregone Conclusion", Aviation Week and Space Technology, 9 June 2014, pp. 40-41. ^ "VC-25 - Air Force One". Air Force. Archived from the original on 17 January 2024. Retrieved 26 January 2024. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Wallace, Chris (host). "Aboard Air Force One." Fox News, 24 November 2008. Retrieved: 28 November 2008. ^ Harris, Tom. "How Air Force One Works." Archived 13 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine HowStuffWorks.com. Retrieved: 10 October 2006. ^ Keith, Tamara (31 August 2023). "Why Biden is now routinely taking the short stairs up to Air Force One". National Public Radio. Retrieved 19 February 2024. ^ Stebner, Greg (narrator). "On Board Air Force One." Archived 3 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine National Geographic Channel, 25 January 2009. Retrieved: 26 June 2009. ^ "Air Force One: The President's office in the sky". The White House. Archived from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022. ^ Felsenthal, Carol. "When Bill Clinton Left the White House" Archived 22 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Chicago Daily Observer, 22 January 2009. Retrieved: 26 June 2009. ^ "Bush flies to Texas to begin post-presidential life." Archived 21 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times, 20 January 2009. Retrieved: 9 September 2011. ^ Bernstein, Adam (29 April 2006). "Col. James Swindal; Piloted Air Force One After Kennedy's Death". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 16 August 2011. ^ Foley, Thomas (25 January 1973). "Thousands in Washington Brave Cold to Say Goodbye to Johnson". Los Angeles Times. p. A1. ^ "US considers Airbus A380 as Air Force One and potentially a C-5 replacement". Flight Global. 17 October 2007. Archived from the original on 11 April 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2016. ^ "USAF Presidential Aircraft Recapitalization (PAR) Program." Archived 31 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine USAF Materiel Command, 7 January 2009. Retrieved: 8 January 2009. ^ "EADS waves off bid for Air Force One replacement". Flight Global. 28 January 2009. Archived from the original on 19 March 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2016. ^ "USAF Presidential Aircraft Recapitalization (PAR) Program, Interested Vendors List." Archived 17 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine USAF Materiel Command, 7 January 2009. Retrieved: 8 January 2009. ^ Butler, Amy. "Boeing Only Contender for New Air Force One." Archived 14 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine Aviation Week, 28 January 2009. Retrieved 28 January 2009. ^ AF Identifies Boeing 747-8 platform for next Air Force One Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Mehta, Aaron (28 January 2015). "Boeing Tapped for Air Force One Replacement". Defense News. Retrieved 26 April 2024. ^ "Presidential Aircraft Recapitalization". FedBizOpps. 10 May 2016. Archived from the original on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2016. ^ "A new Air Force One for Trump or Clinton is on the way". Air Force Times. 11 May 2016. Retrieved 12 May 2016. ^ "Boeing Wins Second Air Force One Contract". Aviation Week. 21 July 2016. Archived from the original on 9 June 2021. Retrieved 21 July 2016. ^ Kevin Breuninger, Amanda Macias (27 February 2018). "The White House cuts $3.9 billion deal with Boeing for two new Air Force Ones". CNBC. Archived from the original on 27 February 2018. Retrieved 27 February 2018. ^ "Trump Wanted a Cheaper Air Force One. So the USAF Is Buying a Bankrupt Russian Firm's Undelivered 747s". Defense One. Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017. ^ "CEO: Boeing Should Have Rejected Trump's Air Force One Deal". 27 April 2022. Retrieved 27 April 2022. ^ Allen, Mike (12 July 2018). "Scoop: Trump wants tough new Air Force One paint job". Axios. Archived from the original on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2020. ^ "Trump to redesign Air Force One". BBC News. 17 July 2018. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2020. ^ Patton, Phil (24 February 2009). "Air Force One: The Graphic History". American Institute of Graphic Arts. Archived from the original on 21 February 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2020. ^ a b Tangel, Andrew; Restuccia, Andrew (10 June 2022). "Biden Reverses Trump Plan to Paint Air Force One Red, White and Blue". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 15 July 2022. ^ a b Liebermann, Oren (10 March 2023). "New color scheme unveiled for Air Force One that discards Trump's design". CNN. Retrieved 11 March 2023. ^ a b "New paint design for 'Next Air Force One'". U.S. Air Force. Air Force News Service. 10 March 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023. ^ "First New Air Force One Begins Modification Process". 11 March 2020. ^ Tangel, Andrew (5 April 2022). "Boeing's New Air Force One Hit by Production Mishaps". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 15 July 2022. ^ Bush Foundation wants retiring Air Force One for museum ^ "Air Force One Technical Specs." Archived 22 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Boeing Defense, Space and Security. Retrieved: 26 March 2016. ^ "'We're the Only Plane in the Sky'". Politico. September 2016. Gordon Johndroe: You cannot hide a blue-and-white 747 that says 'United States of America' across the top. You can't move it secretly through the daylight. ^ Hardesty 2003, p. 15. Bibliography "VC-25 - Air Force One" Fact Sheet. Archived 25 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine United States Air Force, 1 July 2003. Albertazzie, Ralph and Jerald F. Terhorst. Flying White House: The Story of Air Force One. Book Sales, 1979. ISBN 0-698-10930-9. Braun, David. Q&A: U.S. Presidential Jet Air Force One. Archived 14 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine National Geographic News, 29 May 2003. Dorr, Robert F. Air Force One. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 2002. ISBN 0-7603-1055-6. Hardesty, Von. Air Force One: The Aircraft that Shaped the Modern Presidency. Chanhassen, Minnesota: Northword Press, 2003. ISBN 1-55971-894-3. Harris, Tom. "How Air Force One Works". Archived 13 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine HowStuffWorks.com. Retrieved: 10 October 2006. Jenkins, Dennis R. Boeing 747-100/200/300/SP (AirlinerTech Series, Vol. 6). North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2000. ISBN 1-58007-026-4. "Technical Order 00-105E-9, Segment 9, Chapter 7." Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Walsh, Kenneth T. Air Force One: A History of the Presidents and Their Planes. New York: Hyperion, 2003. ISBN 1-4013-0004-9. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Boeing VC-25A. USAF VC-25 fact sheet USAF Photo gallery vteBoeing military aircraftFighters/attack aircraft PW-9/FB F2B F3B F4B F5B XF6B XF7B XF8B XP-4 XP-7 XP-8 XP-9 P-12 XP-15 P-26 P-29 XP-32 818 F-15E F-15EX YF-22 F-22 AV-8B F/A-18E/F EA-18G Bombers YB-9 XB-15 B-17 Y1B-20 B-29 XB-38 XB-39 YB-40 XB-44 B-47 B-50 B-52 B-54 XB-55 XB-56 XB-59 B-1 Piston-engined transports C-73 C-75 C-97 C-98 C-108 Jet transports C-135 C-137 CC-137 YC-14 C-17 C-22 VC-25 C-32 C-40 CT-43 Tanker-transports KB-29 KB-50 KC-97 KC-135 KC-137 KC-10 KC-46 KC-767 Trainers PT-13 PT-17 PT-18 PT-27 XAT-15 T-43 T-45 T-7 Patrol and surveillance XPB XPBB XP3B P-8 EC-135 EC-18 E-3 E-4 E-6 E-8 E-10 E-767 737 AEW&C Reconnaissance NC-135 OC-135B RC-135 WC-135 Drones/UAVs YQM-94 CQM-121 MQ-18 RQ-21 MQ-25 MQ-27 MQ-28 X-50 Experimental/prototypes AFTI/F-111A Bird of Prey Phantom Eye Phantom Ray Skyfox X-20 X-32 X-36 X-37 X-40 X-45 X-48 X-50 X-51 X-53 YAL-1 vteBoeing 747 familyBase models 747-100 747SP 747-200 747-300 747-400 747-8 Government & military E-4 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft SOFIA VC-25 (Air Force One) YAL-1 Notable aircraft 747 Supertanker Boeing Dreamlifter City of Canberra Jumbo Stay N661US N7470 N747PA N747GE Spirit of Mojave Topics Hull losses In fiction Operators Other 747 (performance art) Jumbo: The Plane that Changed the World vteBoeing aircraft model numbersAircraft 1 2 3 4 5 6 6D/E 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 311 312 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 345-2/4/31 346 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 -76 367-80 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 490 493 495 497 498 701 733 739 814 815 818 820 831 844 853-21 953 1041 1044 1046 1074 1080 2000 2020 707 -020 717 (I) -100/146/148/166 717 (II) 720 727 737 -235 Classic Next Generation -700W MAX 747 SP -2G4B -400 -4G4F -8 757 -2G4 767 777 X 787 2707 Turbine engines 8C 500 502 520 550 Missiles 600 601 602 621 624 631 641 Vessels 929 Other Boeing Customer Codes vteUnited States military transport aircraft designations, Army/Air Force and Tri-Service systemsArmy/Air Force sequence(1925-1962) C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4 C-5 C-6 C-7 C-8 C-9 C-10 C-11 C-12 C-131 C-14 C-15 C-16 C-17 C-18 C-19 C-20 C-21 C-22 C-23 C-24 C-25 C-26 C-27 C-28 C-29 C-30 C-31 C-32 C-33 C-34 C-35 C-36 C-37 C-38 C-39 C-40 C-41 C-41A C-42 C-43 C-44 C-45 C-46 C-47 C-47F C-47T AC-47 C-48 C-49 C-50 C-51 C-52 C-53 C-54 C-55 C-56 C-57 C-58 C-59 C-60 C-61 C-62 C-63 C-64 C-65 C-66 C-67 C-68 C-69 C-70 C-70B C-71 C-72 C-73 C-74 C-75 C-76 C-77 C-77B–D C-78 C-79 C-80 C-81 C-82 C-83 C-83A C-83B C-84 C-85 C-86 C-87 C-88 C-89 C-90 C-91 C-92 C-93 C-94 C-95 C-96 C-97 KC-97 C-98 C-99 C-100 C-101 C-102 C-103 C-104 C-105 C-106 C-107 C-108 C-109 C-110 C-111 C-112 C-113 C-114 C-115 C-116 C-117 C-117D C-118 C-119 AC-119 C-120 C-121 C-121F EC-121 C-122 C-123 C-123A C-124 C-125 C-126 C-1272 C-127 (I) C-127 (II) C-128 C-129 C-130 C-130J AC-130 DC-130 EC-130/H HC-130 KC-130 LC-130 MC-130 WC-130 C-131 NC-131H C-132 C-133 C-134 C-135 KC-135 C-136 C-1372 YC-137 (I) YC-137 (II) C-137 C-1381 C-1391 C-140 C-141 C-142 Tri-service sequence(1962-present) C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4 C-5 C-6 C-72 C-7 RC-7 C-8 C-9 C-102 C-10 KC-10 C-11 C-12 RC-12 C-131 C-14 C-15 C-161 C-17 C-18 C-19 C-202 C-20A–D C-20F–J C-21 C-22 C-23 C-24 C-25 C-26 C-27 C-27J C-28 C-29 C-301 C-31 C-32 C-33 C-341 C-35 C-363 C-37 C-37B C-38 C-391 C-40 C-41 C-421 C-431 C-441 C-45 C-46 Revived original sequence(2005-present) C-143 C-144 C-145 C-146 C-147 Non-sequential designations C-767 C-767B C-880 Related designations CT-39 CT-43 CV-2 CV-7 1 Not assigned  • 2 Assigned to multiple types  • 3 Unconfirmed vteCallsigns of aircraft carrying the president and vice president of the United States Army One Air Force One Navy One Marine One Coast Guard One Space Force One Executive One Army Two Air Force Two Navy Two Marine Two Coast Guard Two Space Force Two Executive Two 89th Airlift Wing VC-25 C-32 C-40 HMX-1 VH-1N VH-3A/D VH-34D VH-60N VH-92 Transportation of the president of the United States White House Transportation Agency

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boeing 747","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Air Force One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_One"},{"link_name":"tail numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_military_aircraft_serials"},{"link_name":"Marine One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_One"},{"link_name":"Boeing 747-8I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747-8I"}],"text":"The Boeing VC-25 is a military version of the Boeing 747 airliner, modified for presidential transport and commonly operated by the United States Air Force (USAF) as Air Force One, the call sign of any U.S. Air Force aircraft carrying the president of the United States.Only two examples of this aircraft type are in service; they are highly modified Boeing 747-200Bs, designated VC-25A and having tail numbers 28000 and 29000. Although technically the Air Force One designation applies to the aircraft only while the president is on board, the term is commonly used to refer to the VC-25 in general. The two aircraft often operate in conjunction with Marine One helicopters, which ferry the president to airports whenever a vehicle motorcade would be inappropriate. Two new aircraft, based on the Boeing 747-8I and designated VC-25B, have been ordered by the USAF to replace the aging VC-25As.","title":"Boeing VC-25"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boeing 707","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_707#Military"},{"link_name":"VC-137s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VC-137"},{"link_name":"Request for Proposal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Proposal"},{"link_name":"747","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747"},{"link_name":"McDonnell Douglas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas"},{"link_name":"DC-10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC-10"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Ronald Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jenkins_2000_p55-6-2"},{"link_name":"First Lady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Lady_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Nancy Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Reagan"},{"link_name":"American Southwest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Southwest"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-747-dod-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jenkins_2000_p55-6-2"},{"link_name":"George H. W. Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_H._W._Bush"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"By 1985, the pair of Boeing 707-based VC-137s used as the presidential aircraft had been in service for 23 and 13 years respectively, and the USAF began searching for an eventual replacement. The Request for Proposal issued stated that the aircraft to be selected should have at least three engines and an unrefueled range of at least 6,000 miles (9,700 km). Both Boeing with its 747 and McDonnell Douglas with the DC-10 were in competition to be selected, with the Boeing entry the eventual winner.[1] The fabrication of the current 747s began during the presidency of Ronald Reagan (1981–1989).The VC-25s were completed in 1986 and first flew in 1987.[2] The interior designs were created by First Lady Nancy Reagan, who used designs reminiscent of the American Southwest.[3] Problems with interior wiring for communication systems delayed delivery of the two aircraft until 1990,[2] during the administration of George H. W. Bush.The Air Force reported that the operating cost for each VC-25A in 2014 was $210,877 (~$267,357 in 2023) per hour.[4]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Air_Force_One_Office_Obama_Kucinich.jpg"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"Dennis Kucinich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Kucinich"},{"link_name":"Cleveland, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland,_Ohio"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:President%27s_private_cabin_aboard_Air_Force_One.jpg"},{"link_name":"first family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_family_of_the_United_States"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Corridor_on_Air_Force_One.jpg"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-af1-6"},{"link_name":"cockpit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockpit"},{"link_name":"mobile stairway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_support_equipment#Passenger_boarding_steps/stairs"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"airstairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airstair"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"President Barack Obama meets with Rep. Dennis Kucinich, D-Ohio, aboard Air Force One en route to Cleveland, Ohio, March 2010.The first family's private quarters. The couches can fold out into beds.The aircraft's port-side (left) corridor. The two chairs are typically occupied by Secret Service agents.The VC-25 is capable of flying 7,800 miles (12,600 km)—roughly one-third the distance around the world—without refueling. The VC-25A can accommodate more than 70 passengers.[5] Each VC-25A cost approximately $325 million. While the VC-25 has two main decks and a cargo area, like a regular Boeing 747, its 4,000 square feet (370 m2) of floor space has been reconfigured for presidential duties. Its lowest level is mostly cargo space, carrying luggage and the onboard food supply. The main passenger area is on the second floor or main deck.[6] The upper deck contains the cockpit and the communications center.Typically, the president boards and disembarks from the front, main deck entrance using a mobile stairway, while journalists and other passengers enter at the rear door of the main deck.[7] However, the aircraft also has built-in airstairs that lead to the lower deck, typically used when security concerns make the use of a mobile stairway impractical.[8]","title":"Design and configuration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"president's official residence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-af1-6"},{"link_name":"September 11 attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attacks"},{"link_name":"Barksdale Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barksdale_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"George W. Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-obaf1-9"},{"link_name":"starboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starboard"},{"link_name":"port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_(nautical)"},{"link_name":"situation room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situation_room"},{"link_name":"plasma screen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_screen"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-af1-6"},{"link_name":"treadmill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treadmill"},{"link_name":"galleys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galley_(kitchen)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-af1-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-af1-6"},{"link_name":"Secret Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service"},{"link_name":"aft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aft"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-af1-6"},{"link_name":"cockpit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockpit_(aviation)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-af1-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-af1-6"}],"sub_title":"The \"White House\"","text":"The front section of the aircraft is informally called the \"White House\", a reference to the president's official residence in Washington, D.C.[6] The president's executive suite includes sleeping quarters with two couches that can be converted into beds, lavatory and shower, vanity, double sink, and a private office, or the president's \"Oval Office aboard Air Force One\". If necessary, the president can address the nation from the office. This capability was added after the September 11 attacks, during which the aircraft had to land at Barksdale Air Force Base for President George W. Bush to address the nation.[9] These offices, including the president's suite, are mostly located on the starboard (right) side, and a long corridor runs along the port (left) side. The aircraft also contains a conference room, originally designed as a situation room, but now used for meeting with staff while traveling. This room includes a 50-inch plasma screen television which can be used for teleconferencing. The aircraft has fully equipped office areas with telecommunication systems (including 87 telephones and 19 televisions).[6]On board the VC-25 is a medical annex, which includes a fold-out operating table, emergency medical supplies, and a well-stocked pharmacy. George W. Bush had a treadmill added to Air Force One during his term in office. Every flight is staffed by a doctor and nurse. The aircraft is self-sufficient, such as carrying all the food it will need. Meals are prepared in two galleys, which together are equipped to feed up to 100 people at a time.[6] The president gets a personal menu. An area where guests sit is near the center of the aircraft, outside the \"White House\".[6]There are separate quarters for guests, senior staff, Secret Service and Air Force security personnel assigned to the plane, and the news media located in the aft area of the main deck. Protocol states that one may wander aft of one's assigned seat, but not forward of it.[6] Communications equipment and the cockpit are on the upper deck. There are also secure and non-secure voice, fax and data communications facilities.[6] While the aircraft's luggage capacity is adequate to carry the belongings of the passengers, the logistics train of the president means that the aircraft must fly preceded by an aerial convoy of several cargo transports, which carry the helicopters, motorcade vehicles, and other equipment required by the presidential entourage.[6]","title":"Design and configuration"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Operational history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"VC-137C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VC-137C"},{"link_name":"Boeing 707","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_707"},{"link_name":"Air Force Two","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Two"},{"link_name":"Air Mobility Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Mobility_Command"},{"link_name":"Joint Base Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrews_Field"},{"link_name":"Camp Springs, Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Springs,_Maryland"},{"link_name":"aerial refueling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_refueling"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"anti-aircraft missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile"},{"link_name":"nuclear electromagnetic pulse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_electromagnetic_pulse"},{"link_name":"electronic countermeasures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_countermeasures"},{"link_name":"jam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_jamming"},{"link_name":"flares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flare_(countermeasure)"},{"link_name":"chaff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaff_(radar_countermeasure)"},{"link_name":"Bill Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Clinton"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Navy_061230-F-0194C-006_The_casket_of_Gerald_R._Ford,_38th_president_of_the_United_States,_arrives_at_Andrews_Air_Force_Base,_Md.,_Dec._30,_2006.jpg"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-af1-6"},{"link_name":"Gerald Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-af1-6"},{"link_name":"Nancy Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_Reagan"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-af1-6"},{"link_name":"assassination of John F. Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Lyndon B. Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"VC-25A","text":"The VC-25A replaced the VC-137C (a military version of the Boeing 707) as the mainstay of the Air Force One fleet. On some occasions, the VC-25s serve as transport for the US vice president, for which service they use the Air Force Two call sign. The VC-25A aircraft are maintained and operated as military operations by the Presidential Airlift Group, part of Air Mobility Command's 89th Airlift Wing, based at Joint Base Andrews in Camp Springs, Maryland.The aircraft can also be operated as a military command center in the event of an incident such as a nuclear attack. Operational modifications include aerial refueling capability[10] and countermeasures against anti-aircraft missiles. The electronics on board are connected with approximately 238 miles (383 km) of wiring, twice that of a regular 747. All wiring is covered with heavy shielding for protection from a nuclear electromagnetic pulse in the event of a nuclear attack. The aircraft also has electronic countermeasures (ECMs) to jam enemy radar, flares to avoid heat-seeking missiles, and chaff to avoid radar-guided missiles. All small arms and ammunition stores not in the physical possession of the Secret Service and Air Force security personnel on board the VC-25s are stowed and secured in separate locked compartments, each with a different locking mechanism for added security. Many of the VC-25's other capabilities are classified for security reasons.After a presidential inauguration resulting in a change in office, the outgoing president is provided transport on a VC-25 aircraft to their home destination. The aircraft for this flight does not use the Air Force One call sign because it is not carrying the president in office. For both Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush, the flight was known as Special Air Mission 28000, where the number represents the aircraft's tail number.[11][12]The casket of President Gerald Ford being lowered from the cabin of SAM 29000 at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, 2006.The VC-25As have also been used to transport deceased former presidents, as the guest area aft of \"the White House\" has chairs and tables that can be removed and the casket laid in their place.[6] The bodies of Ronald Reagan, Gerald Ford, and George H.W. Bush were transported to Washington for their state funerals, and then on to their final resting places. Colonel Mark Tillman, pilot for President George W. Bush, said, \"We'll take care of the president from basically when he's in office to when he lays in state.\"[6] For the funeral of President Ronald Reagan in 2004, Tillman said that the crew converted the front of the aircraft to look the way it would have appeared when Reagan was president; President and Nancy Reagan's Air Force One jackets were placed on the chairs to \"make them feel at home\".[6] A specially designed hydraulic lifter (similar to the type used by airline catering) with the presidential seal affixed to the sides lifts the casket up to the portside aft door to enter the VC-25A. The tradition of placing the caskets in the passenger cabin dates back to the assassination of John F. Kennedy, when the crew did not want the president's body placed in the cargo hold,[13] and again during the state funeral of Lyndon B. Johnson.[14]The two VC-25As are slated for retirement, the first in 2027, and the second in 2028.[citation needed]","title":"Operational history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Air_Force_One_VC-25B_paint_scheme_2023-03-10.JPG"},{"link_name":"Boeing 747-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747-8"},{"link_name":"Airbus A380","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus_A380"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Air Force Materiel Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Materiel_Command"},{"link_name":"Sources Sought","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sources_Sought"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"EADS North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EADS_North_America"},{"link_name":"EADS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EADS"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"787","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamliner"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:N894BA.jpg"},{"link_name":"747-8 Intercontinental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747-8"},{"link_name":"Transaero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaero"},{"link_name":"Southern California Logistics Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_California_Logistics_Airport"},{"link_name":"Mojave desert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mojave_desert"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Dave Calhoun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Calhoun"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"livery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livery"},{"link_name":"ultramarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultramarine"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Raymond Loewy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Loewy"},{"link_name":"VC-137C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_C-137_Stratoliner#VC-137C"},{"link_name":"Kennedy administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_administration"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Restuccia-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-liebermann1-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-afns_3-23-33"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-liebermann1-32"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"tequila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tequila"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Restuccia-31"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-afns_3-23-33"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"VC-25B","text":"Illustration of the VC-25B color scheme announced March 2023The VC-25A aircraft are aging and have become less cost-effective to operate. The USAF Air Mobility Command investigated possible replacements, with early press coverage suggesting that the USAF would consider the Boeing 747-8 and the Airbus A380.[15] On 7 January 2009, Air Force Materiel Command issued a new Sources Sought notice for a replacement aircraft to enter service by 2017 with an additional two aircraft to follow in 2019 and 2021.[16] On 28 January 2009, EADS North America representing EADS and its Airbus division confirmed it would not respond to the US Air Force notice, as assembling only three airplanes in the US would not make financial sense.[17] This made Boeing the only aircraft manufacturer interested in supplying the replacement aircraft,[18] and was reported to be exploring a 787 option also.[19] On 28 January 2015, the Air Force announced the selection of the Boeing 747-8 to replace the aging VC-25A for presidential transport.[20][21]On 10 May 2016, the Air Force posted online an amendment to its Air Force One contract authorizing Boeing to begin preliminary design activities. This version of the contract synopsis confirmed that the government will buy two modified 747-8 aircraft. Boeing was awarded a contract in January 2016 to identify cost reduction opportunities in areas including maintenance, aerial refueling and communications.[22][23] On 15 July 2016, Boeing received another contract for pre-engineering and manufacturing development (EMD) risk-reduction to address \"system specification, the environmental control system, the aircraft interior, the electrical and power system and sustainment and maintenance approaches\" to reduce development risks and life-cycle costs.[24]One of the two 747-8I aircraft that will be converted into the VC-25B, seen in July 2015 shortly after construction.On 1 August 2017, Defense One reported that in an effort to pay less for the replacement program, the USAF entered into a contract to purchase two 747-8 Intercontinental (747-8I) jets from Boeing, which had originally been ordered in 2011 by Transaero, a Russian airline. Before they could be delivered, the company filed for bankruptcy and was closed down; the two aircraft were stored at Southern California Logistics Airport in the Mojave desert to prevent corrosion. On 27 February 2018, the White House announced a US$3.9 billion (~$4.66 billion in 2023) agreement with Boeing to modify the two unsold 747-8s to replace the current VC-25As. The new aircraft will be designated VC-25B.[25] These aircraft are to be retrofitted with telecommunications and security equipment to bring them to the required security level for the presidential aircraft.[26] In April 2022, Boeing's CEO Dave Calhoun revealed that he expects the company to have a loss of $660 million on the VC-25B program, after the contract was renegotiated by President Trump.[27]In June 2019, President Trump announced his plans to revamp the VC-25's livery from the traditional white and ultramarine shades to one of red, white, and blue.[28][29] This would have been the first deviation from the Raymond Loewy livery scheme since it was introduced in 1962 on the VC-137C which was first used as Air Force One during the Kennedy administration.[30] The Biden administration abandoned the new design, citing \"additional engineering, as well as increased time and cost.\"[31][32] A modified version of the traditional scheme was announced in March 2023.[33][32]The 747s began undergoing modification work at Boeing's San Antonio facility in 2020.[34] According to The Wall Street Journal, the development process has been hit by multiple \"production mishaps\", including the discovery of empty tequila mini-bottles on one of the aircraft, and the use of jacks that were not rated to support the weight of the aircraft. While the jacking did not result in damage to the planes, \"the Pentagon's contractor-management agency formally requested Boeing improve its operations.\"[35]While the initial delivery date was set to 2024, the Pentagon expects the jets to be two to three years late,[31] with the Air Force projecting delivery of the first VC-25B in 2027, and the other in 2028, as of a 2023 press release.[33] Once the new aircraft are delivered, the VC-25As will be retired and placed in museums.[36]","title":"Operational history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boeing 747-200B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747-200B"},{"link_name":"Boeing 747-8 Intercontinental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747-8_Intercontinental"}],"text":"Boeing VC-25 Air Force One videoVC-25A\nbased on the Boeing 747-200B\nVC-25B\nbased on the Boeing 747-8 Intercontinental","title":"Variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"89th Airlift Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/89th_Airlift_Wing"},{"link_name":"Andrews AFB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrews_AFB"},{"link_name":"Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland"}],"text":"United StatesUnited States Air Force\n89th Airlift Wing, Presidential Airlift Group (PAG) - Andrews AFB, Maryland","title":"Operators"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jenkins_2000_p55-6-2"},{"link_name":"General Electric CF6-80C2B1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric_CF6-80C2B1"},{"link_name":"turbofan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbofan"}],"text":"Data from Boeing BDS[37]General characteristicsCrew: 26: flight crew (pilot, co-pilot, flight engineer, navigator),[2] cabin crew, communications, maintenance, and security\nCapacity: 76 passengers\nLength: 231 ft 10 in (70.66 m)\nWingspan: 196 ft 8 in (59.94 m)\nHeight: 63 ft 5 in (19.33 m)\nMax takeoff weight: 833,000 lb (377,842 kg)\nPowerplant: 4 × General Electric CF6-80C2B1 turbofan engines, 56,700 lbf (252 kN) thrust eachPerformanceMaximum speed: 547.5 kn (630.1 mph, 1,014.0 km/h) at 35,000 ft (10,668 m)\nMaximum speed: Mach 0.92\nCruise speed: 500 kn (580 mph, 930 km/h) / M0.84 at 35,000 ft (10,668 m)\nRange: 6,800 nmi (7,800 mi, 12,600 km)\nService ceiling: 45,100 ft (13,700 m)","title":"Specifications (VC-25A)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"White House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House"},{"link_name":"presidential seal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"1997","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_in_film"},{"link_name":"action movie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_movie"},{"link_name":"Air Force One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_One_(film)"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"The VC-25 \"Air Force One\" is a prominent symbol of the U.S. presidency and its powers; with the White House and presidential seal, it is among the most recognized presidential symbols.[38] Air Force One has often appeared in popular culture and fiction, including the setting of the 1997 action movie Air Force One where the aircraft had an escape pod and a parachute ramp, unlike the actual presidential aircraft.[39]","title":"Notable appearances in media"}]

[{"image_text":"President Barack Obama meets with Rep. Dennis Kucinich, D-Ohio, aboard Air Force One en route to Cleveland, Ohio, March 2010.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Air_Force_One_Office_Obama_Kucinich.jpg/220px-Air_Force_One_Office_Obama_Kucinich.jpg"},{"image_text":"The first family's private quarters. The couches can fold out into beds.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/President%27s_private_cabin_aboard_Air_Force_One.jpg/220px-President%27s_private_cabin_aboard_Air_Force_One.jpg"},{"image_text":"The aircraft's port-side (left) corridor. The two chairs are typically occupied by Secret Service agents.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Corridor_on_Air_Force_One.jpg/220px-Corridor_on_Air_Force_One.jpg"},{"image_text":"The casket of President Gerald Ford being lowered from the cabin of SAM 29000 at Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, 2006.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/US_Navy_061230-F-0194C-006_The_casket_of_Gerald_R._Ford%2C_38th_president_of_the_United_States%2C_arrives_at_Andrews_Air_Force_Base%2C_Md.%2C_Dec._30%2C_2006.jpg/220px-US_Navy_061230-F-0194C-006_The_casket_of_Gerald_R._Ford%2C_38th_president_of_the_United_States%2C_arrives_at_Andrews_Air_Force_Base%2C_Md.%2C_Dec._30%2C_2006.jpg"},{"image_text":"Illustration of the VC-25B color scheme announced March 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Air_Force_One_VC-25B_paint_scheme_2023-03-10.JPG/220px-Air_Force_One_VC-25B_paint_scheme_2023-03-10.JPG"},{"image_text":"One of the two 747-8I aircraft that will be converted into the VC-25B, seen in July 2015 shortly after construction.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/N894BA.jpg/220px-N894BA.jpg"},{"image_text":"Boeing VC-25 Air Force One video"}]

[{"title":"Air Force One photo op incident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_One_photo_op_incident"},{"title":"Air Force Two","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Two"},{"title":"Air transports of heads of state and government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_transports_of_heads_of_state_and_government"},{"title":"Boeing 747","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747"},{"title":"Boeing E-4B Nightwatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_E-4"},{"title":"VC-137C SAM 26000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VC-137C_SAM_26000"},{"title":"VC-137C SAM 27000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VC-137C_SAM_27000"},{"title":"Boeing C-32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_C-32"},{"title":"Boeing C-40 Clipper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_C-40_Clipper"},{"title":"Airbus A330 MRTT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_transport_of_the_British_royal_family_and_government#Airbus_Voyager"},{"title":"Vespina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespina_(aircraft)"}]

[{"reference":"\"VC-25 - Air Force One\". Air Force. Archived from the original on 17 January 2024. Retrieved 26 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/104588/vc-25-air-force-one/","url_text":"\"VC-25 - Air Force One\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240117133551/https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/104588/vc-25-air-force-one/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Keith, Tamara (31 August 2023). \"Why Biden is now routinely taking the short stairs up to Air Force One\". National Public Radio. Retrieved 19 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.npr.org/2023/08/31/1196803354/biden-air-force-one-short-stairs","url_text":"\"Why Biden is now routinely taking the short stairs up to Air Force One\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Public_Radio","url_text":"National Public Radio"}]},{"reference":"\"Air Force One: The President's office in the sky\". The White House. 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James Swindal; Piloted Air Force One After Kennedy's Death\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121113042346/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/28/AR2006042802049_pf.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Foley, Thomas (25 January 1973). \"Thousands in Washington Brave Cold to Say Goodbye to Johnson\". Los Angeles Times. p. A1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"\"US considers Airbus A380 as Air Force One and potentially a C-5 replacement\". Flight Global. 17 October 2007. Archived from the original on 11 April 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/exclusive-us-considers-airbus-a380-as-air-force-one-218681/","url_text":"\"US considers Airbus A380 as Air Force One and potentially a C-5 replacement\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160411023154/https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/exclusive-us-considers-airbus-a380-as-air-force-one-218681/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"EADS waves off bid for Air Force One replacement\". Flight Global. 28 January 2009. Archived from the original on 19 March 2016. 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So the USAF Is Buying a Bankrupt Russian Firm's Undelivered 747s\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170801223605/http://www.defenseone.com/business/2017/08/russian-air-force-one-boeing-trump-747/139872/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"CEO: Boeing Should Have Rejected Trump's Air Force One Deal\". 27 April 2022. Retrieved 27 April 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.defenseone.com/business/2022/04/ceo-boeing-should-have-rejected-trumps-air-force-one-deal/366186/","url_text":"\"CEO: Boeing Should Have Rejected Trump's Air Force One Deal\""}]},{"reference":"Allen, Mike (12 July 2018). \"Scoop: Trump wants tough new Air Force One paint job\". Axios. Archived from the original on 3 October 2020. 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Retrieved 15 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/boeings-new-air-force-one-hit-by-production-mishaps-11649170748","url_text":"\"Boeing's New Air Force One Hit by Production Mishaps\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0099-9660","url_text":"0099-9660"}]},{"reference":"\"'We're the Only Plane in the Sky'\". Politico. September 2016. Gordon Johndroe: You cannot hide a blue-and-white 747 that says 'United States of America' across the top. You can't move it secretly through the daylight.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/09/were-the-only-plane-in-the-sky-214230/","url_text":"\"'We're the Only Plane in the Sky'\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Friedrich_von_Bohnenberger

Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger

["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]

German astronomer "Bohnenberger" redirects here. For the lunar crater, see Bohnenberger (crater). Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger. Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger (5 June 1765 – 19 April 1831) was a German astronomer born at Simmozheim, Württemberg. He studied at the University of Tübingen. In 1798, he was appointed professor of mathematics and astronomy at the University. He published: Anleitung zur geographischen Ortsbestimmung (Guide to geographic locations), 1795 Astronomie (Astronomy), 1811 Anfangsgründe der höhern Analysis (Initial reasons of higher analysis), 1812. In 1817, he systematically explained the design and use of a gyroscope apparatus which he called simply a “Machine.” Several examples of the 'Machine' were constructed by Johann Wilhelm Gottlob Buzengeiger of Tübingen. Johann Friedrich Benzenberg had already mentioned Bohnenberger's invention (describing it at length) in several letters beginning in 1810. Bohnenberger died at Tübingen. The lunar crater Bohnenberger is named after him. See also Bohnenberger electrometer Kater's pendulum References ^ Wagner, Jörg Friedrich and Andor Trierenberg (December 2010). "The Origin of the Gyroscope: The Machine of Bohnenberger". Retrieved 18 October 2018. ^ Wagner, Jörg F.; Trierenberg, Andor (2014), Stein, Erwin (ed.), "The Machine of Bohnenberger", The History of Theoretical, Material and Computational Mechanics - Mathematics Meets Mechanics and Engineering, Lecture Notes in Applied Mathematics and Mechanics, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 81–100, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-39905-3_6, ISBN 978-3-642-39905-3, retrieved 2021-02-20 External links Bohnenberger's apparatus (gyroscope) Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany Belgium United States Czech Republic Greece Poland Academics MathSciNet Mathematics Genealogy Project zbMATH Artists Scientific illustrators People Deutsche Biographie Other SNAC IdRef This article about a German astronomer is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This article about a German mathematician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[{"title":"Bohnenberger electrometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrometer#Bohnenberger_electrometer"},{"title":"Kater's pendulum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kater%27s_pendulum"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rector_(ecclesiastical)

Rector (ecclesiastical)

["1 Ancient usage","2 Roman Catholic Church","3 Anglican churches","3.1 Historical use","3.2 Contemporary English use","3.3 Contemporary use in other nations","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References"]

For other uses, see Rector. Ecclesiastical profession This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Rector" ecclesiastical – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A rector is, in an ecclesiastical sense, a cleric who functions as an administrative leader in some Christian denominations. In contrast, a vicar is also a cleric but functions as an assistant and representative of an administrative leader. Ancient usage In ancient times bishops, as rulers of cities and provinces, especially in the Papal States, were called rectors, as were administrators of the patrimony of the Church (e.g. rector Siciliae). The Latin term rector was used by Pope Gregory I in Regula Pastoralis as equivalent to the Latin term pastor (shepherd). Roman Catholic Church Part of a series on theHierarchy of theCatholic ChurchSaint Peter Ecclesiastical titles (order of precedence) Pope Cardinal Cardinal Vicar Crown Prince Protector Moderator of the curia Chaplain of His Holiness Papal legate Papal majordomo Apostolic nuncio Apostolic delegate Apostolic Syndic Apostolic visitor Vicar apostolic Apostolic exarch Apostolic prefect Assistant to the papal throne Eparch Metropolitan Patriarch Catholicos Bishop Archbishop Bishop emeritus Diocesan bishop Major archbishop Primate Suffragan bishop Titular bishop Coadjutor bishop Auxiliary bishop Prelate Provost Pontiff Territorial prelate Territorial abbot Liturgical titles Acolyte Consecrator Lector Subdeacon Administrative and pastoral titles Auditor Brother Chancellor Chaplain Military chaplain Military ordinary Coarb Confessor Consultor Curate Deacon Archdeacon Defender of the bond Definitor Devil's advocate Diocesan administrator Ecclesiastical judge Exorcist Laity Lay abbot Abthain Commendatory Lay cardinal Minister Major orders Minor orders Missionary Monsignor Officialis Ostiarius Pastor Assistant pastor Palatinus Personal prelate Preacher Prefect Presbyter Elder Priest Principal Protonotary apostolic Reverend Saint Servant of God Blessed Venerable Seminarian Vicar Judicial vicar Vicar general Vicar forane Sub-dean Consecrated and professed titles Abbess Abbot Consecrated virgin Corrector Custos Friar Dean Grand master Hermit Master of novices Monk Novice Nun Postulant Oblate Prior Provincial superior Rector Religious Superior general Additional titles Almoner Altar server Archimandrite Archpriest Archdeacon Canon Captain General of the Church Chorbishop Coarb Commissary Apostolic Datarius Gonfalonier of the Church Honorary Prelate Minor canon Notarius Ostiarius Peritus Postulator Prebendary Precentor Prince-bishop Prince-abbot Prince-primate Prince-provost Promotor Fidei Protopriest Protodeacon Protosyncellus Regionarius Sacristan Organization titles Grand master Knights Hospitaller Order of the Holy Sepulchre Teutonic Knights Inquisitor Grand Inquisitor Preceptor Catholic Church portalvte In the Roman Catholic Church, a rector is a person who holds the office of presiding over an ecclesiastical institution. The institution may be a particular building—such as a church (called his rectory church) or shrine—or it may be an organization, such as a parish, a mission or quasi-parish, a seminary or house of studies, a university, a hospital, or a community of clerics or religious. If a rector appointed as his employee someone to perform the duties of his office, i.e. to act for him "vicariously", that employee was termed his vicar. Thus, the tithes of a parish are the legal property of the person who holds the office of rector. They are not the property of his vicar, who is not an office-holder but an employee, remunerated by a stipend, i.e. a salary, payable by his employer the rector. A parish vicar is the agent of his rector, whilst, higher up the scale, the Pope is called the Vicar of Christ, acting vicariously for the ultimate superior in the ecclesiastical hierarchy. The 1983 Code of Canon Law, for the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, explicitly mentions as special cases three offices of rectors: rectors of seminaries (c. 239 & c. 833 #6) rectors of churches that do not belong to a parish, a chapter of canons, or a religious order (c. 556 & 553) rectors of Catholic universities (c. 443 §3 #3 & c. 833 #7) However, these are not the only officials who exercise their functions using the title of rector. Since the term rector refers to the function of the particular office, a number of officials are not referred to as rectors even though they are rectors in actual practice. The diocesan bishop, for instance, is himself a rector, since he presides over both an ecclesiastical organization (the diocese) and an ecclesiastical building (his cathedral). In many dioceses, the bishop delegates the day-to-day operation of the cathedral to a priest, who is often incorrectly called a rector but whose specific title is plebanus or "people's pastor", especially if the cathedral operates as a parish church. Therefore, because a priest is designated head of a cathedral parish, he cannot be both rector and pastor, as a rector cannot canonically hold title over a parish (c.556). As a further example, the pastor of a parish (parochus) is pastor (not rector) over both his parish and the parish church. Finally, a president of a Catholic university is rector over the university and, if a priest, often the rector of any church that the university may operate, on the basis that it is not a canonical establishment of a parish (c. 557 §3). In some religious congregations of priests, rector is the title of the local superior of a house or community of the order. For instance, a community of several dozen Jesuit priests might include the pastor and priests assigned to a parish church next door, the faculty of a Jesuit high school across the street, and the priests in an administrative office down the block. However, the community as a local installation of Jesuit priests is headed by a rector. Rector general is the title given to the superior general of certain religious orders, e.g. the Clerics Regular of the Mother of God, Pallottines. There are some other uses of this title, such as for residence hall directors, such as Father George Rozum CSC, at the University of Notre Dame which were once (and to some extent still are) run in a seminary-like fashion. This title is used similarly at the University of Portland, another institution of the Congregation of Holy Cross. The Pope is called "rector of the world" during the discontinued papal coronation ceremony that was once part of the papal inauguration. Permanent rector is an obsolete term used in the United States prior to the codification of the 1917 Code of Canon Law. Canon Law grants a type of tenure to pastors (parochus) of parishes, giving them certain rights against arbitrary removal by the bishop of their diocese. In order to preserve their flexibility and authority in assigning priests to parishes, bishops in the United States until that time did not actually appoint priests as pastors, but as "permanent rectors" of their parishes: the "permanent" gave the priest a degree of confidence in the security in his assignment, but the "rector" rather than "pastor" preserved the bishop's absolute authority to reassign clergy. Hence, many older parishes list among their early leaders priests with the postnominal letters "P.R." (as in, a plaque listing all of the pastors of a parish, with "Rev. John Smith, P.R."). This practice was discontinued and today priests are normally assigned as pastors of parishes, and bishops in practice reassign them at will (though there are still questions about the canonical legality of this). Anglican churches In Anglican churches, a rector is a type of parish priest. Historical use Historically, parish priests in the Church of England consisted of rectors, vicars, and perpetual curates. Parish churches and their incumbent clergy were supported by tithes, a form of local tax levied on the personal as well as agricultural output of the parish. A rector received direct payment of both the greater and lesser tithes of his parish, whilst a vicar received only the lesser tithes (the greater tithes going to the lay holder, or impropriator, of the living). A perpetual curate held the cure of souls in an area which had not yet been formally or legally constituted as a parish, and received neither greater nor lesser tithes, but only a small stipend in return for his duties. Perpetual curates tended to have a lower social status, and were often quite poorly remunerated. Quite commonly, parishes that had a rector as priest also had glebe lands attached to the parish. The rector was then responsible for the repair of the chancel of his church—the part dedicated to the sacred offices—while the rest of the building was the responsibility of the parish. This rectorial responsibility persists, in perpetuity, with the occupiers of the original rectorial land where it has been sold. This is called chancel repair liability, and affects institutional, corporate and private owners of land once owned by around 5,200 churches in England and Wales. (See also Church of England structure.) Contemporary English use The traditional titles of rector and vicar continue in English use today, although the roles and the conditions of employment of the two titles are now essentially the same. Which of the titles is held by the parish priest is largely historical, some parishes having a rector and others a vicar. Owing to the origins of the terms, parishes with a rector are often of more notable historical importance or prominence than parishes with a vicar. The title of perpetual curate was abolished in 1968. However, "Priest-in-charge" is now a common third form of title in the contemporary Church of England, and is applied to the parish priest of a parish in which presentation to the living has been suspended—a process by which the bishop takes temporary responsibility for the appointment of the parish priest, regardless of who holds the legal rights of patronage in that parish. From the middle of the twentieth century the Church of England has developed team ministries, in which several priests work in a team to run a group of parishes and churches. In such a team arrangement, the senior priest holds the title "Team Rector", whilst other incumbent priests in the team are entitled "Team Vicar". In the Deanery of Jersey, which is part of the Church of England, a rector is appointed to one of the island's twelve historic parishes and as such has a role in the civil parish administration alongside the Constable; the parish also takes full responsibility (through levy of rates) for maintaining the church. Vicars are appointed to district churches, have no civil administrative roles by right, and their churches' upkeep is resourced by the members of the congregation. Contemporary use in other nations In the Church of Ireland, Scottish Episcopal Church and Anglican Church of Canada, most parish priests are called rectors, not vicars. However, in some dioceses of the Anglican Church of Canada rectors are officially licensed as incumbents to express the diocesan polity of employment of clergy. In the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, the "rector" is the priest elected to head a self-supporting parish. A priest who is appointed by the bishop to head a parish in the absence of a rector is termed a "priest-in-charge", as is a priest leading a mission (that is, a congregation which is not self-supporting). "Associate priests" are priests hired by the parish to supplement the rector in his or her duties while "assistant priests" are priests resident in the congregation who help on a volunteer basis. The positions of "vicar" and "curate" are not recognized in the canons of the national church. However, some diocesan canons do define "vicar" as the priest-in-charge of a mission; and "curate" is often used for assistants, being entirely analogous to the English situation. In schools affiliated with the Anglican church the title "rector" is sometimes used in secondary schools and boarding schools, where the headmaster is often a priest. See also Rector (academia) Rector (politics) Notes ^ Latin: rectorem orbis. References ^ The dictionary definition of rector at Wiktionary ^ "rector, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ The dictionary definition of vicar at Wiktionary ^ "vicar, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) ^ a b c d  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Meehan, Andrew (1911). "Rector". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company. ^ "Chancel repair liabilities in England and Wales". The National Archives. Retrieved 2012-07-07. ^ Canons of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, III.9.3 Portals: Christianity CatholicismRector (ecclesiastical) at Wikipedia's sister projects:Definitions from WiktionaryTexts from Wikisource vteConsecrated life in the Catholic ChurchTypes Consecrated virgin Hermit Religious institute Orders Monastic Cenobitic Chapter Enclosed Idiorrhythmic Canons regular Mendicants Second orders Cleric regular Congregations Secular institute Society of apostolic life Vows Evangelical counsels Poverty Chastity Obedience Profession Solemn vow Vow of silence Vow of enclosure Monastery(List) Abbey Chapter house Cloister Convent Double Hermitage Priory Refectory Prayer Contemplation Liturgy of the Hours Mass Meditation Mysticism Rosary Habit Clerical clothing Coif Cornette Scapular Vestment Members Superior General Provincial Abbot/Abbess Prior/Prioress Grand master Rector Brother Friar Monk Sister Nun Hermit Anchorite Novice Master Oblate Postulant Lay brother Porter Other Asceticism Tonsure Vocational discernment Monastic cell List of religious institutes Catholicism portal

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rector_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"cleric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleric"},{"link_name":"Christian denominations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_denomination"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WTrector-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OEDrector-2"},{"link_name":"vicar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicar"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WTvicar-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OEDvicar-4"}],"text":"For other uses, see Rector.Ecclesiastical professionA rector is, in an ecclesiastical sense, a cleric who functions as an administrative leader in some Christian denominations.[1][2] In contrast, a vicar is also a cleric but functions as an assistant and representative of an administrative leader.[3][4]","title":"Rector (ecclesiastical)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Papal States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_States"},{"link_name":"rector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rector"},{"link_name":"Siciliae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Siciliae"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Meehan1911-5"},{"link_name":"rector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rector"},{"link_name":"Pope Gregory I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I"},{"link_name":"Regula Pastoralis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regula_Pastoralis"},{"link_name":"pastor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pastor"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Meehan1911-5"}],"text":"In ancient times bishops, as rulers of cities and provinces, especially in the Papal States, were called rectors, as were administrators of the patrimony of the Church (e.g. rector Siciliae).[5]\nThe Latin term rector was used by Pope Gregory I in Regula Pastoralis as equivalent to the Latin term pastor (shepherd).[5]","title":"Ancient usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Roman Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_(building)"},{"link_name":"shrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrine"},{"link_name":"university","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University"},{"link_name":"tithes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tithes"},{"link_name":"Vicar of Christ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicar_of_Christ"},{"link_name":"1983 Code of Canon Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983_Code_of_Canon_Law"},{"link_name":"Latin Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Church"},{"link_name":"diocese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese"},{"link_name":"cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral"},{"link_name":"parochus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/parochus"},{"link_name":"superior general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superior_general"},{"link_name":"Clerics Regular of the Mother of God","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clerics_Regular_of_the_Mother_of_God"},{"link_name":"Pallottines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallottines"},{"link_name":"University of Notre Dame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame"},{"link_name":"University of Portland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Portland"},{"link_name":"Congregation of Holy Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregation_of_Holy_Cross"},{"link_name":"papal coronation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_coronation"},{"link_name":"papal inauguration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_inauguration"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Meehan1911-5"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"1917 Code of Canon Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1917_Code_of_Canon_Law"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Meehan1911-5"}],"text":"In the Roman Catholic Church, a rector is a person who holds the office of presiding over an ecclesiastical institution. The institution may be a particular building—such as a church (called his rectory church) or shrine—or it may be an organization, such as a parish, a mission or quasi-parish, a seminary or house of studies, a university, a hospital, or a community of clerics or religious.If a rector appointed as his employee someone to perform the duties of his office, i.e. to act for him \"vicariously\", that employee was termed his vicar. Thus, the tithes of a parish are the legal property of the person who holds the office of rector. They are not the property of his vicar, who is not an office-holder but an employee, remunerated by a stipend, i.e. a salary, payable by his employer the rector. A parish vicar is the agent of his rector, whilst, higher up the scale, the Pope is called the Vicar of Christ, acting vicariously for the ultimate superior in the ecclesiastical hierarchy.The 1983 Code of Canon Law, for the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, explicitly mentions as special cases three offices of rectors:rectors of seminaries (c. 239 & c. 833 #6)\nrectors of churches that do not belong to a parish, a chapter of canons, or a religious order (c. 556 & 553)\nrectors of Catholic universities (c. 443 §3 #3 & c. 833 #7)However, these are not the only officials who exercise their functions using the title of rector.\nSince the term rector refers to the function of the particular office, a number of officials are not referred to as rectors even though they are rectors in actual practice. The diocesan bishop, for instance, is himself a rector, since he presides over both an ecclesiastical organization (the diocese) and an ecclesiastical building (his cathedral). In many dioceses, the bishop delegates the day-to-day operation of the cathedral to a priest, who is often incorrectly called a rector but whose specific title is plebanus or \"people's pastor\", especially if the cathedral operates as a parish church. Therefore, because a priest is designated head of a cathedral parish, he cannot be both rector and pastor, as a rector cannot canonically hold title over a parish (c.556).As a further example, the pastor of a parish (parochus) is pastor (not rector) over both his parish and the parish church. Finally, a president of a Catholic university is rector over the university and, if a priest, often the rector of any church that the university may operate, on the basis that it is not a canonical establishment of a parish (c. 557 §3).In some religious congregations of priests, rector is the title of the local superior of a house or community of the order. For instance, a community of several dozen Jesuit priests might include the pastor and priests assigned to a parish church next door, the faculty of a Jesuit high school across the street, and the priests in an administrative office down the block. However, the community as a local installation of Jesuit priests is headed by a rector.Rector general is the title given to the superior general of certain religious orders, e.g. the Clerics Regular of the Mother of God, Pallottines.There are some other uses of this title, such as for residence hall directors, such as Father George Rozum CSC, at the University of Notre Dame which were once (and to some extent still are) run in a seminary-like fashion. This title is used similarly at the University of Portland, another institution of the Congregation of Holy Cross.The Pope is called \"rector of the world\" during the discontinued papal coronation ceremony that was once part of the papal inauguration.[5][a]Permanent rector is an obsolete term used in the United States prior to the codification of the 1917 Code of Canon Law. Canon Law grants a type of tenure to pastors (parochus) of parishes, giving them certain rights against arbitrary removal by the bishop of their diocese.[5] In order to preserve their flexibility and authority in assigning priests to parishes, bishops in the United States until that time did not actually appoint priests as pastors, but as \"permanent rectors\" of their parishes: the \"permanent\" gave the priest a degree of confidence in the security in his assignment, but the \"rector\" rather than \"pastor\" preserved the bishop's absolute authority to reassign clergy. Hence, many older parishes list among their early leaders priests with the postnominal letters \"P.R.\" (as in, a plaque listing all of the pastors of a parish, with \"Rev. John Smith, P.R.\"). This practice was discontinued and today priests are normally assigned as pastors of parishes, and bishops in practice reassign them at will (though there are still questions about the canonical legality of this).","title":"Roman Catholic Church"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anglican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicanism"},{"link_name":"parish priest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parish_priest"}],"text":"In Anglican churches, a rector is a type of parish priest.","title":"Anglican churches"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"},{"link_name":"vicars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicar_(Anglicanism)"},{"link_name":"perpetual curates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetual_curate"},{"link_name":"tithes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tithe#Tithes_and_tithe_law_in_England_before_reform"},{"link_name":"impropriator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impropriation"},{"link_name":"cure of souls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cure_of_souls"},{"link_name":"stipend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stipend"},{"link_name":"glebe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glebe"},{"link_name":"chancel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancel"},{"link_name":"chancel repair liability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chancel_repair_liability"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Church of England structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England#Structure"}],"sub_title":"Historical use","text":"Historically, parish priests in the Church of England consisted of rectors, vicars, and perpetual curates. Parish churches and their incumbent clergy were supported by tithes, a form of local tax levied on the personal as well as agricultural output of the parish. A rector received direct payment of both the greater and lesser tithes of his parish, whilst a vicar received only the lesser tithes (the greater tithes going to the lay holder, or impropriator, of the living). A perpetual curate held the cure of souls in an area which had not yet been formally or legally constituted as a parish, and received neither greater nor lesser tithes, but only a small stipend in return for his duties. Perpetual curates tended to have a lower social status, and were often quite poorly remunerated.Quite commonly, parishes that had a rector as priest also had glebe lands attached to the parish. The rector was then responsible for the repair of the chancel of his church—the part dedicated to the sacred offices—while the rest of the building was the responsibility of the parish. This rectorial responsibility persists, in perpetuity, with the occupiers of the original rectorial land where it has been sold. This is called chancel repair liability, and affects institutional, corporate and private owners of land once owned by around 5,200 churches in England and Wales.[6] (See also Church of England structure.)","title":"Anglican churches"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jersey"}],"sub_title":"Contemporary English use","text":"The traditional titles of rector and vicar continue in English use today, although the roles and the conditions of employment of the two titles are now essentially the same. Which of the titles is held by the parish priest is largely historical, some parishes having a rector and others a vicar. Owing to the origins of the terms, parishes with a rector are often of more notable historical importance or prominence than parishes with a vicar.The title of perpetual curate was abolished in 1968. However, \"Priest-in-charge\" is now a common third form of title in the contemporary Church of England, and is applied to the parish priest of a parish in which presentation to the living has been suspended—a process by which the bishop takes temporary responsibility for the appointment of the parish priest, regardless of who holds the legal rights of patronage in that parish.From the middle of the twentieth century the Church of England has developed team ministries, in which several priests work in a team to run a group of parishes and churches. In such a team arrangement, the senior priest holds the title \"Team Rector\", whilst other incumbent priests in the team are entitled \"Team Vicar\".In the Deanery of Jersey, which is part of the Church of England, a rector is appointed to one of the island's twelve historic parishes and as such has a role in the civil parish administration alongside the Constable; the parish also takes full responsibility (through levy of rates) for maintaining the church. Vicars are appointed to district churches, have no civil administrative roles by right, and their churches' upkeep is resourced by the members of the congregation.","title":"Anglican churches"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Church of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Scottish Episcopal Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Episcopal_Church"},{"link_name":"Anglican Church of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Church_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"dioceses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioceses"},{"link_name":"Anglican Church of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican_Church_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Episcopal Church in the United States of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Anglican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicanism"}],"sub_title":"Contemporary use in other nations","text":"In the Church of Ireland, Scottish Episcopal Church and Anglican Church of Canada, most parish priests are called rectors, not vicars. However, in some dioceses of the Anglican Church of Canada rectors are officially licensed as incumbents to express the diocesan polity of employment of clergy.In the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, the \"rector\" is the priest elected to head a self-supporting parish. A priest who is appointed by the bishop to head a parish in the absence of a rector is termed a \"priest-in-charge\", as is a priest leading a mission (that is, a congregation which is not self-supporting). \"Associate priests\" are priests hired by the parish to supplement the rector in his or her duties while \"assistant priests\" are priests resident in the congregation who help on a volunteer basis. The positions of \"vicar\" and \"curate\" are not recognized in the canons of the national church. However, some diocesan canons do define \"vicar\" as the priest-in-charge of a mission; and \"curate\" is often used for assistants, being entirely analogous to the English situation.[7]In schools affiliated with the Anglican church the title \"rector\" is sometimes used in secondary schools and boarding schools, where the headmaster is often a priest.","title":"Anglican churches"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"rectorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rectorem"},{"link_name":"orbis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/orbis"}],"text":"^ Latin: rectorem orbis.","title":"Notes"}]

[]

[{"title":"Rector (academia)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rector_(academia)"},{"title":"Rector (politics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rector_(politics)"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes_Group

Archimedes Group

["1 History","2 See also","3 References"]

Archimedes GroupIndustryPrivate intelligence agencyHeadquartersTel Aviv Archimedes Group is a Tel Aviv-based private intelligence agency that has operated political campaigns using social media since 2017. History The current CEO of Archimedes is a former director of the Brussels-based European Friends of Israel lobbying group. This individual has also served as a political adviser in Israel's parliament and an ex-intelligence agent for the Israeli air force. Other senior executive include Yuval Harel, Fabio Goldman, Uri Ben Yosef, Ariel Treiger, and Rafi Cesana. In 2019, it was banned from Facebook for "coordinated inauthentic behavior" after Facebook found fake users in countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and Southeast Asia. Facebook investigations revealed that Archimedes had spent some $1.1 million on fake ads, paid for in Brazilian reais, Israeli shekels and US dollars. Facebook gave examples of Archimedes Group political interference. The Atlantic Council's Digital Forensic Research Lab said in a report that "The tactics employed by Archimedes Group, a private company, closely resemble the types of information warfare tactics often used by governments, and the Kremlin in particular." See also Black Cube NSO Group Psy-Group Unit 8200 Cambridge Analytica Internet Research Agency References ^ Debre, Isabel; Satter, Raphael (2019-05-16). "Facebook busts Israel-based campaign to disrupt elections". AP NEWS. Retrieved 2019-06-08. ^ Satter, Isabel Debre and Raphael (2019-05-16). "'Change reality': Facebook busts Israel-based campaign to disrupt elections". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2019-06-08. ^ "Haywood Hunt". Retrieved 3 July 2020. ^ Solomon, Shoshanna; AP. "Facebook bans Israel-based firm that ran campaigns to disrupt elections". www.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 2019-06-08. ^ "Israeli Tech's Dirty Ops". jacobinmag.com. Retrieved 2019-06-08. ^ Needleman, Sarah E. (2019-05-16). "Facebook Bans Israeli Firm Over Fake Political Activity". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2019-06-08. ^ Weinglass, Simona. "Archimedes Group, outed by Facebook for election fakery, works from Holon office". www.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 2019-06-08. ^ Madowo, Larry (2019-05-24). "Is Facebook undermining democracy in Africa?". Retrieved 2019-06-08. ^ Satter, Isabel Debre and Raphael (2019-05-16). "'Change reality': Facebook busts Israel-based campaign to disrupt elections". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2019-06-08. ^ "Removing Coordinated Inauthentic Behavior From Israel | Facebook Newsroom". 16 May 2019. Retrieved 2019-06-08. ^ Business, Donie O'Sullivan and Hadas Gold, CNN (16 May 2019). "Facebook says Israeli company used fake accounts to target African elections". CNN. Archived from the original on 2019-05-16. Retrieved 2019-06-08. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

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[]

[{"title":"Black Cube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Cube"},{"title":"NSO Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSO_Group"},{"title":"Psy-Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psy-Group"},{"title":"Unit 8200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_8200"},{"title":"Cambridge Analytica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Analytica"},{"title":"Internet Research Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Research_Agency"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O-code

BCPL

["1 Design","2 History","3 Examples","3.1 Hello world","3.2 Further examples","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"]

Multi-paradigm computer programming language Not to be confused with BASIC. This article is about the programming language. For the library system, see Baltimore County Public Library. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "BCPL" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) BCPLParadigmprocedural, imperative, structuredDesigned byMartin RichardsFirst appeared1967; 57 years ago (1967)Typing disciplinetypeless (everything is a word)Influenced byCPLInfluencedB, C, Go BCPL ("Basic Combined Programming Language") is a procedural, imperative, and structured programming language. Originally intended for writing compilers for other languages, BCPL is no longer in common use. However, its influence is still felt because a stripped down and syntactically changed version of BCPL, called B, was the language on which the C programming language was based. BCPL introduced several features of many modern programming languages, including using curly braces to delimit code blocks. BCPL was first implemented by Martin Richards of the University of Cambridge in 1967. Design This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) BCPL was designed so that small and simple compilers could be written for it; reputedly some compilers could be run in 16 kilobytes. Furthermore, the original compiler, itself written in BCPL, was easily portable. BCPL was thus a popular choice for bootstrapping a system. A major reason for the compiler's portability lay in its structure. It was split into two parts: the front end parsed the source and generated O-code, an intermediate language. The back end took the O-code and translated it into the machine code for the target machine. Only 1⁄5 of the compiler's code needed to be rewritten to support a new machine, a task that usually took between 2 and 5 person-months. This approach became common practice later (e.g. Pascal, Java). The language is unusual in having only one data type: a word, a fixed number of bits, usually chosen to align with the architecture's machine word and of adequate capacity to represent any valid storage address. For many machines of the time, this data type was a 16-bit word. This choice later proved to be a significant problem when BCPL was used on machines in which the smallest addressable item was not a word but a byte or on machines with larger word sizes such as 32-bit or 64-bit. The interpretation of any value was determined by the operators used to process the values. (For example, + added two values together, treating them as integers; ! indirected through a value, effectively treating it as a pointer.) In order for this to work, the implementation provided no type checking. The mismatch between BCPL's word orientation and byte-oriented hardware was addressed in several ways. One was by providing standard library routines for packing and unpacking words into byte strings. Later, two language features were added: the bit-field selection operator and the infix byte indirection operator (denoted by %). BCPL handles bindings spanning separate compilation units in a unique way. There are no user-declarable global variables; instead, there is a global vector, similar to "blank common" in Fortran. All data shared between different compilation units comprises scalars and pointers to vectors stored in a pre-arranged place in the global vector. Thus, the header files (files included during compilation using the "GET" directive) become the primary means of synchronizing global data between compilation units, containing "GLOBAL" directives that present lists of symbolic names, each paired with a number that associates the name with the corresponding numerically addressed word in the global vector. As well as variables, the global vector contains bindings for external procedures. This makes dynamic loading of compilation units very simple to achieve. Instead of relying on the link loader of the underlying implementation, effectively, BCPL gives the programmer control of the linking process. The global vector also made it very simple to replace or augment standard library routines. A program could save the pointer from the global vector to the original routine and replace it with a pointer to an alternative version. The alternative might call the original as part of its processing. This could be used as a quick ad hoc debugging aid. BCPL was the first brace programming language and the braces survived the syntactical changes and have become a common means of denoting program source code statements. In practice, on limited keyboards of the day, source programs often used the sequences $( and $) in place of the symbols { and }. The single-line // comments of BCPL, which were not adopted by C, reappeared in C++ and later in C99. The book BCPL: The language and its compiler describes the philosophy of BCPL as follows: The philosophy of BCPL is not one of the tyrant who thinks he knows best and lays down the law on what is and what is not allowed; rather, BCPL acts more as a servant offering his services to the best of his ability without complaint, even when confronted with apparent nonsense. The programmer is always assumed to know what he is doing and is not hemmed in by petty restrictions. History BCPL was first implemented by Martin Richards of the University of Cambridge in 1967. BCPL was a response to difficulties with its predecessor, Cambridge Programming Language, later renamed Combined Programming Language (CPL), which was designed during the early 1960s. Richards created BCPL by "removing those features of the full language which make compilation difficult". The first compiler implementation, for the IBM 7094 under Compatible Time-Sharing System, was written while Richards was visiting Project MAC at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the spring of 1967. The language was first described in a paper presented to the 1969 Spring Joint Computer Conference. BCPL has been rumored to have originally stood for "Bootstrap Cambridge Programming Language", but CPL was never created since development stopped at BCPL, and the acronym was later reinterpreted for the BCPL book. BCPL is the language in which the original "Hello, World!" program was written. The first MUD was also written in BCPL (MUD1). Several operating systems were written partially or wholly in BCPL (for example, TRIPOS and the earliest versions of AmigaDOS). BCPL was also the initial language used in the Xerox PARC Alto project. Among other projects, the Bravo document preparation system was written in BCPL. An early compiler, bootstrapped in 1969, by starting with a paper tape of the O-code of Richards's Atlas 2 compiler, targeted the ICT 1900 series. The two machines had different word-lengths (48 vs 24 bits), different character encodings, and different packed string representations—and the successful bootstrapping increased confidence in the practicality of the method. By late 1970, implementations existed for the Honeywell 635 and Honeywell 645, IBM 360, PDP-10, TX-2, CDC 6400, UNIVAC 1108, PDP-9, KDF 9 and Atlas 2. In 1974 a dialect of BCPL was implemented at BBN without using the intermediate O-code. The initial implementation was a cross-compiler hosted on BBN's TENEX PDP-10s, and directly targeted the PDP-11s used in BBN's implementation of the second generation IMPs used in the ARPANET. There was also a version produced for the BBC Micro in the mid-1980s, by Richards Computer Products, a company started by John Richards, the brother of Martin Richards. The BBC Domesday Project made use of the language. Versions of BCPL for the Amstrad CPC and Amstrad PCW computers were also released in 1986 by UK software house Arnor Ltd. MacBCPL was released for the Apple Macintosh in 1985 by Topexpress Ltd, of Kensington, England. Both the design and philosophy of BCPL strongly influenced B, which in turn influenced C. Programmers at the time debated whether an eventual successor to C would be called "D", the next letter in the alphabet, or "P", the next letter in the parent language name. The language most accepted as being C's successor is C++ (with ++ being C's increment operator), although meanwhile, a D programming language also exists. In 1979, implementations of BCPL existed for at least 25 architectures; the language gradually fell out of favour as C became popular on non-Unix systems. Martin Richards maintains a modern version of BCPL on his website, last updated in 2018. This can be set up to run on various systems including Linux, FreeBSD, and Mac OS X. The latest distribution includes graphics and sound libraries, and there is a comprehensive manual. He continues to program in it, including for his research on musical automated score following. A common informal MIME type for BCPL is text/x-bcpl. Examples Hello world Richards and Whitby-Strevens provide an example of the "Hello, World!" program for BCPL using a standard system header, 'LIBHDR': GET "LIBHDR" LET START() BE WRITES("Hello, World") Further examples This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (August 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) If these programs are run using Richards' current version of Cintsys (December 2018), LIBHDR, START and WRITEF must be changed to lower case to avoid errors. Print factorials: GET "LIBHDR" LET START() = VALOF $( FOR I = 1 TO 5 DO WRITEF("%N! = %I4*N", I, FACT(I)) RESULTIS 0 $) AND FACT(N) = N = 0 -> 1, N * FACT(N - 1) Count solutions to the N queens problem: GET "LIBHDR" GLOBAL $( COUNT: 200 ALL: 201 $) LET TRY(LD, ROW, RD) BE TEST ROW = ALL THEN COUNT := COUNT + 1 ELSE $( LET POSS = ALL & ~(LD | ROW | RD) UNTIL POSS = 0 DO $( LET P = POSS & -POSS POSS := POSS - P TRY(LD + P << 1, ROW + P, RD + P >> 1) $) $) LET START() = VALOF $( ALL := 1 FOR I = 1 TO 12 DO $( COUNT := 0 TRY(0, 0, 0) WRITEF("%I2-QUEENS PROBLEM HAS %I5 SOLUTIONS*N", I, COUNT) ALL := 2 * ALL + 1 $) RESULTIS 0 $) References ^ a b c "Martin Richards (2003 Computer Pioneer Award)". IEEE Computer Society. Archived from the original on 24 November 2017. Retrieved 24 November 2017. ^ Pike, Rob (24 April 2014). "Hello Gophers". Retrieved 11 March 2016. ^ https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mr10/bcplman.pdf The BCPL Cintsys and Cintpos User Guide, 2.1.4 Section brackets ^ "Clive Feather on CPL and BCPL". www.lysator.liu.se. Retrieved 1 March 2024. ^ Richards, Martin; Whitby-Strevens, Colin (1980). BCPL: The Language and its Compiler. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0521785433. ^ BCPL, Jargon File ^ "Reuters technical development: Glossary - THE BARON". www.thebaron.info. ^ Kernighan, Brian W.; Dennis M. Ritchie (1978). The C Programming Language. Bell Telephone Laboratories. p. 2. ISBN 0-13-110163-3. ^ History of C++ Retrieved 12 December 2017 ^ Richards, Martin; Whitby-Strevens, Colin (1980). BCPL: The Language and its Compiler. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0521785433. Further reading Martin Richards, The BCPL Reference Manual (Memorandum M-352, Project MAC, Cambridge, MA, USA, July, 1967) Martin Richards, BCPL - a tool for compiler writing and systems programming (Proceedings of the Spring Joint Computer Conference, Vol 34, pp 557–566, 1969) Martin Richards, Arthur Evans, Robert F. Mabee, The BCPL Reference Manual (MAC TR-141, Project MAC, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1974) Martin Richards, Colin Whitby-Strevens, BCPL, the language and its compiler (Cambridge University Press, 1980) ISBN 0-521-28681-6 External links Martin Richards' BCPL distribution Martin Richards' BCPL Reference Manual, 1967 by Dennis M. Ritchie BCPL entry in the Jargon File Nordier & Associates' x86 port ArnorBCPL manual (1986, Amstrad PCW/CPC) How BCPL evolved from CPL, Martin Richards Ritchie's The Development of the C Language has commentary about BCPL's influence on C The BCPL Cintsys and Cintpos User Guide Authority control databases: National Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC"},{"link_name":"Baltimore County Public Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltimore_County_Public_Library"},{"link_name":"procedural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_programming"},{"link_name":"imperative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_programming"},{"link_name":"structured","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_programming"},{"link_name":"programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"compilers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler"},{"link_name":"B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"curly braces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brace_programming_language"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Martin Richards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Richards_(computer_scientist)"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IEEE_CPA_MRichards-1"}],"text":"Not to be confused with BASIC.This article is about the programming language. For the library system, see Baltimore County Public Library.BCPL (\"Basic Combined Programming Language\") is a procedural, imperative, and structured programming language. Originally intended for writing compilers for other languages, BCPL is no longer in common use. However, its influence is still felt because a stripped down and syntactically changed version of BCPL, called B, was the language on which the C programming language was based. BCPL introduced several features of many modern programming languages, including using curly braces to delimit code blocks.[3] BCPL was first implemented by Martin Richards of the University of Cambridge in 1967.[1]","title":"BCPL"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"kilobytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobyte"},{"link_name":"bootstrapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrapping_(compilers)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"intermediate language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_language"},{"link_name":"person-months","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man-month"},{"link_name":"Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"data type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_type"},{"link_name":"word","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_(computer_architecture)"},{"link_name":"byte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"integers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"type checking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_checking"},{"link_name":"byte-oriented","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_addressing"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"compilation units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilation_unit"},{"link_name":"Fortran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"brace programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brace_programming_language"},{"link_name":"comments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comment_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"C99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C99"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"BCPL was designed so that small and simple compilers could be written for it; reputedly some compilers could be run in 16 kilobytes. Furthermore, the original compiler, itself written in BCPL, was easily portable. BCPL was thus a popular choice for bootstrapping a system.[citation needed] A major reason for the compiler's portability lay in its structure. It was split into two parts: the front end parsed the source and generated O-code, an intermediate language. The back end took the O-code and translated it into the machine code for the target machine. Only 1⁄5 of the compiler's code needed to be rewritten to support a new machine, a task that usually took between 2 and 5 person-months. This approach became common practice later (e.g. Pascal, Java).The language is unusual in having only one data type: a word, a fixed number of bits, usually chosen to align with the architecture's machine word and of adequate capacity to represent any valid storage address. For many machines of the time, this data type was a 16-bit word. This choice later proved to be a significant problem when BCPL was used on machines in which the smallest addressable item was not a word but a byte or on machines with larger word sizes such as 32-bit or 64-bit.[citation needed]The interpretation of any value was determined by the operators used to process the values. (For example, + added two values together, treating them as integers; ! indirected through a value, effectively treating it as a pointer.) In order for this to work, the implementation provided no type checking.The mismatch between BCPL's word orientation and byte-oriented hardware was addressed in several ways. One was by providing standard library routines for packing and unpacking words into byte strings. Later, two language features were added: the bit-field selection operator and the infix byte indirection operator (denoted by %).[4]BCPL handles bindings spanning separate compilation units in a unique way. There are no user-declarable global variables; instead, there is a global vector, similar to \"blank common\" in Fortran. All data shared between different compilation units comprises scalars and pointers to vectors stored in a pre-arranged place in the global vector. Thus, the header files (files included during compilation using the \"GET\" directive) become the primary means of synchronizing global data between compilation units, containing \"GLOBAL\" directives that present lists of symbolic names, each paired with a number that associates the name with the corresponding numerically addressed word in the global vector. As well as variables, the global vector contains bindings for external procedures. This makes dynamic loading of compilation units very simple to achieve. Instead of relying on the link loader of the underlying implementation, effectively, BCPL gives the programmer control of the linking process.[citation needed]The global vector also made it very simple to replace or augment standard library routines. A program could save the pointer from the global vector to the original routine and replace it with a pointer to an alternative version. The alternative might call the original as part of its processing. This could be used as a quick ad hoc debugging aid.[citation needed]BCPL was the first brace programming language and the braces survived the syntactical changes and have become a common means of denoting program source code statements. In practice, on limited keyboards of the day, source programs often used the sequences $( and $) in place of the symbols { and }. The single-line // comments of BCPL, which were not adopted by C, reappeared in C++ and later in C99.The book BCPL: The language and its compiler describes the philosophy of BCPL as follows:The philosophy of BCPL is not one of the tyrant who thinks he knows best and lays down the law on what is and what is not allowed; rather, BCPL acts more as a servant offering his services to the best of his ability without complaint, even when confronted with apparent nonsense. The programmer is always assumed to know what he is doing and is not hemmed in by petty restrictions.[5]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Martin Richards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Richards_(computer_scientist)"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IEEE_CPA_MRichards-1"},{"link_name":"Combined Programming Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Programming_Language"},{"link_name":"IBM 7094","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_7094"},{"link_name":"Compatible Time-Sharing System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compatible_Time-Sharing_System"},{"link_name":"Project MAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_MAC"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Joint Computer Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Computer_Conference"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"\"Hello, World!\" program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello_world_program"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"MUD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-user_dungeon"},{"link_name":"MUD1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUD1"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"TRIPOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRIPOS"},{"link_name":"AmigaDOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AmigaDOS"},{"link_name":"Xerox PARC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerox_PARC"},{"link_name":"Alto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alto_(computer)"},{"link_name":"Bravo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bravo_(software)"},{"link_name":"document preparation system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_processor"},{"link_name":"Atlas 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_(1963_computer)"},{"link_name":"ICT 1900 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICT_1900_series"},{"link_name":"Honeywell 635 and Honeywell 645","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GE-600_series"},{"link_name":"IBM 360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_360"},{"link_name":"PDP-10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-10"},{"link_name":"TX-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TX-2"},{"link_name":"CDC 6400","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDC_6400"},{"link_name":"UNIVAC 1108","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC_1108"},{"link_name":"PDP-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-9"},{"link_name":"KDF 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDF_9"},{"link_name":"BBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBN_Technologies"},{"link_name":"cross-compiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-compiler"},{"link_name":"TENEX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TENEX_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"PDP-10s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-10"},{"link_name":"PDP-11s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-11"},{"link_name":"IMPs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_Message_Processor"},{"link_name":"ARPANET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET"},{"link_name":"BBC Micro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Micro"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"BBC Domesday Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Domesday_Project"},{"link_name":"Amstrad CPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amstrad_CPC"},{"link_name":"Amstrad PCW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amstrad_PCW"},{"link_name":"B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C_Prog_Lang_KR-8"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"increment operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Increment_operator"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"score following","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Score_following"},{"link_name":"MIME type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_type"}],"text":"BCPL was first implemented by Martin Richards of the University of Cambridge in 1967.[1] BCPL was a response to difficulties with its predecessor, Cambridge Programming Language, later renamed Combined Programming Language (CPL), which was designed during the early 1960s. Richards created BCPL by \"removing those features of the full language which make compilation difficult\". The first compiler implementation, for the IBM 7094 under Compatible Time-Sharing System, was written while Richards was visiting Project MAC at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the spring of 1967. The language was first described in a paper presented to the 1969 Spring Joint Computer Conference.[citation needed]BCPL has been rumored to have originally stood for \"Bootstrap Cambridge Programming Language\", but CPL was never created since development stopped at BCPL, and the acronym was later reinterpreted for the BCPL book.[clarification needed][citation needed]BCPL is the language in which the original \"Hello, World!\" program was written.[6] The first MUD was also written in BCPL (MUD1).Several operating systems were written partially or wholly in BCPL (for example, TRIPOS and the earliest versions of AmigaDOS). BCPL was also the initial language used in the Xerox PARC Alto project. Among other projects, the Bravo document preparation system was written in BCPL.An early compiler, bootstrapped in 1969, by starting with a paper tape of the O-code of Richards's Atlas 2 compiler, targeted the ICT 1900 series. The two machines had different word-lengths (48 vs 24 bits), different character encodings, and different packed string representations—and the successful bootstrapping increased confidence in the practicality of the method.By late 1970, implementations existed for the Honeywell 635 and Honeywell 645, IBM 360, PDP-10, TX-2, CDC 6400, UNIVAC 1108, PDP-9, KDF 9 and Atlas 2. In 1974 a dialect of BCPL was implemented at BBN without using the intermediate O-code. The initial implementation was a cross-compiler hosted on BBN's TENEX PDP-10s, and directly targeted the PDP-11s used in BBN's implementation of the second generation IMPs used in the ARPANET.There was also a version produced for the BBC Micro in the mid-1980s, by Richards Computer Products, a company started by John Richards, the brother of Martin Richards.[7] The BBC Domesday Project made use of the language. Versions of BCPL for the Amstrad CPC and Amstrad PCW computers were also released in 1986 by UK software house Arnor Ltd. MacBCPL was released for the Apple Macintosh in 1985 by Topexpress Ltd, of Kensington, England.Both the design and philosophy of BCPL strongly influenced B, which in turn influenced C.[8] Programmers at the time debated whether an eventual successor to C would be called \"D\", the next letter in the alphabet, or \"P\", the next letter in the parent language name. The language most accepted as being C's successor is C++ (with ++ being C's increment operator),[9] although meanwhile, a D programming language also exists.In 1979, implementations of BCPL existed for at least 25 architectures; the language gradually fell out of favour as C became popular on non-Unix systems.Martin Richards maintains a modern version of BCPL on his website, last updated in 2018. This can be set up to run on various systems including Linux, FreeBSD, and Mac OS X. The latest distribution includes graphics and sound libraries, and there is a comprehensive manual. He continues to program in it, including for his research on musical automated score following.A common informal MIME type for BCPL is text/x-bcpl.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"\"Hello, World!\" program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%22Hello,_World!%22_program"}],"sub_title":"Hello world","text":"Richards and Whitby-Strevens[10] provide an example of the \"Hello, World!\" program for BCPL using a standard system header, 'LIBHDR':GET \"LIBHDR\"\nLET START() BE WRITES(\"Hello, World\")","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"N queens problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_queens_puzzle"}],"sub_title":"Further examples","text":"If these programs are run using Richards' current version of Cintsys (December 2018), LIBHDR, START and WRITEF must be changed to lower case to avoid errors.Print factorials:GET \"LIBHDR\"\n\nLET START() = VALOF $(\n\tFOR I = 1 TO 5 DO\n\t\tWRITEF(\"%N! = %I4*N\", I, FACT(I))\n\tRESULTIS 0\n$)\n\nAND FACT(N) = N = 0 -> 1, N * FACT(N - 1)Count solutions to the N queens problem:GET \"LIBHDR\"\n\nGLOBAL $(\n\tCOUNT: 200\n\tALL: 201\n$)\n\nLET TRY(LD, ROW, RD) BE\n\tTEST ROW = ALL THEN\n\t\tCOUNT := COUNT + 1\n\tELSE $(\n\t\tLET POSS = ALL & ~(LD | ROW | RD)\n\t\tUNTIL POSS = 0 DO $(\n\t\t\tLET P = POSS & -POSS\n\t\t\tPOSS := POSS - P\n\t\t\tTRY(LD + P << 1, ROW + P, RD + P >> 1)\n\t\t$)\n\t$)\n\nLET START() = VALOF $(\n\tALL := 1\n\tFOR I = 1 TO 12 DO $(\n\t\tCOUNT := 0\n\t\tTRY(0, 0, 0)\n\t\tWRITEF(\"%I2-QUEENS PROBLEM HAS %I5 SOLUTIONS*N\", I, COUNT)\n\t\tALL := 2 * ALL + 1\n\t$)\n\tRESULTIS 0\n$)","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The BCPL Reference Manual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.bell-labs.com/usr/dmr/www/bcpl.html"},{"link_name":"Project MAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_MAC"},{"link_name":"The BCPL Reference Manual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160305034639/http://publications.csail.mit.edu/lcs/specpub.php?id=709"},{"link_name":"Project MAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_MAC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-28681-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-28681-6"}],"text":"Martin Richards, The BCPL Reference Manual (Memorandum M-352, Project MAC, Cambridge, MA, USA, July, 1967)\nMartin Richards, BCPL - a tool for compiler writing and systems programming (Proceedings of the Spring Joint Computer Conference, Vol 34, pp 557–566, 1969)\nMartin Richards, Arthur Evans, Robert F. Mabee, The BCPL Reference Manual (MAC TR-141, Project MAC, Cambridge, MA, USA, 1974)\nMartin Richards, Colin Whitby-Strevens, BCPL, the language and its compiler (Cambridge University Press, 1980) ISBN 0-521-28681-6","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"reference":"\"Martin Richards (2003 Computer Pioneer Award)\". IEEE Computer Society. Archived from the original on 24 November 2017. Retrieved 24 November 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20171124083723/https://www.computer.org/web/awards/pioneer-martin-richards","url_text":"\"Martin Richards (2003 Computer Pioneer Award)\""},{"url":"https://www.computer.org/web/awards/pioneer-martin-richards","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Pike, Rob (24 April 2014). \"Hello Gophers\". Retrieved 11 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://talks.golang.org/2014/hellogophers.slide#21","url_text":"\"Hello Gophers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Clive Feather on CPL and BCPL\". www.lysator.liu.se. Retrieved 1 March 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lysator.liu.se/c/clive-on-history.html","url_text":"\"Clive Feather on CPL and BCPL\""}]},{"reference":"Richards, Martin; Whitby-Strevens, Colin (1980). BCPL: The Language and its Compiler. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0521785433.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521785433","url_text":"978-0521785433"}]},{"reference":"\"Reuters technical development: Glossary - THE BARON\". www.thebaron.info.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thebaron.info/archives/technology/reuters-technical-development-glossary","url_text":"\"Reuters technical development: Glossary - THE BARON\""}]},{"reference":"Kernighan, Brian W.; Dennis M. Ritchie (1978). The C Programming Language. Bell Telephone Laboratories. p. 2. ISBN 0-13-110163-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cprogramminglang00bria","url_text":"The C Programming Language"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-110163-3","url_text":"0-13-110163-3"}]},{"reference":"Richards, Martin; Whitby-Strevens, Colin (1980). BCPL: The Language and its Compiler. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0521785433.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521785433","url_text":"978-0521785433"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junction_Hollow

Junction Hollow

["1 History","2 See also","3 References"]

Coordinates: 40°26′35″N 79°56′51″W / 40.442946°N 79.947544°W / 40.442946; -79.947544This article is about the valley. For the neighborhood within, see Panther Hollow. Junction HollowJunction Hollow viewed from the Schenley Bridge. From left to right, the Cathedral of Learning, Carnegie Institute, Bellefield Boiler Plant, the dual bell towers of St. Paul's Cathedral, Central Catholic High School, and Hamerschlag Hall can be seen.Length2+1⁄2 miles (4.0 km) North-SouthDepth150 feet (46 m)GeographyLocationSchenley Park, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USAPopulation centersPanther HollowCoordinates40°26′35″N 79°56′51″W / 40.442946°N 79.947544°W / 40.442946; -79.947544 Traversed byPittsburgh Junction Railroad, Boundary StreetRiversFour Mile Run Junction Hollow is a small wooded valley bordering the west flanks of Schenley Park and the campus of Carnegie Mellon University and the southern edge of the University of Pittsburgh's campus in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The 150-foot-deep (46 m) valley runs south to north approximately 2+1⁄2 miles (4.0 km). It begins where Four Mile Run empties into the Monongahela River and runs through the neighborhood of Four Mile Run north into Oakland along Schenley Park, Carnegie Mellon, and the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, and ends at Neville Street behind Central Catholic High School. It is spanned by four major bridges; from north to south they are the Forbes Avenue Bridge, Schenley Bridge, Charles Anderson Memorial Bridge, and Frazier Street Bridge. Junction Hollow is often confused for Panther Hollow, which at Panther Hollow Lake veers off from it to the northeast into the park. History Junction Hollow is named for the Pittsburgh Junction Railroad, which first laid tracks there in the 1880s, and the idea of a Junction Hollow spur line was to divert rail traffic north through Schenley Tunnel (beneath Neville Street) to a rail yard along the Allegheny River, thus avoiding rail congestion in Downtown. Prior to the railroad the area was known as the Four Mile Run Valley, for its stream that was named on account of its distance from The Point. Today the stream is piped underground to the river. In the 1950s and 1960s planners created a grand proposal to fill the hollow with a research complex extending from the University of Pittsburgh and Carnegie Mellon University to the river, but it was never realized. Since the 1990s, the Eliza Furnace Trail extends into the hollow, where it is called Junction Hollow Trail. See also Four Mile Run References ^ "Oakland Dream Recalled". The Pittsburgh Press. Jun 26, 1976. Retrieved 9 December 2023. Alberts, Robert C. (1987). Pitt: The Story of the University of Pittsburgh 1787–1987. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0-8229-1150-7. Chabon, Michael (1988). The Mysteries of Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688--07632-7. Toker, Franklin (1994) . Pittsburgh: An Urban Portrait. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 0-8229-5434-6. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Junction Hollow (valley). vteCity of PittsburghGovernment Airport Convention Center City Hall Courthouse Mayor Council Events InterGov Police District Attorney Sheriff Fire Libraries Transit Education Parks Port Regional Economy Allegheny Conference Duquesne Club Chamber of Commerce Corporations Economic Club HYP Club Stock Exchange Other topics Colleges and universities Culture cookie table theatre Green Man Pittsburgh Parking Chair Picklesburgh Dialect Yinzer Flag Fictional settings Filming films television History name timeline Jewish history 2018 synagogue shooting Pittsburgh toilet Hospitals Media Museums Neighborhoods Nicknames Notable Pittsburghers Region combined statistical area Skyscrapers Sports Category

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[]

[{"title":"Four Mile Run","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Mile_Run_(Pittsburgh)"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_of_Prachatice

Christian of Prachatice

["1 Biography","2 Writings","2.1 Latin","2.2 Czech","2.3 German","3 References","4 External links"]

You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Czech. (July 2015) Click for important translation instructions. Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. You must provide copyright attribution in the edit summary accompanying your translation by providing an interlanguage link to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is Content in this edit is translated from the existing Czech Wikipedia article at ]; see its history for attribution. You may also add the template {{Translated|cs|Křišťan z Prachatic}} to the talk page. For more guidance, see Wikipedia:Translation. Christian of PrachaticeBornbefore 1370PrachaticeDied4 September 1439PragueNationalityCzechOther namesKřišťan z Prachatic; Cristannus de PrachaticzAlma materCharles UniversityScientific careerFieldsastronomymathematicsmedicine Christian of Prachatice (Czech: Křišťan z Prachatic) (1360–1368, Prachatice, Kingdom of Bohemia – 4 September 1439, Prague, Kingdom of Bohemia) was a medieval Bohemian astronomer, mathematician and former Catholic priest who converted to the Hussite movement. He was the author of several books about medicine and herbs, and contributed to the field of astronomy with many papers and data recordings. Biography Christian of Prachatice was born in the 1360s, perhaps 1366 or 1368. In 1386 he matriculated at Charles University, where he earned a bachelor's degree two years later and a master's degree in liberal arts in 1390. He later taught at the university and counted Jan Hus among his students. In 1403 he served as dean of the Faculty of Arts and 1405 as rector of the university. In 1405 he was appointed pastor of The Church of St. Michael the Archangel in Prague's Old Town; it is not known where he was ordained. Together with Johannes Cardinalis von Bergreichenstein, he attended the Council of Pisa in 1409. In 1415 he defended Jan Hus at the Council of Constance. Returning to Prague, he served as dean of the Faculty of Philosophy from 1417. Ten years later, in 1427, he was forced to flee from the radical Hussites. He returned two years later and in 1434 he converted back to Catholicism was once again elected rector. Christian of Prachitice died on 4 September 1439, a victim of the plague epidemic. Writings Christian of Prachatice produced numerous treatises, primarily in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. His theological writings survive only in a few fragments. His works survive in manuscript copies at the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, the library of Saint Peter's Abbey, Salzburg, and the Königsberg State and University Library, as well as the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Latin De composicione astrolabii, on the composition of the astrolabe; De utilitate (usu) astrolabii, on the use of the astrolabe; Regula ad fixanda festa mobilia; Algorismus prosaycus, on translating Roman numerals into Arabic numerals; Computus chirometralis, an aid to counting on fingers; Antidotar; Herbularium, an herbal; De sanguinis minucione, treatise on bloodletting. Czech Lékařské knížky; Knihy o mocech rozličného kořenie, an herbal. German Theriak-Pest-Traktat; Arzneibüchlein des Magisters Christian von Prachatitz. References ^ Bohuslav Havránek, et al, Výbor české literatury doby husitské, vol. 2 (Prague: ČSAV, 1964) ^ Die deutsche Literatur der Mittelalters: Verfasserlexikon, vol. 1 (Munich: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften) ^ ""Verteidige die Wahrheit bis zum Tode"". 21 February 2006. ^ Two appear in František Palacký, Documenta Mag. Joannis Hus (Prague: F. Tempsky, 1869), 669-73. ^ Handschriftenverzeichnis der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek ^ http://jordanus.org/cgi-bin/iccmsm-search.pl?sprache=en&datenbank=iccmsm&ausgabe=dkurz&ausdateiformat=&listpos=0&listen=keine&listlet=keiner&fn=t52a56.f&fi=Christian+von+Prachatitz ^ "Handschriftencensus | Königsberg, Staats- und Universitätsbibl., Hs. 528". ^ See, for example, Mellon MS 9, a 15th-century manuscript containing works by Christian of Prachatice ^ Alena Hadravová and Petr Hadrava, Stavba a užití astrolábu (Prague: Filosofia, 2001). ^ Sigalová, Zuzana. Algorismus prosaycus = Základy aritmetiky. Prague: OIKOYMENH, 1999 ^ Hana Floriánová-Miškovská, O pouštění krve = De sanguinis minucione (Prague: OIKOYMENH, 1999). ^ Zdeňka Tichá, Lékařské knížky Mistra Křišťana z Prachatic (Prague: Avicenum, 1975). External links (in Czech)MacTutor Entry (in Czech)Extensive Biography Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany United States Czech Republic Netherlands Poland People Deutsche Biographie

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He was the author of several books about medicine and herbs, and contributed to the field of astronomy with many papers and data recordings.","title":"Christian of Prachatice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Charles University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_University"},{"link_name":"Jan Hus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Hus"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"rector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rector_(academia)"},{"link_name":"Prague's Old Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Town_(Prague)"},{"link_name":"Johannes Cardinalis von Bergreichenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Cardinalis_von_Bergreichenstein"},{"link_name":"Council of Pisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Pisa"},{"link_name":"Council of Constance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Constance"},{"link_name":"Hussites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hussites"},{"link_name":"Catholicism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholicism"},{"link_name":"plague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_(disease)"}],"text":"Christian of Prachatice was born in the 1360s, perhaps 1366[1] or 1368.[2] In 1386 he matriculated at Charles University, where he earned a bachelor's degree two years later and a master's degree in liberal arts in 1390.He later taught at the university and counted Jan Hus among his students.[3] In 1403 he served as dean of the Faculty of Arts and 1405 as rector of the university. In 1405 he was appointed pastor of The Church of St. Michael the Archangel in Prague's Old Town; it is not known where he was ordained. Together with Johannes Cardinalis von Bergreichenstein, he attended the Council of Pisa in 1409.In 1415 he defended Jan Hus at the Council of Constance. Returning to Prague, he served as dean of the Faculty of Philosophy from 1417. Ten years later, in 1427, he was forced to flee from the radical Hussites. He returned two years later and in 1434 he converted back to Catholicism was once again elected rector.Christian of Prachitice died on 4 September 1439, a victim of the plague epidemic.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Bayerische Staatsbibliothek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayerische_Staatsbibliothek"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Saint Peter's Abbey, Salzburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saint_Peter%27s_Abbey,_Salzburg&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Königsberg State and University Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg_State_and_University_Library"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beinecke_Rare_Book_and_Manuscript_Library"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Christian of Prachatice produced numerous treatises, primarily in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. His theological writings survive only in a few fragments.[4]His works survive in manuscript copies at the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek,[5] the library of Saint Peter's Abbey, Salzburg,[6] and the Königsberg State and University Library,[7] as well as the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.[8]","title":"Writings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Roman numerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_numerals"},{"link_name":"Arabic numerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_numerals"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"herbal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbal"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Latin","text":"De composicione astrolabii, on the composition of the astrolabe;\nDe utilitate (usu) astrolabii, on the use of the astrolabe;[9]\nRegula ad fixanda festa mobilia;\nAlgorismus prosaycus, on translating Roman numerals into Arabic numerals;[10]\nComputus chirometralis, an aid to counting on fingers;\nAntidotar;\nHerbularium, an herbal;\nDe sanguinis minucione, treatise on bloodletting.[11]","title":"Writings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"herbal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbal"}],"sub_title":"Czech","text":"Lékařské knížky;[12]\nKnihy o mocech rozličného kořenie, an herbal.","title":"Writings"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"German","text":"Theriak-Pest-Traktat;\nArzneibüchlein des Magisters Christian von Prachatitz.","title":"Writings"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_by_objectives

Management by objectives

["1 History Of MBO","2 Concept and framework","3 Application in practice","4 Limitations","5 Recent research","6 See also","7 References"]

Defining and tackling organization goals Management by objectives (MBO), also known as management by planning (MBP), was first popularized by Peter Drucker in his 1954 book The Practice of Management. Management by objectives is the process of defining specific objectives within an organization that management can convey to organization members, then deciding how to achieve each objective in sequence. This process allows managers to take work that needs to be done one step at a time to allow for a calm, yet productive work environment. In this system of management, individual goals are synchronized with the goals of the organization. An important part of MBO is the measurement and comparison of an employee's actual performance with the standards set. Ideally, when employees themselves have been involved with the goal-setting and choosing the course of action to be followed by them, they are more likely to fulfill their responsibilities. According to George S. Odiorne, the system of management by objectives can be described as a process whereby the superior and subordinate jointly identify common goals, define each individual's major areas of responsibility in terms of the results expected of him or her, and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of each of its members. MBO refers to the process of setting goals for the employees so that they know what they are supposed to do at the workplace. Management by Objectives defines roles and responsibilities for the employees and help them chalk out their future course of action in the organization. History Of MBO Peter Drucker first used the term "management by objectives" in his 1954 book The Practice of Management. While the basic ideas of MBO were not original to Drucker, they pulled from other management practices to create a complete 'system'. The idea draws on the many ideas presented in Mary Parker Follett's 1926 essay, The Giving of Orders. After the term and idea were brought up, Drucker's student, George Odiorne, continued to develop the idea in his book Management Decisions by Objectives, published in the mid-1960s. MBO was popularized by companies like Hewlett-Packard, who claimed it led to their success. Concept and framework Management by objectives at its core is the process of employers/supervisors attempting to manage their subordinates by introducing a set of specific goals that both the employee and the company strive to achieve in the near future, and working to meet those goals accordingly. Five steps: Review organizational goal Set worker objective Monitor progress Evaluation Give reward Application in practice There are endless ways to exercise management by objectives. One must find specific goals to aim for in an organization or business. Many noteworthy companies have used MBO. The management at the computer company Hewlett-Packard (HP) has said that it considers the policy a huge component of its success. Many other corporations praise the effectiveness of MBO, including Xerox, DuPont, Intel, and countless others. Companies that adopt MBO often report greater sales rates and productiveness within the organization. Objectives can be set in all domains of activities, such as production, marketing, services, sales, R&D, human resources, finance, and information systems. Some objectives are collective, and some can be goals for each worker. Both make the task at hand seem attainable and enable the workers to visualize what needs to be done and how. In the MBO paradigm, managers determine the enterprise's mission and strategic goals. The goals set by top-level managers are based on an analysis of what can and should be accomplished by the organization within a specific period of time. The functions of these managers can be centralized by appointing a project manager who can monitor and control the activities of the various departments. If this cannot be done or is not desirable, each manager's contributions to the organizational goal should be clearly spelled out. In many large Japanese corporations, beginning in the late 1990s, MBO was used as the basis of "the performance-based merit system” (seika-shugi) which used clear numerical targets to measure performance in contrast to the previous system of non-specific contracts in Japanese companies. Objectives need quantifying and monitoring. Reliable management information systems are needed to establish relevant objectives and monitor their "reach ratio" in an objective way. Pay incentives (bonuses) are often linked to results in reaching the objectives. The mnemonic S.M.A.R.T. is associated with the process of setting objectives in this paradigm. 'SMART' objectives are: Specific: Target a specific area for improvement Measurable: Quantify or suggest an indicator of progress Assignable: Specify who will do it Realistic: State what results can realistically be achieved, given available resources Time-bound: Specify when the result(s) can be achieved The aphorism "what gets measured gets done" is aligned with the MBO philosophy. Limitations MBO has its detractors, notably W. Edwards Deming, who argued that a lack of understanding of systems commonly results in the misapplication of objectives. Additionally, Deming stated that setting production targets will encourage workers to meet those targets through whatever means necessary, which usually results in poor quality. Point 7 of Deming's key principles encourages managers to abandon objectives in favour of leadership because he felt that a leader with an understanding of systems was more likely to guide workers to an appropriate solution than the incentive of an objective. Deming also pointed out that Drucker warned managers that a systemic view was required and felt that Drucker's warning went largely unheeded by the practitioners of MBO. There are limitations in the underlying assumptions about the impact of management by objectives: It over-emphasizes the setting of goals over the working of a plan as a driver of outcomes. It under-emphasizes the importance of the environment or context in which the goals are set. That context includes everything from the availability and quality of resources, to relative buy-in by leadership and stake-holders. As an example of the influence of management buy-in as a contextual influencer, in a 1991 comprehensive review of thirty years of research on the impact of Management by Objectives, Robert Rodgers and John Hunter concluded that companies whose CEOs demonstrated high commitment to MBO showed, on average, a 56% gain in productivity. Companies with CEOs who showed low commitment saw only a 6% gain in productivity. When this approach is not properly set, agreed and managed by organizations, self-centered employees might be prone to distort results, falsely representing achievement of targets that were set in a short-term, narrow fashion. In this case, managing by objectives would be counterproductive. The limitations mentioned above, combined with the challenges faced by modern service companies, have led to the development of methods that integrate aspects of MBO but appear to be significantly more effective in application. These include, for example, the objectives and key results (OKR) method, which was developed by John Doerr (among others) and has been used successfully in many companies, notably at Google. Agile management techniques also have a strong emphasis on goals. The group of management techniques that are based on goals, with a strong focus on engagement, team motivation and leadership, can be summarized as Management by Goals methods. Recent research Management by Objectives is still practiced today, with a focus on planning and development aiding various organizations. The most recent research focuses on specific industries, specifying the practice of MBO for each. In addition, following criticism of the original MBO approach, a new formula was introduced in 2016, aiming at revitalizing it, that is the OPTIMAL MBO, which stands for its components, namely: (O) Objectives, Outside-in; (P) Profitability (budget) related goals; (T) Target Setting; (I) Incentives & Influence; (M) Measurement; (A) Agreement, Accountability, Appraisal, Appreciation; and (L) Leadership Support. While the practice is used today, it may go by different names – the letters "MBO" have lost their formality, and future planning is a more standard practice. See also Decision-making software Objectives, goals, strategy, measure (OGSM) Objectives and key results (OKR) Peter Drucker School of Management Management styles References ^ a b c Drucker, P., The Practice of Management, Harper, New York, 1954; Heinemann, London, 1955; revised edn, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2007 ^ Thomson, Thomas M. "MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES" (PDF). ^ LaFollette, William R.; Fleming, Richard J. (1977-08-01). "The Historical Antecedents of Management by Objectives". Academy of Management Proceedings. 1977 (1): 2–5. doi:10.5465/AMBPP.1977.4976584. ISSN 0065-0668. Archived from the original on 2017-03-09. Retrieved 2016-04-13. ^ a b c "Management by objectives". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2016-04-27. ^ Lambert, Bruce (1992-01-23). "George S. Odiorne Is Dead at 71; Developed Theory of Management". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-04-27. ^ Hindle, Tim. Guide to Management Ideas and Gurus. New York: Bloomberg Press, 2008. Print ^ "Masterclass on Mission Statement from Gordon Moore, co-founder, Intel Corporation > Gtmhub team blog". 14 September 2016. ^ "Examples of Managerial Objectives". Small Business - Chron.com. ^ "The Concept Of Management By Objectives". ^ "Multi-objective Optimization Tool for Integrated Groundwater Management (PDF Download Available)". ^ Gagne, Nana Okura (2017-10-06). ""Correcting Capitalism": Changing Metrics and Meanings of Work among Japanese Employees". Journal of Contemporary Asia. 48 (1): 67–87. doi:10.1080/00472336.2017.1381984. S2CID 158161722. ^ "基于动态平均数的烟草企业目标管理". 中国烟草学报. 21 (3). doi:10.16472/j.chinatobacco.2014.457. Archived from the original on 2018-02-13. Retrieved 2016-04-13. ^ S.M.A.R.T. Goals" November 1981 issue of American Management Association Review by Ph.D. George T. Doran ^ Deming, W. Edwards, Out of the Crisis, Press, 1994, ISBN 0-262-54116-5 ^ Deming’s 14 Points and Quality Project Leadership J. Alex Sherrer, March 3, 2010 ^ Drucker, Peter, "Management Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices", Harper & Row, 1973 ^ Robert, John E.; Rodgers, Hunter (1991). "Impact of management by objectives on organizational productivity". Journal of Applied Psychology. 76 (2): 322–336. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.76.2.322. ^ McGinn, Daniel (2018-05-04). "How VC John Doerr Sets (and Achieves) Goals". Harvard Business Review. ISSN 0017-8012. Retrieved 2022-03-08. ^ Raj, Ritu (12 October 2012). "The Concept of Management by Objectives". Ritu, Inc. ^ Xihuai, L. (2014). On Application of MBO in College. ^ Nouiri, Issam "Objective optimization tol for integrated groundwater management." Water Resource Management. November 2015. vol. 29 issue 14. ^ Gotteiner, Sharon (2016). "The OPTIMAL MBO". European Accounting and Management Review Vol. 2, Issue 2, pp. 42-56. vteManagement Outline of management Index of management articles By type of organization Academic Association Business Restaurant Court Healthcare Intelligence Military Public Reputation By focus (within an organization)By scopeStrategic(top-level) Capability Capital Change Communication Financial Innovation Legal Performance Risk Systems By component Facility Product Product lifecycle Brand Project Construction Program By activity ordepartment managedLine Marketing Operations/production Process Quality Sales Staff Accounting Office Records By aspect orrelationship Customer relationship Engineering Logistics Perception Supply chain Talent By problem Conflict Crisis Stress By resource Environmental resource Field inventory Human resources Information Information technology Knowledge Land Materials Skills Technology Time Managementpositions Interim Middle Senior Methodsand approaches Adhocracy Collaborative method Distributed Earned value management Evidence-based management Full Range of Leadership Model Management by objectives Management style Macromanagement Micromanagement Scientific management Social entrepreneurship Sustainable management Team building Virtual management Management skillsand activities Decision-making Forecasting Leadership Pioneers andscholars Peter Drucker Eliyahu M. Goldratt Oliver E. Williamson Education Association of Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering Business school Certified Business Manager Chartered Management Institute Critical management studies Degrees Bachelor of Business Administration Master of Business Administration PhD in management Doctor of Business Administration Other Administration Collaboration Corporate governance Executive compensation Management consulting Management control Management cybernetics Management development Management fad Management system Managerial economics Managerial psychology Managerialism Organization development Organizational behavior management Pointy-haired Boss Williamson's model of managerial discretion Systems science portal vtePeter DruckerBooks Concept of the Corporation (1946) The Landmarks of Tomorrow (1959) Post-Capitalist Society (1993) Concepts Knowledge worker Management by objectives Other Global Peter Drucker Forum Peter F. Drucker and Masatoshi Ito Graduate School of Management Moshidora film adaptation

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Peter Drucker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Drucker"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Practice-1"},{"link_name":"management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management"},{"link_name":"employee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employee"},{"link_name":"performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_management"},{"link_name":"goal-setting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal-setting"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"George S. Odiorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_S._Odiorne"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"goals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal"}],"text":"Management by objectives (MBO), also known as management by planning (MBP), was first popularized by Peter Drucker in his 1954 book The Practice of Management.[1] Management by objectives is the process of defining specific objectives within an organization that management can convey to organization members, then deciding how to achieve each objective in sequence. This process allows managers to take work that needs to be done one step at a time to allow for a calm, yet productive work environment. In this system of management, individual goals are synchronized with the goals of the organization.An important part of MBO is the measurement and comparison of an employee's actual performance with the standards set. Ideally, when employees themselves have been involved with the goal-setting and choosing the course of action to be followed by them, they are more likely to fulfill their responsibilities.[2]According to George S. Odiorne[citation needed], the system of management by objectives can be described as a process whereby the superior and subordinate jointly identify common goals, define each individual's major areas of responsibility in terms of the results expected of him or her, and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of each of its members. MBO refers to the process of setting goals for the employees so that they know what they are supposed to do at the workplace. Management by Objectives defines roles and responsibilities for the employees and help them chalk out their future course of action in the organization.","title":"Management by objectives"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Peter Drucker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Drucker"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Practice-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"The Giving of Orders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Giving_of_Orders"},{"link_name":"George Odiorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_S._Odiorne"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Peter Drucker first used the term \"management by objectives\" in his 1954 book The Practice of Management.[1] While the basic ideas of MBO were not original to Drucker, they pulled from other management practices to create a complete 'system'.[3] The idea draws on the many ideas presented in Mary Parker Follett's 1926 essay, The Giving of Orders.After the term and idea were brought up, Drucker's student, George Odiorne, continued to develop the idea in his book Management Decisions by Objectives, published in the mid-1960s.[4][5] MBO was popularized by companies like Hewlett-Packard, who claimed it led to their success.[4][6]","title":"History Of MBO"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Practice-1"}],"text":"Management by objectives at its core is the process of employers/supervisors attempting to manage their subordinates by introducing a set of specific goals that both the employee and the company strive to achieve in the near future, and working to meet those goals accordingly.[1]Five steps:Review organizational goal\nSet worker objective\nMonitor progress\nEvaluation\nGive reward","title":"Concept and framework"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hewlett-Packard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"Xerox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerox"},{"link_name":"DuPont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DuPont"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"strategic goals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_planning"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"monitoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveillance"},{"link_name":"management information systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_information_systems"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"incentives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incentive"},{"link_name":"S.M.A.R.T.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMART_criteria"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"There are endless ways to exercise management by objectives. One must find specific goals to aim for in an organization or business. Many noteworthy companies have used MBO. The management at the computer company Hewlett-Packard (HP) has said that it considers the policy a huge component of its success. Many other corporations praise the effectiveness of MBO, including Xerox, DuPont, Intel,[7] and countless others.[8] Companies that adopt MBO often report greater sales rates and productiveness within the organization. Objectives can be set in all domains of activities, such as production, marketing, services, sales, R&D, human resources, finance, and information systems. Some objectives are collective, and some can be goals for each worker. Both make the task at hand seem attainable and enable the workers to visualize what needs to be done and how.In the MBO paradigm, managers determine the enterprise's mission and strategic goals. The goals set by top-level managers are based on an analysis of what can and should be accomplished by the organization within a specific period of time. The functions of these managers can be centralized by appointing a project manager who can monitor and control the activities of the various departments.[9] If this cannot be done or is not desirable, each manager's contributions to the organizational goal should be clearly spelled out.[10]In many large Japanese corporations, beginning in the late 1990s, MBO was used as the basis of \"the performance-based merit system” (seika-shugi) which used clear numerical targets to measure performance in contrast to the previous system of non-specific contracts in Japanese companies.[11]Objectives need quantifying and monitoring. Reliable management information systems are needed to establish relevant objectives and monitor their \"reach ratio\" in an objective way.[12] Pay incentives (bonuses) are often linked to results in reaching the objectives.The mnemonic S.M.A.R.T. is associated with the process of setting objectives in this paradigm. 'SMART' objectives are:Specific: Target a specific area for improvement\nMeasurable: Quantify or suggest an indicator of progress\nAssignable: Specify who will do it\nRealistic: State what results can realistically be achieved, given available resources\nTime-bound: Specify when the result(s) can be achieved[13]The aphorism \"what gets measured gets done\" is aligned with the MBO philosophy.","title":"Application in practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"W. Edwards Deming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Edwards_Deming"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"key principles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Edwards_Deming#Key_principles"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"buy-in","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/buy-in"},{"link_name":"productivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productivity"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"objectives and key results","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Objectives_and_key_results"},{"link_name":"John Doerr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Doerr"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Agile management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agile_management"},{"link_name":"Management by Goals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Management_by_Goals&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"MBO has its detractors, notably W. Edwards Deming, who argued that a lack of understanding of systems commonly results in the misapplication of objectives.[14] Additionally, Deming stated that setting production targets will encourage workers to meet those targets through whatever means necessary, which usually results in poor quality.[15]Point 7 of Deming's key principles encourages managers to abandon objectives in favour of leadership because he felt that a leader with an understanding of systems was more likely to guide workers to an appropriate solution than the incentive of an objective. Deming also pointed out that Drucker warned managers that a systemic view was required[16] and felt that Drucker's warning went largely unheeded by the practitioners of MBO.There are limitations in the underlying assumptions about the impact of management by objectives[citation needed]:It over-emphasizes the setting of goals over the working of a plan as a driver of outcomes.\nIt under-emphasizes the importance of the environment or context in which the goals are set.That context includes everything from the availability and quality of resources, to relative buy-in by leadership and stake-holders. As an example of the influence of management buy-in as a contextual influencer, in a 1991 comprehensive review of thirty years of research on the impact of Management by Objectives, Robert Rodgers and John Hunter concluded that companies whose CEOs demonstrated high commitment to MBO showed, on average, a 56% gain in productivity. Companies with CEOs who showed low commitment saw only a 6% gain in productivity.[17]When this approach is not properly set, agreed and managed by organizations, self-centered employees might be prone to distort results, falsely representing achievement of targets that were set in a short-term, narrow fashion. In this case, managing by objectives would be counterproductive.The limitations mentioned above, combined with the challenges faced by modern service companies, have led to the development of methods that integrate aspects of MBO but appear to be significantly more effective in application. These include, for example, the objectives and key results (OKR) method, which was developed by John Doerr (among others) and has been used successfully in many companies, notably at Google.[18] Agile management techniques also have a strong emphasis on goals. The group of management techniques that are based on goals, with a strong focus on engagement, team motivation and leadership, can be summarized as Management by Goals methods.","title":"Limitations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"}],"text":"Management by Objectives is still practiced today, with a focus on planning and development aiding various organizations.[19] The most recent research focuses on specific industries, specifying the practice of MBO for each.[20][21] In addition, following criticism of the original MBO approach, a new formula was introduced in 2016, aiming at revitalizing it, that is the OPTIMAL MBO, which stands for its components, namely: (O) Objectives, Outside-in; (P) Profitability (budget) related goals; (T) Target Setting; (I) Incentives & Influence; (M) Measurement; (A) Agreement, Accountability, Appraisal, Appreciation; and (L) Leadership Support.[22]While the practice is used today, it may go by different names – the letters \"MBO\" have lost their formality, and future planning is a more standard practice.[4]","title":"Recent research"}]

[]

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Retrieved 2016-04-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170309004231/http://proceedings.aom.org/content/1977/1/2.2","url_text":"\"The Historical Antecedents of Management by Objectives\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5465%2FAMBPP.1977.4976584","url_text":"10.5465/AMBPP.1977.4976584"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0065-0668","url_text":"0065-0668"},{"url":"http://proceedings.aom.org/content/1977/1/2.2","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Management by objectives\". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2016-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.economist.com/node/14299761","url_text":"\"Management by objectives\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0613","url_text":"0013-0613"}]},{"reference":"Lambert, Bruce (1992-01-23). \"George S. Odiorne Is Dead at 71; Developed Theory of Management\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/23/obituaries/george-s-odiorne-is-dead-at-71-developed-theory-of-management.html","url_text":"\"George S. 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Small Business - Chron.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://smallbusiness.chron.com/examples-managerial-objectives-23790.html","url_text":"\"Examples of Managerial Objectives\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Concept Of Management By Objectives\".","urls":[{"url":"http://rituinc.com/the-concept-of-management-by-objectives/","url_text":"\"The Concept Of Management By Objectives\""}]},{"reference":"\"Multi-objective Optimization Tool for Integrated Groundwater Management (PDF Download Available)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282450672","url_text":"\"Multi-objective Optimization Tool for Integrated Groundwater Management (PDF Download Available)\""}]},{"reference":"Gagne, Nana Okura (2017-10-06). \"\"Correcting Capitalism\": Changing Metrics and Meanings of Work among Japanese Employees\". Journal of Contemporary Asia. 48 (1): 67–87. doi:10.1080/00472336.2017.1381984. S2CID 158161722.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00472336.2017.1381984","url_text":"\"\"Correcting Capitalism\": Changing Metrics and Meanings of Work among Japanese Employees\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00472336.2017.1381984","url_text":"10.1080/00472336.2017.1381984"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158161722","url_text":"158161722"}]},{"reference":"\"基于动态平均数的烟草企业目标管理\". 中国烟草学报. 21 (3). doi:10.16472/j.chinatobacco.2014.457. Archived from the original on 2018-02-13. Retrieved 2016-04-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180213200117/http://ycxb.tobacco.org.cn/EN/abstract/abstract863.shtml","url_text":"\"基于动态平均数的烟草企业目标管理\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.16472%2Fj.chinatobacco.2014.457","url_text":"10.16472/j.chinatobacco.2014.457"},{"url":"http://ycxb.tobacco.org.cn/EN/abstract/abstract863.shtml","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Robert, John E.; Rodgers, Hunter (1991). \"Impact of management by objectives on organizational productivity\". Journal of Applied Psychology. 76 (2): 322–336. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.76.2.322.","urls":[{"url":"https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1991-25999-001","url_text":"\"Impact of management by objectives on organizational productivity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0021-9010.76.2.322","url_text":"10.1037/0021-9010.76.2.322"}]},{"reference":"McGinn, Daniel (2018-05-04). \"How VC John Doerr Sets (and Achieves) Goals\". Harvard Business Review. ISSN 0017-8012. Retrieved 2022-03-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://hbr.org/2018/05/how-vc-john-doerr-sets-and-achieves-goals","url_text":"\"How VC John Doerr Sets (and Achieves) Goals\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0017-8012","url_text":"0017-8012"}]},{"reference":"Raj, Ritu (12 October 2012). \"The Concept of Management by Objectives\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_integer

Integer (computer science)

["1 Value and representation","2 Common integral data types","2.1 Bytes and octets","2.2 Words","2.3 Standard integer","2.4 Short integer","2.5 Long integer","2.6 Long long","3 Syntax","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References"]

Datum of integral data type In computer science, an integer is a datum of integral data type, a data type that represents some range of mathematical integers. Integral data types may be of different sizes and may or may not be allowed to contain negative values. Integers are commonly represented in a computer as a group of binary digits (bits). The size of the grouping varies so the set of integer sizes available varies between different types of computers. Computer hardware nearly always provides a way to represent a processor register or memory address as an integer. Value and representation The value of an item with an integral type is the mathematical integer that it corresponds to. Integral types may be unsigned (capable of representing only non-negative integers) or signed (capable of representing negative integers as well). An integer value is typically specified in the source code of a program as a sequence of digits optionally prefixed with + or −. Some programming languages allow other notations, such as hexadecimal (base 16) or octal (base 8). Some programming languages also permit digit group separators. The internal representation of this datum is the way the value is stored in the computer's memory. Unlike mathematical integers, a typical datum in a computer has some minimal and maximum possible value. The most common representation of a positive integer is a string of bits, using the binary numeral system. The order of the memory bytes storing the bits varies; see endianness. The width, precision, or bitness of an integral type is the number of bits in its representation. An integral type with n bits can encode 2n numbers; for example an unsigned type typically represents the non-negative values 0 through 2n−1. Other encodings of integer values to bit patterns are sometimes used, for example binary-coded decimal or Gray code, or as printed character codes such as ASCII. There are four well-known ways to represent signed numbers in a binary computing system. The most common is two's complement, which allows a signed integral type with n bits to represent numbers from −2(n−1) through 2(n−1)−1. Two's complement arithmetic is convenient because there is a perfect one-to-one correspondence between representations and values (in particular, no separate +0 and −0), and because addition, subtraction and multiplication do not need to distinguish between signed and unsigned types. Other possibilities include offset binary, sign-magnitude, and ones' complement. Some computer languages define integer sizes in a machine-independent way; others have varying definitions depending on the underlying processor word size. Not all language implementations define variables of all integer sizes, and defined sizes may not even be distinct in a particular implementation. An integer in one programming language may be a different size in a different language, on a different processor, or in an execution context of different bitness; see § Words. Some older computer architectures used decimal representations of integers, stored in binary-coded decimal (BCD) or other format. These values generally require data sizes of 4 bits per decimal digit (sometimes called a nibble), usually with additional bits for a sign. Many modern CPUs provide limited support for decimal integers as an extended datatype, providing instructions for converting such values to and from binary values. Depending on the architecture, decimal integers may have fixed sizes (e.g., 7 decimal digits plus a sign fit into a 32-bit word), or may be variable-length (up to some maximum digit size), typically occupying two digits per byte (octet). Common integral data types Bits Name Range (assuming two's complement for signed) Decimal digits Uses Implementations C/C++ C# Pascal and Delphi Java SQL FORTRAN D Rust 4 nibble, semioctet Signed: From −8 to 7, from −(23) to 23 − 1 0.9 Binary-coded decimal, single decimal digit representation — — — — — — — — Unsigned: From 0 to 15, which equals 24 − 1 1.2 8 byte, octet, i8, u8 Signed: From −128 to 127, from −(27) to 27 − 1 2.11 ASCII characters, code units in the UTF-8 character encoding int8_t, signed char sbyte Shortint byte tinyint integer(1) byte i8 Unsigned: From 0 to 255, which equals 28 − 1 2.41 uint8_t, unsigned char byte Byte — unsigned tinyint — ubyte u8 16 halfword, word, short, i16, u16 Signed: From −32,768 to 32,767, from −(215) to 215 − 1 4.52 UCS-2 characters, code units in the UTF-16 character encoding int16_t, short, int short Smallint short smallint integer(2) short i16 Unsigned: From 0 to 65,535, which equals 216 − 1 4.82 uint16_t, unsigned, unsigned int ushort Word char unsigned smallint — ushort u16 32 word, long, doubleword, longword, int, i32, u32 Signed: From −2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647, from −(231) to 231 − 1 9.33 UTF-32 characters, true color with alpha, FourCC, pointers in 32-bit computing int32_t, int, long int LongInt; Integer int int integer(4) int i32 Unsigned: From 0 to 4,294,967,295, which equals 232 − 1 9.63 uint32_t, unsigned, unsigned int, unsigned long uint LongWord; DWord; Cardinal — unsigned int — uint u32 64 word, doubleword, longword, long, long long, quad, quadword, qword, int64, i64, u64 Signed: From −9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807, from −(263) to 263 − 1 18.96 Time (milliseconds since the Unix epoch), pointers in 64-bit computing int64_t, long, long long long Int64 long bigint integer(8) long i64 Unsigned: From 0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615, which equals 264 − 1 19.27 uint64_t, unsigned long long ulong UInt64; QWord — unsigned bigint — ulong u64 128 octaword, double quadword, i128, u128 Signed: From −170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,728 to 170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,727, from −(2127) to 2127 − 1 38.23 Complex scientific calculations, IPv6 addresses, GUIDs C: only available as non-standard compiler-specific extension — — — — integer(16) cent i128 Unsigned: From 0 to 340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,455, which equals 2128 − 1 38.53 — ucent u128 n n-bit integer (general case) Signed: −(2n−1) to (2n−1 − 1) (n − 1) log10 2 C23: _BitInt(n), signed _BitInt(n) Ada: range -2**(n-1)..2**(n-1)-1 Unsigned: 0 to (2n − 1) n log10 2 C23: unsigned _BitInt(n) Ada: range 0..2**n-1, mod 2**n; standard libraries' or third-party arbitrary arithmetic libraries' BigDecimal or Decimal classes in many languages such as Python, C++, etc. Different CPUs support different integral data types. Typically, hardware will support both signed and unsigned types, but only a small, fixed set of widths. The table above lists integral type widths that are supported in hardware by common processors. High level programming languages provide more possibilities. It is common to have a 'double width' integral type that has twice as many bits as the biggest hardware-supported type. Many languages also have bit-field types (a specified number of bits, usually constrained to be less than the maximum hardware-supported width) and range types (that can represent only the integers in a specified range). Some languages, such as Lisp, Smalltalk, REXX, Haskell, Python, and Raku, support arbitrary precision integers (also known as infinite precision integers or bignums). Other languages that do not support this concept as a top-level construct may have libraries available to represent very large numbers using arrays of smaller variables, such as Java's BigInteger class or Perl's "bigint" package. These use as much of the computer's memory as is necessary to store the numbers; however, a computer has only a finite amount of storage, so they, too, can only represent a finite subset of the mathematical integers. These schemes support very large numbers; for example one kilobyte of memory could be used to store numbers up to 2466 decimal digits long. A Boolean or Flag type is a type that can represent only two values: 0 and 1, usually identified with false and true respectively. This type can be stored in memory using a single bit, but is often given a full byte for convenience of addressing and speed of access. A four-bit quantity is known as a nibble (when eating, being smaller than a bite) or nybble (being a pun on the form of the word byte). One nibble corresponds to one digit in hexadecimal and holds one digit or a sign code in binary-coded decimal. Bytes and octets Main articles: Byte and Octet (computing) The term byte initially meant 'the smallest addressable unit of memory'. In the past, 5-, 6-, 7-, 8-, and 9-bit bytes have all been used. There have also been computers that could address individual bits ('bit-addressed machine'), or that could only address 16- or 32-bit quantities ('word-addressed machine'). The term byte was usually not used at all in connection with bit- and word-addressed machines. The term octet always refers to an 8-bit quantity. It is mostly used in the field of computer networking, where computers with different byte widths might have to communicate. In modern usage byte almost invariably means eight bits, since all other sizes have fallen into disuse; thus byte has come to be synonymous with octet. Words Main article: Word (computer architecture) The term 'word' is used for a small group of bits that are handled simultaneously by processors of a particular architecture. The size of a word is thus CPU-specific. Many different word sizes have been used, including 6-, 8-, 12-, 16-, 18-, 24-, 32-, 36-, 39-, 40-, 48-, 60-, and 64-bit. Since it is architectural, the size of a word is usually set by the first CPU in a family, rather than the characteristics of a later compatible CPU. The meanings of terms derived from word, such as longword, doubleword, quadword, and halfword, also vary with the CPU and OS. Practically all new desktop processors are capable of using 64-bit words, though embedded processors with 8- and 16-bit word size are still common. The 36-bit word length was common in the early days of computers. One important cause of non-portability of software is the incorrect assumption that all computers have the same word size as the computer used by the programmer. For example, if a programmer using the C language incorrectly declares as int a variable that will be used to store values greater than 215−1, the program will fail on computers with 16-bit integers. That variable should have been declared as long, which has at least 32 bits on any computer. Programmers may also incorrectly assume that a pointer can be converted to an integer without loss of information, which may work on (some) 32-bit computers, but fail on 64-bit computers with 64-bit pointers and 32-bit integers. This issue is resolved by C99 in stdint.h in the form of intptr_t. The bitness of a program may refer to the word size (or bitness) of the processor on which it runs, or it may refer to the width of a memory address or pointer, which can differ between execution modes or contexts. For example, 64-bit versions of Microsoft Windows support existing 32-bit binaries, and programs compiled for Linux's x32 ABI run in 64-bit mode yet use 32-bit memory addresses. Standard integer The standard integer size is platform-dependent. In C, it is denoted by int and required to be at least 16 bits. Windows and Unix systems have 32-bit ints on both 32-bit and 64-bit architectures. Short integer A short integer can represent a whole number that may take less storage, while having a smaller range, compared with a standard integer on the same machine. In C, it is denoted by short. It is required to be at least 16 bits, and is often smaller than a standard integer, but this is not required. A conforming program can assume that it can safely store values between −(215−1) and 215−1, but it may not assume that the range is not larger. In Java, a short is always a 16-bit integer. In the Windows API, the datatype SHORT is defined as a 16-bit signed integer on all machines. Common short integer sizes Programming language Data type name Signedness Size in bytes Minimum value Maximum value C and C++ short signed 2 −32,767 +32,767 unsigned short unsigned 2 0 65,535 C# short signed 2 −32,768 +32,767 ushort unsigned 2 0 65,535 Java short signed 2 −32,768 +32,767 SQL smallint signed 2 −32,768 +32,767 Long integer A long integer can represent a whole integer whose range is greater than or equal to that of a standard integer on the same machine. In C, it is denoted by long. It is required to be at least 32 bits, and may or may not be larger than a standard integer. A conforming program can assume that it can safely store values between −(231−1) and 231−1, but it may not assume that the range is not larger. Common long integer sizes Programming language Approval Type Platforms Data type name Storage in bytes Signed range Unsigned range C ISO/ANSI C99 International Standard Unix, 16/32-bit systemsWindows, 16/32/64-bit systems long 4(minimum requirement 4) −2,147,483,647 to +2,147,483,647 0 to 4,294,967,295(minimum requirement) C ISO/ANSI C99 International Standard Unix,64-bit systems long 8(minimum requirement 4) −9,223,372,036,854,775,807 to +9,223,372,036,854,775,807 0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 C++ ISO/ANSI International Standard Unix, Windows,16/32-bit system long 4 (minimum requirement 4) −2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647 0 to 4,294,967,295(minimum requirement) C++/CLI International StandardECMA-372 Unix, Windows,16/32-bit systems long 4 (minimum requirement 4) −2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647 0 to 4,294,967,295(minimum requirement) VB Company Standard Windows Long 4 −2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647 — VBA Company Standard Windows, Mac OS X Long 4 −2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647 — SQL Server Company Standard Windows BigInt 8 −9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to +9,223,372,036,854,775,807 0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 C#/ VB.NET ECMA International Standard Microsoft .NET long or Int64 8 −9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to +9,223,372,036,854,775,807 0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 Java International/Company Standard Java platform long 8 −9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to +9,223,372,036,854,775,807 — Pascal ? Windows, UNIX int64 8 −9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to +9,223,372,036,854,775,807 0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 (Qword type) Long long "long long" redirects here. Not to be confused with long or Long, Long, Long. In the C99 version of the C programming language and the C++11 version of C++, a long long type is supported that has double the minimum capacity of the standard long. This type is not supported by compilers that require C code to be compliant with the previous C++ standard, C++03, because the long long type did not exist in C++03. For an ANSI/ISO compliant compiler, the minimum requirements for the specified ranges, that is, −(263−1) to 263−1 for signed and 0 to 264−1 for unsigned, must be fulfilled; however, extending this range is permitted. This can be an issue when exchanging code and data between platforms, or doing direct hardware access. Thus, there are several sets of headers providing platform independent exact width types. The C standard library provides stdint.h; this was introduced in C99 and C++11. Syntax Literals for integers can be written as regular Arabic numerals, consisting of a sequence of digits and with negation indicated by a minus sign before the value. However, most programming languages disallow use of commas or spaces for digit grouping. Examples of integer literals are: 42 10000 -233000 There are several alternate methods for writing integer literals in many programming languages: Many programming languages, especially those influenced by C, prefix an integer literal with 0X or 0x to represent a hexadecimal value, e.g. 0xDEADBEEF. Other languages may use a different notation, e.g. some assembly languages append an H or h to the end of a hexadecimal value. Perl, Ruby, Java, Julia, D, Go, Rust and Python (starting from version 3.6) allow embedded underscores for clarity, e.g. 10_000_000, and fixed-form Fortran ignores embedded spaces in integer literals. C (starting from C23) and C++ use single quotes for this purpose. In C and C++, a leading zero indicates an octal value, e.g. 0755. This was primarily intended to be used with Unix modes; however, it has been criticized because normal integers may also lead with zero. As such, Python, Ruby, Haskell, and OCaml prefix octal values with 0O or 0o, following the layout used by hexadecimal values. Several languages, including Java, C#, Scala, Python, Ruby, OCaml, C (starting from C23) and C++ can represent binary values by prefixing a number with 0B or 0b. See also Arbitrary-precision arithmetic Binary-coded decimal (BCD) C data types Integer overflow Signed number representations Notes ^ Not all SQL dialects have unsigned datatypes. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n The sizes of char, short, int, long and long long in C/C++ are dependent upon the implementation of the language. ^ Java does not directly support arithmetic on char types. The results must be cast back into char from an int. ^ a b The sizes of Delphi's Integer and Cardinal are not guaranteed, varying from platform to platform; usually defined as LongInt and LongWord respectively. ^ a b Reserved for future use. Not implemented yet. ^ The ISO C standard allows implementations to reserve the value with sign bit 1 and all other bits 0 (for sign–magnitude and two's complement representation) or with all bits 1 (for ones' complement) for use as a "trap" value, used to indicate (for example) an overflow. References ^ Cheever, Eric. "Representation of numbers". Swarthmore College. Retrieved 2011-09-11. ^ Madhusudhan Konda (2011-09-02). "A look at Java 7's new features - O'Reilly Radar". Radar.oreilly.com. Retrieved 2013-10-15. ^ Barr, Adam (2018-10-23). The Problem with Software: Why Smart Engineers Write Bad Code. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-34821-8. ^ "Sybase Adaptive Server Enterprise 15.5: Exact Numeric Datatypes". ^ "MySQL 5.6 Numeric Datatypes". ^ "BigInteger (Java Platform SE 6)". Oracle. Retrieved 2011-09-11. ^ a b c d e Fog, Agner (2010-02-16). "Calling conventions for different C++ compilers and operating systems: Chapter 3, Data Representation" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-08-30. ^ Thorsten Leemhuis (2011-09-13). "Kernel Log: x32 ABI gets around 64-bit drawbacks". www.h-online.com. Archived from the original on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 2011-11-01. ^ Giguere, Eric (1987-12-18). "The ANSI Standard: A Summary for the C Programmer". Retrieved 2010-09-04. ^ a b Meyers, Randy (2000-12-01). "The New C: Integers in C99, Part 1". drdobbs.com. Retrieved 2010-09-04. ^ a b c d "ISO/IEC 9899:201x" (PDF). open-std.org. section 6.2.6.2, paragraph 2. Retrieved 2016-06-20. ^ a b c "ISO/IEC 9899:201x" (PDF). open-std.org. section 5.2.4.2.1. Retrieved 2016-06-20. ^ "Fundamental types in C++". cppreference.com. Retrieved 5 December 2010. ^ "Chapter 8.6.2 on page 12" (PDF). ecma-international.org. ^ VB 6.0 help file ^ "The Integer, Long, and Byte Data Types (VBA)". microsoft.com. Retrieved 2006-12-19. ^ Giguere, Eric (December 18, 1987). "The ANSI Standard: A Summary for the C Programmer". Retrieved 2010-09-04. ^ "American National Standard Programming Language C specifies the syntax and semantics of programs written in the C programming language". Archived from the original on 2010-08-22. Retrieved 2010-09-04. ^ ECMAScript 6th Edition draft: https://people.mozilla.org/~jorendorff/es6-draft.html#sec-literals-numeric-literals Archived 2013-12-16 at the Wayback Machine vteData typesUninterpreted Bit Byte Trit Tryte Word Bit array Numeric Arbitrary-precision or bignum Complex Decimal Fixed point Floating point Reduced precision Minifloat Half precision bfloat16 Single precision Double precision Quadruple precision Octuple precision Extended precision Long double Integer signedness Interval Rational Pointer Address physical virtual Reference Text Character String null-terminated Composite Algebraic data type generalized Array Associative array Class Dependent Equality Inductive Intersection List Object metaobject Option type Product Record or Struct Refinement Set Union tagged Other Boolean Bottom type Collection Enumerated type Exception Function type Opaque data type Recursive data type Semaphore Stream Strongly typed identifier Top type Type class Empty type Unit type Void Relatedtopics Abstract data type Boxing Data structure Generic Kind metaclass Parametric polymorphism Primitive data type Interface Subtyping Type constructor Type conversion Type system Type theory Variable

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"datum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data"},{"link_name":"data type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_type"},{"link_name":"range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interval_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"integers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_size"}],"text":"In computer science, an integer is a datum of integral data type, a data type that represents some range of mathematical integers. Integral data types may be of different sizes and may or may not be allowed to contain negative values. Integers are commonly represented in a computer as a group of binary digits (bits). The size of the grouping varies so the set of integer sizes available varies between different types of computers. Computer hardware nearly always provides a way to represent a processor register or memory address as an integer.","title":"Integer (computer science)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"source code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code"},{"link_name":"digit group separators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digit_group_separator"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit"},{"link_name":"binary numeral system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system"},{"link_name":"bytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"},{"link_name":"endianness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"binary-coded decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal"},{"link_name":"Gray code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_code"},{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII"},{"link_name":"ways to represent signed numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signed_number_representations"},{"link_name":"two's complement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%27s_complement"},{"link_name":"one-to-one correspondence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijection"},{"link_name":"addition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition"},{"link_name":"subtraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtraction"},{"link_name":"multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiplication"},{"link_name":"offset binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offset_binary"},{"link_name":"sign-magnitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign-magnitude"},{"link_name":"ones' complement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ones%27_complement"},{"link_name":"programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"§ Words","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Words"},{"link_name":"older computer architectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_computer"},{"link_name":"binary-coded decimal (BCD)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal"},{"link_name":"nibble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibble"}],"text":"The value of an item with an integral type is the mathematical integer that it corresponds to. Integral types may be unsigned (capable of representing only non-negative integers) or signed (capable of representing negative integers as well).[1]An integer value is typically specified in the source code of a program as a sequence of digits optionally prefixed with + or −. Some programming languages allow other notations, such as hexadecimal (base 16) or octal (base 8). Some programming languages also permit digit group separators.[2]The internal representation of this datum is the way the value is stored in the computer's memory. Unlike mathematical integers, a typical datum in a computer has some minimal and maximum possible value.The most common representation of a positive integer is a string of bits, using the binary numeral system. The order of the memory bytes storing the bits varies; see endianness. The width, precision, or bitness[3] of an integral type is the number of bits in its representation. An integral type with n bits can encode 2n numbers; for example an unsigned type typically represents the non-negative values 0 through 2n−1. Other encodings of integer values to bit patterns are sometimes used, for example binary-coded decimal or Gray code, or as printed character codes such as ASCII.There are four well-known ways to represent signed numbers in a binary computing system. The most common is two's complement, which allows a signed integral type with n bits to represent numbers from −2(n−1) through 2(n−1)−1. Two's complement arithmetic is convenient because there is a perfect one-to-one correspondence between representations and values (in particular, no separate +0 and −0), and because addition, subtraction and multiplication do not need to distinguish between signed and unsigned types. Other possibilities include offset binary, sign-magnitude, and ones' complement.Some computer languages define integer sizes in a machine-independent way; others have varying definitions depending on the underlying processor word size. Not all language implementations define variables of all integer sizes, and defined sizes may not even be distinct in a particular implementation. An integer in one programming language may be a different size in a different language, on a different processor, or in an execution context of different bitness; see § Words.Some older computer architectures used decimal representations of integers, stored in binary-coded decimal (BCD) or other format. These values generally require data sizes of 4 bits per decimal digit (sometimes called a nibble), usually with additional bits for a sign. Many modern CPUs provide limited support for decimal integers as an extended datatype, providing instructions for converting such values to and from binary values. Depending on the architecture, decimal integers may have fixed sizes (e.g., 7 decimal digits plus a sign fit into a 32-bit word), or may be variable-length (up to some maximum digit size), typically occupying two digits per byte (octet).","title":"Value and representation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CPUs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"Lisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Smalltalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smalltalk"},{"link_name":"REXX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REXX"},{"link_name":"Haskell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskell"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Raku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raku_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"bignums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bignum"},{"link_name":"Perl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Boolean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_datatype"},{"link_name":"Flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_(computing)"},{"link_name":"nibble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nibble"},{"link_name":"hexadecimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal"}],"text":"Different CPUs support different integral data types. Typically, hardware will support both signed and unsigned types, but only a small, fixed set of widths.The table above lists integral type widths that are supported in hardware by common processors. High level programming languages provide more possibilities. It is common to have a 'double width' integral type that has twice as many bits as the biggest hardware-supported type. Many languages also have bit-field types (a specified number of bits, usually constrained to be less than the maximum hardware-supported width) and range types (that can represent only the integers in a specified range).Some languages, such as Lisp, Smalltalk, REXX, Haskell, Python, and Raku, support arbitrary precision integers (also known as infinite precision integers or bignums). Other languages that do not support this concept as a top-level construct may have libraries available to represent very large numbers using arrays of smaller variables, such as Java's BigInteger class or Perl's \"bigint\" package.[6] These use as much of the computer's memory as is necessary to store the numbers; however, a computer has only a finite amount of storage, so they, too, can only represent a finite subset of the mathematical integers. These schemes support very large numbers; for example one kilobyte of memory could be used to store numbers up to 2466 decimal digits long.A Boolean or Flag type is a type that can represent only two values: 0 and 1, usually identified with false and true respectively. This type can be stored in memory using a single bit, but is often given a full byte for convenience of addressing and speed of access.A four-bit quantity is known as a nibble (when eating, being smaller than a bite) or nybble (being a pun on the form of the word byte). One nibble corresponds to one digit in hexadecimal and holds one digit or a sign code in binary-coded decimal.","title":"Common integral data types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer networking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network"}],"sub_title":"Bytes and octets","text":"The term byte initially meant 'the smallest addressable unit of memory'. In the past, 5-, 6-, 7-, 8-, and 9-bit bytes have all been used. There have also been computers that could address individual bits ('bit-addressed machine'), or that could only address 16- or 32-bit quantities ('word-addressed machine'). The term byte was usually not used at all in connection with bit- and word-addressed machines.The term octet always refers to an 8-bit quantity. It is mostly used in the field of computer networking, where computers with different byte widths might have to communicate.In modern usage byte almost invariably means eight bits, since all other sizes have fallen into disuse; thus byte has come to be synonymous with octet.","title":"Common integral data types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_architecture"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-agnerfog-12"},{"link_name":"embedded processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system"},{"link_name":"36-bit word length","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/36-bit"},{"link_name":"stdint.h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stdint.h"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"x32 ABI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X32_ABI"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Words","text":"The term 'word' is used for a small group of bits that are handled simultaneously by processors of a particular architecture. The size of a word is thus CPU-specific. Many different word sizes have been used, including 6-, 8-, 12-, 16-, 18-, 24-, 32-, 36-, 39-, 40-, 48-, 60-, and 64-bit. Since it is architectural, the size of a word is usually set by the first CPU in a family, rather than the characteristics of a later compatible CPU. The meanings of terms derived from word, such as longword, doubleword, quadword, and halfword, also vary with the CPU and OS.[7]Practically all new desktop processors are capable of using 64-bit words, though embedded processors with 8- and 16-bit word size are still common. The 36-bit word length was common in the early days of computers.One important cause of non-portability of software is the incorrect assumption that all computers have the same word size as the computer used by the programmer. For example, if a programmer using the C language incorrectly declares as int a variable that will be used to store values greater than 215−1, the program will fail on computers with 16-bit integers. That variable should have been declared as long, which has at least 32 bits on any computer. Programmers may also incorrectly assume that a pointer can be converted to an integer without loss of information, which may work on (some) 32-bit computers, but fail on 64-bit computers with 64-bit pointers and 32-bit integers. This issue is resolved by C99 in stdint.h in the form of intptr_t.The bitness of a program may refer to the word size (or bitness) of the processor on which it runs, or it may refer to the width of a memory address or pointer, which can differ between execution modes or contexts. For example, 64-bit versions of Microsoft Windows support existing 32-bit binaries, and programs compiled for Linux's x32 ABI run in 64-bit mode yet use 32-bit memory addresses.[8]","title":"Common integral data types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"}],"sub_title":"Standard integer","text":"The standard integer size is platform-dependent.In C, it is denoted by int and required to be at least 16 bits. Windows and Unix systems have 32-bit ints on both 32-bit and 64-bit architectures.","title":"Common integral data types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-c99-14"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-drdobbsinteger-15"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-c-std-6.2.6.2p2-16"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-c-std-5.2.4.2.1-17"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Windows API","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_API"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-agnerfog-12"}],"sub_title":"Short integer","text":"A short integer can represent a whole number that may take less storage, while having a smaller range, compared with a standard integer on the same machine.In C, it is denoted by short. It is required to be at least 16 bits, and is often smaller than a standard integer, but this is not required.[9][10] A conforming program can assume that it can safely store values between −(215−1)[11] and 215−1,[12] but it may not assume that the range is not larger. In Java, a short is always a 16-bit integer. In the Windows API, the datatype SHORT is defined as a 16-bit signed integer on all machines.[7]","title":"Common integral data types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"integer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-c-std-6.2.6.2p2-16"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-c-std-5.2.4.2.1-17"}],"sub_title":"Long integer","text":"A long integer can represent a whole integer whose range is greater than or equal to that of a standard integer on the same machine.In C, it is denoted by long. It is required to be at least 32 bits, and may or may not be larger than a standard integer. A conforming program can assume that it can safely store values between −(231−1)[11] and 231−1,[12] but it may not assume that the range is not larger.","title":"Common integral data types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"long","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Long, Long, Long","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long,_Long,_Long"},{"link_name":"C99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C99"},{"link_name":"C programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C++11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B11"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-c-std-6.2.6.2p2-16"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-c-std-5.2.4.2.1-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"standard library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_library"},{"link_name":"stdint.h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stdint.h"}],"sub_title":"Long long","text":"\"long long\" redirects here. Not to be confused with long or Long, Long, Long.In the C99 version of the C programming language and the C++11 version of C++, a long long type is supported that has double the minimum capacity of the standard long. This type is not supported by compilers that require C code to be compliant with the previous C++ standard, C++03, because the long long type did not exist in C++03. For an ANSI/ISO compliant compiler, the minimum requirements for the specified ranges, that is, −(263−1)[11] to 263−1 for signed and 0 to 264−1 for unsigned,[12] must be fulfilled; however, extending this range is permitted.[17][18] This can be an issue when exchanging code and data between platforms, or doing direct hardware access. Thus, there are several sets of headers providing platform independent exact width types. The C standard library provides stdint.h; this was introduced in C99 and C++11.","title":"Common integral data types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arabic numerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_numerals"},{"link_name":"minus sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphen-minus"},{"link_name":"digit grouping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digit_grouping"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"hexadecimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal"},{"link_name":"assembly languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language"},{"link_name":"Perl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl"},{"link_name":"Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Julia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julia_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Rust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"underscores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underscore"},{"link_name":"Fortran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran"},{"link_name":"C23","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C23_(C_standard_revision)"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"octal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octal"},{"link_name":"Unix modes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modes_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Haskell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskell"},{"link_name":"OCaml","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCaml"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C#","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Scala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scala_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"OCaml","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCaml"}],"text":"Literals for integers can be written as regular Arabic numerals, consisting of a sequence of digits and with negation indicated by a minus sign before the value. However, most programming languages disallow use of commas or spaces for digit grouping. Examples of integer literals are:42\n10000\n-233000There are several alternate methods for writing integer literals in many programming languages:Many programming languages, especially those influenced by C, prefix an integer literal with 0X or 0x to represent a hexadecimal value, e.g. 0xDEADBEEF. Other languages may use a different notation, e.g. some assembly languages append an H or h to the end of a hexadecimal value.\nPerl, Ruby, Java, Julia, D, Go, Rust and Python (starting from version 3.6) allow embedded underscores for clarity, e.g. 10_000_000, and fixed-form Fortran ignores embedded spaces in integer literals. C (starting from C23) and C++ use single quotes for this purpose.\nIn C and C++, a leading zero indicates an octal value, e.g. 0755. This was primarily intended to be used with Unix modes; however, it has been criticized because normal integers may also lead with zero.[19] As such, Python, Ruby, Haskell, and OCaml prefix octal values with 0O or 0o, following the layout used by hexadecimal values.\nSeveral languages, including Java, C#, Scala, Python, Ruby, OCaml, C (starting from C23) and C++ can represent binary values by prefixing a number with 0B or 0b.","title":"Syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notesqla_6-0"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SybDT-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MySQLDT-5"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-6"},{"link_name":"h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-7"},{"link_name":"i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-8"},{"link_name":"j","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-9"},{"link_name":"k","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-10"},{"link_name":"l","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-11"},{"link_name":"m","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-12"},{"link_name":"n","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notescb_7-13"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notejavad_8-0"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notedelphic_9-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notedelphic_9-1"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notede_10-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-notede_10-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-c-std-6.2.6.2p2-16"}],"text":"^ Not all SQL dialects have unsigned datatypes.[4][5]\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n The sizes of char, short, int, long and long long in C/C++ are dependent upon the implementation of the language.\n\n^ Java does not directly support arithmetic on char types. The results must be cast back into char from an int.\n\n^ a b The sizes of Delphi's Integer and Cardinal are not guaranteed, varying from platform to platform; usually defined as LongInt and LongWord respectively.\n\n^ a b Reserved for future use. Not implemented yet. \n\n^ The ISO C standard allows implementations to reserve the value with sign bit 1 and all other bits 0 (for sign–magnitude and two's complement representation) or with all bits 1 (for ones' complement) for use as a \"trap\" value, used to indicate (for example) an overflow.[11]","title":"Notes"}]

[]

[{"title":"Arbitrary-precision arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrary-precision_arithmetic"},{"title":"Binary-coded decimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary-coded_decimal"},{"title":"C data types","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_data_types"},{"title":"Integer overflow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_overflow"},{"title":"Signed number representations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signed_number_representations"}]

[{"reference":"Cheever, Eric. \"Representation of numbers\". Swarthmore College. Retrieved 2011-09-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.swarthmore.edu/NatSci/echeeve1/Ref/BinaryMath/NumSys.html","url_text":"\"Representation of numbers\""}]},{"reference":"Madhusudhan Konda (2011-09-02). \"A look at Java 7's new features - O'Reilly Radar\". Radar.oreilly.com. Retrieved 2013-10-15.","urls":[{"url":"http://radar.oreilly.com/2011/09/java7-features.html","url_text":"\"A look at Java 7's new features - O'Reilly Radar\""}]},{"reference":"Barr, Adam (2018-10-23). The Problem with Software: Why Smart Engineers Write Bad Code. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-34821-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=BxdxDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA268&dq=%22bitness%22&hl=en","url_text":"The Problem with Software: Why Smart Engineers Write Bad Code"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-34821-8","url_text":"978-0-262-34821-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Sybase Adaptive Server Enterprise 15.5: Exact Numeric Datatypes\".","urls":[{"url":"http://infocenter.sybase.com/help/index.jsp?topic=/com.sybase.infocenter.dc36271.1550/html/blocks/blocks20.htm","url_text":"\"Sybase Adaptive Server Enterprise 15.5: Exact Numeric Datatypes\""}]},{"reference":"\"MySQL 5.6 Numeric Datatypes\".","urls":[{"url":"http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/5.6/en/numeric-types.html","url_text":"\"MySQL 5.6 Numeric Datatypes\""}]},{"reference":"\"BigInteger (Java Platform SE 6)\". Oracle. Retrieved 2011-09-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://download.oracle.com/javase/6/docs/api/java/math/BigInteger.html","url_text":"\"BigInteger (Java Platform SE 6)\""}]},{"reference":"Fog, Agner (2010-02-16). \"Calling conventions for different C++ compilers and operating systems: Chapter 3, Data Representation\" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-08-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.agner.org/optimize/calling_conventions.pdf","url_text":"\"Calling conventions for different C++ compilers and operating systems: Chapter 3, Data Representation\""}]},{"reference":"Thorsten Leemhuis (2011-09-13). \"Kernel Log: x32 ABI gets around 64-bit drawbacks\". www.h-online.com. Archived from the original on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 2011-11-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111028081253/http://www.h-online.com/open/features/Kernel-Log-x32-ABI-gets-around-64-bit-drawbacks-1342061.html","url_text":"\"Kernel Log: x32 ABI gets around 64-bit drawbacks\""},{"url":"http://www.h-online.com/open/features/Kernel-Log-x32-ABI-gets-around-64-bit-drawbacks-1342061.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Giguere, Eric (1987-12-18). \"The ANSI Standard: A Summary for the C Programmer\". Retrieved 2010-09-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ericgiguere.com/articles/ansi-c-summary.html","url_text":"\"The ANSI Standard: A Summary for the C Programmer\""}]},{"reference":"Meyers, Randy (2000-12-01). \"The New C: Integers in C99, Part 1\". drdobbs.com. Retrieved 2010-09-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.drdobbs.com/184401323","url_text":"\"The New C: Integers in C99, Part 1\""}]},{"reference":"\"ISO/IEC 9899:201x\" (PDF). open-std.org. section 6.2.6.2, paragraph 2. 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Retrieved 2006-12-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa164754(office.10).aspx","url_text":"\"The Integer, Long, and Byte Data Types (VBA)\""}]},{"reference":"Giguere, Eric (December 18, 1987). \"The ANSI Standard: A Summary for the C Programmer\". Retrieved 2010-09-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ericgiguere.com/articles/ansi-c-summary.html","url_text":"\"The ANSI Standard: A Summary for the C Programmer\""}]},{"reference":"\"American National Standard Programming Language C specifies the syntax and semantics of programs written in the C programming language\". Archived from the original on 2010-08-22. Retrieved 2010-09-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100822072551/http://flash-gordon.me.uk/ansi.c.txt","url_text":"\"American National Standard Programming Language C specifies the syntax and semantics of programs written in the C programming language\""},{"url":"http://flash-gordon.me.uk/ansi.c.txt","url_text":"the original"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_total_health_expenditure_(PPP)_per_capita

List of countries by total health expenditure per capita

["1 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development","1.1 Table","2 OECD bar charts","3 World Health Organization","3.1 Table 2","4 See also","5 Notes and references"]

Health care cost as percent of GDP (total economy of a nation). Life expectancy vs healthcare spending of rich OECD countries. US average of $10,447 in 2018. This article includes 2 lists of countries of the world and their total expenditure on health per capita. Total expenditure includes both public and private expenditures. See also: Health spending as percent of gross domestic product (GDP) by country. The first table and bar chart lists member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). It shows each country's total spending (public and private) on health per capita in PPP international dollars. The next table lists nearly all countries. It uses data from the World Health Organization (WHO). It also shows each country's total spending (public and private) on health per capita in PPP international dollars. The top chart to the right measures the total cost of health care (public and private expenditures) as a percent of GDP (gross domestic product) for a few nations. GDP is a measure of the total economy of a nation. The chart below it shows that high life expectancy can be had across the range of health expenditures by country. See: List of countries by life expectancy. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Table Row numbers are static. Other columns are sortable. This allows ranking of any column. Location links below are "Healthcare in LOCATION" links. OECD countries only. Total health spending per capita in PPP international dollars. Not inflation-adjusted. Location 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022  Australia 5,191 5,127 5,692 6,226 6,596  Austria 5,519 5,625 5,864 6,690 7,275  Belgium 5,351 5,424 5,509 6,022 6,600  Canada 5,337 5,223 5,879 6,278 6,319  Chile 2,281 2,297 2,417 2,665 2,699  Colombia 1,192 1,240 1,293 1,532 1,640  Costa Rica 1,530 1,556 1,618 1,671 1,658  Czech Republic 3,129 3,272 3,804 4,303 4,499  Denmark 5,307 5,360 5,697 6,372 6,280  Estonia 2,364 2,453 2,731 3,083 3,091  Finland 4,330 4,384 4,615 5,252 5,676  France 5,097 5,163 5,453 6,106 6,517  Germany 6,290 6,418 6,946 7,518 8,011  Greece 2,315 2,350 2,486 2,736 3,015  Hungary 2,107 2,095 2,422 2,749 2,840  Iceland 4,236 4,318 4,632 5,107 5,314  Ireland 4,877 4,976 5,378 5,861 6,047  Israel 2,749 2,710 2,875 3,258 3,444  Italy 3,496 3,565 3,753 4,043 4,291  Japan 4,554 4,611 4,620 4,899 5,251  Latvia 1,861 2,026 2,228 3,122 3,445  Lithuania 2,397 2,682 2,878 3,336 3,587  Luxembourg 5,292 5,380 5,628 6,274 6,436  Mexico 1,122 1,117 1,227 1,262 1,181  Netherlands 5,482 5,644 6,198 6,785 7,358  New Zealand 3,913 4,250 4,469 4,921 6,061  Norway 6,495 6,476 6,582 7,043 7,898  Poland 2,107 2,232 2,286 2,522 2,973  Portugal 3,134 3,224 3,355 3,830 4,162  Slovakia 2,009 2,115 2,126 2,522 2,691  Slovenia 3,045 3,222 3,474 3,885 4,114  South Korea 3,067 3,291 3,590 4,189 4,570  Spain 3,427 3,528 3,716 4,087 4,462  Sweden 5,419 5,388 5,734 6,228 6,438  Switzerland 6,602 6,708 7,022 7,582 8,049  Turkey 1,205 1,232 1,305 1,560 1,827  United Kingdom 4,188 4,389 4,998 5,467 5,493  United States 10,447 10,853 11,916 12,197 12,555 OECD bar charts Health spending by country. US dollars per capita (using economy-wide PPPs). From OECD Data. "Government/compulsory": Government spending and compulsory health insurance. "Voluntary": Voluntary health insurance and private funds such as households’ out-of-pocket payments, NGOs and private corporations. In the first chart below they are represented by columns starting at zero. They are not stacked. The 2 are combined to get the total. OECD countries only in the first chart. Click to enlarge. The chart below is older and breaks down the voluntary spending further by separating out-of-pocket payments. In this chart the items are stacked by color. There are a few other countries than just OECD countries. Click to enlarge. World Health Organization A country list from World Health Organization's Global Health Expenditure Database. Table 2 Row numbers are static. Other columns are sortable. This allows ranking of any column. Asterisk (*) indicates "Healthcare in LOCATION" or "Health in LOCATION" links. Total health spending per capita in PPP international dollars. Not inflation-adjusted. Location 2018 2019 2020 2021  Afghanistan * 71 74 80 81  Algeria * 258 251 215  Andorra * 3,188 3,062 3,337  Angola * 84 69 51  Antigua and Barbuda 850 802 830  Argentina * 1,122 959 864  Armenia * 439 549 552  Australia * 5,864 5,555 5,901  Austria * 5,337 5,262 5,585 6,491  Azerbaijan * 165 192 191  Bahamas 1,920 1,921 1,851  Bahrain * 1,049 1,024 1,110  Bangladesh * 45 48 51  Barbados * 1,193 1,171 1,200  Belarus * 342 390 408  Belgium * 5,142 4,984 5,009  Belize * 287 304 278  Benin * 30 27 32  Bhutan * 102 115 134  Bolivia * 229 239 241  Bosnia and Herzegovina * 528 544 591  Botswana * 420 409 363  Brazil * 863 850 701  Brunei * 754 675 650  Bulgaria * 690 698 857  Burkina Faso * 39 41 54  Burundi * 20 17 16  Cape Verde * 179 174 176  Cambodia * 94 115 116  Cameroon * 58 56 58  Canada * 5,053 5,084 5,619 6,086  Central African Republic * 49 34 42  Chad * 32 31 35  Chile * 1,457 1,369 1,278 1,479  China * 505 540 583  Colombia * 517 523 477  Comoros * 74 78 81  Congo * 48 59 81  Cook Islands 567 650 531  Costa Rica * 902 915 953  Ivory Coast * 71 74 85  Croatia * 1,025 1,040 1,095  Cuba * 973 1,013 1,186  Cyprus * 2,021 2,044 2,245  Czech Republic * 1,753 1,803 2,120  DR Congo * 18 20 21  Denmark * 6,233 6,059 6,438 7,375  Djibouti * 64 62 63  Dominica * 485 443 427  Dominican Republic * 328 347 354  Ecuador * 497 487 479  Egypt * 120 145 151  El Salvador * 345 364 386  Equatorial Guinea * 271 223 237  Eritrea * 24 25 24  Estonia * 1,553 1,599 1,788 2,036  Eswatini * 291 259 219  Ethiopia * 24 26 29  Fiji * 216 228 186  Finland * 4,522 4,460 4,726  France * 4,669 4,508 4,769  Gabon * 211 208 229  Gambia 23 23 19  Georgia * 332 309 320  Germany * 5,504 5,478 5,930 6,503  Ghana * 74 74 85  Greece * 1,603 1,569 1,675  Grenada * 439 488 491  Guatemala * 266 279 289  Guinea * 35 43 47  Guinea-Bissau * 60 61 61  Guyana * 299 319 378  Haiti * 62 49 44  Honduras * 178 184 213 254  Hungary * 1,080 1,054 1,163  Iceland * 6,234 5,865 5,637 6,636  India * 58 61 57  Indonesia * 112 121 133  Iran * 463 451 573  Iraq * 227 240 202  Ireland * 5,484 5,431 6,092 6,700  Israel * 3,220 3,454 3,867  Italy * 3,003 2,911 3,057 3,351  Jamaica * 334 343 326  Japan * 4,288 4,379 4,388  Jordan * 322 315 299  Kazakhstan * 273 270 342  Kenya * 76 86 83  Kiribati * 192 163 167  Kuwait * 1,661 1,644 1,533  Kyrgyzstan * 67 63 64  Laos * 57 68 68  Latvia * 1,101 1,183 1,313  Lebanon * 745 732 994  Lesotho * 122 121 107  Liberia * 66 52 57  Lithuania * 1,249 1,370 1,522 1,840  Luxembourg * 6,227 6,222 6,757 7,314  Madagascar * 22 19 18  Malawi * 37 30 33  Malaysia * 416 427 419  Maldives * 805 852 826  Mali * 32 33 35  Malta * 2,754 2,944 3,135  Marshall Islands * 737 782 731  Mauritania * 59 60 59  Mauritius * 642 672 560  Mexico * 531 553 539  Micronesia * 422 421 425  Monaco * 3,101 3,055 3,085  Mongolia * 158 183 200  Montenegro * 727 732 866  Morocco * 175 177 187  Mozambique * 41 40 34  Myanmar * 60 61 72  Namibia * 473 432 380  Nauru * 1,176 1,159 1,144  Nepal * 50 53 58  Netherlands * 5,331 5,341 5,846 6,531  New Zealand * 3,958 4,082 4,202  Nicaragua * 168 162 161  Niger * 30 31 35  Nigeria * 66 70 70  Niue 1,325 1,157 1,319  North Macedonia * 387 421 453  Norway * 8,272 8,007 7,704 9,021  Oman * 639 728 845  Pakistan * 41 37 38  Palau 1,790 2,403 2,640  Panama * 1,228 1,318 1,215  Papua New Guinea * 59 60 64  Paraguay * 421 416 406  Peru * 363 367 389  Philippines * 126 142 165 194  Poland * 979 1,014 1,026 1,183  Portugal * 2,216 2,222 2,342 2,720  Qatar * 2,156 2,208 2,188  South Korea * 2,519 2,595 2,642 3,031  Moldova * 276 284 307  Romania * 687 739 810  Russia * 609 654 774  Rwanda * 52 51 57  Saint Kitts and Nevis * 1,103 1,204 1,105  Saint Lucia * 513 514 608  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines * 348 375 402  Samoa * 198 239 202  San Marino * 4,115 3,951 3,938  São Tomé and Príncipe * 115 105 107  Saudi Arabia * 1,291  Senegal * 66 66 77  Serbia * 617 641 672  Seychelles * 792 787 727  Sierra Leone * 43 45 43  Singapore * 2,642 2,826 3,537  Slovakia * 1,300 1,342 1,394  Slovenia * 2,170 2,219 2,417 2,671  Solomon Islands * 92 104 99  South Africa * 569 550 490  South Sudan * 28 24 33  Spain * 2,741 2,713 2,901  Sri Lanka * 159 142 151  Sudan * 36 36 23  Suriname * 450 593 460  Sweden * 6,005 5,653 6,028 6,915  Switzerland * 9,871 9,667 10,310  Tajikistan * 60 62 70  Thailand * 276 294 305  East Timor * 79 79 121  Togo * 53 49 53  Tonga * 219 230 248  Trinidad and Tobago * 1,056 1,072 1,031  Tunisia * 212 190 222  Turkey * 388 397 395  Turkmenistan * 457 489 484  Tuvalu * 801 1,034 1,071  Uganda * 33 33 34  Ukraine * 221 247 270  United Arab Emirates * 1,915 1,947 2,192  United Kingdom * 4,228 4,265 4,927 5,634  Tanzania * 41 40 39  United States * 10,285 10,661 11,702  Uruguay * 1,697 1,677 1,430  Uzbekistan * 82 99 121  Vanuatu * 102 102 114  Venezuela * 165 113 142  Vietnam * 164 174 166  Zambia * 75 67 54  Zimbabwe * 115 55 51 See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to Health expenditure, Category:Healthcare statistics by country, Health expenditure per capita and Health expenditure in relation to GDP. Health spending as percent of gross domestic product (GDP) by country Health system Health systems by country List of countries by hospital beds List of countries by life expectancy List of countries by infant mortality rate List of countries by maternal mortality ratio List of countries by quality of health care List of OECD health expenditure by country by type of financing Notes and references ^ a b c d Health expenditure and financing. OECD data. Also includes some non-OECD countries at the end of the list. OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Choose options from dropdown menus. See the "Financing scheme" menu. For the multi-year table pick "All financing schemes". Set "Function" menu to "Current expenditure on health (all functions)". Set "Provider" menu to "All providers". Set "Measure" menu to "Per capita, current prices, current PPPs". Pick years. Pick countries. Then export to Excel, and open in a spreadsheet such as freeware LibreOffice Calc. Clean up table and copy to visual editor in a sandbox. See Help:Table. ^ a b c d OECD Data. Health resources - Health spending. doi:10.1787/8643de7e-en. 2 charts: For both: From bottom menus: Countries menu > choose OECD. Check box for "latest data available". Perspectives menu > Check box to "compare variables". Then check the boxes for government/compulsory, voluntary, and total. Some charts will also need "out-of-pocket" checked (part of voluntary spending). Click top tab for chart (bar chart). For GDP chart choose "% of GDP" from bottom menu. For per capita chart choose "US dollars/per capita". Click fullscreen button above chart. Click "print screen" key. Click top tab for table, to see data list. Scroll down for multiple lists. Click download > "selected data only" to get the .csv file to create an article table. Uncheck the "compare variables" box first to get just the totals. Concerning per capita data click "more" in the intro paragraph to see that PPP U.S. dollars are used. ^ Link between health spending and life expectancy: US is an outlier. May 26, 2017. By Max Roser at Our World in Data. Click the sources tab under the chart for info on the countries, healthcare expenditures, and data sources. See the later version of the chart here. ^ a b What is the difference between current and constant data? From: World Bank Data Help Desk. ^ a b What is an “international dollar”? From: World Bank Data Help Desk. ^ a b Global Health Expenditure Database. Data Explorer. World Health Organization. Set up a table by selecting options in the left sidebar. Then click "view data and build report" to get a table with year columns, and country rows. Print it out, or download in various formats. vteLists of countries by population statisticsGlobal Current population United Nations Demographics of the world Continents/subregions Africa Antarctica Asia Europe North America Caribbean Oceania South America Intercontinental Americas Arab world Commonwealth of Nations Eurasia European Union Islands Latin America Middle East Cities/urban areas World cities National capitals Megacities Megalopolises Past and future Past and future population World population estimates 1 1000 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 1939 1989 2000 2005 2010 2015 Population milestones Population density Current density Past and future population density Person-to-arable land ratio Growth indicators Population growth rate Natural increase Net reproduction rate Number of births Number of deaths Birth rate Mortality rate Fertility rate Past fertility rate Life expectancy world Africa Asia Europe North America Oceania South America world regions past life expectancy Other demographics Age at childbearing Age at first marriage Age structure Dependency ratio Divorce rate Ethnic and cultural diversity level Ethnic composition Immigrant population Linguistic diversity Median age Net migration rate Number of households Religion / Irreligion Sex ratio Urban population Urbanization Health Antidepressant consumption Antiviral medications for pandemic influenza HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate Infant and under-five mortality rates Maternal mortality rate Obesity rate Percentage suffering from undernourishment Health expenditure by country by type of financing Suicide rate Total health expenditure per capita Total healthcare spending as % of GDP Body mass index (BMI) Education and innovation Bloomberg Innovation Index Education Index Global Innovation Index International Innovation Index Literacy rate Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) Tertiary education attainment World Intellectual Property Indicators Economic Access to financial services Development aid donors Official Development Assistance received Employment rate Irrigated land area Human Development Index by country inequality-adjusted planetary pressures–adjusted HDI Human Poverty Index Imports Exports Income equality Labour force Share of income of top 1% Number of millionaires (US dollars) Number of billionaires (US dollars) Percentage living in poverty Public sector Unemployment rate Wealth inequality List of international rankings Lists by country

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US average of $10,447 in 2018.[3]This article includes 2 lists of countries of the world and their total expenditure on health per capita. Total expenditure includes both public and private expenditures. See also: Health spending as percent of gross domestic product (GDP) by country.The first table and bar chart lists member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). It shows each country's total spending (public and private) on health per capita in PPP international dollars.The next table lists nearly all countries. It uses data from the World Health Organization (WHO). It also shows each country's total spending (public and private) on health per capita in PPP international dollars.The top chart to the right measures the total cost of health care (public and private expenditures) as a percent of GDP (gross domestic product) for a few nations. GDP is a measure of the total economy of a nation. The chart below it shows that high life expectancy can be had across the range of health expenditures by country. See: List of countries by life expectancy.","title":"List of countries by total health expenditure per capita"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Healthcare in LOCATION","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Health_care_by_country"}],"sub_title":"Table","text":"Row numbers are static. Other columns are sortable. This allows ranking of any column.Location links below are \"Healthcare in LOCATION\" links.","title":"Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"US dollars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar"},{"link_name":"per capita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_capita"},{"link_name":"PPPs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity"},{"link_name":"OECD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OECD"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OECDstats-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OECD-barcharts-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Health_spending._OECD_countries._US_dollars_per_capita_(using_economy-wide_PPPs).png"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OECDstats-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OECD-barcharts-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OECD_health_expenditure_per_capita_by_country.svg"}],"text":"Health spending by country. US dollars per capita (using economy-wide PPPs). From OECD Data. \"Government/compulsory\": Government spending and compulsory health insurance. \"Voluntary\": Voluntary health insurance and private funds such as households’ out-of-pocket payments, NGOs and private corporations. In the first chart below they are represented by columns starting at zero. They are not stacked. The 2 are combined to get the total. OECD countries only in the first chart.[1][2]Click to enlarge.The chart below is older and breaks down the voluntary spending further by separating out-of-pocket payments. In this chart the items are stacked by color. There are a few other countries than just OECD countries.[1][2]Click to enlarge.","title":"OECD bar charts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World Health Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WHO-6"}],"text":"A country list from World Health Organization's Global Health Expenditure Database.[6]","title":"World Health Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Healthcare in LOCATION","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Health_care_by_country"},{"link_name":"Health in LOCATION","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Health_by_country"}],"sub_title":"Table 2","text":"Row numbers are static. Other columns are sortable. This allows ranking of any column.Asterisk (*) indicates \"Healthcare in LOCATION\" or \"Health in LOCATION\" links.","title":"World Health Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-OECDstats_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-OECDstats_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-OECDstats_1-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-OECDstats_1-3"},{"link_name":"Health expenditure and financing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SHA"},{"link_name":"Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development"},{"link_name":"Help:Table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Table"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-OECD-barcharts_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-OECD-barcharts_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-OECD-barcharts_2-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-OECD-barcharts_2-3"},{"link_name":"OECD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OECD"},{"link_name":"Health resources - Health spending","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.oecd.org/healthres/health-spending.htm"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1787/8643de7e-en","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1787%2F8643de7e-en"},{"link_name":"PPP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-life_3-0"},{"link_name":"Link between health spending and life expectancy: US is an outlier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ourworldindata.org/the-link-between-life-expectancy-and-health-spending-us-focus"},{"link_name":"Max Roser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Roser"},{"link_name":"Our World in Data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_World_in_Data"},{"link_name":"here","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ourworldindata.org/us-life-expectancy-low"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-constantdata_4-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-constantdata_4-1"},{"link_name":"What is the difference between current and constant data?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/114942-what-is-the-difference-between-current-and-constan"},{"link_name":"World Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bank"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-international$_5-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-international$_5-1"},{"link_name":"What is an “international dollar”?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/114944-what-is-an-international-dollar"},{"link_name":"World Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bank"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-WHO_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-WHO_6-1"},{"link_name":"Global Health Expenditure Database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//apps.who.int/nha/database/Select/Indicators/en"},{"link_name":"World Health Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Lists_of_countries_by_population_statistics"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Lists_of_countries_by_population_statistics"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lists_of_countries_by_population_statistics"},{"link_name":"Lists of countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories"},{"link_name":"population statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_statistics"},{"link_name":"Global","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population"},{"link_name":"Current population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_(United_Nations)"},{"link_name":"Demographics of the world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_the_world"},{"link_name":"Continents/subregions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_continents_and_continental_subregions_by_population"},{"link_name":"Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_population"},{"link_name":"Antarctica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Antarctica"},{"link_name":"Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Asian_countries_by_population"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_population"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_North_American_countries_by_population"},{"link_name":"Caribbean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Caribbean_countries_by_population"},{"link_name":"Oceania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Oceanian_countries_by_population"},{"link_name":"South America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_South_American_countries_by_population"},{"link_name":"Americas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_in_the_Americas_by_population"},{"link_name":"Arab world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Arab_countries_by_population"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth of Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_member_states_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations_by_population"},{"link_name":"Eurasia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Eurasian_countries_by_population"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_European_Union_member_states_by_population"},{"link_name":"Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_by_population"},{"link_name":"Latin America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin_American_countries_by_population"},{"link_name":"Middle East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Middle_Eastern_countries_by_population"},{"link_name":"World cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_cities"},{"link_name":"National capitals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_capitals_by_population"},{"link_name":"Megacities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megacity"},{"link_name":"Megalopolises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megalopolis"},{"link_name":"Past and future population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_past_and_projected_future_population"},{"link_name":"World population estimates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population_estimates"},{"link_name":"1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_by_population_in_1_CE"},{"link_name":"1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_1000"},{"link_name":"1500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_1500"},{"link_name":"1600","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_1600"},{"link_name":"1700","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_1700"},{"link_name":"1800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_1800"},{"link_name":"1900","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_1900"},{"link_name":"1939","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_1939"},{"link_name":"1989","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_1989"},{"link_name":"2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_2000"},{"link_name":"2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_2005"},{"link_name":"2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_2010"},{"link_name":"2015","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_2015"},{"link_name":"Population milestones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_population_milestones_by_country"},{"link_name":"Population density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_density"},{"link_name":"Current density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population_density"},{"link_name":"Past and future population density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_and_future_population_density_by_country"},{"link_name":"Person-to-arable land ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_arable_land_density"},{"link_name":"Population growth rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_growth_rate"},{"link_name":"Natural increase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_increase"},{"link_name":"Net reproduction rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_net_reproduction_rate"},{"link_name":"Number of births","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_births"},{"link_name":"Number of deaths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_deaths"},{"link_name":"Birth rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_birth_rate"},{"link_name":"Mortality rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_mortality_rate"},{"link_name":"Fertility rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependencies_by_total_fertility_rate"},{"link_name":"Past fertility rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_past_fertility_rate"},{"link_name":"Life expectancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_expectancy"},{"link_name":"world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_life_expectancy"},{"link_name":"Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_life_expectancy"},{"link_name":"Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Asian_countries_by_life_expectancy"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_life_expectancy"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_North_American_countries_by_life_expectancy"},{"link_name":"Oceania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Oceanian_countries_by_life_expectancy"},{"link_name":"South America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_South_American_countries_by_life_expectancy"},{"link_name":"world regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_world_regions_by_life_expectancy"},{"link_name":"past life expectancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_past_life_expectancy"},{"link_name":"demographics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demography"},{"link_name":"Age at childbearing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_mean_age_at_childbearing"},{"link_name":"Age at first marriage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_age_at_first_marriage"},{"link_name":"Age structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_age_structure"},{"link_name":"Dependency ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_dependency_ratio"},{"link_name":"Divorce rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divorce_demography"},{"link_name":"Ethnic and cultural diversity level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_ranked_by_ethnic_and_cultural_diversity_level"},{"link_name":"Ethnic composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_ethnic_groups"},{"link_name":"Immigrant population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_by_immigrant_population"},{"link_name":"Linguistic diversity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_diversity_index"},{"link_name":"Median age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_median_age"},{"link_name":"Net migration rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_net_migration_rate"},{"link_name":"Number of households","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_households"},{"link_name":"Religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_religious_populations"},{"link_name":"Irreligion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_irreligion"},{"link_name":"Sex ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_sex_ratio"},{"link_name":"Urban population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_urban_population"},{"link_name":"Urbanization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanization_by_country"},{"link_name":"Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health"},{"link_name":"Antidepressant consumption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_antidepressant_consumption"},{"link_name":"Antiviral medications for pandemic influenza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockpiling_antiviral_medications_for_pandemic_influenza"},{"link_name":"HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_HIV/AIDS_adult_prevalence_rate"},{"link_name":"Infant and under-five mortality rates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_infant_and_under-five_mortality_rates"},{"link_name":"Maternal mortality rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_maternal_mortality_ratio"},{"link_name":"Obesity rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_obesity_rate"},{"link_name":"Percentage suffering from undernourishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_percentage_of_population_suffering_from_undernourishment"},{"link_name":"Health expenditure by country by type of financing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_OECD_health_expenditure_by_country_by_type_of_financing"},{"link_name":"Suicide rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_suicide_rate"},{"link_name":"Total health expenditure per capita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Total healthcare spending as % of GDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_spending_by_country_as_a_percent_of_gross_domestic_product"},{"link_name":"Body mass index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_body_mass_index"},{"link_name":"Bloomberg Innovation Index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_Innovation_Index"},{"link_name":"Education Index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_Index"},{"link_name":"Global Innovation Index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index"},{"link_name":"International Innovation Index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Innovation_Index"},{"link_name":"Literacy rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_literacy_rate"},{"link_name":"Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programme_for_the_International_Assessment_of_Adult_Competencies"},{"link_name":"Programme for International Student Assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programme_for_International_Student_Assessment"},{"link_name":"Progress in International Reading Literacy Study","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_in_International_Reading_Literacy_Study"},{"link_name":"Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trends_in_International_Mathematics_and_Science_Study"},{"link_name":"Tertiary education attainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_tertiary_education_attainment"},{"link_name":"World Intellectual Property Indicators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Indicators"},{"link_name":"Economic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_economics"},{"link_name":"Access to financial services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_share_of_population_with_access_to_financial_services"},{"link_name":"Development aid donors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_development_aid_sovereign_state_donors"},{"link_name":"Official Development Assistance received","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_by_Official_Development_Assistance_received"},{"link_name":"Employment rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_employment_rate"},{"link_name":"Irrigated land area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_irrigated_land_area"},{"link_name":"Human Development Index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index"},{"link_name":"by country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index"},{"link_name":"inequality-adjusted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_inequality-adjusted_Human_Development_Index"},{"link_name":"planetary pressures–adjusted HDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_planetary_pressures%E2%80%93adjusted_Human_Development_Index"},{"link_name":"Human Poverty Index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Poverty_Index"},{"link_name":"Imports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_imports"},{"link_name":"Exports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_exports"},{"link_name":"Income equality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_income_equality"},{"link_name":"Labour force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_labour_force"},{"link_name":"Share of income of top 1%","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_share_of_income_of_the_richest_one_percent"},{"link_name":"Number of millionaires (US dollars)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_millionaires"},{"link_name":"Number of billionaires (US dollars)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_billionaires"},{"link_name":"Percentage living in poverty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_percentage_of_population_living_in_poverty"},{"link_name":"Public sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_public_sector_size"},{"link_name":"Unemployment rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_unemployment_rate"},{"link_name":"Wealth inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_wealth_inequality"},{"link_name":"List of international rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_rankings"},{"link_name":"Lists by country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_by_country"}],"text":"^ a b c d Health expenditure and financing. OECD data. Also includes some non-OECD countries at the end of the list. OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Choose options from dropdown menus. See the \"Financing scheme\" menu. For the multi-year table pick \"All financing schemes\". Set \"Function\" menu to \"Current expenditure on health (all functions)\". Set \"Provider\" menu to \"All providers\". Set \"Measure\" menu to \"Per capita, current prices, current PPPs\". Pick years. Pick countries. Then export to Excel, and open in a spreadsheet such as freeware LibreOffice Calc. Clean up table and copy to visual editor in a sandbox. See Help:Table.\n\n^ a b c d OECD Data. Health resources - Health spending. doi:10.1787/8643de7e-en. 2 charts: For both: From bottom menus: Countries menu > choose OECD. Check box for \"latest data available\". Perspectives menu > Check box to \"compare variables\". Then check the boxes for government/compulsory, voluntary, and total. Some charts will also need \"out-of-pocket\" checked (part of voluntary spending). Click top tab for chart (bar chart). For GDP chart choose \"% of GDP\" from bottom menu. For per capita chart choose \"US dollars/per capita\". Click fullscreen button above chart. Click \"print screen\" key. Click top tab for table, to see data list. Scroll down for multiple lists. Click download > \"selected data only\" to get the .csv file to create an article table. Uncheck the \"compare variables\" box first to get just the totals. Concerning per capita data click \"more\" in the intro paragraph to see that PPP U.S. dollars are used.\n\n^ Link between health spending and life expectancy: US is an outlier. May 26, 2017. By Max Roser at Our World in Data. Click the sources tab under the chart for info on the countries, healthcare expenditures, and data sources. See the later version of the chart here.\n\n^ a b What is the difference between current and constant data? From: World Bank Data Help Desk.\n\n^ a b What is an “international dollar”? From: World Bank Data Help Desk.\n\n^ a b Global Health Expenditure Database. Data Explorer. World Health Organization. Set up a table by selecting options in the left sidebar. Then click \"view data and build report\" to get a table with year columns, and country rows. Print it out, or download in various formats.vteLists of countries by population statisticsGlobal\nCurrent population\nUnited Nations\nDemographics of the world\nContinents/subregions\nAfrica\nAntarctica\nAsia\nEurope\nNorth America\nCaribbean\nOceania\nSouth America\nIntercontinental\nAmericas\nArab world\nCommonwealth of Nations\nEurasia\nEuropean Union\nIslands\nLatin America\nMiddle East\nCities/urban areas\nWorld cities\nNational capitals\nMegacities\nMegalopolises\nPast and future\nPast and future population\nWorld population estimates\n1\n1000\n1500\n1600\n1700\n1800\n1900\n1939\n1989\n2000\n2005\n2010\n2015\nPopulation milestones\nPopulation density\nCurrent density\nPast and future population density\nPerson-to-arable land ratio\nGrowth indicators\nPopulation growth rate\nNatural increase\nNet reproduction rate\nNumber of births\nNumber of deaths\nBirth rate\nMortality rate\nFertility rate\nPast fertility rate\nLife expectancy\nworld\nAfrica\nAsia\nEurope\nNorth America\nOceania\nSouth America\nworld regions\npast life expectancy\nOther demographics\nAge at childbearing\nAge at first marriage\nAge structure\nDependency ratio\nDivorce rate\nEthnic and cultural diversity level\nEthnic composition\nImmigrant population\nLinguistic diversity\nMedian age\nNet migration rate\nNumber of households\nReligion / Irreligion\nSex ratio\nUrban population\nUrbanization\nHealth\nAntidepressant consumption\nAntiviral medications for pandemic influenza\nHIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate\nInfant and under-five mortality rates\nMaternal mortality rate\nObesity rate\nPercentage suffering from undernourishment\nHealth expenditure by country by type of financing\nSuicide rate\nTotal health expenditure per capita\nTotal healthcare spending as % of GDP\nBody mass index (BMI)\nEducation and innovation\nBloomberg Innovation Index\nEducation Index\nGlobal Innovation Index\nInternational Innovation Index\nLiteracy rate\nProgramme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies\nProgramme for International Student Assessment (PISA)\nProgress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS)\nTrends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)\nTertiary education attainment\nWorld Intellectual Property Indicators\nEconomic\nAccess to financial services\nDevelopment aid donors\nOfficial Development Assistance received\nEmployment rate\nIrrigated land area\nHuman Development Index\nby country\ninequality-adjusted\nplanetary pressures–adjusted HDI\nHuman Poverty Index\nImports\nExports\nIncome equality\nLabour force\nShare of income of top 1%\nNumber of millionaires (US dollars)\nNumber of billionaires (US dollars)\nPercentage living in poverty\nPublic sector\nUnemployment rate\nWealth inequality\n\nList of international rankings\nLists by country","title":"Notes and references"}]

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurries

Slurry

["1 Examples","2 Calculations","2.1 Determining solids fraction","2.2 Liquid mass from mass fraction of solids","2.3 Volumetric fraction from mass fraction","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]

Mixture of solids suspended in liquid This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. (September 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) For the geographical place, see Slurry, North West. A slurry composed of glass beads in silicone oil flowing down an inclined plane Potato starch slurry A slurry is a mixture of denser solids suspended in liquid, usually water. The most common use of slurry is as a means of transporting solids or separating minerals, the liquid being a carrier that is pumped on a device such as a centrifugal pump. The size of solid particles may vary from 1 micrometre up to hundreds of millimetres. The particles may settle below a certain transport velocity and the mixture can behave like a Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluid. Depending on the mixture, the slurry may be abrasive and/or corrosive. Examples Examples of slurries include: Cement slurry, a mixture of cement, water, and assorted dry and liquid additives used in the petroleum and other industries Soil/cement slurry, also called Controlled Low-Strength Material (CLSM), flowable fill, controlled density fill, flowable mortar, plastic soil-cement, K-Krete, and other names A mixture of thickening agent, oxidizers, and water used to form a gel explosive A mixture of pyroclastic material, rocky debris, and water produced in a volcanic eruption and known as a lahar A mixture of bentonite and water used to make slurry walls Coal slurry, a mixture of coal waste and water, or crushed coal and water Slip, a mixture of clay and water used for joining, glazing and decoration of ceramics and pottery. Slurry oil, the highest boiling fraction distilled from the effluent of an FCC unit in an oil refinery. It contains a large amount of catalyst, in form of sediments hence the denomination of slurry. A mixture of wood pulp and water used to make paper Manure slurry, a mixture of animal waste, organic matter, and sometimes water often known simply as "slurry" in agricultural use, used as fertilizer after aging in a slurry pit Meat slurry, a mixture of finely ground meat and water, centrifugally dewatered and used as a food ingredient. An abrasive substance used in chemical-mechanical polishing Slurry ice, a mixture of ice crystals, freezing point depressant, and water A mixture of raw materials and water involved in the rawmill manufacture of Portland cement A bolus of chewed food mixed with saliva A mixture of epoxy glue and glass microspheres used as a filler compound around core materials in sandwich-structured composite airframes. Calculations Determining solids fraction To determine the percent solids (or solids fraction) of a slurry from the density of the slurry, solids and liquid ϕ s l = ρ s ( ρ s l − ρ l ) ρ s l ( ρ s − ρ l ) {\displaystyle \phi _{sl}={\frac {\rho _{s}(\rho _{sl}-\rho _{l})}{\rho _{sl}(\rho _{s}-\rho _{l})}}} where ϕ s l {\displaystyle \phi _{sl}} is the solids fraction of the slurry (state by mass) ρ s {\displaystyle \rho _{s}} is the solids density ρ s l {\displaystyle \rho _{sl}} is the slurry density ρ l {\displaystyle \rho _{l}} is the liquid density In aqueous slurries, as is common in mineral processing, the specific gravity of the species is typically used, and since specific gravity of water is taken to be 1, this relation is typically written: ϕ s l = ρ s ( ρ s l − 1 ) ρ s l ( ρ s − 1 ) {\displaystyle \phi _{sl}={\frac {\rho _{s}(\rho _{sl}-1)}{\rho _{sl}(\rho _{s}-1)}}} even though specific gravity with units tonnes/m3 (t/m3) is used instead of the SI density unit, kg/m3. Liquid mass from mass fraction of solids To determine the mass of liquid in a sample given the mass of solids and the mass fraction: By definition ϕ s l = M s M s l {\displaystyle \phi _{sl}={\frac {M_{s}}{M_{sl}}}} therefore M s l = M s ϕ s l {\displaystyle M_{sl}={\frac {M_{s}}{\phi _{sl}}}} and M s + M l = M s ϕ s l {\displaystyle M_{s}+M_{l}={\frac {M_{s}}{\phi _{sl}}}} then M l = M s ϕ s l − M s {\displaystyle M_{l}={\frac {M_{s}}{\phi _{sl}}}-M_{s}} and therefore M l = 1 − ϕ s l ϕ s l M s {\displaystyle M_{l}={\frac {1-\phi _{sl}}{\phi _{sl}}}M_{s}} where ϕ s l {\displaystyle \phi _{sl}} is the solids fraction of the slurry M s {\displaystyle M_{s}} is the mass or mass flow of solids in the sample or stream M s l {\displaystyle M_{sl}} is the mass or mass flow of slurry in the sample or stream M l {\displaystyle M_{l}} is the mass or mass flow of liquid in the sample or stream Volumetric fraction from mass fraction ϕ s l , m = M s M s l {\displaystyle \phi _{sl,m}={\frac {M_{s}}{M_{sl}}}} Equivalently ϕ s l , v = V s V s l {\displaystyle \phi _{sl,v}={\frac {V_{s}}{V_{sl}}}} and in a minerals processing context where the specific gravity of the liquid (water) is taken to be one: ϕ s l , v = M s S G s M s S G s + M l 1 {\displaystyle \phi _{sl,v}={\frac {\frac {M_{s}}{SG_{s}}}{{\frac {M_{s}}{SG_{s}}}+{\frac {M_{l}}{1}}}}} So ϕ s l , v = M s M s + M l S G s {\displaystyle \phi _{sl,v}={\frac {M_{s}}{M_{s}+M_{l}SG_{s}}}} and ϕ s l , v = 1 1 + M l S G s M s {\displaystyle \phi _{sl,v}={\frac {1}{1+{\frac {M_{l}SG_{s}}{M_{s}}}}}} Then combining with the first equation: ϕ s l , v = 1 1 + M l S G s ϕ s l , m M s M s M s + M l {\displaystyle \phi _{sl,v}={\frac {1}{1+{\frac {M_{l}SG_{s}}{\phi _{sl,m}M_{s}}}{\frac {M_{s}}{M_{s}+M_{l}}}}}} So ϕ s l , v = 1 1 + S G s ϕ s l , m M l M s + M l {\displaystyle \phi _{sl,v}={\frac {1}{1+{\frac {SG_{s}}{\phi _{sl,m}}}{\frac {M_{l}}{M_{s}+M_{l}}}}}} Then since ϕ s l , m = M s M s + M l = 1 − M l M s + M l {\displaystyle \phi _{sl,m}={\frac {M_{s}}{M_{s}+M_{l}}}=1-{\frac {M_{l}}{M_{s}+M_{l}}}} we conclude that ϕ s l , v = 1 1 + S G s ( 1 ϕ s l , m − 1 ) {\displaystyle \phi _{sl,v}={\frac {1}{1+SG_{s}({\frac {1}{\phi _{sl,m}}}-1)}}} where ϕ s l , v {\displaystyle \phi _{sl,v}} is the solids fraction of the slurry on a volumetric basis ϕ s l , m {\displaystyle \phi _{sl,m}} is the solids fraction of the slurry on a mass basis M s {\displaystyle M_{s}} is the mass or mass flow of solids in the sample or stream M s l {\displaystyle M_{sl}} is the mass or mass flow of slurry in the sample or stream M l {\displaystyle M_{l}} is the mass or mass flow of liquid in the sample or stream S G s {\displaystyle SG_{s}} is the bulk specific gravity of the solids See also Grout Slurry pipeline Slurry transport Slurry wall References ^ "Shlumberger: Oilfield glossary". Archived from the original on 2012-05-31. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ "Rheonova : Measuring rheological properties of settling slurries". Archived from the original on 2020-04-18. Retrieved 2013-11-30. ^ "Portland Cement Association: Controlled Low-Strength Material". Archived from the original on 2013-10-17. Retrieved 2012-05-06. ^ "IRing - Creators of Aegis, an underground drill & blast planning software that helps a mine improve its effectiveness and efficiency". Archived from the original on 2020-08-07. Retrieved 2020-01-02. ^ Red Valve Company: Coal Slurry Pipeline ^ Rheonova : Measuring food bolus properties Archived 2013-11-30 at archive.today ^ Wills, B.A. and Napier-Munn, T.J, Wills' Mineral Processing Technology: an introduction to the practical aspects of ore treatment and mineral recovery, ISBN 978-0-7506-4450-1, Seventh Edition (2006), Elsevier, Great Britain External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Slurry. Look up slurry in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Bonapace, A.C. A General Theory of the Hydraulic Transport of Solids in Full Suspension Ravelet, F.; Bakir, F.; Khelladi, S.; Rey, R. (2013). "Experimental study of hydraulic transport of large particles in horizontal pipes" (PDF). Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science. 45: 187–197. doi:10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2012.11.003. S2CID 55554454. Ming, G., Ruixiang, L., Fusheng, N., Liqun, X. (2007). Hydraulic Transport of Coarse Gravel—A Laboratory Investigation Into Flow Resistance. Authority control databases: National Israel United States Japan

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Slurry, North West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry,_North_West"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:High_angle.jpg"},{"link_name":"silicone oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicone_oil"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Potato_starch_slurry.jpg"},{"link_name":"Potato starch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potato_starch"},{"link_name":"centrifugal pump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifugal_pump"},{"link_name":"micrometre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometre"},{"link_name":"millimetres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millimetres"},{"link_name":"Newtonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtonian_fluid"},{"link_name":"non-Newtonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Newtonian_fluid"}],"text":"For the geographical place, see Slurry, North West.A slurry composed of glass beads in silicone oil flowing down an inclined planePotato starch slurryA slurry is a mixture of denser solids suspended in liquid, usually water. The most common use of slurry is as a means of transporting solids or separating minerals, the liquid being a carrier that is pumped on a device such as a centrifugal pump. The size of solid particles may vary from 1 micrometre up to hundreds of millimetres.\nThe particles may settle below a certain transport velocity and the mixture can behave like a Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluid. Depending on the mixture, the slurry may be abrasive and/or corrosive.","title":"Slurry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cement"},{"link_name":"petroleum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"thickening agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thickening_agent#Explosives_and_incendiaries"},{"link_name":"gel explosive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_gel_explosive"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"pyroclastic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroclastic_rock"},{"link_name":"volcanic eruption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_eruption"},{"link_name":"lahar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahar"},{"link_name":"bentonite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentonite"},{"link_name":"slurry walls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry_wall"},{"link_name":"Coal slurry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_slurry"},{"link_name":"coal waste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_refuse"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Slip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slip_(ceramics)"},{"link_name":"clay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay"},{"link_name":"Slurry oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slurry_oil&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"FCC unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FCC_unit"},{"link_name":"oil refinery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refinery"},{"link_name":"paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper"},{"link_name":"agricultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture"},{"link_name":"fertilizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizer"},{"link_name":"slurry pit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry_pit"},{"link_name":"Meat slurry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meat_slurry"},{"link_name":"chemical-mechanical polishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical-mechanical_polishing"},{"link_name":"Slurry ice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry_ice"},{"link_name":"rawmill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rawmill"},{"link_name":"Portland cement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_cement"},{"link_name":"bolus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolus_(digestion)"},{"link_name":"saliva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saliva"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"glass microspheres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_microsphere"},{"link_name":"sandwich-structured composite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandwich-structured_composite"}],"text":"Examples of slurries include:Cement slurry, a mixture of cement, water, and assorted dry and liquid additives used in the petroleum and other industries[1][2]\nSoil/cement slurry, also called Controlled Low-Strength Material (CLSM), flowable fill, controlled density fill, flowable mortar, plastic soil-cement, K-Krete, and other names[3]\nA mixture of thickening agent, oxidizers, and water used to form a gel explosive[4]\nA mixture of pyroclastic material, rocky debris, and water produced in a volcanic eruption and known as a lahar\nA mixture of bentonite and water used to make slurry walls\nCoal slurry, a mixture of coal waste and water, or crushed coal and water[5]\nSlip, a mixture of clay and water used for joining, glazing and decoration of ceramics and pottery.\nSlurry oil, the highest boiling fraction distilled from the effluent of an FCC unit in an oil refinery. It contains a large amount of catalyst, in form of sediments hence the denomination of slurry.\nA mixture of wood pulp and water used to make paper\nManure slurry, a mixture of animal waste, organic matter, and sometimes water often known simply as \"slurry\" in agricultural use, used as fertilizer after aging in a slurry pit\nMeat slurry, a mixture of finely ground meat and water, centrifugally dewatered and used as a food ingredient.\nAn abrasive substance used in chemical-mechanical polishing\nSlurry ice, a mixture of ice crystals, freezing point depressant, and water\nA mixture of raw materials and water involved in the rawmill manufacture of Portland cement\nA bolus of chewed food mixed with saliva[6]\nA mixture of epoxy glue and glass microspheres used as a filler compound around core materials in sandwich-structured composite airframes.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Calculations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"specific gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_density"}],"sub_title":"Determining solids fraction","text":"To determine the percent solids (or solids fraction) of a slurry from the density of the slurry, solids and liquid[7]ϕ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n s\n \n \n (\n \n ρ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n −\n \n ρ\n \n l\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n ρ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n (\n \n ρ\n \n s\n \n \n −\n \n ρ\n \n l\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl}={\\frac {\\rho _{s}(\\rho _{sl}-\\rho _{l})}{\\rho _{sl}(\\rho _{s}-\\rho _{l})}}}whereϕ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl}}\n \n is the solids fraction of the slurry (state by mass)\n\n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{s}}\n \n is the solids density\n\n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{sl}}\n \n is the slurry density\n\n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n l\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{l}}\n \n is the liquid densityIn aqueous slurries, as is common in mineral processing, the specific gravity of the species is typically used, and since specific gravity of water is taken to be 1, this relation is typically written:ϕ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n s\n \n \n (\n \n ρ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n −\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n ρ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n (\n \n ρ\n \n s\n \n \n −\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl}={\\frac {\\rho _{s}(\\rho _{sl}-1)}{\\rho _{sl}(\\rho _{s}-1)}}}even though specific gravity with units tonnes/m3 (t/m3) is used instead of the SI density unit, kg/m3.","title":"Calculations"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Liquid mass from mass fraction of solids","text":"To determine the mass of liquid in a sample given the mass of solids and the mass fraction:\nBy definitionϕ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n l\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl}={\\frac {M_{s}}{M_{sl}}}}thereforeM\n \n s\n l\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{sl}={\\frac {M_{s}}{\\phi _{sl}}}}andM\n \n s\n \n \n +\n \n M\n \n l\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{s}+M_{l}={\\frac {M_{s}}{\\phi _{sl}}}}thenM\n \n l\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{l}={\\frac {M_{s}}{\\phi _{sl}}}-M_{s}}and thereforeM\n \n l\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 1\n −\n \n ϕ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{l}={\\frac {1-\\phi _{sl}}{\\phi _{sl}}}M_{s}}whereϕ\n \n s\n l\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl}}\n \n is the solids fraction of the slurry\n\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{s}}\n \n is the mass or mass flow of solids in the sample or stream\n\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n l\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{sl}}\n \n is the mass or mass flow of slurry in the sample or stream\n\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n l\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{l}}\n \n is the mass or mass flow of liquid in the sample or stream","title":"Calculations"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Volumetric fraction from mass fraction","text":"ϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n m\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n l\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl,m}={\\frac {M_{s}}{M_{sl}}}}Equivalentlyϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n v\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n V\n \n s\n \n \n \n V\n \n s\n l\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl,v}={\\frac {V_{s}}{V_{sl}}}}and in a minerals processing context where the specific gravity of the liquid (water) is taken to be one:ϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n v\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n S\n \n G\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n S\n \n G\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n M\n \n l\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl,v}={\\frac {\\frac {M_{s}}{SG_{s}}}{{\\frac {M_{s}}{SG_{s}}}+{\\frac {M_{l}}{1}}}}}Soϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n v\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n +\n \n M\n \n l\n \n \n S\n \n G\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl,v}={\\frac {M_{s}}{M_{s}+M_{l}SG_{s}}}}andϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n v\n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 1\n +\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n l\n \n \n S\n \n G\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl,v}={\\frac {1}{1+{\\frac {M_{l}SG_{s}}{M_{s}}}}}}Then combining with the first equation:ϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n v\n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 1\n +\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n l\n \n \n S\n \n G\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n m\n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n +\n \n M\n \n l\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl,v}={\\frac {1}{1+{\\frac {M_{l}SG_{s}}{\\phi _{sl,m}M_{s}}}{\\frac {M_{s}}{M_{s}+M_{l}}}}}}Soϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n v\n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 1\n +\n \n \n \n S\n \n G\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n m\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n l\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n +\n \n M\n \n l\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl,v}={\\frac {1}{1+{\\frac {SG_{s}}{\\phi _{sl,m}}}{\\frac {M_{l}}{M_{s}+M_{l}}}}}}Then sinceϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n m\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n +\n \n M\n \n l\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 1\n −\n \n \n \n M\n \n l\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n +\n \n M\n \n l\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl,m}={\\frac {M_{s}}{M_{s}+M_{l}}}=1-{\\frac {M_{l}}{M_{s}+M_{l}}}}we conclude thatϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n v\n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 1\n +\n S\n \n G\n \n s\n \n \n (\n \n \n 1\n \n ϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n m\n \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl,v}={\\frac {1}{1+SG_{s}({\\frac {1}{\\phi _{sl,m}}}-1)}}}whereϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n v\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl,v}}\n \n is the solids fraction of the slurry on a volumetric basis\n\n \n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n s\n l\n ,\n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{sl,m}}\n \n is the solids fraction of the slurry on a mass basis\n\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{s}}\n \n is the mass or mass flow of solids in the sample or stream\n\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n s\n l\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{sl}}\n \n is the mass or mass flow of slurry in the sample or stream\n\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n l\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M_{l}}\n \n is the mass or mass flow of liquid in the sample or stream\n\n \n \n \n S\n \n G\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle SG_{s}}\n \n is the bulk specific gravity of the solids","title":"Calculations"}]

[{"image_text":"A slurry composed of glass beads in silicone oil flowing down an inclined plane","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/High_angle.jpg/220px-High_angle.jpg"},{"image_text":"Potato starch slurry","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Potato_starch_slurry.jpg/220px-Potato_starch_slurry.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Grout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grout"},{"title":"Slurry pipeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry_pipeline"},{"title":"Slurry transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry_transport"},{"title":"Slurry wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry_wall"}]

[{"reference":"\"Shlumberger: Oilfield glossary\". Archived from the original on 2012-05-31. Retrieved 2012-05-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120531130250/http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Display.cfm?Term=cement","url_text":"\"Shlumberger: Oilfield glossary\""},{"url":"http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Display.cfm?Term=cement","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Rheonova : Measuring rheological properties of settling slurries\". Archived from the original on 2020-04-18. Retrieved 2013-11-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rheonova.fr/en/chemistry","url_text":"\"Rheonova : Measuring rheological properties of settling slurries\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200418021320/http://www.rheonova.fr/en/chemistry","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Portland Cement Association: Controlled Low-Strength Material\". Archived from the original on 2013-10-17. Retrieved 2012-05-06.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cement.org/basics/concreteproducts_clsm.asp","url_text":"\"Portland Cement Association: Controlled Low-Strength Material\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131017174048/http://www.cement.org/basics/concreteproducts_clsm.asp","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"IRing - Creators of Aegis, an underground drill & blast planning software that helps a mine improve its effectiveness and efficiency\". Archived from the original on 2020-08-07. Retrieved 2020-01-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iring.ca/_Knowledgebase/module_2_3.html?ms=AAA%3D&st=MA%3D%3D&sct=MjI%3D&mw=MjQw","url_text":"\"IRing - Creators of Aegis, an underground drill & blast planning software that helps a mine improve its effectiveness and efficiency\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200807045312/http://www.iring.ca/_Knowledgebase/module_2_3.html?ms=AAA%3D&st=MA%3D%3D&sct=MjI%3D&mw=MjQw","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Ravelet, F.; Bakir, F.; Khelladi, S.; Rey, R. (2013). \"Experimental study of hydraulic transport of large particles in horizontal pipes\" (PDF). Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science. 45: 187–197. doi:10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2012.11.003. S2CID 55554454.","urls":[{"url":"https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00631562/file/CaillouxFinalHal.pdf","url_text":"\"Experimental study of hydraulic transport of large particles in horizontal pipes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.expthermflusci.2012.11.003","url_text":"10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2012.11.003"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55554454","url_text":"55554454"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_Galaxy_Watch_4

Samsung Galaxy Watch 4

["1 Specifications","2 Software","3 Supported languages and regions","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

Smartwatch developed by Samsung Electronics Samsung Galaxy Watch 4From left to right: Watch Active 2, 46mm Watch 4 Classic and Watch 4BrandSamsung GalaxyManufacturerSamsung ElectronicsSeriesSamsung Galaxy Watch seriesModelSM-R860, SM-R870, SM-R880, SM-R890 (Wi-Fi only), SM-R865U, SM-R875U, SM-R885U, SM-R895U (USA, LTE model)Compatible networks2G, 3G, 4GFirst releasedAugust 27, 2021; 2 years ago (2021-08-27)PredecessorSamsung Galaxy Watch 3Samsung Galaxy Watch Active 2SuccessorSamsung Galaxy Watch 5TypeSmartwatchOperating systemWear OS 4 with One UI Watch 5CPUExynos W920 dual core 1.18 GHz; GPU: Mali-G68Memory1.5 GB RAMStorage16 GBBattery Non-removable 247mAh (1.2"), 361mAh (1.4") Qi wireless charging Display 1.2 in (30 mm) Super AMOLED capacitive display, 396×396 pixels, 16 M colours, ~330 ppi density, 1:1 aspect ratio 1.4 in (36 mm) Super AMOLED capacitive display, 450×450 pixels, 16 M colours, ~330 ppi density, 1:1 aspect ratio digital touch bezel or physical rotating bezel (classic) glass front (Gorilla Glass DX+) (Galaxy Watch 4) (Gorilla Glass DX+) (Galaxy Watch 4 Classic) External displayAlways On DisplayData inputs Heart rate monitor Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Accelerometer Gyroscope Barometer Natural language commands & dictation WebsiteOfficial WebsiteReferences The Samsung Galaxy Watch 4 (stylized as Samsung Galaxy Watch4) is a smartwatch developed by Samsung Electronics. It is the first Samsung watch to run Google's Wear OS since the Samsung Gear Live, and the first watch to run Wear OS 3, co-developed by Samsung and Google. The device largely followed the design language of the preceding Samsung Galaxy Watch Active and Galaxy Watch 3, but including all new software. The watch also included EKG, body compositional analysis, and blood pressure monitoring via the new Samsung BioActive sensor. It was announced on August 11, 2021, at Samsung's Unpacked Event alongside the Samsung Galaxy Z Flip 3, Samsung Galaxy Z Fold 3 and Galaxy Buds 2. The watch was released worldwide on August 27, 2021. Specifications Model Galaxy Watch 4 Galaxy Watch 4 Classic Source Size 40 mm 44 mm 42 mm 46 mm Part No. SM-R860 (Wi-Fi)SM-R865 (LTE) SM-R870 (Wi-Fi)SM-R875 (LTE) SM-R880 (Wi-Fi)SM-R885 (LTE) SM-R890 (Wi-Fi)SM-R895 (LTE) Colors Black, Green, Pink Gold, Silver Black, Green, Silver Black, Silver Display 1.2" (30.4 mm) 1.4" (34.6 mm) 1.2" (30.4 mm) 1.4" (34.6 mm) Resolution 396 x 396 pixels 450 x 450 pixels 396 x 396 pixels 450 x 450 pixels Glass Corning Gorilla Glass DX+ Corning Gorilla Glass DX Chassis Aluminum Stainless Steel Processor Exynos W920 dual-core 1.18 GHz Cortex-A55 Operating System WearOS (OS 4.0) UI One UI Watch 5 Size (Excluded the health sensor) 40.4 mm x 39.3 mm x 9.8 mm 44.4 mm x 43.3 mm x 9.8 mm 41.5 mm x 41.5 mm x 11.2 mm 45.5 mm x 45.5 mm x 11.0 mm Weight (without strap) 25.9 g 30.3 g 46.5 g 52.0 g Strap Size 20 mm Water Resistance 5ATM + IP68 / MIL-STD-810G Memory 1.5 GB RAM + 16 GB flash memory Connectivity 4G/LTE with eSIM (Galaxy Watch 4 LTE-Version only) Bluetooth 5.0 Wi-Fi a/b/g/n 2.4+5 GHz NFC A-GPS, GLONASS, Beidou, Galileo Sensors Heart Rate Monitor Blood Oxygen Monitor Electrocardiography (ECG) Blood Pressure Monitor Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Accelerometer Barometer Gyro Sensor Geomagnetic Sensor Light Sensor Battery 247 mAh 361 mAh 247 mAh 361 mAh Software The smartwatch was the first watch released by Samsung to use Wear OS instead of Samsung's own Tizen OS. This smartwatch is region locked in mainland China, unlike past models. Supported languages and regions Unlike past Wear OS devices, Wear OS 3 supports a wider variety of languages that the end user can choose from. An ADB command can be used to temporarily change the watch's language to another one, which will reset when the device is reconnected to the phone. Depending on the region where the device was sold from, the language and region options may differ. See also Samsung Galaxy Z Fold 3 Samsung Galaxy Z Flip 3 Samsung Galaxy Buds 2 References ^ a b "Galaxy Watch4 and Galaxy Watch4 Classic: Reshaping the Smartwatch Experience". news.samsung.com. Retrieved August 29, 2021. ^ a b "Samsung Galaxy Watch 4 hits FCC ahead of possible 28 June unveil". wareable.com. Retrieved September 1, 2021. ^ "Galaxy Watch 4 Review: Wear OS is Back, Baby!". www.droid-life.com. 20 August 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2021. ^ Cipriani, Jason; Krol, Jacob (24 August 2021). "Samsung's Galaxy Watch 4 ushers in a new era of Android smartwatches". CNN. Retrieved 25 August 2021. ^ Bohn, Dieter (18 August 2021). "Galaxy Watch 4 review: welcome to Samsung's garden". The Verge. Retrieved 25 August 2021. ^ Stein, Scott. "Galaxy Watch 4: Samsung is coming for Apple Watch's crown with Wear OS 3". CNET. Retrieved 25 August 2021. ^ "Galaxy Watch 4 review: welcome to Samsung's garden". www.theverge.com. 18 August 2021. Retrieved September 1, 2021. External links Official website vteSamsung Galaxy wearablesSmartwatchesGalaxy Watch Galaxy Watch Galaxy Watch 3 Galaxy Watch 4 Galaxy Watch 5 Galaxy Watch 6 Galaxy Watch Active Galaxy Watch Active Galaxy Watch Active 2 Activity trackersGalaxy Fit Galaxy Fit Galaxy Fit e Wireless earphonesGalaxy Buds Galaxy Buds Galaxy Buds+ Galaxy Buds Pro Galaxy Buds Live Galaxy Buds Pro Galaxy Buds 2 Galaxy Buds 2 Pro vteSmartwatch Wearable computer Calculator watch Wrist computerAndroid i'm Watch Motorola Motoactv Samsung Galaxy Gear WIMM One ZGPAX s5 Omate TrueSmart Neptune Pine watchOS Apple Watch Wear OS Asus ZenWatch Huawei Watch LG G Watch LG G Watch R LG Watch Urbane LG Watch Sport LG Watch Style Moto 360 1st generation 2nd generation Pixel Watch 2 Samsung Gear Live Sony SmartWatch 3 Tag Heuer Connected Galaxy Watch 4 Galaxy Watch 5 Galaxy Watch 6 Tizen Samsung Gear Galaxy Gear Gear2 Gear Fit Gear S Gear S2 Gear S3 Gear Sport Samsung Galaxy Watch Galaxy Watch Galaxy Watch Active Galaxy Watch Active 2 Galaxy Watch 3 HarmonyOS Huawei Watch 3 Huawei Watch GT 3 Huawei Watch GT 4 Fitbit OS Fitbit Ionic Fitbit Versa Others Fossil Wrist PDA Ruputer ZYPAD MetaWatch Microsoft Band 2 Pebble Pebble Time Qualcomm Toq Sony SmartWatch Olio Model One Wrist communicators Hyundai MB 910 LG GD910 Martian Watches SWaP Classic Wrist data unit Casio Databank Timex Datalink Others Casio G-Shock GB-6900 Nelsonic Game Watch Software AsteroidOS LiteOS Tizen WatchOS Wear OS HarmonyOS

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[]

[{"title":"Samsung Galaxy Z Fold 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_Galaxy_Z_Fold_3"},{"title":"Samsung Galaxy Z Flip 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_Galaxy_Z_Flip_3"},{"title":"Samsung Galaxy Buds 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung_Galaxy_Buds_2"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_deduction

Tax deduction

["1 Above and below the line","2 Limitations","3 Business expenses","3.1 Cost of goods sold","3.2 Trading or ordinary and necessary business expenses","3.3 Accounting methods","3.4 Limits on deductions","4 Capitalized items and cost recovery (depreciation)","5 Non-business expenses","5.1 Losses","5.2 Personal deductions","6 Groups of taxpayers","7 International aspects","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]

Amount that one may deduce from taxable revenue This article is about the deduction of expenses for the purpose of calculating taxable income. For tax deducted at source, see Withholding tax. The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (October 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A tax deduction or benefit is an amount deducted from taxable income, usually based on expenses such as those incurred to produce additional income. Tax deductions are a form of tax incentives, along with exemptions and tax credits. The difference between deductions, exemptions, and credits is that deductions and exemptions both reduce taxable income, while credits reduce tax. Above and below the line Above and below the line refers to items above or below adjusted gross income, which is item 37 on the tax year 2017 1040 tax form. Tax deductions above the line lessen adjusted gross income, while deductions below the line can only lessen taxable income if the aggregate of those deductions exceeds the standard deduction, which in tax year 2018 in the U.S., for example, was $12,000 for a single taxpayer and $24,000 for married couple. Limitations Often, deductions are subject to conditions, such as being allowed only for expenses incurred that produce current benefits. Capitalization of items producing future benefit can be required, though with some exceptions. A deduction is allowed, for example, on interest paid on student loans. Some systems allow taxpayer deductions for items the influential parties want to encourage as purchases. Business expenses Nearly all jurisdictions that tax business income allow deductions for business and trade expenses. Allowances vary and may be general or restricted. To be deducted, the expenses must be incurred in furthering business, and usually only include activities undertaken for profit. Cost of goods sold Nearly all income tax systems allow a deduction for the cost of goods sold. This may be considered an expense, a reduction of gross income, or merely a component utilized in computing net profits. The manner in which cost of goods sold is determined has several inherent complexities, including various accounting methods. These include: Conventions for assigning costs to particular goods sold where specific identification is infeasible. Methods for attributing common costs, such as factory burden, to particular goods. Methods for determining when costs are recognized in computing cost of goods sold or to be sold. Methods for recognizing costs of goods that will not be sold or have declined in value. Trading or ordinary and necessary business expenses Many systems, including the United Kingdom, levy tax on all chargeable "profits of a trade" computed under local generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Under this approach, determination of whether an item is deductible depends upon accounting rules and judgments. By contrast, the U.S. allows as a deduction "all the ordinary and necessary expenses paid or incurred during the taxable year in carrying on any trade or business..." subject to qualifications, enhancements, and limitations. A similar approach is followed by Canada, but generally with fewer special rules. Such an approach poses significant definitional issues. Among the definitional issues often addressed are: What constitutes a trade or business? Generally, the business must be regular, continuous, substantial, and entered into with an expectation of profit. What expenses are ordinary and necessary? The phrase deals with what expenses are appropriate to the nature of the business, whether the expenses are of the sort expected to help produce income and promote the business, and whether the expenses are not lavish and extravagant. Note that under this concept, the same sorts of expenses are generally deductible by business entities and individuals carrying on a trade or business. To the extent such expenses relate to the employment of an individual and are not reimbursed by the employer, the amount may be deductible by the individual. Business deductions of flow-through entities may flow through as a component of the entity's net income in some jurisdictions. Deductions of flow-through entities may pass through to members of such entities separately from the net income of the entity in some jurisdictions or some cases. For example, charitable contributions by trusts, and all deductions of partnerships (and S corporations in the U.S.) are deductible by member beneficiaries or partners (or S corporation shareholders) in a manner appropriate to the deduction and the member, such as itemized deductions for charitable contributions or a component of net business profits for business expenses. Accounting methods Main article: Tax accounting One important aspect of determining tax deductions for business expenses is the timing of such deduction. The method used for this is commonly referred to as an accounting method. Accounting methods for tax purposes may differ from applicable GAAP. Examples include timing of recognition of cost recovery deductions (e.g., depreciation), current expensing of otherwise capitalizable costs of intangibles, and rules related to costs that should be treated as part of cost of goods not yet sold. Further, taxpayers often have choices among multiple accounting methods permissible under GAAP and/or tax rules. Examples include conventions for determining which goods have been sold (such as first-in-first-out, average cost, etc.), whether or not to defer minor expenses producing benefit in the immediately succeeding period, etc. Accounting methods may be defined with some precision by tax law, as in the U.S. system, or may be based on GAAP, as in the UK system. Limits on deductions Many systems limit particular deductions, even where the expenses directly relate to the business. Such limitations may, by way of example, include: Maximum deductions for use of automobiles Limits on deducting compensation of certain key employees Limits on lobbying or similar expenditures Nondeductibility of payments considered in violation of public policy, such as criminal fines Limits on deductions for business-related entertainment but no limit in 2021 taxes and beyond. In addition, deductions in excess of income in one endeavor may not be allowed to offset income from other endeavors. For example, the United States limits deductions related to passive activities to income from passive activities. In particular, expenses that are included in COGS cannot be deducted again as a business expense. COGS expenses include: The cost of products or raw materials, including freight or shipping charges; The cost of storing products the business sells; Direct labor costs for workers who produce the products; and Factory overhead expenses. In 2005, the Australian government amended its taxation legislation to remove deductions for expenses incurred in conducting criminal business activities. This came after the Federal Court ruled in Commissioner of Taxation v La Rosa that a heroin dealer was entitled to a tax deduction for money stolen from him in a drug deal. Capitalized items and cost recovery (depreciation) Many systems require that the cost of items likely to produce future benefits be capitalized. Examples include plant and equipment, fees related to acquisition, and developing intangible assets (e.g., patentable inventions). Such systems often allow a tax deduction for cost recovery in a future period. A common approach to such cost recovery is to allow a deduction for a portion of the cost ratably over some period of years. The U.S. system refers to such a cost recovery deduction as depreciation for costs of tangible assets and as amortization for costs of intangible assets. Depreciation in these systems is allowed over an estimated useful life, which may be assigned by the government for numerous classes of assets, based on the nature and use of the asset and the nature of the business. The annual depreciation deduction may be computed on a straight line, declining balance, or other basis, as permitted in each country's rules. Many systems allow amortization of the cost of intangible assets only on a straight-line basis, generally computed monthly over the actual expected life or a government specified life. Alternative approaches are used by some systems. Some systems allow a fixed percentage or dollar amount of cost recovery in particular years, often called "capital allowances." This may be determined by reference to the type of asset or business. Some systems allow specific charges for cost recovery for some assets upon certain identifiable events. Capitalization may be required for some items without the potential for cost recovery until disposition or abandonment of the asset to which the capitalized costs relate. This is often the case for costs related to the formation or reorganization of a corporation, or certain expenses in corporate acquisitions. However, some systems provide for amortization of certain such costs, at the election of the taxpayer. Non-business expenses Some systems distinguish between an active trade or business and the holding of assets to produce income. In such systems, there may be additional limitations on the timing and nature of amounts that may be claimed as tax deductions. Many of the rules, including accounting methods and limits on deductions, that apply to business expenses also apply to income producing expenses. Losses See also: Loss on sale of residential property Many systems allow a deduction for loss on sale, exchange, or abandonment of both business and non-business income producing assets. This deduction may be limited to gains from the same class of assets. In the U.S., a loss on non-business assets is considered a capital loss, and deduction of the loss is limited to capital gains. Also, in the U.S. a loss on the sale of the taxpayer's principal residence or other personal assets is not allowed as a deduction except to the extent due to casualty or theft. Personal deductions Many jurisdictions allow certain classes of taxpayers to reduce taxable income for certain inherently personal items. A common such deduction is a fixed allowance for the taxpayer and certain family members or other persons supported by the taxpayer. The U.S. allows such a deduction for "personal exemptions" for the taxpayer and certain members of the taxpayer's household. The UK grants a "personal allowance." Both U.S. and UK allowances are phased out for individuals or married couples with income in excess of specified levels. In addition, many jurisdictions allow reduction of taxable income for certain categories of expenses not incurred in connection with a business or investments. In the U.S. system, these (as well as certain business or investment expenses) are referred to as "itemized deductions" for individuals. The UK allows a few of these as personal reliefs. These include, for example, the following for U.S. residents (and UK residents as noted): Medical expenses (in excess of 7.5% of adjusted gross income) State and local income and property taxes (the SALT deduction in the United States) Interest expense on certain home loans Gifts of money or property to qualifying charitable organizations, subject to certain maximum limitations, Losses on non-income-producing property due to casualty or theft, Contribution to certain retirement or health savings plans (U.S. and UK), Certain educational expenses. Many systems provide that an individual may claim a tax deduction for personal payments that, upon payment, become taxable to another person, such as alimony. Such systems generally require, at a minimum, reporting of such amounts, and may require that withholding tax be applied to the payment. Groups of taxpayers Some systems allow a deduction to a company or other entity for expenses or losses of another company or entity if the two companies or entities are commonly controlled. Such deduction may be referred to as "group relief." Generally, such deductions function in lieu of consolidated or combined computation of tax (tax consolidation) for such groups. Group relief may be available for companies in EU member countries with respect to losses of group companies in other countries. International aspects Many systems impose limitations on tax deductions paid to foreign parties, especially related parties. See International tax and Transfer pricing. References ^ a b c Piper, Mike (Sep 12, 2014). Taxes Made Simple: Income Taxes Explained in 100 Pages or Less. Simple Subjects. ISBN 978-0981454214. ^ "Tax year 2017 tax form" (PDF). Retrieved June 30, 2022. ^ Internal Revenue Code, 26 U.S.C. § 1 ^ PRATHAM MANGAT system computes taxable income qby subtracting deductions from gross income. Gross income, under 26 USC 61 is defined as gains from the sale of property plus other income. Gains, in turn, are defined in 26 USC 1001 as the amount realized less the adjusted basis of property sold. ^ The UK system computes income chargeable to tax as net business profits, plus other income, with adjustments. In such systems, the locally recognized generally accepted accounting principles apply. See, e.g., IAS 2, Inventories. ^ Examples of alternatives to specific identification include first-in-first-out (FIFO), average cost, and last-in-first-out (LIFO). Many EU countries do not permit LIFO. ^ Among the methods commonly used are: i) factory burden rate, in which overhead costs are assigned to goods produced based on labor hours or labor dollars; ii) standard costs, in which a cost including overheads is periodically determined for each type of goods and inventory and cost of goods sold are adjusted periodically for variances of actual costs from such standards; and iii) activity based costing, in which costs are assigned based on factors which drive the incurrence of such costs. Numerous variations on these are available in many systems. ^ Generally, determinations depend upon the overall method of accounting or overarching principles of local GAAP. These include the cash receipts and disbursements method, accrual methods, and deferred cost methods. Under these principles there may be a need to determine when amounts are properly treated as incurred. ^ GAAP often requires that the decline in value of unsold goods be charged to income when the decline occurs. This is often accomplished through a lower of cost or market value inventory accounting method, or inventory reserves. Some systems provide for differences in these determinations for financial reporting and tax purposes. ^ ]. The HMRC Business Income Manual at BIM 31001 states that "the starting point is accounts prepared in accordance with ordinary principles of commercial accountancy, and the commercial profits are then adjusted in accordance with the provisions of the Taxes Acts." ^ 26 USC 162(a). ^ Johnston, Kevin. "A List of Deductible Business Expenses for Schedule C." Small Business - Chron.com, http://smallbusiness.chron.com/list-deductible-business-expenses-schedule-c-21156.html. 29 June 2018. ^ In this regard, the United States Tax Court has issued well in excess of one thousand rulings. Among the factors considered are: a) whether the transactions are regular and continuous (discussed, e.g., prior to the income tax in Lewellyn v. Pittsburgh, B. & L. E. R. Co., 222 Fed. 177 (CA3, 1915), a case cited by the Tax Court), (b) whether the purported business is substantial (see, e.g., ), (c) whether the transactions were profit motivated (see, e.g., Doggett v. Burnet, (1933), 65 F2d 191; also see hobby loss rules at 26 USC 183). ^ UK Business Income Manual 20200 describes various badges of trade. ^ See IRS Form 2106. ^ 26 USC 704(b) and 26 USC 170. ^ 26 USC 174. ^ 26 USC 263A. ^ UK: , . U.S.: 26 USC 280F. ^ U.S.: 26 USC 162(m). ^ U.S.: 26 USC 162(e). ^ U.S.: 26 USC 162(f). ^ U.S.: 26 USC 274(n). ^ 26 USC 469. Income from passive activities includes not only operating income but also gains from disposition of the activity or assets used in the activity. See IRS Publication 925. ^ Gupta, Ranjana (2008). "Taxation of illegal activities in Australia and New Zealand" (PDF). Journal of the Australasian Tax Teachers Association. 3 (2): 106–128. ^ See, e.g., 26 USC 263; International Financial Reporting Standards (), particularly IAS 16, applicable in most EU jurisdictions for determining business profits as the starting point for taxable income. ^ U.S.: 26 USC 168, which prescribes depreciable lives by broad class; ^ For lives by class of assets, see: U.S. see Rev. Proc. 87-56, as updated, reproduced in IRS Publication 946; Canada Income Tax Regulations section 1100 et seq. ^ The U.S. permits declining balance switching to straight line in a particular year, by life of asset class. See Rev. Proc. 87-57, reproduced in IRS Publication 946 for percentages that may be used at the option of the taxpayer. ^ For international government specified lives by class of intangible asset, see the table in Tax amortization lives of intangible assets ^ UK: ICTA, ___; Canada: , which provides for deduction as provided in regulations; see , Capital Allowances. ^ Canadian rules cited above specify more than 30 classes for which specific percentages are allowed. ^ For example, Germany allows a deduction for "depreciation" for assets that have come to be worth significantly less than their unrecovered cost due to identifiable events. English language . ^ See INDOPCO v. Commissioner. ^ 26 USC 248 for corporations, 26 USC 709 for partnerships. ^ 26 USC 212; UK . ^ 26 USC 151, 152. The amount is adjusted annually for inflation, and was $3,650 for 2009. ^ For 2009, the amount was £6,475, with additional allowances for married couples over age 75. ^ 26 USC 213. ^ 26 USC 164(a)(2). Individuals may elect for a tax year after 2003 to claim a deduction for state and local sales taxes in lieu of the deduction for state and local income taxes. ^ 26 USC 163 subsection (h) of which limits the deduction of personal interest. ^ 26 USC 170 Qualifying organizations generally include organizations that are tax exempt under 26 USC 503(c)(charitable organizations) or (d) (religious orders), as well as certain other organizations. Generally, the deduction is limited to 50% of gross income. This limitation is reduced in certain circumstances. Amounts in excess of the limitation may be deducted in future years, also subject to limitations. ^ 26 USC 165. ^ 26 USC 219, which provides deductions for contributions to "401(k)" and "IRA" plans, among others, and 26 USC 223, which provides deductions for contributions to "health savings accounts" that are used to pay for medical expenses. ^ 26 USC 221 and 222. ^ See, e.g., 26 USC 215. ^ See, e.g., Form IRS Form 1040, line 31b. ^ "Publication 504 (2017), Divorced or Separated Individuals - Internal Revenue Service". www.irs.gov. ^ UK ^ See, e.g., UK draft guidance following the Marks & Spencer case. Further reading Crowningshield, Gerald, and Gorman, Kenneth: Cost Accounting, ISBN 978-0-395-26797-4 Horngren, Charles T., et al.: Cost Accounting, ISBN 978-0-13-612663-8 Hoffman, William, et al.: Individual Income Taxes (annual editions; 2011 edition ISBN 978-0-538-46860-2) Pratt, James, and Kulsrud, William: 2010 Federal Taxation, ISBN 978-1-4240-6986-6 Whittenberg, Gerald, and Altus-Buller, Martha: Income Tax Fundamentals, ISBN 978-0-324-66368-6 Schneider, Leslie: Federal Income Taxation of Inventories Weltman, Barbara: J.K.Lasser's 1001 Deductions …, ISBN 978-0-470-44548-8 External links Australia: Australian Taxation Office: Main site Canada: Laws Canada Revenue Agency: Main site Deductions index United Kingdom: HM Revenue and Customs: Main site HMRC manuals Business Income Manual (BIM) United States: Internal Revenue Service: Main site Some relevant publications: 334 Business expenses: Tax Guide for Small Business 463 Travel and entertainment deductions 501 Exemptions and standard deduction 529 Miscellaneous deductions 565 Business Expenses 936 Home mortgage interest 946 Depreciation A few relevant forms (also see related instructions) Form 1040 (individual tax return), Schedules C (business) and E (rental) Form 1065 (partnership return of income), page 1, and Schedule K Form 1120 (corporation tax return), page 1 Form 2106 (employee business expenses) Form 4562 (depreciation and amortization) Form 4797 (gain or loss on business assets) Form 8825 (rental realty income) India: Official page of Indian Income-tax e-Filing portal Authority control databases National Israel United States Czech Republic Other NARA

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For example, charitable contributions by trusts, and all deductions of partnerships (and S corporations in the U.S.) are deductible by member beneficiaries or partners (or S corporation shareholders) in a manner appropriate to the deduction and the member, such as itemized deductions for charitable contributions or a component of net business profits for business expenses.[16]","title":"Business expenses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GAAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generally_accepted_accounting_principles"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Accounting methods","text":"One important aspect of determining tax deductions for business expenses is the timing of such deduction. The method used for this is commonly referred to as an accounting method. Accounting methods for tax purposes may differ from applicable GAAP. Examples include timing of recognition of cost recovery deductions (e.g., depreciation), current expensing of otherwise capitalizable costs of intangibles,[17] and rules related to costs that should be treated as part of cost of goods not yet sold.[18] Further, taxpayers often have choices among multiple accounting methods permissible under GAAP and/or tax rules. Examples include conventions for determining which goods have been sold (such as first-in-first-out, average cost, etc.), whether or not to defer minor expenses producing benefit in the immediately succeeding period, etc.Accounting methods may be defined with some precision by tax law, as in the U.S. system, or may be based on GAAP, as in the UK system.","title":"Business expenses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Federal Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Court_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"Commissioner of Taxation v La Rosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissioner_of_Taxation_v_La_Rosa"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Limits on deductions","text":"Many systems limit particular deductions, even where the expenses directly relate to the business. Such limitations may, by way of example, include:Maximum deductions for use of automobiles[19]\nLimits on deducting compensation of certain key employees[20]\nLimits on lobbying or similar expenditures[21]\nNondeductibility of payments considered in violation of public policy, such as criminal fines[22]\nLimits on deductions for business-related entertainment but no limit in 2021 taxes and beyond.[23]In addition, deductions in excess of income in one endeavor may not be allowed to offset income from other endeavors. For example, the United States limits deductions related to passive activities to income from passive activities.[24]In particular, expenses that are included in COGS cannot be deducted again as a business expense. COGS expenses include:The cost of products or raw materials, including freight or shipping charges;\nThe cost of storing products the business sells;\nDirect labor costs for workers who produce the products; and\nFactory overhead expenses.In 2005, the Australian government amended its taxation legislation to remove deductions for expenses incurred in conducting criminal business activities. This came after the Federal Court ruled in Commissioner of Taxation v La Rosa that a heroin dealer was entitled to a tax deduction for money stolen from him in a drug deal.[25]","title":"Business expenses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"intangible assets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intangible_asset"},{"link_name":"depreciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depreciation"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"amortization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amortization_(tax_law)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"Many systems require that the cost of items likely to produce future benefits be capitalized.[26] Examples include plant and equipment, fees related to acquisition, and developing intangible assets (e.g., patentable inventions). Such systems often allow a tax deduction for cost recovery in a future period.A common approach to such cost recovery is to allow a deduction for a portion of the cost ratably over some period of years. The U.S. system refers to such a cost recovery deduction as depreciation for costs of tangible assets[27] and as amortization for costs of intangible assets. Depreciation in these systems is allowed over an estimated useful life, which may be assigned by the government for numerous classes of assets, based on the nature and use of the asset and the nature of the business.[28] The annual depreciation deduction may be computed on a straight line, declining balance, or other basis, as permitted in each country's rules.[29] Many systems allow amortization of the cost of intangible assets only on a straight-line basis, generally computed monthly over the actual expected life or a government specified life.[30]Alternative approaches are used by some systems. Some systems allow a fixed percentage or dollar amount of cost recovery in particular years, often called \"capital allowances.\"[31] This may be determined by reference to the type of asset or business.[32] Some systems allow specific charges for cost recovery for some assets upon certain identifiable events.[33]Capitalization may be required for some items without the potential for cost recovery until disposition or abandonment of the asset to which the capitalized costs relate. This is often the case for costs related to the formation or reorganization of a corporation, or certain expenses in corporate acquisitions.[34] However, some systems provide for amortization of certain such costs, at the election of the taxpayer.[35]","title":"Capitalized items and cost recovery (depreciation)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"text":"Some systems distinguish between an active trade or business and the holding of assets to produce income.[36] In such systems, there may be additional limitations on the timing and nature of amounts that may be claimed as tax deductions. Many of the rules, including accounting methods and limits on deductions, that apply to business expenses also apply to income producing expenses.","title":"Non-business expenses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Loss on sale of residential property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_on_sale_of_residential_property"}],"sub_title":"Losses","text":"See also: Loss on sale of residential propertyMany systems allow a deduction for loss on sale, exchange, or abandonment of both business and non-business income producing assets. This deduction may be limited to gains from the same class of assets. In the U.S., a loss on non-business assets is considered a capital loss, and deduction of the loss is limited to capital gains. Also, in the U.S. a loss on the sale of the taxpayer's principal residence or other personal assets is not allowed as a deduction except to the extent due to casualty or theft.","title":"Non-business expenses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"personal allowance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_allowance"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"itemized deductions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itemized_deductions"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"SALT deduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SALT_deduction"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"withholding tax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withholding_tax"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"sub_title":"Personal deductions","text":"Many jurisdictions allow certain classes of taxpayers to reduce taxable income for certain inherently personal items. A common such deduction is a fixed allowance for the taxpayer and certain family members or other persons supported by the taxpayer. The U.S. allows such a deduction for \"personal exemptions\" for the taxpayer and certain members of the taxpayer's household.[37] The UK grants a \"personal allowance.\"[38] Both U.S. and UK allowances are phased out for individuals or married couples with income in excess of specified levels.In addition, many jurisdictions allow reduction of taxable income for certain categories of expenses not incurred in connection with a business or investments. In the U.S. system, these (as well as certain business or investment expenses) are referred to as \"itemized deductions\" for individuals. The UK allows a few of these as personal reliefs. These include, for example, the following for U.S. residents (and UK residents as noted):Medical expenses (in excess of 7.5% of adjusted gross income)[39]\nState and local income and property taxes (the SALT deduction in the United States)[40]\nInterest expense on certain home loans[41]\nGifts of money or property to qualifying charitable organizations, subject to certain maximum limitations,[42]\nLosses on non-income-producing property due to casualty or theft,[43]\nContribution to certain retirement or health savings plans (U.S. and UK),[44]\nCertain educational expenses.[45]Many systems provide that an individual may claim a tax deduction for personal payments that, upon payment, become taxable to another person, such as alimony.[46] Such systems generally require, at a minimum, reporting of such amounts,[47] and may require that withholding tax be applied to the payment.[48]","title":"Non-business expenses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"tax consolidation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_consolidation"},{"link_name":"EU member countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_state_of_the_European_Union"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"text":"Some systems allow a deduction to a company or other entity for expenses or losses of another company or entity if the two companies or entities are commonly controlled. Such deduction may be referred to as \"group relief.\"[49] Generally, such deductions function in lieu of consolidated or combined computation of tax (tax consolidation) for such groups. Group relief may be available for companies in EU member countries with respect to losses of group companies in other countries.[50]","title":"Groups of taxpayers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International tax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_tax"},{"link_name":"Transfer pricing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_pricing"}],"text":"Many systems impose limitations on tax deductions paid to foreign parties, especially related parties. See International tax and Transfer pricing.","title":"International aspects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-395-26797-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-26797-4"},{"link_name":"Horngren, Charles T.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horngren,_Charles_T."},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-13-612663-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-612663-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-538-46860-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-538-46860-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4240-6986-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4240-6986-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-324-66368-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-324-66368-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-470-44548-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-44548-8"}],"text":"Crowningshield, Gerald, and Gorman, Kenneth: Cost Accounting, ISBN 978-0-395-26797-4\nHorngren, Charles T., et al.: Cost Accounting, ISBN 978-0-13-612663-8\nHoffman, William, et al.: Individual Income Taxes (annual editions; 2011 edition ISBN 978-0-538-46860-2)\nPratt, James, and Kulsrud, William: 2010 Federal Taxation, ISBN 978-1-4240-6986-6\nWhittenberg, Gerald, and Altus-Buller, Martha: Income Tax Fundamentals, ISBN 978-0-324-66368-6\nSchneider, Leslie: Federal Income Taxation of Inventories\nWeltman, Barbara: J.K.Lasser's 1001 Deductions …, ISBN 978-0-470-44548-8","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"reference":"Piper, Mike (Sep 12, 2014). Taxes Made Simple: Income Taxes Explained in 100 Pages or Less. Simple Subjects. ISBN 978-0981454214.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0981454214","url_text":"978-0981454214"}]},{"reference":"\"Tax year 2017 tax form\" (PDF). Retrieved June 30, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/f1040.pdf","url_text":"\"Tax year 2017 tax form\""}]},{"reference":"Gupta, Ranjana (2008). \"Taxation of illegal activities in Australia and New Zealand\" (PDF). Journal of the Australasian Tax Teachers Association. 3 (2): 106–128.","urls":[{"url":"http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/JlATaxTA/2008/12.pdf","url_text":"\"Taxation of illegal activities in Australia and New Zealand\""}]},{"reference":"\"Publication 504 (2017), Divorced or Separated Individuals - Internal Revenue Service\". www.irs.gov.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.irs.gov/publications/p504/ar02.html#en_US_2011_publink1000175944","url_text":"\"Publication 504 (2017), Divorced or Separated Individuals - Internal Revenue Service\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Certified

PlayStation Mobile

["1 Games","2 PlayStation Certified","3 References","4 External links"]

This article is about the gaming software framework. For the PlayStation Network focused mobile application for iOS and Android, see PlayStation App. For the phone, see Xperia Play. PlayStation MobileDeveloper(s)Sony Computer EntertainmentInitial releaseOctober 3, 2012Final release2.01 / 2015 Operating systemAndroid (version 1.xx only), PlayStation Vita, PlayStation TVWebsitewww.playstation.com/psm PlayStation Mobile (formerly PlayStation Suite) was a software framework used to provide downloadable PlayStation content for devices that meet PlayStation Certified requirements. This includes devices that both run Android 2.3 and met specific hardware requirements, PlayStation Vita, and PlayStation TV. PlayStation Mobile was based on the Mono platform. An open beta was released in April 2012 before it officially launched in most regions of the world on October 3, 2012. In May 2013, Sony announced that the publisher license fee would be waived in an attempt to entice more developers to create games for the service. PlayStation Mobile 2.00 released in 2014 would only target PlayStation Vita and PlayStation TV. It was announced in 2015 that PlayStation Mobile will be shutting down. The service never gained traction despite availability on a range of handsets by many manufacturers. The storefront was closed in July 2015, with the service completely shutting down on September 10, 2015. Games The games released under PlayStation Mobile were available to devices via the PlayStation Store, allowing players to download the titles to their devices. Games released under the program could have the DualShock controls overlaid on top of the touchscreen, however for devices which have analog buttons such as the PlayStation Vita and Xperia Play, the controls were mapped directly to them. Developers could also make purely touch screen games, if they so choose. At E3 2012, Sony announced that PlayStation Mobile had 56 established software houses committed to providing content on the platform. There were 683 games available on the service. PlayStation Certified Official logo for PlayStation Certified To ensure that Android devices run PlayStation Mobile content correctly, Sony created a set of guidelines and requirements for hardware known as PlayStation Certified. The first certified device was Xperia Play. The PlayStation Vita and PlayStation TV also had access to PlayStation Mobile. In a November 2011 update, the previously released Sony Ericsson Xperia Arc, and Sony Ericsson Xperia acro became PlayStation Certified. The Sony Xperia S, Sony Xperia ion and Sony Tablets were also PlayStation Certified. HTC was the first non-Sony manufacturing company revealed to offer PlayStation Certified devices. The HTC One series handsets were supported, noted models include HTC One X, HTC One S, HTC One V, HTC One XL, HTC One X+ and the HTC Evo 4G LTE . At Sony's 2012 Gamescom press conference, it was revealed that the WikiPad gaming tablet would also be PlayStation Certified and that ASUS would also create certified hardware. At Sony's Tokyo Game Show 2012 press conference, Fujitsu and Sharp were announced as two more partners. A full list of PlayStation Certified devices could be found at Playstation Mobile download page but has since been removed. References ^ a b Hinkle, David. (2012-06-04) HTC is first partner for 'PlayStation Mobile,' the new name for PlayStation Suite [Update: Press release added. Joystiq. Retrieved on 2013-08-23. Archived 2012-08-05 at the Wayback Machine ^ a b "PlayStation SUITE GDC Online 2011 - Part 3". YouTube. Archived from the original on December 1, 2015. Retrieved November 10, 2011. ^ Mallory, Jordan. (2012-04-19) PlayStation Suite enters open beta, some details emerge Archived 2013-04-16 at the Wayback Machine. Joystiq. Retrieved on 2013-08-23. ^ PlayStation Mobile goes live today with Super Crate Box, Wipe! and Samurai Beatdown | Polygon Archived 2012-10-05 at the Wayback Machine. Theverge.com (2012-10-02). Retrieved on 2013-08-23. ^ Become a PlayStation Mobile publisher for free – PlayStation.Blog.Europe Archived 2013-05-10 at the Wayback Machine. Blog.eu.playstation.com. Retrieved on 2013-08-23. ^ "Sony is closing its failed PlayStation Mobile platform - the Verge". 11 March 2015. Archived from the original on 2019-12-21. Retrieved 2020-01-14. ^ "PlayStation Mobile Will Power Down on July 15th". Archived from the original on 2015-03-15. Retrieved 2015-03-11. ^ "List of Third Party Game Developers and Publishers" (PDF). Sony. Sony Corp. June 5, 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 11, 2012. Retrieved June 8, 2012. ^ "Sony Announces Optimally Designed 'Sony Tablet' with Android 3.0 that Complements Network Services for an immersive Entertainment Experience also Strengthening VAIO in Expanding PC Markets". Sony Electronics. Sony Corp. April 26, 2011. Archived from the original on May 6, 2011. Retrieved May 14, 2011. ^ "NTTドコモより発売中のXperiaシリーズ4機種機能バージョンアップのお知らせ―11月7日より順次開始 エリアメールやテザリング、PlayStationCertified対応など―". Sony Ericsson (in Japanese). Sony Corp. November 4, 2011. Archived from the original on November 6, 2011. Retrieved November 10, 2011. ^ "SONY COMPUTER ENTERTAINMENT ANNOUNCES HTC AS PART OF THE PLAYSTATION™CERTIFIED LICENSE PROGRAM PLAYSTATION®SUITE RENAMED "PLAYSTATION®MOBILE"". Sony. Sony Corp. June 5, 2012. Archived from the original on June 7, 2012. Retrieved June 8, 2012. ^ "GSMArena.com News". December 12, 2012. Archived from the original on December 12, 2012. Retrieved December 12, 2012. ^ Smith, Mat. (2012-08-14) PlayStation Mobile detailed: different screens, same games Archived 2017-08-05 at the Wayback Machine. Engadget.com. Retrieved on 2013-08-23. ^ Gilbert, Ben. (2012-09-19) Sharp and Fujitsu join PlayStation Certified program, PS Mobile SDK available this November Archived 2017-08-05 at the Wayback Machine. Engadget.com. Retrieved on 2013-08-23. External links Official website Developer Portal Archived 2015-11-06 at the Wayback Machine vtePlayStation Sony Interactive Entertainment PlayStation Studios ConsolesHome consoles PlayStation Models Main hardware PlayStation 2 Models Main hardware PlayStation 3 Models Main hardware System software PlayStation 4 Main hardware System software PlayStation 5 Handhelds PocketStation PlayStation Portable System software PlayStation Vita System software Miscellaneous PSX PlayStation TV PlayStation Classic GamesPlayStation A–L M–Z Net Yaroze Best-selling Downloadable JP NA PAL PS2 A–K L–Z Best-selling Online Downloadable PS3 A–C D–I J–P Q–Z Best-selling PS4 A–L M–Z Best-selling Free-to-play PS VR games PS5 A–Z Best-selling PS VR2 games PSP A-Z Downloadable PS minis Best selling PS Vita A–D E–H I–L M–O P–R S T–V W–Z Other PS Mobile TurboGrafx-16 Classics NEOGEO Station Classics HD Reprints Greatest Hits Essentials The Best BigHit Series Network PlayStation Network 2011 outage Central Station FirstPlay PlayStation App PlayStation Home PlayStation Mobile PlayStation Now PlayStation Store PlayStation Video PlayStation Vue PS2 online PlayStation Broadband Navigator Room for PSP VidZone AccessoriesControllers PlayStation controller PlayStation Mouse Analog Joystick Dual Analog DualShock / DualSense Sixaxis PlayStation Move Cameras EyeToy Go!Cam PlayStation Eye PlayStation Camera Miscellaneous Multitap Link Cable PS2 accessories PlayStation 2 Expansion Bay PS3 accessories PlayTV Wonderbook PlayStation VR 2 PlayStation Portal Kits Net Yaroze PS2 Linux GScube OtherOS Zego MediaMagazines Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine PlayStation: The Official Magazine PlayStation Official Magazine – UK PlayStation Official Magazine – Australia Official PlayStation Magazine (Ireland) PlayStation Underground Advertisements Double Life Mountain PlayStation marketing Characters Polygon Man Kevin Butler Arcade boards Namco System 11 System 12 System 10 System 246 System 357 Konami System 573 Related Jampack Super NES CD-ROM Sony Ericsson Xperia Play Category

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PlayStation App","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_App"},{"link_name":"Xperia Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xperia_Play"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Joystiq_HTC-1"},{"link_name":"software framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_framework"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"PlayStation Vita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Vita"},{"link_name":"PlayStation TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_TV"},{"link_name":"Mono","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mono_(software)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KotakuJan27-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"This article is about the gaming software framework. For the PlayStation Network focused mobile application for iOS and Android, see PlayStation App. For the phone, see Xperia Play.PlayStation Mobile (formerly PlayStation Suite[1]) was a software framework used to provide downloadable PlayStation content for devices that meet PlayStation Certified requirements. This includes devices that both run Android 2.3 and met specific hardware requirements, PlayStation Vita, and PlayStation TV. PlayStation Mobile was based on the Mono platform.[2]An open beta was released in April 2012 before it officially launched in most regions of the world on October 3, 2012.[3][4] In May 2013, Sony announced that the publisher license fee would be waived[5] in an attempt to entice more developers to create games for the service. PlayStation Mobile 2.00 released in 2014 would only target PlayStation Vita and PlayStation TV.It was announced in 2015 that PlayStation Mobile will be shutting down. The service never gained traction despite availability on a range of handsets by many manufacturers.[6] The storefront was closed in July 2015, with the service completely shutting down on September 10, 2015.[7]","title":"PlayStation Mobile"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PlayStation Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Store"},{"link_name":"DualShock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DualShock"},{"link_name":"PlayStation Vita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Vita"},{"link_name":"Xperia Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xperia_Play"},{"link_name":"E3 2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E3_2012"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dev_Support_List-8"}],"text":"The games released under PlayStation Mobile were available to devices via the PlayStation Store, allowing players to download the titles to their devices. Games released under the program could have the DualShock controls overlaid on top of the touchscreen, however for devices which have analog buttons such as the PlayStation Vita and Xperia Play, the controls were mapped directly to them. Developers could also make purely touch screen games, if they so choose.At E3 2012, Sony announced that PlayStation Mobile had 56 established software houses committed to providing content on the platform.[8]There were 683 games available on the service.","title":"Games"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PlayStation_Certified_Logo.png"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KotakuJan27-2"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SonyTablets-9"},{"link_name":"Sony Ericsson Xperia Arc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Ericsson_Xperia_Arc"},{"link_name":"Sony Ericsson Xperia acro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Ericsson_Xperia_acro"},{"link_name":"Sony Xperia S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Xperia_S"},{"link_name":"Sony Xperia ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Xperia_ion"},{"link_name":"Sony Tablets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Tablet"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SE_Phone_Update-10"},{"link_name":"HTC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTC_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Joystiq_HTC-1"},{"link_name":"HTC One series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTC_One_series"},{"link_name":"HTC One X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTC_One_X"},{"link_name":"HTC One S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTC_One_S"},{"link_name":"HTC One V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTC_One_V"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HTC_Handset_Support-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"2012 Gamescom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamescom#Gamescom_2012"},{"link_name":"WikiPad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WikiPad"},{"link_name":"ASUS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Game Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Game_Show"},{"link_name":"Fujitsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujitsu"},{"link_name":"Sharp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharp_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Playstation Mobile download page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160201123531/https://www.playstation.com/psm/certified.html"}],"text":"Official logo for PlayStation CertifiedTo ensure that Android devices run PlayStation Mobile content correctly, Sony created a set of guidelines and requirements for hardware known as PlayStation Certified. The first certified device was Xperia Play.[2][9] The PlayStation Vita and PlayStation TV also had access to PlayStation Mobile. In a November 2011 update, the previously released Sony Ericsson Xperia Arc, and Sony Ericsson Xperia acro became PlayStation Certified. The Sony Xperia S, Sony Xperia ion and Sony Tablets were also PlayStation Certified.[10]HTC was the first non-Sony manufacturing company revealed to offer PlayStation Certified devices.[1] The HTC One series handsets were supported, noted models include HTC One X, HTC One S, HTC One V, HTC One XL, HTC One X+ and the HTC Evo 4G LTE .[11][12]\nAt Sony's 2012 Gamescom press conference, it was revealed that the WikiPad gaming tablet would also be PlayStation Certified and that ASUS would also create certified hardware.[13] At Sony's Tokyo Game Show 2012 press conference, Fujitsu and Sharp were announced as two more partners.[14]A full list of PlayStation Certified devices could be found at Playstation Mobile download page but has since been removed.","title":"PlayStation Certified"}]

[{"image_text":"Official logo for PlayStation Certified","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/71/PlayStation_Certified_Logo.png/220px-PlayStation_Certified_Logo.png"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchess

Microchess

["1 Gameplay","2 Development","3 Release","4 Reception","5 Legacy","6 References","7 Sources","8 External links"]

1976 computer chess software For a chess variant called Microchess, see Minichess. 1976 video gameMicrochessMicrochess on a KIM-1 microcomputerDeveloper(s)Peter R. JenningsPublisher(s)Micro-Ware / Personal SoftwarePlatform(s)KIM-1, Altair 8800, Apple II, Atari 8-bit, PET, TRS-80, TRS-80 Color ComputerReleaseDecember 18, 1976Genre(s)Computer chess Microchess, sometimes written as MicroChess, is a chess program developed for the MOS Technology KIM-1 microcomputer by Peter R. Jennings in 1976, and published by his company Micro-Ware. The game plays chess against the human player at a beginner level, with the player entering moves via a keyboard and the computer responding, both in a custom chess notation. The game was ported to many other microcomputers such as the TRS-80, Apple II, Commodore PET, and Atari 8-bit computers by Micro-Ware and its successor company Personal Software (later VisiCorp) between 1976 and 1980, with later versions featuring graphics and more levels of play. A dedicated hardware version of the game called ChessMate was produced by Commodore International in 1978, and the game's engine was licensed to Novag for its dedicated Chess Champion Mk II chess computer in 1979. The game was created by Jennings over the course of around six months in 1976. He developed it with the aim of making a product that could be widely sold, rather than as the most advanced chess engine possible. It was possibly the first computer game to be sold commercially, and was the first commercial chess program for microcomputers and the first software package to sell 50,000 copies. Micro-Ware itself was possibly the first software publishing company. Microchess ultimately sold over a million copies across all of its versions by the mid-1980s, and variants were sold into the early 1990s. Despite being commercially successful, it has been largely regarded by critics as a poor chess game. Gameplay Microchess is a chess program that allows the user to play against a low-level computer opponent. Earlier versions of the game did not have video output: the player would use the keyboard to enter moves using a custom notation, and the program would provide its replies using the same notation. Later versions of the game for other microcomputers had visual outputs of the chess board. The program can run at one of three speeds: it could respond instantly, after calculating for 5–10 seconds, or it could use enough time that a full game may last an hour. While calculating its move, it looks up to three plies ahead. It has been estimated to have the strength of a beginning player, at around 1100 Elo. Development Microchess was developed by Peter R. Jennings in Toronto, Canada in 1976. Jennings had wanted to create a chess program for many years after reading a Scientific American article on the subject. Upon reading an article about MOS Technology's new KIM-1 microcomputer, Jennings decided to buy one and try writing his own program. His intention during development was to create a game he could sell—first for the KIM-1, and then for other microcomputers—rather than to design the best possible chess engine. Jennings began work on the game in May 1976. Within weeks, he had a program that could play chess against a human player. Over the next six months, he continued to iterate on the game, improving the computer's ability to understand moves and strategy while working within the KIM-1's limitations, including its 1kB of memory. In 1976, the KIM-1 also lacked both a video display and a full keyboard. The game was designed such that players would input their moves using a custom notation, and the computer would respond with the notation for its own moves printed on a small seven-segment display, with the player possibly making use of a physical chess board to keep track of the game. A short announcement previewing the game was made in the KIM-1 User Notes fan magazine in November 1976, after another Toronto KIM-1 user played the game and wrote in. The announcement led to Jennings receiving calls and letters from enthusiasts asking when the game would be complete. That same month, an incomplete version of the game was demonstrated at a trade show by MOS Technology. The game was completed in December. Release Graphical Microchess 1.5 on a TRS-80 microcomputer Jennings released Microchess on December 18, 1976, and sent announcements of the game to hobbyist magazines and catalogues. On April 1, 1977, he founded Micro-Ware for the purpose of selling the game. Initial sales of Microchess were not of the program on a cassette tape, but were instead a printed booklet of computer code which the player would need to type into the computer to write the program and then save it to their own tape. According to Jennings this was because he was working at another job and did not have time to make copies of tapes to sell, as it was a difficult process at the time. Additionally, there was no commercial software market and most programs were distributed via printed source code in books and magazines to computer enthusiasts, the target audience of the game. After a couple of months, Micro-Ware began selling paper tapes and cassette tapes of the program directly and through distributors, though the source code to the game was still included in the manual. Microchess was sold for $10 per copy, in either US or Canadian currency; $12 for a copy that included a paper tape; and $13 for a copy on cassette tape. Chuck Peddle, president of MOS Technology, offered to buy the rights to the game for $1,000, but Jennings refused to sell, believing his mail-order sales would make more. The game was widely sold for KIM-1 computers, partially due to MOS Technology including advertisements for the game with the computer. Reportedly some sales of the computer were specifically to play the game; according to Jennings, the price of the computer plus the game was similar to that of Fidelity Electronics's Chess Challenger (1977), the first dedicated chess computer. Versions of Microchess were released for other microcomputer in 1977, with minimal changes as Jennings was not interested in improving the program, only selling it more widely. A version for the Altair 8800 was produced in April 1977, with the port done by Terry O'Brian, a member of the local Toronto computer club. For that and later versions the source code was no longer printed in the manual as it was much longer than it had been for the KIM-1. In 1978, Jennings and Micro-Ware produced an improved, dedicated chess computer version of the game, ChessMate, which was produced by Commodore International. The game's engine was also licensed to Novag for its dedicated Chess Champion Mk II in 1979. Former World Chess Champion Bobby Fischer met with Jennings, and played against ChessMate. He considered licensing his name for the product, but ultimately decided against it. That same year, version 1.5 was released for the TRS-80, as well as version 2.0 for the Apple II, Commodore PET, and Atari 8-bit computers—which included black-and-white graphics of a chessboard. Other features added in these versions included multiple levels of play, with 1.5 having three levels, and 2.0 having eight. A final version of Microchess with color graphics was released for the TRS-80 Color Computer in 1980. As the successor to Micro-Ware, Personal Software, did not deal with computer games at the time, Jennings created the port himself. Reception Microchess was a major success for the late 1970s computer market. According to Jennings, it was the first computer game to be sold commercially, while video game and computer historians have termed it the first "commercially sold home computer game", the first commercial computer game "not released by a hardware company" and the first commercial chess program for microcomputers. Over 1,000 copies of the game were sold by mid-1977, leading Jennings to quit his job and run Micro-Ware full-time. The game's success grew as Jennings released it for more microcomputer systems and the overall microcomputer market expanded. The game made Micro-Ware over $1 million by 1978, and was claimed in 1981 by Personal Software to have been the first computer program of any kind to do so. It sold 50,000 copies by 1979, also claimed by Personal Software to be the first software product to do so, and according to Jennings at one point copies of Microchess had been sold to 30% of computer owners in existence. The majority of the copies sold in the 1970s were for the TRS-80, as Radioshack carried that version of the game in stores. ChessMate also sold tens of thousands of copies. Over one million copies of the game in its various versions were sold by the mid-1980s, and the TRS-80 color chess version was sold into the early 1990s. According to Jennings, many buyers of the game did not know how to play chess nor were interested in learning, but were instead interested in having software that had a real-world analogue to show people. As the commercial video game industry was only beginning, Microchess did not receive reviews like more recent video games, and its ability to play chess and thus interest among chess players was quickly surpassed by games such as Sargon (1978). BYTE in 1981 wrote that when chess programs such as Microchess appeared, "we all laughed and proceeded to demolish them ... microcomputer chess programs had a poor reputation". Chess player and historian Tim Harding, in a 1985 book on chess computers, called Microchess "dreadful" and vastly inferior to Sargon II (1979). Legacy Microchess led to the creation of Micro-Ware, possibly the first software publishing company. In 1978, Micro-Ware merged with software publisher Personal Software, operated by Dan Fylstra, who had seen the game at the November 1976 show and bought the third-ever sold copy, with Fylstra and Jennings as co-owners. The resulting company, still named Personal Software, paid royalties to Jennings for Microchess, but Jennings soon funneled that money into funding the development of VisiCalc (1979), the first spreadsheet software. This led the company to rebrand as VisiCorp in 1982. Chuck Peddle later said that Microchess was a critical success for the KIM-1, and that it and Jennings were crucial to successfully launching the Commodore PET in 1977. As the source code was included with the game, Jennings encouraged players to write their own additions to the program. He claims that most additions were for supporting additional input or output types or adding the ability to recognize more chess openings than the limited memory of the base KIM-1 had allowed, and that no bugs or mistakes in the code were ever found. Jennings later noted that Micro-Ware sold many more early copies of the game for the KIM-1 than for the Altair 8800 microcomputers, despite the latter being much more popular. He attributes this to the more popular microcomputers having hobbyist clubs that shared software, while less popular microcomputer owners all had to purchase their own copies. References ^ a b Jennings, 47:50–48:45 ^ a b Jennings, 1:17:30–1:19:00 ^ Jennings, 24:00–25:30 ^ Jennings, 28:25–36:00 ^ a b Jennings, 36:00–40:00 ^ a b c Jennings, 40:00–43:50 ^ Rehnke, Eric (November 1976). "Kim-1/6502 Power!". Kim-1 User Notes. Vol. 1, no. 2. ^ a b Jennings, 1:21:30–1:24:30 ^ a b c Jennings, 49:00–51:45 ^ a b c Freiberger; Swaine, p. 288 ^ a b Welsh; Welsh, ch. 4 ^ Jennings, 56:30–58:35 ^ Jennings, 1:04:30–1:07:00 ^ Jennings, 58:35–1:01:45 ^ Jennings, 1:07:30–1:10:30 ^ a b Harding, pp. 76, 155 ^ Jennings, 1:27:15-1:33:00 ^ Jennings, 1:19:30-1:20:00 ^ "Microchess". Kilobaud Microcomputing. No. 19. 1978. pp. 75, 99. ISSN 0192-4575. ^ Jennings, 1:34:00–1:36:00 ^ a b c Smith, pp. 363–364 ^ "Microchess 1.5 running on a Radio Shack TRS-80 microcomputer". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on May 26, 2022. Retrieved July 28, 2023. ^ Zhouxiang, p. 26 ^ a b Jennings, 1:40:00–1:42:00 ^ Stanton; Dickey, p. 289 ^ "Personal Software Introduces Backgammon & Checkers Programs". Intelligent Machines Journal. No. 20. International Data Group. January 21, 1980. p. 10. ISSN 0199-6649. ^ Martellaro, John (January 1981). "The Newest Sargon - 2.5". Byte. Vol. 6, no. 1. McGraw-Hill. pp. 208–212. ISSN 0360-5280. Retrieved October 18, 2013. ^ Jennings, 54:15–56:10 ^ Bagnall, p. 80 ^ Jennings, 46:30–47:15 ^ Jennings, 44:20–45:00 Sources "Oral History of Peter Jennings". Computer History Museum. February 1, 2005. Retrieved July 27, 2023. Bagnall, Brian (2006). On the Edge: The Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore. Variant Press. ISBN 978-0-9738649-0-8. Freiberger, Paul; Swaine, Michael (1984). Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer. Osborne/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-88134-121-5. Harding, Tim (1985). Price, Jill; Levy, David N. L. (eds.). The New Chess Computer Book. Pergamon Chess Series (2nd ed.). Pergamon Press. ISBN 978-1-4831-4032-2. Smith, Alexander (2019). They Create Worlds: The Story of the People and Companies That Shaped the Video Game Industry, Vol. I: 1971-1982. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-429-75261-2. Stanton, Jeffrey; Dickey, John (1981). The Book of Apple Computer Software 1982. Book Company. Welsh, Theresa; Welsh, David (2007). Priming the Pump: How TRS-80 Enthusiasts Helped Spark the PC Revolution. The Seeker Books. ISBN 978-0-9793468-1-1. Zhouxiang, Lu (2022). A History of Competitive Gaming. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-00-058853-8. External links The history of Microchess by Jennings, with manuals and complete source code KIM-1 source code at the Computer History Museum Windows port of Microchess (in German)

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Minichess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minichess"},{"link_name":"chess program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_chess"},{"link_name":"MOS Technology KIM-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIM-1"},{"link_name":"Peter R. Jennings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_R._Jennings"},{"link_name":"chess notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_notation"},{"link_name":"ported","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porting"},{"link_name":"TRS-80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRS-80"},{"link_name":"Apple II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_II"},{"link_name":"Commodore PET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_PET"},{"link_name":"Atari 8-bit computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computers"},{"link_name":"VisiCorp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VisiCorp"},{"link_name":"Commodore International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_International"}],"text":"1976 computer chess softwareFor a chess variant called Microchess, see Minichess.1976 video gameMicrochess, sometimes written as MicroChess, is a chess program developed for the MOS Technology KIM-1 microcomputer by Peter R. Jennings in 1976, and published by his company Micro-Ware. The game plays chess against the human player at a beginner level, with the player entering moves via a keyboard and the computer responding, both in a custom chess notation. The game was ported to many other microcomputers such as the TRS-80, Apple II, Commodore PET, and Atari 8-bit computers by Micro-Ware and its successor company Personal Software (later VisiCorp) between 1976 and 1980, with later versions featuring graphics and more levels of play. A dedicated hardware version of the game called ChessMate was produced by Commodore International in 1978, and the game's engine was licensed to Novag for its dedicated Chess Champion Mk II chess computer in 1979.The game was created by Jennings over the course of around six months in 1976. He developed it with the aim of making a product that could be widely sold, rather than as the most advanced chess engine possible. It was possibly the first computer game to be sold commercially, and was the first commercial chess program for microcomputers and the first software package to sell 50,000 copies. Micro-Ware itself was possibly the first software publishing company. Microchess ultimately sold over a million copies across all of its versions by the mid-1980s, and variants were sold into the early 1990s. Despite being commercially successful, it has been largely regarded by critics as a poor chess game.","title":"Microchess"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chess program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_chess"},{"link_name":"notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_notation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview47:50-48:45-1"},{"link_name":"plies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ply_(game_theory)"},{"link_name":"Elo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elo_rating_system"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview1:17:30-1:19:00-2"}],"text":"Microchess is a chess program that allows the user to play against a low-level computer opponent. Earlier versions of the game did not have video output: the player would use the keyboard to enter moves using a custom notation, and the program would provide its replies using the same notation.[1] Later versions of the game for other microcomputers had visual outputs of the chess board. The program can run at one of three speeds: it could respond instantly, after calculating for 5–10 seconds, or it could use enough time that a full game may last an hour. While calculating its move, it looks up to three plies ahead. It has been estimated to have the strength of a beginning player, at around 1100 Elo.[2]","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Peter R. Jennings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_R._Jennings"},{"link_name":"Scientific American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American"},{"link_name":"MOS Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology"},{"link_name":"KIM-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIM-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview24:00-25:30-3"},{"link_name":"kB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobyte"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview28:25-36:00-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview36:00-40:00-5"},{"link_name":"seven-segment display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven-segment_display"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview47:50-48:45-1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview40:00-43:50-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-K1UN-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview36:00-40:00-5"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview1:21:30-1:24:30-8"}],"text":"Microchess was developed by Peter R. Jennings in Toronto, Canada in 1976. Jennings had wanted to create a chess program for many years after reading a Scientific American article on the subject. Upon reading an article about MOS Technology's new KIM-1 microcomputer, Jennings decided to buy one and try writing his own program. His intention during development was to create a game he could sell—first for the KIM-1, and then for other microcomputers—rather than to design the best possible chess engine.[3]Jennings began work on the game in May 1976. Within weeks, he had a program that could play chess against a human player. Over the next six months, he continued to iterate on the game, improving the computer's ability to understand moves and strategy while working within the KIM-1's limitations, including its 1kB of memory.[4][5] In 1976, the KIM-1 also lacked both a video display and a full keyboard. The game was designed such that players would input their moves using a custom notation, and the computer would respond with the notation for its own moves printed on a small seven-segment display, with the player possibly making use of a physical chess board to keep track of the game.[1][6] A short announcement previewing the game was made in the KIM-1 User Notes fan magazine in November 1976, after another Toronto KIM-1 user played the game and wrote in. The announcement led to Jennings receiving calls and letters from enthusiasts asking when the game would be complete.[7][5] That same month, an incomplete version of the game was demonstrated at a trade show by MOS Technology. The game was completed in December.[8]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Microchess_TRS-80.jpg"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview49:00-51:45-9"},{"link_name":"cassette tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassette_tape"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview40:00-43:50-6"},{"link_name":"paper tapes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_tape"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview49:00-51:45-9"},{"link_name":"Chuck Peddle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Peddle"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Firebook-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pumpbook-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview56:30-58:35-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview1:04:30-1:07:00-13"},{"link_name":"Altair 8800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altair_8800"},{"link_name":"port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porting"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview58:35-1:01:45-14"},{"link_name":"Commodore International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_International"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview1:07:30-1:10:30-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-harding1985-16"},{"link_name":"Bobby Fischer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Fischer"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Firebook-10"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview1:27:15-1:33:00-17"},{"link_name":"Apple II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_II"},{"link_name":"Commodore PET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_PET"},{"link_name":"Atari 8-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_8-bit"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview1:19:30-1:20:00-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KBfeatureaandad-19"},{"link_name":"TRS-80 Color Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRS-80_Color_Computer"},{"link_name":"Personal Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_Software"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview1:34:00-1:36:00-20"}],"text":"Graphical Microchess 1.5 on a TRS-80 microcomputerJennings released Microchess on December 18, 1976, and sent announcements of the game to hobbyist magazines and catalogues. On April 1, 1977, he founded Micro-Ware for the purpose of selling the game.[9] Initial sales of Microchess were not of the program on a cassette tape, but were instead a printed booklet of computer code which the player would need to type into the computer to write the program and then save it to their own tape. According to Jennings this was because he was working at another job and did not have time to make copies of tapes to sell, as it was a difficult process at the time. Additionally, there was no commercial software market and most programs were distributed via printed source code in books and magazines to computer enthusiasts, the target audience of the game.[6] After a couple of months, Micro-Ware began selling paper tapes and cassette tapes of the program directly and through distributors, though the source code to the game was still included in the manual. Microchess was sold for $10 per copy, in either US or Canadian currency; $12 for a copy that included a paper tape; and $13 for a copy on cassette tape.[9]Chuck Peddle, president of MOS Technology, offered to buy the rights to the game for $1,000, but Jennings refused to sell, believing his mail-order sales would make more.[10][11] The game was widely sold for KIM-1 computers, partially due to MOS Technology including advertisements for the game with the computer. Reportedly some sales of the computer were specifically to play the game; according to Jennings, the price of the computer plus the game was similar to that of Fidelity Electronics's Chess Challenger (1977), the first dedicated chess computer.[12] Versions of Microchess were released for other microcomputer in 1977, with minimal changes as Jennings was not interested in improving the program, only selling it more widely.[13] A version for the Altair 8800 was produced in April 1977, with the port done by Terry O'Brian, a member of the local Toronto computer club. For that and later versions the source code was no longer printed in the manual as it was much longer than it had been for the KIM-1.[14]In 1978, Jennings and Micro-Ware produced an improved, dedicated chess computer version of the game, ChessMate, which was produced by Commodore International.[15] The game's engine was also licensed to Novag for its dedicated Chess Champion Mk II in 1979.[16] Former World Chess Champion Bobby Fischer met with Jennings, and played against ChessMate. He considered licensing his name for the product, but ultimately decided against it.[10][17] That same year, version 1.5 was released for the TRS-80, as well as version 2.0 for the Apple II, Commodore PET, and Atari 8-bit computers—which included black-and-white graphics of a chessboard. Other features added in these versions included multiple levels of play, with 1.5 having three levels, and 2.0 having eight.[18][19] A final version of Microchess with color graphics was released for the TRS-80 Color Computer in 1980. As the successor to Micro-Ware, Personal Software, did not deal with computer games at the time, Jennings created the port himself.[20]","title":"Release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview40:00-43:50-6"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TCW363364-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHMmicrochess-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HCG26-23"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview49:00-51:45-9"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview1:40:00-1:42:00-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AppleGold-25"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview1:17:30-1:19:00-2"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TCW363364-21"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iw19800121-26"},{"link_name":"Radioshack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioshack"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TCW363364-21"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview1:40:00-1:42:00-24"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Firebook-10"},{"link_name":"Sargon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sargon_(chess)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pumpbook-11"},{"link_name":"BYTE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-martellaro198101-27"},{"link_name":"Tim Harding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Harding_(chess_player)"},{"link_name":"Sargon II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sargon_II_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-harding1985-16"}],"text":"Microchess was a major success for the late 1970s computer market. According to Jennings, it was the first computer game to be sold commercially, while video game and computer historians have termed it the first \"commercially sold home computer game\", the first commercial computer game \"not released by a hardware company\" and the first commercial chess program for microcomputers.[6][21][22][23] Over 1,000 copies of the game were sold by mid-1977, leading Jennings to quit his job and run Micro-Ware full-time.[9] The game's success grew as Jennings released it for more microcomputer systems and the overall microcomputer market expanded. The game made Micro-Ware over $1 million by 1978, and was claimed in 1981 by Personal Software to have been the first computer program of any kind to do so.[24][25] It sold 50,000 copies by 1979, also claimed by Personal Software to be the first software product to do so, and according to Jennings at one point copies of Microchess had been sold to 30% of computer owners in existence.[2][21][26] The majority of the copies sold in the 1970s were for the TRS-80, as Radioshack carried that version of the game in stores.[21] ChessMate also sold tens of thousands of copies. Over one million copies of the game in its various versions were sold by the mid-1980s, and the TRS-80 color chess version was sold into the early 1990s.[24]According to Jennings, many buyers of the game did not know how to play chess nor were interested in learning, but were instead interested in having software that had a real-world analogue to show people.[10] As the commercial video game industry was only beginning, Microchess did not receive reviews like more recent video games, and its ability to play chess and thus interest among chess players was quickly surpassed by games such as Sargon (1978).[11] BYTE in 1981 wrote that when chess programs such as Microchess appeared, \"we all laughed and proceeded to demolish them ... microcomputer chess programs had a poor reputation\".[27] Chess player and historian Tim Harding, in a 1985 book on chess computers, called Microchess \"dreadful\" and vastly inferior to Sargon II (1979).[16]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dan Fylstra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Fylstra"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview1:21:30-1:24:30-8"},{"link_name":"VisiCalc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VisiCalc"},{"link_name":"spreadsheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet"},{"link_name":"VisiCorp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VisiCorp"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview54:15-56:10-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OTE80-29"},{"link_name":"chess openings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess_opening"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview46:30-47:15-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CHinterview44:20-45:00-31"}],"text":"Microchess led to the creation of Micro-Ware, possibly the first software publishing company. In 1978, Micro-Ware merged with software publisher Personal Software, operated by Dan Fylstra, who had seen the game at the November 1976 show and bought the third-ever sold copy, with Fylstra and Jennings as co-owners.[8] The resulting company, still named Personal Software, paid royalties to Jennings for Microchess, but Jennings soon funneled that money into funding the development of VisiCalc (1979), the first spreadsheet software. This led the company to rebrand as VisiCorp in 1982.[28]Chuck Peddle later said that Microchess was a critical success for the KIM-1, and that it and Jennings were crucial to successfully launching the Commodore PET in 1977.[29] As the source code was included with the game, Jennings encouraged players to write their own additions to the program. He claims that most additions were for supporting additional input or output types or adding the ability to recognize more chess openings than the limited memory of the base KIM-1 had allowed, and that no bugs or mistakes in the code were ever found.[30] Jennings later noted that Micro-Ware sold many more early copies of the game for the KIM-1 than for the Altair 8800 microcomputers, despite the latter being much more popular. He attributes this to the more popular microcomputers having hobbyist clubs that shared software, while less popular microcomputer owners all had to purchase their own copies.[31]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Oral History of Peter Jennings\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.computerhistory.org/chess/orl-4334404555680/"},{"link_name":"Computer History Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_History_Museum"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-9738649-0-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9738649-0-8"},{"link_name":"Freiberger, Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Freiberger"},{"link_name":"Swaine, Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Swaine_(technical_author)"},{"link_name":"Osborne/McGraw-Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw_Hill_Education"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-88134-121-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88134-121-5"},{"link_name":"Harding, Tim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Harding_(chess_player)"},{"link_name":"Levy, David N. L.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Levy_(chess_player)"},{"link_name":"Pergamon Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4831-4032-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4831-4032-2"},{"link_name":"CRC Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-429-75261-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-75261-2"},{"link_name":"The Book of Apple Computer Software 1982","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/tboacs1982"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-9793468-1-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9793468-1-1"},{"link_name":"Routledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-00-058853-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-00-058853-8"}],"text":"\"Oral History of Peter Jennings\". Computer History Museum. February 1, 2005. Retrieved July 27, 2023.\nBagnall, Brian (2006). On the Edge: The Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore. Variant Press. ISBN 978-0-9738649-0-8.\nFreiberger, Paul; Swaine, Michael (1984). Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer. Osborne/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-88134-121-5.\nHarding, Tim (1985). Price, Jill; Levy, David N. L. (eds.). The New Chess Computer Book. Pergamon Chess Series (2nd ed.). Pergamon Press. ISBN 978-1-4831-4032-2.\nSmith, Alexander (2019). They Create Worlds: The Story of the People and Companies That Shaped the Video Game Industry, Vol. I: 1971-1982. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-429-75261-2.\nStanton, Jeffrey; Dickey, John (1981). The Book of Apple Computer Software 1982. Book Company.\nWelsh, Theresa; Welsh, David (2007). Priming the Pump: How TRS-80 Enthusiasts Helped Spark the PC Revolution. The Seeker Books. ISBN 978-0-9793468-1-1.\nZhouxiang, Lu (2022). A History of Competitive Gaming. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-00-058853-8.","title":"Sources"}]

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[{"reference":"Rehnke, Eric (November 1976). \"Kim-1/6502 Power!\". Kim-1 User Notes. Vol. 1, no. 2.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Microchess\". Kilobaud Microcomputing. No. 19. 1978. pp. 75, 99. ISSN 0192-4575.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobaud_Microcomputing","url_text":"Kilobaud Microcomputing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0192-4575","url_text":"0192-4575"}]},{"reference":"\"Microchess 1.5 running on a Radio Shack TRS-80 microcomputer\". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on May 26, 2022. Retrieved July 28, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerhistory.org/chess/stl-431e1a080c29f/","url_text":"\"Microchess 1.5 running on a Radio Shack TRS-80 microcomputer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_History_Museum","url_text":"Computer History Museum"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220526142046/https://www.computerhistory.org/chess/stl-431e1a080c29f/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Personal Software Introduces Backgammon & Checkers Programs\". Intelligent Machines Journal. No. 20. International Data Group. January 21, 1980. p. 10. ISSN 0199-6649.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld","url_text":"Intelligent Machines Journal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Data_Group","url_text":"International Data Group"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0199-6649","url_text":"0199-6649"}]},{"reference":"Martellaro, John (January 1981). \"The Newest Sargon - 2.5\". Byte. Vol. 6, no. 1. McGraw-Hill. pp. 208–212. ISSN 0360-5280. Retrieved October 18, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1981-01/1981_01_BYTE_06-01_Hand-held_Computers#page/n209/mode/2up","url_text":"\"The Newest Sargon - 2.5\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_(magazine)","url_text":"Byte"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill_Education","url_text":"McGraw-Hill"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0360-5280","url_text":"0360-5280"}]},{"reference":"\"Oral History of Peter Jennings\". Computer History Museum. February 1, 2005. Retrieved July 27, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerhistory.org/chess/orl-4334404555680/","url_text":"\"Oral History of Peter Jennings\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_History_Museum","url_text":"Computer History Museum"}]},{"reference":"Bagnall, Brian (2006). On the Edge: The Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore. Variant Press. ISBN 978-0-9738649-0-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9738649-0-8","url_text":"978-0-9738649-0-8"}]},{"reference":"Freiberger, Paul; Swaine, Michael (1984). Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer. Osborne/McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-88134-121-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Freiberger","url_text":"Freiberger, Paul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Swaine_(technical_author)","url_text":"Swaine, Michael"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw_Hill_Education","url_text":"Osborne/McGraw-Hill"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88134-121-5","url_text":"0-88134-121-5"}]},{"reference":"Harding, Tim (1985). Price, Jill; Levy, David N. L. (eds.). The New Chess Computer Book. Pergamon Chess Series (2nd ed.). Pergamon Press. ISBN 978-1-4831-4032-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Harding_(chess_player)","url_text":"Harding, Tim"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Levy_(chess_player)","url_text":"Levy, David N. L."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon_Press","url_text":"Pergamon Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4831-4032-2","url_text":"978-1-4831-4032-2"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Alexander (2019). They Create Worlds: The Story of the People and Companies That Shaped the Video Game Industry, Vol. I: 1971-1982. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-429-75261-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Press","url_text":"CRC Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-429-75261-2","url_text":"978-0-429-75261-2"}]},{"reference":"Stanton, Jeffrey; Dickey, John (1981). The Book of Apple Computer Software 1982. Book Company.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/tboacs1982","url_text":"The Book of Apple Computer Software 1982"}]},{"reference":"Welsh, Theresa; Welsh, David (2007). Priming the Pump: How TRS-80 Enthusiasts Helped Spark the PC Revolution. The Seeker Books. ISBN 978-0-9793468-1-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9793468-1-1","url_text":"978-0-9793468-1-1"}]},{"reference":"Zhouxiang, Lu (2022). A History of Competitive Gaming. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-00-058853-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-00-058853-8","url_text":"978-1-00-058853-8"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LowRISC

lowRISC

["1 Projects","1.1 OpenTitan","1.2 Ibex CPU core","1.3 Prototype 64-bit SoC design","1.4 Other projects","2 Governance","2.1 Board of directors","3 History","4 References","5 External links"]

Not-for-profit company headquartered in Cambridge, UK lowRISC C.I.C.Company typeCommunity Interest CompanyFoundedOctober 20, 2014; 9 years ago (2014-10-20) in Cambridge, UKFoundersGavin Ferris, Alex Bradbury, Robert MullinsHeadquartersCambridge, United KingdomProductsIbex, OpenTitanWebsitelowrisc.org lowRISC C.I.C. is a not-for-profit company headquartered in Cambridge, UK. It uses collaborative engineering to develop and maintain open source silicon designs and tools. lowRISC is active in RISC-V-related open source hardware and software development and stewards the OpenTitan project. Projects OpenTitan OpenTitan is the first open source silicon Root of Trust (RoT) project. It is designed to be integrated into data center servers, storage devices, peripherals and other hardware. OpenTitan is under the stewardship of lowRISC and collaboratively developed by Google, ETH Zurich, Nuvoton, G+D Mobile Security, Seagate, and Western Digital. The OpenTitan source code is available on GitHub, released under the permissive Apache 2 license. Ibex CPU core Ibex is an embedded open source 32-bit in-order RISC-V CPU core, which has been taped out multiple times. Ibex is used in the OpenTitan chip. Development on Ibex started in 2015 under the name "Zero-riscy" and "Micro-riscy" at the ETH Zurich and University of Bologna, where it was part of the PULP platform. In December 2018 lowRISC took over the development. Luca Benini of the ETH Zurich sits on lowRISC' board. Prototype 64-bit SoC design The lowRISC prototype 64-bit SoC design is an open source Linux-capable 64-bit RISC-V SoC design. A first version preview release of the source code was made available in April 2015. Since then features were added, such as support for tagged memory and "minion cores", small CPU cores which are dedicated to I/O tasks. The latest version 0.6 was released in November 2018, and is available to download and try out on an FPGA. Other projects lowRISC initiated and led the upstreaming of the RISC-V LLVM backend, where Alex Bradbury is code owner. Governance Board of directors Andy Hopper (Independent Chair) Will Drewry (Google) Gavin Ferris (CEO, lowRISC) Robert Mullins (University of Cambridge) Claudia Eckert (TU Munich, Fraunhofer AISEC) Cyrus Stoller (Google) Additionally, Mark Hayter of Google sits on the board as an observer. History lowRISC was spun out of the University of Cambridge Computer Lab in 2014 by Alex Bradbury, Robert Mullins, and Gavin Ferris with the goal of creating a fully open source SoC and low-cost development board. In 2015 lowRISC became one of the founding members of the RISC-V Foundation (today: RISC-V International). Since 2018 lowRISC has been focusing on collaborative engineering with partner organizations. In 2019 the OpenTitan project, stewarded by lowRISC, was announced. References ^ a b c "About lowRISC". lowrisc.org. Retrieved 24 March 2021. ^ Anderson, Tim (5 Nov 2019). "Cambridge boffins and Google unveil open-source OpenTitan chip – because you never know who you can trust". The Register. Retrieved 24 March 2021. ^ "Open source silicon Root of Trust". opentitan.org. ^ "OpenTitan partners". opentitan.org. Retrieved 24 March 2021. ^ "Ibex: An embedded 32 bit RISC-V CPU core". Retrieved 24 March 2021. ^ "Ibex Reference Guide: History". Retrieved 24 March 2021. ^ "lowRISC tagged memory preview release". lowrisc.org. April 13, 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2021. ^ "Overview of the minion infrastructure". lowrisc.org. Retrieved 24 March 2021. ^ "lowRISC 0-6 milestone release". lowrisc.org. 2018-11-12. Retrieved 24 March 2021. ^ Bradbury, Alex. "The RISC-V LLVM backend in Clang/LLVM 9.0". lowrisc.org. Retrieved 24 March 2021. ^ "Free Core, Some Assembly Required". EETimes. 2016-01-07. Retrieved 24 March 2021. ^ "LowRISC SoC - 1st RISC-V Workshop". YouTube. ^ "Founding Members". riscv.org. Retrieved 24 March 2021. ^ Bradbury, Alex (2019-11-05). "Announcing OpenTitan, the First Transparent Silicon Root of Trust". External links Official website

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"C.I.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_interest_company"},{"link_name":"not-for-profit company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprofit_organization"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge"},{"link_name":"collaborative engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaborative_engineering"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lowrisc_about-1"},{"link_name":"RISC-V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISC-V"},{"link_name":"open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source"}],"text":"lowRISC C.I.C. is a not-for-profit company headquartered in Cambridge, UK. It uses collaborative engineering to develop and maintain open source silicon designs and tools.[1] lowRISC is active in RISC-V-related open source hardware and software development and stewards the OpenTitan project.","title":"lowRISC"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"ETH Zurich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ETH_Zurich"},{"link_name":"Nuvoton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuvoton"},{"link_name":"G+D Mobile Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giesecke%2BDevrient"},{"link_name":"Seagate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagate_Technology"},{"link_name":"Western Digital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Digital"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"GitHub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub"},{"link_name":"permissive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_software_license"},{"link_name":"Apache 2 license","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_License"}],"sub_title":"OpenTitan","text":"OpenTitan is the first open source silicon Root of Trust (RoT) project.[2] It is designed to be integrated into data center servers, storage devices, peripherals and other hardware.[3] OpenTitan is under the stewardship of lowRISC and collaboratively developed by Google, ETH Zurich, Nuvoton, G+D Mobile Security, Seagate, and Western Digital.[4] The OpenTitan source code is available on GitHub, released under the permissive Apache 2 license.","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RISC-V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISC-V"},{"link_name":"CPU core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Ibex CPU core","text":"Ibex is an embedded open source 32-bit in-order RISC-V CPU core, which has been taped out multiple times.[5] Ibex is used in the OpenTitan chip.\nDevelopment on Ibex started in 2015 under the name \"Zero-riscy\" and \"Micro-riscy\" at the ETH Zurich and University of Bologna, where it was part of the PULP platform. In December 2018 lowRISC took over the development.[6] Luca Benini of the ETH Zurich sits on lowRISC' board.","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RISC-V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISC-V"},{"link_name":"SoC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System-on-Chip"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"FPGA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FPGA"}],"sub_title":"Prototype 64-bit SoC design","text":"The lowRISC prototype 64-bit SoC design is an open source Linux-capable 64-bit RISC-V SoC design. A first version preview release of the source code was made available in April 2015.[7] Since then features were added, such as support for tagged memory and \"minion cores\", small CPU cores which are dedicated to I/O tasks.[8] The latest version 0.6 was released in November 2018,[9] and is available to download and try out on an FPGA.","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RISC-V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISC-V"},{"link_name":"LLVM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LLVM"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Other projects","text":"lowRISC initiated and led the upstreaming of the RISC-V LLVM backend, where Alex Bradbury is code owner.[10]","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Governance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Andy Hopper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Hopper"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Claudia Eckert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudia_Eckert_(computer_scientist)"},{"link_name":"TU Munich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_University_of_Munich"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lowrisc_about-1"}],"sub_title":"Board of directors","text":"Andy Hopper (Independent Chair)\nWill Drewry (Google)\nGavin Ferris (CEO, lowRISC)\nRobert Mullins (University of Cambridge)\nClaudia Eckert (TU Munich, Fraunhofer AISEC)\nCyrus Stoller (Google)Additionally, Mark Hayter of Google sits on the board as an observer.[1]","title":"Governance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Computer Lab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Computer_Science_and_Technology,_University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lowrisc_about-1"},{"link_name":"SoC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_on_a_chip"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"RISC-V Foundation (today: RISC-V International)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RISC-V#RISC-V_Foundation_and_RISC-V_International"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"lowRISC was spun out of the University of Cambridge Computer Lab in 2014 by Alex Bradbury, Robert Mullins, and Gavin Ferris[1] with the goal of creating a fully open source SoC and low-cost development board.[11][12]In 2015 lowRISC became one of the founding members of the RISC-V Foundation (today: RISC-V International).[13]Since 2018 lowRISC has been focusing on collaborative engineering with partner organizations. \nIn 2019 the OpenTitan project, stewarded by lowRISC, was announced.[14]","title":"History"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Sufi

Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi

["1 Biography","2 Astronomy","2.1 Kitāb ṣuwar al-kawākib (\"The Book of Fixed Stars\")","3 Legacy","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References","7 Bibliography","8 External links"]

Persian astronomer (903–986) "Azophi" redirects here. For the lunar crater, see Azophi (crater). ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfīعبدالرحمن الصوفيAl-Ṣūfī, as depicted in Albrecht Dürer's woodcut Imagines coeli septentrionales cum duodecim imaginibus zodiaci (1515)Born(903-12-07)December 7, 903Rey, Jibal, Abbasid CaliphateDiedMay 25, 986(986-05-25) (aged 82)Occupation(s)Astronomer, mathematicianEraIslamic Golden AgeNotable workKitāb ṣuwar al-kawākib ("The Book of Fixed Stars") ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī (Persian: عبدالرحمن الصوفی; 7 December 903 – 25 May 986) was an Iranian astronomer. His work Kitāb ṣuwar al-kawākib ("The Book of Fixed Stars"), written in 964, included both textual descriptions and illustrations. The Persian polymath Al-Biruni wrote that al-Ṣūfī's work on the ecliptic was carried out in Shiraz. Al-Ṣūfī lived at the Buyid court in Isfahan. Biography ʿAbd al-Rahmān al-Ṣūfī (full name: Abū’l-Ḥusayn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿUmar ibn Sahl al-Ṣūfī al-Rāzī) was one of the nine famous Muslim astronomers. He lived at the court of Emir 'Adud al-Dawla in Isfahan, and worked on translating and expanding ancient Greek astronomical works, especially the Almagest of Ptolemy. He made corrections to Ptolemy's star list, and his estimations of star brightness and magnitude deviated from those by Ptolemy; just over half of al-Ṣūfī's magnitudes being identical to Ptolemy's. A Persian, al-Ṣūfī wrote in Arabic, the lingua franca of the scientific Muslim world. Al-Ṣūfī was a major contributor to the translation into Arabic of the Hellenistic astronomy that had been centered in Alexandria, Egypt. His was the first to attempt to relate the Greek with the traditional Arabic star names and constellations, which were completely unrelated and overlapped in complicated ways. Astronomy Al-Ṣūfī made his astronomical observations at a latitude of 32.7N° in Isfahan. It has been claimed that he identified the Large Magellanic Cloud, but this seems to be a misunderstanding of a reference to some stars south of Canopus which he admits he has not seen. He also made the earliest recorded observation of the Andromeda Galaxy in 964, describing it as a "small cloud". This was the first galaxy other than the Milky Way to be mentioned in writing. Al-Ṣūfī also wrote about the astrolabe, finding numerous additional uses for it: he described over 1000 different uses, in areas as diverse as astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Qibla and Salat prayer. Kitāb ṣuwar al-kawākib ("The Book of Fixed Stars") Further information: The Book of Fixed Stars “Sign of Sagittarius” by al-Sufi in his book Ṣuwar al-kawākib al-thābita, Artuqid Mardin, 1131 CE. Al-Ṣūfī published Kitāb ṣuwar al-kawākib ("The Book of Fixed Stars") in 964, and dedicated it to Adud al-Dawla, the ruler of Buwayhid at the time. This book describes 48 constellations and the stars within them. Al-Ṣūfī compared Greek constellations and stars as described in Ptolemy’s Almagest with Arabic ones, linking those that were the same. He included two illustrations of each constellation, one showing the orientation of the stars from the perspective outside the celestial globe, and the other from the perspective of looking at the sky while standing on the Earth. He separated them into three groups; 21 seen from the north, 15 seen from the south, and the 12 zodiac constellations. He included a complete set of star charts, that included the names and numbers of the individual stars in each of the 48 constellations, and each star's longitudinal and latitudinal coordinates, magnitude, and location north or south of the ecliptic. Scribal errors within the 35 surviving copies of The Book of Fixed Stars have caused the value of the magnitude for a particular star to vary from manuscript to manuscript. Al-Ṣūfī organized the stars in each of his drawings into two groups: those that form the image depicted, and others that are in close proximity to the image. He identified and described stars not included by Ptolemy, but he did not include them in his own star charts. Stating that his charts were modelled after Ptolemy, he left the stars excluded in Ptolemy's catalogue out of his charts as well. To allow for the longitudinal placement of the stars within constellations having changed over the eight centuries since the Almagest was written, Al-Ṣūfī added 12° 42' to all the longitudes values provided by Ptolemy. Al-Ṣūfī differed from Ptolemy by having a three level scale to measure the magnitude of stars instead of a two level scale. This extra level increased the precision of his measurements. His methodology for determining these magnitude measurements cannot be found in any of his extant texts. Despite the importance of The Book of Fixed Stars in the history of astronomy, it took more than 1000 years until the first partial English translation of the book was published in 2010. Legacy Sagittarius from The Depiction of Celestial Constellations Al-Ṣūfī's astronomical work was subsequently used by many other astronomers, including Ulugh Beg who was both a prince and astronomer. The lunar crater Azophi and the minor planet 12621 Alsufi are named after Al-Ṣūfī. The Astronomy Society of Iran – Amateur Committee has held international Sufi Observing Competitions in memory of the astronomer. The first competition was held in 2006 in the north of Semnan Province, and the second was held in the summer of 2008 in Ladiz near the Zahedan. More than 100 attendees from Iran and Iraq participated in these events. Google Doodle commemorated Al-Ṣūfī's 1113th birthday on 7 December, 2016. See also List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars List of scientists in medieval Islamic world Notes ^ Also referred to in sources as Abu'l Husayn al-Sūfī, ʿAbd ar-Rahman as-Sūfī, ʿAbd al-Rahman Abu al-Husayn, ʿAbdul Rahman Sūfī, and ʿAbdurrahman Sūfī and in the West as Azophi, Azophi Arabus, and Albuhassin. References ^ Al-Qifti. Ikhbār al-ʿulamāʾ bi-akhbār al-ḥukamāʾ ("History of Learned Men"). In: ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī and his Book of the Fixed Stars: A Journey of Re-discovery by Ihsan Hafez, Richard F. Stephenson, Wayne Orchiston (2011). In: Orchiston, Wayne, Highlighting the history of astronomy in the Asia-Pacific region: proceedings of the ICOA-6 conference. Astrophysics and Space Science Proceedings. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-8161-5. "… is the honored, the perfect, the most intelligent and the friend of the King Adud al-Dawla Fanakhasru Shahenshah ibn Buwayh. He is the author of the most honored books in the science of astronomy. He was originally from Nisa and is of a Persian descent." ^ a b van Gent, Robert Harry. "Biography of al-Sūfī". University of Utrecht. Retrieved 11 January 2014. ^ Russell 1994, p. 209. ^ Kunitzsch1988. ^ a b c Schaefer 2013. ^ Selin 1997, p. 160. ^ a b c d e Hafez, Stephenson & Orchiston 2011. ^ Ridpath. ^ "Andromeda Galaxy". Britannia. Retrieved 13 January 2023. ^ Winterburn, Emily (2005). "Using an Astrolabe". Muslim Heritage. Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilisation, UK (FSTCUK). Retrieved 22 January 2008. ^ Atbaş, Zeynep (1 August 2019). Artistic Aspects of Sultan Bayezid II’s Book Treasury Collection: Extant Volumes Preserved at the Topkapı Palace Museum Library (Treasures of Knowledge: An Inventory of the Ottoman Palace Library (1502/3-1503/4) (2 vols)). Brill. pp. 161–211. doi:10.1163/9789004402508_005. ^ Atbaş, Zeynep (1 August 2019). Artistic Aspects of Sultan Bayezid II’s Book Treasury Collection: Extant Volumes Preserved at the Topkapı Palace Museum Library (Treasures of Knowledge: An Inventory of the Ottoman Palace Library (1502/3-1503/4) (2 vols)). Brill. p. 195. doi:10.1163/9789004402508_005. ^ Cavin 2011. ^ Orchiston, Green & Strom 2014. ^ Knobel 1885. ^ Upton 1933. ^ Hafez, Ihsan (October 2010). ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī and his book of the fixed stars: a journey of re-discovery. James Cook University (phd). pp. 2–4. ^ "A night full of memories; the first Sufi competition". Nojum Magazine. Archived from the original on 20 October 2009. Retrieved 7 January 2009. ^ رقابت صوفي، درآمدي بر سال جهاني نجوم ^ "Abd al-Rahman Al-Sufi's (Azophi) 1113th Birthday". 7 December 2016. Bibliography Al-Qifti. Ikhbār al-ʿulamāʾ bi-akhbār al-ḥukamāʾ (History of Learned Men). In: ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Şūfī and his Book of the Fixed Stars: A Journey of Re-discovery by Ihsan Hafez, Richard F. Stephenson, Wayne Orchiston (2011). In: Orchiston, Wayne, Highlighting the history of astronomy in the Asia-Pacific region: proceedings of the ICOA-6 conference. Astrophysics and Space Science Proceedings. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-8161-5. "… is the honored, the perfect, the most intelligent and the friend of the King Adud al-Dawla Fanakhasru Shahenshah Ibn Buwaih. He is the author of the most honored books in the science of astronomy. He was originally from Nisa and is of a Persian descent." Cavin, Jerry D. (2011). The Amateur Astronomer's Guide to the Deep-Sky Catalogs. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-1-4614-0656-3. Hafez, Ihsan; Stephenson, Richard; Orchiston, Wayne (2011). "Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi and his Book of the Fixed Stars". In Orchiston, Wayne; Nakamura, Tsuko; Strom, Richard G. (eds.). Highlighting the History of Astronomy in the Asia-Pacific Region. Springer Nature. pp. 121–138. ISBN 978-14419-8-161-5. Kepple, George Robert; Sanner, Glen W. (1998). The Night Sky Observer's Guide. Vol. 1. Willmann-Bell. ISBN 0-943396-58-1. Knobel, E. B. (1885). "On Al Sufi's star magnitudes". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 45 (8). Royal Astronomical Society: 417–425. Bibcode:1885MNRAS..45..417K. doi:10.1093/mnras/45.8.417. Kunitzsch, P. (1988). "ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān b. ʿOmar Ṣūfī". Encyclopædia Iranica. Orchiston, Wayne; Green, David A.; Strom, Richard, eds. (2014). New Insights From Recent Studies in Historical Astronomy: Following in the Footsteps of F. Richard Stephenson: A Meeting to Honor F. Richard Stephenson on His 70th Birthday. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-319-07614-0. Ridpath, Ian. "Star Tales: al-Şūfī's nebulae". Russell, G.A., ed. (1994). The 'Arabik' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth Century England. Brill's Studies in Intellectual History. Leiden; New York; Cologne: E.J. Brill. ISBN 9004098887. Schaefer, Bradley E. (2013). "The Thousand Star Magnitudes in the Catalogues of Ptolemy, Al Sufi, and Tycho are All Corrected for Atmospheric Extinction". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 44 (1): 47–A91. arXiv:1303.1833. Bibcode:2013JHA....44...47S. doi:10.1177/002182861304400103. ISSN 0021-8286. S2CID 119202231. Selin, Helaine (1997). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Berlin; New York: Springer Nature. ISBN 978-1-4020-4960-6. Upton, Joseph M. (1933). "A Manuscript of "The Book of the Fixed Stars" by ʿAbd Ar-Raḥmān Aṣ-Ṣūfī". Metropolitan Museum Studies. 4 (2): 179–197. doi:10.2307/1522800. JSTOR 1522800. External links Abd ar-Rahman as-Sufi (903-986): Liber locis stellarum fixarum, 964 - illustrations from copies of The Book of Fixed Stars, and information and links relating to the work (self-published, in Italian) Liber locis stellarum fixarum, 964, manoscritto del 1417 riprodotto il 1730 da www.atlascoelestis.com Ulug Beg in www.atlascoelestis.com Al-Sufi's constellations Al-Sūfī’s Book of the Constellations of the Fixed Stars and its Influence on Islamic and Western Celestial Cartography – with comprehensive bibliography and list of known manuscripts. vteAstronomy in the medieval Islamic worldAstronomers by century 8th Ahmad Nahavandi Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī Mashallah ibn Athari Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq 9th Abu Ali al-Khayyat Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi Abu Said Gorgani Al-Farghani Al-Kindi Al-Mahani Abu Hanifa Dinawari Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf Al-Marwazi Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi Banū Mūsā brothers Iranshahri Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi Al-Khwarizmi Sahl ibn Bishr Thābit ibn Qurra Yahya ibn Abi Mansur 10th al-Sufi Ibn Al-Adami al-Khojandi al-Khazin al-Qūhī Abu al-Wafa Ahmad ibn Yusuf al-Battani Al-Qabisi Ibn al-A'lam Al-Nayrizi Al-Saghani Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī Ibn Yunus Ibrahim ibn Sinan Ma Yize al-Sijzi Al-ʻIjliyyah Nastulus Abolfadl Harawi Haseb-i Tabari al-Majriti Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi 11th Abu Nasr Mansur al-Biruni Ali ibn Ridwan Al-Zarqālī Ibn al-Samh Alhazen Avicenna Ibn al-Saffar Kushyar Gilani Said al-Andalusi Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani Al-Isfizari Ali ibn Khalaf 12th Al-Bitruji Avempace Ibn Tufail Al-Kharaqī Al-Khazini Al-Samawal al-Maghribi Abu al-Salt Averroes Ibn al-Kammad Jabir ibn Aflah Omar Khayyam Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi 13th Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili Jamal ad-Din Alam al-Din al-Hanafi Najm al‐Din al‐Misri Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi Nasir al-Din al-Tusi Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi Zakariya al-Qazwini al-Urdi al-Abhari Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi Ibn al‐Raqqam Al-Ashraf Umar II Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati 14th Ibn al-Shatir Al-Khalili Ibn Shuayb al-Battiwi Abū al‐ʿUqūl Al-Wabkanawi Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri al-Jadiri Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar Fathullah Shirazi 15th Ali Kuşçu Abd al‐Wajid Jamshid al-Kashi Kadızade Rumi Ulugh Beg Sibt al-Maridini Ibn al-Majdi al-Wafa'i al-Kubunani 'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i 16th Al-Birjandi al-Khafri Baha' al-din al-'Amili Piri Reis Takiyüddin 17th Yang Guangxian Ehmedê Xanî Al Achsasi al Mouakket Muhammad al-Rudani TopicsWorks Arabic star names Islamic calendar Aja'ib al-Makhluqat Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity Tabula Rogeriana The Book of Healing The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries Zij Alfonsine tables Huihui Lifa Book of Fixed Stars Toledan Tables Zij-i Ilkhani Zij-i Sultani Sullam al-sama' Instruments Alidade Analog computer Aperture Armillary sphere Astrolabe Astronomical clock Celestial globe Compass Compass rose Dioptra Equatorial ring Equatorium Globe Graph paper Mural instrument Navigational astrolabe Octant Planisphere Quadrant Sextant Shadow square Sundial Schema for horizontal sundials Triquetrum Concepts Almucantar Apogee Astrology Astrophysics Axial tilt Azimuth Celestial mechanics Celestial spheres Circular orbit Deferent and epicycle Earth's rotation Eccentricity Ecliptic Elliptic orbit Equant Galaxy Geocentrism Gravitational energy Gravity Heliocentrism Inertia Islamic cosmology Moonlight Multiverse Muwaqqit Obliquity Parallax Precession Qibla Salah times Specific gravity Spherical Earth Sublunary sphere Sunlight Supernova Temporal finitism Trepidation Triangulation Tusi couple Universe Institutions Al-Azhar University House of Knowledge House of Wisdom University of al-Qarawiyyin Observatories Constantinople (Taqi al-Din) Maragheh Samarkand (Ulugh Beg) Influences Babylonian astronomy Egyptian astronomy Hellenistic astronomy Indian astronomy Influenced Byzantine science Chinese astronomy Medieval European science Indian astronomy Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Germany Italy Israel United States Sweden Czech Republic Netherlands Vatican 2 Academics CiNii MathSciNet zbMATH People Deutsche Biographie Other SNAC IdRef İslâm Ansiklopedisi

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For the lunar crater, see Azophi (crater).ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī (Persian: عبدالرحمن الصوفی; 7 December 903 – 25 May 986) was an Iranian astronomer.[1][2][note 1] His work Kitāb ṣuwar al-kawākib (\"The Book of Fixed Stars\"), written in 964, included both textual descriptions and illustrations. The Persian polymath Al-Biruni wrote that al-Ṣūfī's work on the ecliptic was carried out in Shiraz. Al-Ṣūfī lived at the Buyid court in Isfahan.","title":"Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunitzsch1988-5"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Emir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amir_al-umara"},{"link_name":"'Adud al-Dawla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%27Adud_al-Dawla"},{"link_name":"Isfahan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan"},{"link_name":"ancient Greek astronomical works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy"},{"link_name":"Almagest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy"},{"link_name":"brightness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brightness"},{"link_name":"magnitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_magnitude"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer2013-6"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"lingua franca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_franca"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESelin1997160-7"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic"},{"link_name":"Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"constellations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"ʿAbd al-Rahmān al-Ṣūfī (full name: Abū’l-Ḥusayn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn ʿUmar ibn Sahl al-Ṣūfī al-Rāzī)[4] was one of the nine famous Muslim astronomers.[citation needed] He lived at the court of Emir 'Adud al-Dawla in Isfahan, and worked on translating and expanding ancient Greek astronomical works, especially the Almagest of Ptolemy. He made corrections to Ptolemy's star list, and his estimations of star brightness and magnitude deviated from those by Ptolemy; just over half of al-Ṣūfī's magnitudes being identical to Ptolemy's.[5] A Persian, al-Ṣūfī wrote in Arabic, the lingua franca of the scientific Muslim world.[6]Al-Ṣūfī was a major contributor to the translation into Arabic of the Hellenistic astronomy that had been centered in Alexandria, Egypt. His was the first to attempt to relate the Greek with the traditional Arabic star names and constellations, which were completely unrelated and overlapped in complicated ways.[citation needed]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer2013-6"},{"link_name":"Large Magellanic Cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHafezStephensonOrchiston2011-8"},{"link_name":"Andromeda Galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidpath-9"},{"link_name":"galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy"},{"link_name":"Milky Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bri-10"},{"link_name":"astrolabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe"},{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_astronomy"},{"link_name":"astrology, horoscopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_astrology"},{"link_name":"navigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner%27s_astrolabe"},{"link_name":"surveying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveying"},{"link_name":"timekeeping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time"},{"link_name":"Qibla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qibla"},{"link_name":"Salat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salat"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Win-11"}],"text":"Al-Ṣūfī made his astronomical observations at a latitude of 32.7N° in Isfahan.[5] It has been claimed that he identified the Large Magellanic Cloud,[citation needed] but this seems to be a misunderstanding of a reference to some stars south of Canopus which he admits he has not seen.[7] He also made the earliest recorded observation of the Andromeda Galaxy in 964, describing it as a \"small cloud\".[8] This was the first galaxy other than the Milky Way to be mentioned in writing.[9]Al-Ṣūfī also wrote about the astrolabe, finding numerous additional uses for it: he described over 1000 different uses, in areas as diverse as astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Qibla and Salat prayer.[10]","title":"Astronomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Book of Fixed Stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Fixed_Stars"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E2%80%9CSign_of_Sagittarius%E2%80%9D_by_al-Sufi_in_his_book_%E1%B9%A2uwar_al-kaw%C4%81kib_al-th%C4%81bita,_calligrapher_Wathiq_b._%CA%BFAli_b._%CA%BFUmar_b._al-Husayn_al-ma%CA%BFr%C5%ABf_bi-Shawqi,_Artuqid_Mardin,_1131,_TSMK,_A._3493,_fol._91b._(Topkap%C4%B1_Palace_Museum_Library).jpg"},{"link_name":"Artuqid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artuqid"},{"link_name":"Mardin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mardin"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"The Book of Fixed Stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Fixed_Stars"},{"link_name":"Buwayhid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buyid_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHafezStephensonOrchiston2011-8"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy"},{"link_name":"Almagest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECavin2011-14"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"celestial globe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_globe"},{"link_name":"zodiac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zodiac"},{"link_name":"star charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_cartography"},{"link_name":"longitudinal and latitudinal coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_coordinate_systems"},{"link_name":"magnitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnitude_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"ecliptic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecliptic"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHafezStephensonOrchiston2011-8"},{"link_name":"Scribal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scribe"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOrchistonGreenStrom2014-15"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnobel1885-16"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHafezStephensonOrchiston2011-8"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUpton1933-17"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaefer2013-6"},{"link_name":"history of astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"}],"sub_title":"Kitāb ṣuwar al-kawākib (\"The Book of Fixed Stars\")","text":"Further information: The Book of Fixed Stars“Sign of Sagittarius” by al-Sufi in his book Ṣuwar al-kawākib al-thābita, Artuqid Mardin, 1131 CE.[11]Al-Ṣūfī published Kitāb ṣuwar al-kawākib (\"The Book of Fixed Stars\") in 964, and dedicated it to Adud al-Dawla, the ruler of Buwayhid at the time.[7] This book describes 48 constellations and the stars within them.[citation needed]Al-Ṣūfī compared Greek constellations and stars as described in Ptolemy’s Almagest with Arabic ones,[12] linking those that were the same.[13][page needed] He included two illustrations of each constellation, one showing the orientation of the stars from the perspective outside the celestial globe, and the other from the perspective of looking at the sky while standing on the Earth. He separated them into three groups; 21 seen from the north, 15 seen from the south, and the 12 zodiac constellations. He included a complete set of star charts, that included the names and numbers of the individual stars in each of the 48 constellations, and each star's longitudinal and latitudinal coordinates, magnitude, and location north or south of the ecliptic.[7]Scribal errors within the 35 surviving copies of The Book of Fixed Stars have caused the value of the magnitude for a particular star to vary from manuscript to manuscript.[14][page needed][15] Al-Ṣūfī organized the stars in each of his drawings into two groups: those that form the image depicted, and others that are in close proximity to the image. He identified and described stars not included by Ptolemy, but he did not include them in his own star charts. Stating that his charts were modelled after Ptolemy, he left the stars excluded in Ptolemy's catalogue out of his charts as well.[7]To allow for the longitudinal placement of the stars within constellations having changed over the eight centuries since the Almagest was written, Al-Ṣūfī added 12° 42' to all the longitudes values provided by Ptolemy.[16] Al-Ṣūfī differed from Ptolemy by having a three level scale to measure the magnitude of stars instead of a two level scale. This extra level increased the precision of his measurements. His methodology for determining these magnitude measurements cannot be found in any of his extant texts.[5]Despite the importance of The Book of Fixed Stars in the history of astronomy, it took more than 1000 years until the first partial English translation of the book was published in 2010.[17][better source needed]","title":"Astronomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Book_Al_Sufi.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sagittarius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)"},{"link_name":"Ulugh Beg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHafezStephensonOrchiston2011-8"},{"link_name":"lunar crater Azophi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azophi_(crater)"},{"link_name":"12621 Alsufi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12621_Alsufi"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Sufi Observing Competitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_Observing_Competition"},{"link_name":"Semnan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semnan_(city)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Ladiz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladiz_District"},{"link_name":"Zahedan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zahedan"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Google Doodle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Doodle"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Sagittarius from The Depiction of Celestial ConstellationsAl-Ṣūfī's astronomical work was subsequently used by many other astronomers, including Ulugh Beg who was both a prince and astronomer.[7]The lunar crater Azophi and the minor planet 12621 Alsufi are named after Al-Ṣūfī.[citation needed]The Astronomy Society of Iran – Amateur Committee has held international Sufi Observing Competitions in memory of the astronomer. The first competition was held in 2006 in the north of Semnan Province,[18] and the second was held in the summer of 2008 in Ladiz near the Zahedan. More than 100 attendees from Iran and Iraq participated in these events.[19]Google Doodle commemorated Al-Ṣūfī's 1113th birthday on 7 December, 2016.[20]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell1994209-3"},{"link_name":"West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gen-2"}],"text":"^ Also referred to in sources as Abu'l Husayn al-Sūfī,[3] ʿAbd ar-Rahman as-Sūfī, ʿAbd al-Rahman Abu al-Husayn, ʿAbdul Rahman Sūfī, and ʿAbdurrahman Sūfī and in the West as Azophi, Azophi Arabus,[2] and Albuhassin.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Al-Qifti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qifti"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4419-8161-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-8161-5"},{"link_name":"The Amateur Astronomer's Guide to the Deep-Sky Catalogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=obLAoHOVodAC"},{"link_name":"Springer Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Nature"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4614-0656-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-0656-3"},{"link_name":"Highlighting the History of Astronomy in the Asia-Pacific Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.researchgate.net/publication/319183952"},{"link_name":"Springer Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Nature"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-14419-8-161-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-14419-8-161-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-943396-58-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-943396-58-1"},{"link_name":"\"On Al Sufi's star magnitudes\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1885MNRAS..45..417K"},{"link_name":"Royal Astronomical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1885MNRAS..45..417K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1885MNRAS..45..417K"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1093/mnras/45.8.417","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F45.8.417"},{"link_name":"\"ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān b. ʿOmar Ṣūfī\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abd-al-rahman-b-omar-sufi"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Iranica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica"},{"link_name":"New Insights From Recent Studies in Historical Astronomy: Following in the Footsteps of F. Richard Stephenson: A Meeting to Honor F. Richard Stephenson on His 70th Birthday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=YfyWBQAAQBAJ&q=Abd+al-Rahman+al-Sufi&pg=PA143"},{"link_name":"Springer Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Nature"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-319-07614-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-07614-0"},{"link_name":"\"Star Tales: al-Şūfī's nebulae\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ianridpath.com/startales/alsufi.html#nebulae"},{"link_name":"The 'Arabik' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth Century England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/StudiesInIntellectualHistory/Bsih047Russell-ThearabickInterestOfTheNaturalPhilosophersInSeventeenth-centuryEngland/page/n1/mode/2up?view=theater"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9004098887","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004098887"},{"link_name":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1303.1833","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/1303.1833"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2013JHA....44...47S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013JHA....44...47S"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1177/002182861304400103","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1177%2F002182861304400103"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0021-8286","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8286"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"119202231","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119202231"},{"link_name":"Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofh0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"Springer Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Nature"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4020-4960-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4960-6"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/1522800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F1522800"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1522800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/1522800"}],"text":"Al-Qifti. Ikhbār al-ʿulamāʾ bi-akhbār al-ḥukamāʾ (History of Learned Men). In: ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Şūfī and his Book of the Fixed Stars: A Journey of Re-discovery by Ihsan Hafez, Richard F. Stephenson, Wayne Orchiston (2011). In: Orchiston, Wayne, Highlighting the history of astronomy in the Asia-Pacific region: proceedings of the ICOA-6 conference. Astrophysics and Space Science Proceedings. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-8161-5. \"… is the honored, the perfect, the most intelligent and the friend of the King Adud al-Dawla Fanakhasru Shahenshah Ibn Buwaih. He is the author of the most honored books in the science of astronomy. He was originally from Nisa and is of a Persian descent.\"\nCavin, Jerry D. (2011). The Amateur Astronomer's Guide to the Deep-Sky Catalogs. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-1-4614-0656-3.\nHafez, Ihsan; Stephenson, Richard; Orchiston, Wayne (2011). \"Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi and his Book of the Fixed Stars\". In Orchiston, Wayne; Nakamura, Tsuko; Strom, Richard G. (eds.). Highlighting the History of Astronomy in the Asia-Pacific Region. Springer Nature. pp. 121–138. ISBN 978-14419-8-161-5.\nKepple, George Robert; Sanner, Glen W. (1998). The Night Sky Observer's Guide. Vol. 1. Willmann-Bell. ISBN 0-943396-58-1.\nKnobel, E. B. (1885). \"On Al Sufi's star magnitudes\". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 45 (8). Royal Astronomical Society: 417–425. Bibcode:1885MNRAS..45..417K. doi:10.1093/mnras/45.8.417.\nKunitzsch, P. (1988). \"ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān b. ʿOmar Ṣūfī\". Encyclopædia Iranica.\nOrchiston, Wayne; Green, David A.; Strom, Richard, eds. (2014). New Insights From Recent Studies in Historical Astronomy: Following in the Footsteps of F. Richard Stephenson: A Meeting to Honor F. Richard Stephenson on His 70th Birthday. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-319-07614-0.\nRidpath, Ian. \"Star Tales: al-Şūfī's nebulae\".\nRussell, G.A., ed. (1994). The 'Arabik' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth Century England. Brill's Studies in Intellectual History. Leiden; New York; Cologne: E.J. Brill. ISBN 9004098887.\nSchaefer, Bradley E. (2013). \"The Thousand Star Magnitudes in the Catalogues of Ptolemy, Al Sufi, and Tycho are All Corrected for Atmospheric Extinction\". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 44 (1): 47–A91. arXiv:1303.1833. Bibcode:2013JHA....44...47S. doi:10.1177/002182861304400103. ISSN 0021-8286. S2CID 119202231.\nSelin, Helaine (1997). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Berlin; New York: Springer Nature. ISBN 978-1-4020-4960-6.\nUpton, Joseph M. (1933). \"A Manuscript of \"The Book of the Fixed Stars\" by ʿAbd Ar-Raḥmān Aṣ-Ṣūfī\". Metropolitan Museum Studies. 4 (2): 179–197. doi:10.2307/1522800. JSTOR 1522800.","title":"Bibliography"}]

[{"image_text":"“Sign of Sagittarius” by al-Sufi in his book Ṣuwar al-kawākib al-thābita, Artuqid Mardin, 1131 CE.[11]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/%E2%80%9CSign_of_Sagittarius%E2%80%9D_by_al-Sufi_in_his_book_%E1%B9%A2uwar_al-kaw%C4%81kib_al-th%C4%81bita%2C_calligrapher_Wathiq_b._%CA%BFAli_b._%CA%BFUmar_b._al-Husayn_al-ma%CA%BFr%C5%ABf_bi-Shawqi%2C_Artuqid_Mardin%2C_1131%2C_TSMK%2C_A._3493%2C_fol._91b._%28Topkap%C4%B1_Palace_Museum_Library%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sagittarius from The Depiction of Celestial Constellations","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Book_Al_Sufi.jpg/220px-Book_Al_Sufi.jpg"}]

[{"title":"List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pre-modern_Iranian_scientists_and_scholars"},{"title":"List of scientists in medieval Islamic world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientists_in_medieval_Islamic_world"}]

[{"reference":"van Gent, Robert Harry. \"Biography of al-Sūfī\". University of Utrecht. Retrieved 11 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/alsufi/alsufi_biography.htm","url_text":"\"Biography of al-Sūfī\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Utrecht","url_text":"University of Utrecht"}]},{"reference":"\"Andromeda Galaxy\". Britannia. Retrieved 13 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/place/Andromeda-Galaxy","url_text":"\"Andromeda Galaxy\""}]},{"reference":"Winterburn, Emily (2005). \"Using an Astrolabe\". Muslim Heritage. Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilisation, UK (FSTCUK). Retrieved 22 January 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://muslimheritage.com/using-an-astrolabe/","url_text":"\"Using an Astrolabe\""}]},{"reference":"Atbaş, Zeynep (1 August 2019). Artistic Aspects of Sultan Bayezid II’s Book Treasury Collection: Extant Volumes Preserved at the Topkapı Palace Museum Library (Treasures of Knowledge: An Inventory of the Ottoman Palace Library (1502/3-1503/4) (2 vols)). Brill. pp. 161–211. doi:10.1163/9789004402508_005.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004402508_005","url_text":"10.1163/9789004402508_005"}]},{"reference":"Atbaş, Zeynep (1 August 2019). Artistic Aspects of Sultan Bayezid II’s Book Treasury Collection: Extant Volumes Preserved at the Topkapı Palace Museum Library (Treasures of Knowledge: An Inventory of the Ottoman Palace Library (1502/3-1503/4) (2 vols)). Brill. p. 195. doi:10.1163/9789004402508_005.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004402508_005","url_text":"10.1163/9789004402508_005"}]},{"reference":"Hafez, Ihsan (October 2010). ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī and his book of the fixed stars: a journey of re-discovery. James Cook University (phd). pp. 2–4.","urls":[{"url":"https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/28854/","url_text":"ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī and his book of the fixed stars: a journey of re-discovery"}]},{"reference":"\"A night full of memories; the first Sufi competition\". Nojum Magazine. Archived from the original on 20 October 2009. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial-time_reduction

Polynomial-time reduction

["1 Types of reductions","1.1 Many-one reductions","1.2 Truth-table reductions","1.3 Turing reductions","2 Completeness","3 Defining complexity classes","4 See also","5 External links","6 References"]

Method for solving one problem using another In computational complexity theory, a polynomial-time reduction is a method for solving one problem using another. One shows that if a hypothetical subroutine solving the second problem exists, then the first problem can be solved by transforming or reducing it to inputs for the second problem and calling the subroutine one or more times. If both the time required to transform the first problem to the second, and the number of times the subroutine is called is polynomial, then the first problem is polynomial-time reducible to the second. A polynomial-time reduction proves that the first problem is no more difficult than the second one, because whenever an efficient algorithm exists for the second problem, one exists for the first problem as well. By contraposition, if no efficient algorithm exists for the first problem, none exists for the second either. Polynomial-time reductions are frequently used in complexity theory for defining both complexity classes and complete problems for those classes. Types of reductions The three most common types of polynomial-time reduction, from the most to the least restrictive, are polynomial-time many-one reductions, truth-table reductions, and Turing reductions. The most frequently used of these are the many-one reductions, and in some cases the phrase "polynomial-time reduction" may be used to mean a polynomial-time many-one reduction. The most general reductions are the Turing reductions and the most restrictive are the many-one reductions with truth-table reductions occupying the space in between. Many-one reductions A polynomial-time many-one reduction from a problem A to a problem B (both of which are usually required to be decision problems) is a polynomial-time algorithm for transforming inputs to problem A into inputs to problem B, such that the transformed problem has the same output as the original problem. An instance x of problem A can be solved by applying this transformation to produce an instance y of problem B, giving y as the input to an algorithm for problem B, and returning its output. Polynomial-time many-one reductions may also be known as polynomial transformations or Karp reductions, named after Richard Karp. A reduction of this type is denoted by A ≤ m P B {\displaystyle A\leq _{m}^{P}B} or A ≤ p B {\displaystyle A\leq _{p}B} . Truth-table reductions A polynomial-time truth-table reduction from a problem A to a problem B (both decision problems) is a polynomial time algorithm for transforming inputs to problem A into a fixed number of inputs to problem B, such that the output for the original problem can be expressed as a function of the outputs for B. The function that maps outputs for B into the output for A must be the same for all inputs, so that it can be expressed by a truth table. A reduction of this type may be denoted by the expression A ≤ t t P B {\displaystyle A\leq _{tt}^{P}B} . Turing reductions A polynomial-time Turing reduction from a problem A to a problem B is an algorithm that solves problem A using a polynomial number of calls to a subroutine for problem B, and polynomial time outside of those subroutine calls. Polynomial-time Turing reductions are also known as Cook reductions, named after Stephen Cook. A reduction of this type may be denoted by the expression A ≤ T P B {\displaystyle A\leq _{T}^{P}B} . Many-one reductions can be regarded as restricted variants of Turing reductions where the number of calls made to the subroutine for problem B is exactly one and the value returned by the reduction is the same value as the one returned by the subroutine. Completeness A complete problem for a given complexity class C and reduction ≤ is a problem P that belongs to C, such that every problem A in C has a reduction A ≤ P. For instance, a problem is NP-complete if it belongs to NP and all problems in NP have polynomial-time many-one reductions to it. A problem that belongs to NP can be proven to be NP-complete by finding a single polynomial-time many-one reduction to it from a known NP-complete problem. Polynomial-time many-one reductions have been used to define complete problems for other complexity classes, including the PSPACE-complete languages and EXPTIME-complete languages. Every decision problem in P (the class of polynomial-time decision problems) may be reduced to every other nontrivial decision problem (where nontrivial means that not every input has the same output), by a polynomial-time many-one reduction. To transform an instance of problem A to B, solve A in polynomial time, and then use the solution to choose one of two instances of problem B with different answers. Therefore, for complexity classes within P such as L, NL, NC, and P itself, polynomial-time reductions cannot be used to define complete languages: if they were used in this way, every nontrivial problem in P would be complete. Instead, weaker reductions such as log-space reductions or NC reductions are used for defining classes of complete problems for these classes, such as the P-complete problems. Defining complexity classes The definitions of the complexity classes NP, PSPACE, and EXPTIME do not involve reductions: reductions come into their study only in the definition of complete languages for these classes. However, in some cases a complexity class may be defined by reductions. If C is any decision problem, then one can define a complexity class C consisting of the languages A for which A ≤ m P C {\displaystyle A\leq _{m}^{P}C} . In this case, C will automatically be complete for C, but C may have other complete problems as well. An example of this is the complexity class ∃ R {\displaystyle \exists \mathbb {R} } defined from the existential theory of the reals, a computational problem that is known to be NP-hard and in PSPACE, but is not known to be complete for NP, PSPACE, or any language in the polynomial hierarchy. ∃ R {\displaystyle \exists \mathbb {R} } is the set of problems having a polynomial-time many-one reduction to the existential theory of the reals; it has several other complete problems such as determining the rectilinear crossing number of an undirected graph. Each problem in ∃ R {\displaystyle \exists \mathbb {R} } inherits the property of belonging to PSPACE, and each ∃ R {\displaystyle \exists \mathbb {R} } -complete problem is NP-hard. Similarly, the complexity class GI consists of the problems that can be reduced to the graph isomorphism problem. Since graph isomorphism is known to belong both to NP and co-AM, the same is true for every problem in this class. A problem is GI-complete if it is complete for this class; the graph isomorphism problem itself is GI-complete, as are several other related problems. See also Karp's 21 NP-complete problems External links MIT OpenCourseWare: 16. Complexity: P, NP, NP-completeness, Reductions References ^ a b c Kleinberg, Jon; Tardos, Éva (2006). Algorithm Design. Pearson Education. pp. 452–453. ISBN 978-0-321-37291-8. ^ Wegener, Ingo (2005), Complexity Theory: Exploring the Limits of Efficient Algorithms, Springer, p. 60, ISBN 9783540274773. ^ Mandal, Debasis; Pavan, A.; Venugopalan, Rajeswari (2014). Separating Cook Completeness from Karp-Levin Completeness under a Worst-Case Hardness Hypothesis. 34th International Conference on Foundation of Software Technology and Theoretical Computer Science. ISBN 978-3-939897-77-4. ^ a b Goldreich, Oded (2008), Computational Complexity: A Conceptual Perspective, Cambridge University Press, pp. 59–60, ISBN 9781139472746 ^ Buss, S.R.; Hay, L. (1988), "On truth-table reducibility to SAT and the difference hierarchy over NP", Proceedings of Third Annual Structure in Complexity Theory Conference, pp. 224–233, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.5.2387, doi:10.1109/SCT.1988.5282, ISBN 978-0-8186-0866-7. ^ Garey, Michael R.; Johnson, D. S. (1979), Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness, W. H. Freeman. ^ Aho, A. V. (2011), "Complexity theory", in Blum, E. K.; Aho, A. V. (eds.), Computer Science: The Hardware, Software and Heart of It, pp. 241–267, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-1168-0_12, ISBN 978-1-4614-1167-3. See in particular p. 255. ^ Greenlaw, Raymond; Hoover, James; Ruzzo, Walter (1995), Limits To Parallel computation; P-Completeness Theory, ISBN 978-0-19-508591-4. In particular, for the argument that every nontrivial problem in P has a polynomial-time many-one reduction to every other nontrivial problem, see p. 48. ^ Schaefer, Marcus (2010), "Complexity of some geometric and topological problems" (PDF), Graph Drawing, 17th International Symposium, GS 2009, Chicago, IL, USA, September 2009, Revised Papers, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 5849, Springer-Verlag, pp. 334–344, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-11805-0_32, ISBN 978-3-642-11804-3. ^ Köbler, Johannes; Schöning, Uwe; Torán, Jacobo (1993), The Graph Isomorphism Problem: Its Structural Complexity, Birkhäuser, ISBN 978-0-8176-3680-7, OCLC 246882287.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computational complexity theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory"},{"link_name":"subroutine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subroutine"},{"link_name":"reducing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduction_(complexity)"},{"link_name":"polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kleinberg-tardos-1"},{"link_name":"algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"contraposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraposition"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kleinberg-tardos-1"},{"link_name":"complexity classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexity_class"},{"link_name":"complete problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_problem"}],"text":"In computational complexity theory, a polynomial-time reduction is a method for solving one problem using another. One shows that if a hypothetical subroutine solving the second problem exists, then the first problem can be solved by transforming or reducing it to inputs for the second problem and calling the subroutine one or more times. If both the time required to transform the first problem to the second, and the number of times the subroutine is called is polynomial, then the first problem is polynomial-time reducible to the second.[1]A polynomial-time reduction proves that the first problem is no more difficult than the second one, because whenever an efficient algorithm exists for the second problem, one exists for the first problem as well. By contraposition, if no efficient algorithm exists for the first problem, none exists for the second either.[1] Polynomial-time reductions are frequently used in complexity theory for defining both complexity classes and complete problems for those classes.","title":"Polynomial-time reduction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"many-one reductions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-one_reduction"},{"link_name":"truth-table reductions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth-table_reduction"},{"link_name":"Turing reductions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_reduction"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mandal2014-3"}],"text":"The three most common types of polynomial-time reduction, from the most to the least restrictive, are polynomial-time many-one reductions, truth-table reductions, and Turing reductions. The most frequently used of these are the many-one reductions, and in some cases the phrase \"polynomial-time reduction\" may be used to mean a polynomial-time many-one reduction.[2] The most general reductions are the Turing reductions and the most restrictive are the many-one reductions with truth-table reductions occupying the space in between.[3]","title":"Types of reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"many-one reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-one_reduction"},{"link_name":"decision problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_problem"},{"link_name":"Richard Karp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Karp"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-goldreich-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kleinberg-tardos-1"}],"sub_title":"Many-one reductions","text":"A polynomial-time many-one reduction from a problem A to a problem B (both of which are usually required to be decision problems) is a polynomial-time algorithm for transforming inputs to problem A into inputs to problem B, such that the transformed problem has the same output as the original problem. An instance x of problem A can be solved by applying this transformation to produce an instance y of problem B, giving y as the input to an algorithm for problem B, and returning its output. Polynomial-time many-one reductions may also be known as polynomial transformations or Karp reductions, named after Richard Karp. A reduction of this type is denoted by \n \n \n \n A\n \n ≤\n \n m\n \n \n P\n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\leq _{m}^{P}B}\n \n or \n \n \n \n A\n \n ≤\n \n p\n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\leq _{p}B}\n \n.[4][1]","title":"Types of reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"truth-table reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth-table_reduction"},{"link_name":"truth table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_table"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Truth-table reductions","text":"A polynomial-time truth-table reduction from a problem A to a problem B (both decision problems) is a polynomial time algorithm for transforming inputs to problem A into a fixed number of inputs to problem B, such that the output for the original problem can be expressed as a function of the outputs for B. The function that maps outputs for B into the output for A must be the same for all inputs, so that it can be expressed by a truth table. A reduction of this type may be denoted by the expression \n \n \n \n A\n \n ≤\n \n t\n t\n \n \n P\n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\leq _{tt}^{P}B}\n \n.[5]","title":"Types of reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Turing reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_reduction"},{"link_name":"algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"Stephen Cook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Cook"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-goldreich-4"}],"sub_title":"Turing reductions","text":"A polynomial-time Turing reduction from a problem A to a problem B is an algorithm that solves problem A using a polynomial number of calls to a subroutine for problem B, and polynomial time outside of those subroutine calls. Polynomial-time Turing reductions are also known as Cook reductions, named after Stephen Cook. A reduction of this type may be denoted by the expression \n \n \n \n A\n \n ≤\n \n T\n \n \n P\n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\leq _{T}^{P}B}\n \n.[4] Many-one reductions can be regarded as restricted variants of Turing reductions where the number of calls made to the subroutine for problem B is exactly one and the value returned by the reduction is the same value as the one returned by the subroutine.","title":"Types of reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"complete problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_problem"},{"link_name":"NP-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-complete"},{"link_name":"NP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP_(complexity)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"PSPACE-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSPACE-complete"},{"link_name":"languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_language"},{"link_name":"EXPTIME-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EXPTIME"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"P","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P_(complexity)"},{"link_name":"L","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L_(complexity)"},{"link_name":"NL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NL_(complexity)"},{"link_name":"NC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NC_(complexity)"},{"link_name":"log-space reductions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log-space_reduction"},{"link_name":"NC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NC_(complexity)"},{"link_name":"P-complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-complete"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"A complete problem for a given complexity class C and reduction ≤ is a problem P that belongs to C, such that every problem A in C has a reduction A ≤ P. For instance, a problem is NP-complete if it belongs to NP and all problems in NP have polynomial-time many-one reductions to it. A problem that belongs to NP can be proven to be NP-complete by finding a single polynomial-time many-one reduction to it from a known NP-complete problem.[6] Polynomial-time many-one reductions have been used to define complete problems for other complexity classes, including the PSPACE-complete languages and EXPTIME-complete languages.[7]Every decision problem in P (the class of polynomial-time decision problems) may be reduced to every other nontrivial decision problem (where nontrivial means that not every input has the same output), by a polynomial-time many-one reduction. To transform an instance of problem A to B, solve A in polynomial time, and then use the solution to choose one of two instances of problem B with different answers. Therefore, for complexity classes within P such as L, NL, NC, and P itself, polynomial-time reductions cannot be used to define complete languages: if they were used in this way, every nontrivial problem in P would be complete. Instead, weaker reductions such as log-space reductions or NC reductions are used for defining classes of complete problems for these classes, such as the P-complete problems.[8]","title":"Completeness"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"decision problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_problem"},{"link_name":"existential theory of the reals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_theory_of_the_reals"},{"link_name":"NP-hard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-hard"},{"link_name":"PSPACE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSPACE"},{"link_name":"polynomial hierarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial_hierarchy"},{"link_name":"rectilinear crossing number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossing_number_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"undirected graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undirected_graph"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"GI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GI_(complexity)"},{"link_name":"graph isomorphism problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_isomorphism_problem"},{"link_name":"AM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_(complexity)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The definitions of the complexity classes NP, PSPACE, and EXPTIME do not involve reductions: reductions come into their study only in the definition of complete languages for these classes. However, in some cases a complexity class may be defined by reductions. If C is any decision problem, then one can define a complexity class C consisting of the languages A for which \n \n \n \n A\n \n ≤\n \n m\n \n \n P\n \n \n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\leq _{m}^{P}C}\n \n. In this case, C will automatically be complete for C, but C may have other complete problems as well.An example of this is the complexity class \n \n \n \n ∃\n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\exists \\mathbb {R} }\n \n defined from the existential theory of the reals, a computational problem that is known to be NP-hard and in PSPACE, but is not known to be complete for NP, PSPACE, or any language in the polynomial hierarchy. \n \n \n \n ∃\n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\exists \\mathbb {R} }\n \n is the set of problems having a polynomial-time many-one reduction to the existential theory of the reals; it has several other complete problems such as determining the rectilinear crossing number of an undirected graph. Each problem in \n \n \n \n ∃\n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\exists \\mathbb {R} }\n \n inherits the property of belonging to PSPACE, and each \n \n \n \n ∃\n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\exists \\mathbb {R} }\n \n-complete problem is NP-hard.[9]Similarly, the complexity class GI consists of the problems that can be reduced to the graph isomorphism problem. Since graph isomorphism is known to belong both to NP and co-AM, the same is true for every problem in this class. A problem is GI-complete if it is complete for this class; the graph isomorphism problem itself is GI-complete, as are several other related problems.[10]","title":"Defining complexity classes"}]

[]

[{"title":"Karp's 21 NP-complete problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karp%27s_21_NP-complete_problems"}]

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Separating Cook Completeness from Karp-Levin Completeness under a Worst-Case Hardness Hypothesis. 34th International Conference on Foundation of Software Technology and Theoretical Computer Science. ISBN 978-3-939897-77-4.","urls":[{"url":"http://drops.dagstuhl.de/opus/volltexte/2014/4862/","url_text":"Separating Cook Completeness from Karp-Levin Completeness under a Worst-Case Hardness Hypothesis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-939897-77-4","url_text":"978-3-939897-77-4"}]},{"reference":"Goldreich, Oded (2008), Computational Complexity: A Conceptual Perspective, Cambridge University Press, pp. 59–60, ISBN 9781139472746","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oded_Goldreich","url_text":"Goldreich, Oded"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139472746","url_text":"9781139472746"}]},{"reference":"Buss, S.R.; Hay, L. (1988), \"On truth-table reducibility to SAT and the difference hierarchy over NP\", Proceedings of Third Annual Structure in Complexity Theory Conference, pp. 224–233, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.5.2387, doi:10.1109/SCT.1988.5282, ISBN 978-0-8186-0866-7","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Buss","url_text":"Buss, S.R."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.5.2387","url_text":"10.1.1.5.2387"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FSCT.1988.5282","url_text":"10.1109/SCT.1988.5282"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8186-0866-7","url_text":"978-0-8186-0866-7"}]},{"reference":"Garey, Michael R.; Johnson, D. S. (1979), Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness, W. H. Freeman","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Garey","url_text":"Garey, Michael R."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_S._Johnson","url_text":"Johnson, D. S."}]},{"reference":"Aho, A. V. (2011), \"Complexity theory\", in Blum, E. K.; Aho, A. V. (eds.), Computer Science: The Hardware, Software and Heart of It, pp. 241–267, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-1168-0_12, ISBN 978-1-4614-1167-3","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Aho","url_text":"Aho, A. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_Fieldbus

Foundation Fieldbus

["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]

Foundation Fieldbus (styled Foundation Fieldbus) is an all-digital, serial, two-way communications system that serves as the base-level network in a plant or factory automation environment. It is an open architecture, developed and administered by FieldComm Group. It is targeted for applications using basic and advanced regulatory control, and for much of the discrete control associated with those functions. Foundation Fieldbus technology is mostly used in process industries, but has recently been implemented in powerplants. Two related implementations of Foundation Fieldbus have been introduced to meet different needs within the process automation environment. These two implementations use different physical media and communication speeds. Foundation Fieldbus H1 - Operates at 31.25 kbit/s and is generally used to connect to field devices and host systems. It provides communication and power over standard stranded twisted-pair wiring in both conventional and intrinsic safety applications. H1 is currently the most common implementation. HSE (High-speed Ethernet) - Operates at 100/1000 Mbit/s and generally connects input/output subsystems, host systems, linking devices and gateways. It doesn't currently provide power over the cable, although work is under way to address this using the IEEE802.3af Power over Ethernet (PoE) standard. Foundation Fieldbus was originally intended as a replacement for the 4-20 mA standard, and today it coexists alongside other technologies such as Modbus, Profibus, and Industrial Ethernet. Foundation Fieldbus today enjoys a growing installed base in many heavy process applications such as refining, petrochemicals, power generation, and even food and beverage, pharmaceuticals, and nuclear applications. Foundation Fieldbus was developed over a period of many years by the International Society of Automation, or ISA, as SP50. In 1996 the first H1 (31.25 kbit/s) specifications were released. In 1999 the first HSE (High Speed Ethernet) specifications were released. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standard on field bus, including Foundation Fieldbus, is IEC 61158. Type 1 is Foundation Fieldbus H1, while Type 5 is Foundation Fieldbus HSE. A typical fieldbus segment consists of the following components. H1 card - fieldbus interface card (It is common practice to have redundant H1 cards, but ultimately this is application specific) PS - Bulk power (Vdc) to Fieldbus Power Supply FPS - Fieldbus Power Supply and Signal Conditioner (Integrated power supplies and conditioners have become the standard nowadays) T - Terminators (Exactly 2 terminators are used per fieldbus segment. One at the FPS and one at the furthest point of a segment at the device coupler) LD - Linking Device, alternatively used with HSE networks to terminate 4-8 H1 segments acting as a gateway to an HSE backbone network. And fieldbus devices, (e.g. transmitters, transducers, etc.) segment diagram on flickr An explanation of how Foundation Fieldbus works and how it is used in continuous process control is in the Foundation Fieldbus Primer which may be found at the Fieldbus Inc. website. See also Computer networking Computer science References ^ "Homepage | FieldComm". ^ "Fieldbus Foundation - Fieldbus Foundation and HART Communication Foundation Members Approve Formation of FieldComm Group". www.fieldbus.org. Archived from the original on 2014-10-29. External links This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) FieldComm Group Fieldbus Wiring Guide and other technical papers Manufacturers of Power Conditioners and wiring components Official Site (previously www.fieldbus.org. Has since gone through a merger.) IEC 61804 Official Preview Archived 2010-02-15 at the Wayback Machine Foundation Fieldbus Primer Foundation Fieldbus Parameter Search Archived 2017-06-09 at the Wayback Machine Foundation Fieldbus End User Councils Middle East: Foundation Fieldbus End User Council - Middle East Australia: Foundation Fieldbus End User Council Australia Inc vteAutomation protocolsProcess automation AS-i BSAP CC-Link Industrial Networks CIP CAN bus CANopen DeviceNet ControlNet DF-1 DirectNET EtherCAT Ethernet Global Data (EGD) Ethernet Powerlink EtherNet/IP Factory Instrumentation Protocol FINS FOUNDATION fieldbus H1 HSE GE SRTP HART Protocol Honeywell SDS HostLink INTERBUS IO-Link MECHATROLINK MelsecNet Modbus Optomux PieP PROFIBUS PROFINET RAPIEnet SERCOS interface SERCOS III Sinec H1 SynqNet TTEthernet Industrial control system MTConnect OPC DA OPC HDA OPC UA Building automation 1-Wire BACnet BatiBUS C-Bus CEBus DALI DSI DyNet EnOcean EHS EIB FIP KNX LonTalk Modbus OpenTherm oBIX VSCP X10 xAP xPL Z-Wave Zigbee Power-system automation IEC 60870 IEC 60870-5 IEC 60870-6 DNP3 Factory Instrumentation Protocol IEC 61850 IEC 62351 Modbus PROFIBUS Automatic meter reading ANSI C12.18 IEC 61107 DLMS/IEC 62056 M-Bus Modbus Zigbee Automobile / Vehicle AFDX ARINC 429 CAN bus ARINC 825 SAE J1939 NMEA 2000 FMS Factory Instrumentation Protocol FlexRay IEBus J1587 J1708 Keyword Protocol 2000 Unified Diagnostic Services LIN MOST SENT (SAE J2716) VAN Cyphal

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fieldbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fieldbus"},{"link_name":"Foundation Fieldbus H1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_Fieldbus_H1"},{"link_name":"Power over Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_over_Ethernet"},{"link_name":"4-20 mA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-20_mA"},{"link_name":"Modbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modbus"},{"link_name":"Profibus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profibus"},{"link_name":"Industrial Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Ethernet"},{"link_name":"International Society of Automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_of_Automation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.fieldbus.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=144&Itemid=319"},{"link_name":"segment diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.flickr.com/photos/fieldbusfoundation/9357757351/"},{"link_name":"flickr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flickr"},{"link_name":"process control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_control"}],"text":"It is targeted for applications using basic and advanced regulatory control, and for much of the discrete control associated with those functions. Foundation Fieldbus technology is mostly used in process industries, but has recently been implemented in powerplants.Two related implementations of Foundation Fieldbus have been introduced to meet different needs within the process automation environment. These two implementations use different physical media and communication speeds.Foundation Fieldbus H1 - Operates at 31.25 kbit/s and is generally used to connect to field devices and host systems. It provides communication and power over standard stranded twisted-pair wiring in both conventional and intrinsic safety applications. H1 is currently the most common implementation.\nHSE (High-speed Ethernet) - Operates at 100/1000 Mbit/s and generally connects input/output subsystems, host systems, linking devices and gateways. It doesn't currently provide power over the cable, although work is under way to address this using the IEEE802.3af Power over Ethernet (PoE) standard.Foundation Fieldbus was originally intended as a replacement for the 4-20 mA standard, and today it coexists alongside other technologies such as Modbus, Profibus, and Industrial Ethernet. Foundation Fieldbus today enjoys a growing installed base in many heavy process applications such as refining, petrochemicals, power generation, and even food and beverage, pharmaceuticals, and nuclear applications. Foundation Fieldbus was developed over a period of many years by the International Society of Automation, or ISA, as SP50. In 1996 the first H1 (31.25 kbit/s) specifications were released. In 1999 the first HSE (High Speed Ethernet) specifications [1] were released. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standard on field bus, including Foundation Fieldbus, is IEC 61158. Type 1 is Foundation Fieldbus H1, while Type 5 is Foundation Fieldbus HSE.A typical fieldbus segment consists of the following components.H1 card - fieldbus interface card (It is common practice to have redundant H1 cards, but ultimately this is application specific)\nPS - Bulk power (Vdc) to Fieldbus Power Supply\nFPS - Fieldbus Power Supply and Signal Conditioner (Integrated power supplies and conditioners have become the standard nowadays)\nT - Terminators (Exactly 2 terminators are used per fieldbus segment. One at the FPS and one at the furthest point of a segment at the device coupler)\nLD - Linking Device, alternatively used with HSE networks to terminate 4-8 H1 segments acting as a gateway to an HSE backbone network.\nAnd fieldbus devices, (e.g. transmitters, transducers, etc.)segment diagram on flickrAn explanation of how Foundation Fieldbus works and how it is used in continuous process control is in the Foundation Fieldbus Primer which may be found at the Fieldbus Inc. website.","title":"Foundation Fieldbus"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_reporting

Financial statement

["1 Purpose for financial statements","2 Consolidated","3 Government","4 Personal","5 Audit and legal implications","6 Standards and regulations","7 Inclusion in annual reports","8 Notes","9 Management discussion and analysis","10 Move to electronic statements","11 See also","12 References","13 Further reading","14 External links"]

Formal record of the financial activities and position of a business, person, or other entity Part of a series onAccounting Historical costConstant purchasing powerManagementTax Major typesAuditBudgetCostForensicFinancialFundGovernmentalManagementSocialTax Key conceptsAccounting periodAccrualConstant purchasing powerEconomic entityFair valueGoing concernHistorical costMatching principleMaterialityRevenue recognitionUnit of account Selected accountsAssetsCashCost of goods soldDepreciation / Amortization (business)EquityExpensesGoodwillLiabilitiesProfitRevenue Accounting standardsGenerally-accepted principlesGenerally-accepted auditing standardsConvergenceInternational Financial Reporting StandardsInternational Standards on AuditingManagement Accounting Principles Financial statementsAnnual reportBalance sheetCash-flowEquityIncomeManagement discussionNotes to the financial statements BookkeepingBank reconciliationDebits and creditsDouble-entry systemFIFO and LIFOJournalLedger / General ledgerTrial balance AuditingFinancialInternalFirmsReportSarbanes–Oxley Act People and organizationsAccountantsAccounting organizationsLuca Pacioli DevelopmentHistoryResearchPositive accountingSarbanes–Oxley Act MisconductCreativeEarnings managementError accountHollywoodOff-balance-sheetTwo sets of books vte Historical financial statements Financial statements (or financial reports) are formal records of the financial activities and position of a business, person, or other entity. Relevant financial information is presented in a structured manner and in a form which is easy to understand. They typically include four basic financial statements accompanied by a management discussion and analysis: A balance sheet or statement of financial position, reports on a company's assets, liabilities, and owners equity at a given point in time. An income statement—or profit and loss report (P&L report), or statement of comprehensive income, or statement of revenue & expense—reports on a company's income, expenses, and profits over a stated period. A profit and loss statement provides information on the operation of the enterprise. These include sales and the various expenses incurred during the stated period. A statement of changes in equity or statement of equity, or statement of retained earnings, reports on the changes in equity of the company over a stated period. A cash flow statement reports on a company's cash flow activities, particularly its operating, investing and financing activities over a stated period. Notably, a balance sheet represents a single point in time, whereas the income statement, the statement of changes in equity, and the cash flow statement each represent activities over a stated period. For large corporations, these statements may be complex and may include an extensive set of footnotes to the financial statements and management discussion and analysis. The notes typically describe each item on the balance sheet, income statement and cash flow statement in further detail. Notes to financial statements are considered an integral part of the financial statements. Purpose for financial statements "The objective of financial statements is to provide information about the financial position, performance and changes in financial position of an enterprise that is useful to a wide range of users in making economic decisions." Financial statements should be understandable, relevant, reliable and comparable. Reported assets, liabilities, equity, income and expenses are directly related to an organization's financial position. Financial statements are intended to be understandable by readers who have "a reasonable knowledge of business and economic activities and accounting and who are willing to study the information diligently." Financial statements may be used by users for different purposes: Owners and managers require financial statements to make important business decisions that affect its continued operations. Financial analysis is then performed on these statements to provide management with a more detailed understanding of the figures. These statements are also used as part of management's annual report to the stockholders. Employees also need these reports in making collective bargaining agreements (CBA) with the management, in the case of labor unions or for individuals in discussing their compensation, promotion and rankings. Prospective investors make use of financial statements to assess the viability of investing in a business. Financial analyses are often used by investors and are prepared by professionals (financial analysts), thus providing them with the basis for making investment decisions. Financial institutions (banks and other lending companies) use them to decide whether to grant a company with fresh working capital or extend debt securities (such as a long-term bank loan or debentures) to finance expansion and other significant expenditures. Stockholders may from time to time request insight into how share capital is managed, which may be made available via financial statements (or stock statements), as it lies in the financial interest of shareowners in affirming that capital stock is handled viably and mindfully with duly care. Consolidated Main article: Consolidated financial statement Consolidated financial statements are defined as "Financial statements of a group in which the assets, liabilities, equity, income, expenses and cash flows of the parent (company) and its subsidiaries are presented as those of a single economic entity", according to International Accounting Standard 27 "Consolidated and separate financial statements", and International Financial Reporting Standard 10 "Consolidated financial statements". Government See also: Fund accounting The rules for the recording, measurement and presentation of government financial statements may be different from those required for business and even for non-profit organizations. They may use either of two accounting methods: accrual accounting, or cost accounting, or a combination of the two (OCBOA). A complete set of chart of accounts is also used that is substantially different from the chart of a profit-oriented business. Personal Personal financial statements may be required from persons applying for a personal loan or financial aid. Typically, a personal financial statement consists of a single form for reporting personally held assets and liabilities (debts), or personal sources of income and expenses, or both. The form to be filled out is determined by the organization supplying the loan or aid. Audit and legal implications Although laws differ from country to country, an audit of the financial statements of a public company is usually required for investment, financing, and tax purposes. These are usually performed by independent accountants or auditing firms. Results of the audit are summarized in an audit report that either provide an unqualified opinion on the financial statements or qualifications as to its fairness and accuracy. The audit opinion on the financial statements is usually included in the annual report. There has been much legal debate over who an auditor is liable to. Since audit reports tend to be addressed to the current shareholders, it is commonly thought that they owe a legal duty of care to them. But this may not be the case as determined by common law precedent. In Canada, auditors are liable only to investors using a prospectus to buy shares in the primary market. In the United Kingdom, they have been held liable to potential investors when the auditor was aware of the potential investor and how they would use the information in the financial statements. Nowadays auditors tend to include in their report liability restricting language, discouraging anyone other than the addressees of their report from relying on it. Liability is an important issue: in the UK, for example, auditors have unlimited liability. In the United States, especially in the post-Enron era there has been substantial concern about the accuracy of financial statements. Corporate officers—the chief executive officer (CEO) and chief financial officer (CFO)—are personally responsible for fair financial reporting that provides an accurate sense of the organization to those reading the report. Standards and regulations Different countries have developed their own accounting principles over time, making international comparisons of companies difficult. To ensure uniformity and comparability between financial statements prepared by different companies, a set of guidelines and rules are used. Commonly referred to as Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), these set of guidelines provide the basis in the preparation of financial statements, although many companies voluntarily disclose information beyond the scope of such requirements. Recently there has been a push towards standardizing accounting rules made by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). IASB develops International Financial Reporting Standards that have been adopted by Australia, Canada and the European Union (for publicly quoted companies only), are under consideration in South Africa and other countries. The United States Financial Accounting Standards Board has made a commitment to converge the U.S. GAAP and IFRS over time. Inclusion in annual reports To entice new investors, public companies assemble their financial statements on fine paper with pleasing graphics and photos in an annual report to shareholders, attempting to capture the excitement and culture of the organization in a "marketing brochure" of sorts. Usually the company's chief executive will write a letter to shareholders, describing management's performance and the company's financial highlights. In the United States, prior to the advent of the internet, the annual report was considered the most effective way for corporations to communicate with individual shareholders. Blue chip companies went to great expense to produce and mail out attractive annual reports to every shareholder. The annual report was often prepared in the style of a coffee table book. Notes Additional information added to the end of financial statements that help explain specific items in the statements as well as provide a more comprehensive assessment of a company's financial condition are known as notes (or "notes to financial statements"). Notes to financial statements can include information on debt, accounts, contingent liabilities, on going concern criteria, or on contextual information explaining the financial numbers (e.g. to indicate a lawsuit). The notes clarify individual statement line-items. Notes are also used to explain the accounting methods used to prepare the statements and they support valuations for how particular accounts have been computed. As an example: If a company lists a loss on a fixed asset impairment line in their income statement, the notes may state the reason for the impairment by describing how the asset became impaired. In consolidated financial statements, all subsidiaries are listed as well as the amount of ownership (controlling interest) that the parent company has in the subsidiaries. Any items within the financial statements that are valuated by estimation are part of the notes if a substantial difference exists between the amount of the estimate previously reported and the actual result. Full disclosure of the effects of the differences between the estimate and actual results should be included. Management discussion and analysis Management discussion and analysis or MD&A is an integrated part of a company's annual financial statements. The purpose of the MD&A is to provide a narrative explanation, through the eyes of management, of how an entity has performed in the past, its financial condition, and its future prospects. In so doing, the MD&A attempt to provide investors with complete, fair, and balanced information to help them decide whether to invest or continue to invest in an entity. The section contains a description of the year gone by and some of the key factors that influenced the business of the company in that year, as well as a fair and unbiased overview of the company's past, present, and future. MD&A typically describes the corporation's liquidity position, capital resources, results of its operations, underlying causes of material changes in financial statement items (such as asset impairment and restructuring charges), events of unusual or infrequent nature (such as mergers and acquisitions or share buybacks), positive and negative trends, effects of inflation, domestic and international market risks, and significant uncertainties. Move to electronic statements Financial statements have been created on paper for hundreds of years. The growth of the Web has seen more and more financial statements created in an electronic form which is exchangeable over the Web. Common forms of electronic financial statements are PDF and HTML. These types of electronic financial statements have their drawbacks in that it still takes a human to read the information in order to reuse the information contained in a financial statement. More recently a market driven global standard, XBRL (Extensible Business Reporting Language), which can be used for creating financial statements in a structured and computer readable format, has become more popular as a format for creating financial statements. Many regulators around the world such as the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission have mandated XBRL for the submission of financial information. The UN/CEFACT created, with respect to Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), internal or external financial reporting XML messages to be used between enterprises and their partners, such as private interested parties (e.g. bank) and public collecting bodies (e.g. taxation authorities). Many regulators use such messages to collect financial and economic information. See also Accountable Fundraising Corporate financial accounting Financial statement analysis Comprehensive annual financial report Model audit References ^ "Presentation of Financial Statements" Standard IAS 1, International Accounting Standards Board. Accessed 24 June 2007. ^ "The Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements" International Accounting Standards Board. Accessed 24 June 2007. ^ "Accounting standards and value relevance of financial statements: An international analysis". Science Direct. Retrieved 1 April 2023. ^ "IAS 27 — Separate Financial Statements (2011)". www.iasplus.com. IAS Plus (This material is provided by Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (“DTTL”), or a member firm of DTTL, or one of their related entities. This material is provided “AS IS” and without warranty of any kind, express or implied. Without limiting the foregoing, neither Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (“DTTL”), nor any member firm of DTTL (a “DTTL Member Firm”), nor any of their related entities (collectively, the “Deloitte Network”) warrants that this material will be error-free or will meet any particular criteria of performance or quality, and each entity of the Deloitte Network expressly disclaims all implied warranties, including without limitation warranties of merchantability, title, fitness for a particular purpose, non-infringement, compatibility, and accuracy.). Retrieved 2013-11-29. ^ "IFRS 10 — Consolidated Financial Statements". www.iasplus.com. IAS Plus (This material is provided by Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (“DTTL”), or a member firm of DTTL, or one of their related entities. This material is provided “AS IS” and without warranty of any kind, express or implied. Without limiting the foregoing, neither Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (“DTTL”), nor any member firm of DTTL (a “DTTL Member Firm”), nor any of their related entities (collectively, the “Deloitte Network”) warrants that this material will be error-free or will meet any particular criteria of performance or quality, and each entity of the Deloitte Network expressly disclaims all implied warranties, including without limitation warranties of merchantability, title, fitness for a particular purpose, non-infringement, compatibility, and accuracy.). Retrieved 2013-11-29. ^ FASB, 2001. Improving Business Reporting: Insights into Enhancing Voluntary Disclosures. Retrieved on April 20, 2012. ^ MD&A & Other Performance Reporting ^ "Nico Resources Management's Discussion and Analysis". Archived from the original on 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2014-02-19. ^ "PepsiCo Management's Discussion and Analysis". Archived from the original on 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2014-02-19. Further reading Alexander, D., Britton, A., Jorissen, A., "International Financial Reporting and Analysis", Second Edition, 2005, ISBN 978-1-84480-201-2 External links Library resources about Financial statement Resources in your library IFRS Foundation & International Accounting Standards Board Financial Accounting Standards Board (U.S.) UN/CEFACT Mańko, Rafał. "New legal framework for financial statements" (PDF). Library Briefing. Library of the European Parliament. Retrieved 6 June 2013. Fundamental Analysis: Notes To The Financial Statements by Investopedia.com Authority control databases National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Japan Czech Republic 2 Other NARA

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Financial analyses are often used by investors and are prepared by professionals (financial analysts), thus providing them with the basis for making investment decisions.\nFinancial institutions (banks and other lending companies) use them to decide whether to grant a company with fresh working capital or extend debt securities (such as a long-term bank loan or debentures) to finance expansion and other significant expenditures.\nStockholders may from time to time request insight into how share capital is managed, which may be made available via financial statements (or stock statements), as it lies in the financial interest of shareowners in affirming that capital stock is handled viably and mindfully with duly care.[3]","title":"Purpose for financial statements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"assets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asset"},{"link_name":"liabilities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liability_(financial_accounting)"},{"link_name":"equity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equity_(finance)"},{"link_name":"income","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income"},{"link_name":"expenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expense"},{"link_name":"cash flows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_flow"},{"link_name":"subsidiaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsidiaries"},{"link_name":"economic entity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_entity"},{"link_name":"International Accounting Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Accounting_Standard"},{"link_name":"financial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial"},{"link_name":"International Financial Reporting Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Financial_Reporting_Standard"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Consolidated financial statements are defined as \"Financial statements of a group in which the assets, liabilities, equity, income, expenses and cash flows of the parent (company) and its subsidiaries are presented as those of a single economic entity\", according to International Accounting Standard 27 \"Consolidated and separate financial statements\", and International Financial Reporting Standard 10 \"Consolidated financial statements\".[4][5]","title":"Consolidated"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fund accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fund_accounting"},{"link_name":"government financial statements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_financial_statements"},{"link_name":"accounting methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basis_of_accounting"},{"link_name":"accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting"},{"link_name":"OCBOA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCBOA"},{"link_name":"chart of accounts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chart_of_accounts"}],"text":"See also: Fund accountingThe rules for the recording, measurement and presentation of government financial statements may be different from those required for business and even for non-profit organizations. They may use either of two accounting methods: accrual accounting, or cost accounting, or a combination of the two (OCBOA). A complete set of chart of accounts is also used that is substantially different from the chart of a profit-oriented business.","title":"Government"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"personal loan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_loan"},{"link_name":"financial aid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfare"}],"text":"Personal financial statements may be required from persons applying for a personal loan or financial aid. Typically, a personal financial statement consists of a single form for reporting personally held assets and liabilities (debts), or personal sources of income and expenses, or both. The form to be filled out is determined by the organization supplying the loan or aid.","title":"Personal"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"audit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit"},{"link_name":"public company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_company"},{"link_name":"audit report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditor%27s_report"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"unlimited liability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unlimited_liability"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Enron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enron"},{"link_name":"chief executive officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_executive_officer"},{"link_name":"chief financial officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_financial_officer"}],"text":"Although laws differ from country to country, an audit of the financial statements of a public company is usually required for investment, financing, and tax purposes. These are usually performed by independent accountants or auditing firms. Results of the audit are summarized in an audit report that either provide an unqualified opinion on the financial statements or qualifications as to its fairness and accuracy. The audit opinion on the financial statements is usually included in the annual report.There has been much legal debate over who an auditor is liable to. Since audit reports tend to be addressed to the current shareholders, it is commonly thought that they owe a legal duty of care to them. But this may not be the case as determined by common law precedent. In Canada, auditors are liable only to investors using a prospectus to buy shares in the primary market. In the United Kingdom, they have been held liable to potential investors when the auditor was aware of the potential investor and how they would use the information in the financial statements. Nowadays auditors tend to include in their report liability restricting language, discouraging anyone other than the addressees of their report from relying on it. Liability is an important issue: in the UK, for example, auditors have unlimited liability.In the United States, especially in the post-Enron era there has been substantial concern about the accuracy of financial statements. Corporate officers—the chief executive officer (CEO) and chief financial officer (CFO)—are personally responsible for fair financial reporting that provides an accurate sense of the organization to those reading the report.","title":"Audit and legal implications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Generally Accepted Accounting Principles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generally_Accepted_Accounting_Principles"},{"link_name":"voluntarily disclose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluntary_disclosure"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FASB2001-6"},{"link_name":"International Accounting Standards Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Accounting_Standards_Board"},{"link_name":"International Financial Reporting Standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Financial_Reporting_Standards"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa"},{"link_name":"other countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Financial_Reporting_Standards#Adaptation_and_convergence"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Financial Accounting Standards Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Accounting_Standards_Board"}],"text":"Different countries have developed their own accounting principles over time, making international comparisons of companies difficult. To ensure uniformity and comparability between financial statements prepared by different companies, a set of guidelines and rules are used. Commonly referred to as Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), these set of guidelines provide the basis in the preparation of financial statements, although many companies voluntarily disclose information beyond the scope of such requirements.[6]Recently there has been a push towards standardizing accounting rules made by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). IASB develops International Financial Reporting Standards that have been adopted by Australia, Canada and the European Union (for publicly quoted companies only), are under consideration in South Africa and other countries. The United States Financial Accounting Standards Board has made a commitment to converge the U.S. GAAP and IFRS over time.","title":"Standards and regulations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"annual report to shareholders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_report"},{"link_name":"brochure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brochure"},{"link_name":"Blue chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_chip_(stock_market)"},{"link_name":"coffee table book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee_table_book"}],"text":"To entice new investors, public companies assemble their financial statements on fine paper with pleasing graphics and photos in an annual report to shareholders, attempting to capture the excitement and culture of the organization in a \"marketing brochure\" of sorts. Usually the company's chief executive will write a letter to shareholders, describing management's performance and the company's financial highlights.In the United States, prior to the advent of the internet, the annual report was considered the most effective way for corporations to communicate with individual shareholders. Blue chip companies went to great expense to produce and mail out attractive annual reports to every shareholder. The annual report was often prepared in the style of a coffee table book.","title":"Inclusion in annual reports"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"debt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debt"},{"link_name":"accounts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Account_(accountancy)"},{"link_name":"contingent liabilities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingent_liabilities"},{"link_name":"going concern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Going_concern"},{"link_name":"line-items","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Line-items&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fixed asset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_asset"},{"link_name":"consolidated financial statements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidated_financial_statement"},{"link_name":"subsidiaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsidiaries"},{"link_name":"controlling interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controlling_interest"},{"link_name":"parent company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parent_company"}],"text":"Additional information added to the end of financial statements that help explain specific items in the statements as well as provide a more comprehensive assessment of a company's financial condition are known as notes (or \"notes to financial statements\").Notes to financial statements can include information on debt, accounts, contingent liabilities, on going concern criteria, or on contextual information explaining the financial numbers (e.g. to indicate a lawsuit). The notes clarify individual statement line-items. Notes are also used to explain the accounting methods used to prepare the statements and they support valuations for how particular accounts have been computed. As an example: If a company lists a loss on a fixed asset impairment line in their income statement, the notes may state the reason for the impairment by describing how the asset became impaired.In consolidated financial statements, all subsidiaries are listed as well as the amount of ownership (controlling interest) that the parent company has in the subsidiaries.Any items within the financial statements that are valuated by estimation are part of the notes if a substantial difference exists between the amount of the estimate previously reported and the actual result. Full disclosure of the effects of the differences between the estimate and actual results should be included.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"liquidity position","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting_liquidity"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"mergers and acquisitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions"},{"link_name":"share buybacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Share_buyback"},{"link_name":"inflation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Management discussion and analysis or MD&A is an integrated part of a company's annual financial statements. The purpose of the MD&A is to provide a narrative explanation, through the eyes of management, of how an entity has performed in the past, its financial condition, and its future prospects. In so doing, the MD&A attempt to provide investors with complete, fair, and balanced information to help them decide whether to invest or continue to invest in an entity.[7]The section contains a description of the year gone by and some of the key factors that influenced the business of the company in that year, as well as a fair and unbiased overview of the company's past, present, and future.MD&A typically describes the corporation's liquidity position, capital resources,[8] results of its operations, underlying causes of material changes in financial statement items (such as asset impairment and restructuring charges), events of unusual or infrequent nature (such as mergers and acquisitions or share buybacks), positive and negative trends, effects of inflation, domestic and international market risks,[9] and significant uncertainties.","title":"Management discussion and analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"XBRL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XBRL"},{"link_name":"U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission"},{"link_name":"UN/CEFACT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN/CEFACT"},{"link_name":"GAAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generally_accepted_accounting_principles"},{"link_name":"financial reporting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_reporting"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"}],"text":"Financial statements have been created on paper for hundreds of years. The growth of the Web has seen more and more financial statements created in an electronic form which is exchangeable over the Web. Common forms of electronic financial statements are PDF and HTML. These types of electronic financial statements have their drawbacks in that it still takes a human to read the information in order to reuse the information contained in a financial statement.More recently a market driven global standard, XBRL (Extensible Business Reporting Language), which can be used for creating financial statements in a structured and computer readable format, has become more popular as a format for creating financial statements. Many regulators around the world such as the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission have mandated XBRL for the submission of financial information.The UN/CEFACT created, with respect to Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), internal or external financial reporting XML messages to be used between enterprises and their partners, such as private interested parties (e.g. bank) and public collecting bodies (e.g. taxation authorities). Many regulators use such messages to collect financial and economic information.","title":"Move to electronic statements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84480-201-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84480-201-2"}],"text":"Alexander, D., Britton, A., Jorissen, A., \"International Financial Reporting and Analysis\", Second Edition, 2005, ISBN 978-1-84480-201-2","title":"Further reading"}]

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[{"reference":"\"Accounting standards and value relevance of financial statements: An international analysis\". Science Direct. Retrieved 1 April 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165410101000118","url_text":"\"Accounting standards and value relevance of financial statements: An international analysis\""}]},{"reference":"\"IAS 27 — Separate Financial Statements (2011)\". www.iasplus.com. IAS Plus (This material is provided by Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (“DTTL”), or a member firm of DTTL, or one of their related entities. This material is provided “AS IS” and without warranty of any kind, express or implied. Without limiting the foregoing, neither Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (“DTTL”), nor any member firm of DTTL (a “DTTL Member Firm”), nor any of their related entities (collectively, the “Deloitte Network”) warrants that this material will be error-free or will meet any particular criteria of performance or quality, and each entity of the Deloitte Network expressly disclaims all implied warranties, including without limitation warranties of merchantability, title, fitness for a particular purpose, non-infringement, compatibility, and accuracy.). Retrieved 2013-11-29.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iasplus.com/en/standards/ias/ias27-2011","url_text":"\"IAS 27 — Separate Financial Statements (2011)\""}]},{"reference":"\"IFRS 10 — Consolidated Financial Statements\". www.iasplus.com. IAS Plus (This material is provided by Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (“DTTL”), or a member firm of DTTL, or one of their related entities. This material is provided “AS IS” and without warranty of any kind, express or implied. Without limiting the foregoing, neither Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Limited (“DTTL”), nor any member firm of DTTL (a “DTTL Member Firm”), nor any of their related entities (collectively, the “Deloitte Network”) warrants that this material will be error-free or will meet any particular criteria of performance or quality, and each entity of the Deloitte Network expressly disclaims all implied warranties, including without limitation warranties of merchantability, title, fitness for a particular purpose, non-infringement, compatibility, and accuracy.). Retrieved 2013-11-29.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iasplus.com/en/standards/ifrs/ifrs10","url_text":"\"IFRS 10 — Consolidated Financial Statements\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nico Resources Management's Discussion and Analysis\". Archived from the original on 2006-11-15. Retrieved 2014-02-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061115081547/http://www.nikoresources.com/2002manage.html","url_text":"\"Nico Resources Management's Discussion and Analysis\""},{"url":"http://www.nikoresources.com/2002manage.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"PepsiCo Management's Discussion and Analysis\". Archived from the original on 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2014-02-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120319194828/http://www.pepsico.com/Annual-Reports/1998/financial/analysis.html","url_text":"\"PepsiCo Management's Discussion and Analysis\""},{"url":"http://www.pepsico.com/Annual-Reports/1998/financial/analysis.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Mańko, Rafał. \"New legal framework for financial statements\" (PDF). Library Briefing. Library of the European Parliament. Retrieved 6 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/bibliotheque/briefing/2013/130552/LDM_BRI(2013)130552_REV1_EN.pdf","url_text":"\"New legal framework for financial statements\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-n_junction

p–n junction

["1 History","2 Properties","2.1 Equilibrium (zero bias)","2.2 Forward bias","2.3 Reverse bias","3 Governing equations","3.1 Size of depletion region","3.2 Current across depletion region","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]

Semiconductor–semiconductor junction See also: p–n diode and Diode § Semiconductor diodes A p–n junction diode. The circuit symbol is also shown. A p–n junction is a combination of two types of semiconductor materials, p-type and n-type, in a single crystal. The "n" (negative) side contains freely-moving electrons, while the "p" (positive) side contains freely-moving electron holes. Connecting the two materials causes creation of a depletion region near the boundary, as the free electrons fill the available holes, which in turn allows electric current to pass through the junction only in one direction. p–n junctions represent the simplest case of a semiconductor electronic device; a p-n junction by itself, when connected on both sides to a circuit, is a diode. More complex circuit components can be created by further combinations of p-type and n-type semiconductors; for example, the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a semiconductor in the form n–p–n or p–n–p. Combinations of such semiconductor devices on a single chip allow for the creation of integrated circuits. Solar cells and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are essentially p-n junctions where the semiconductor materials are chosen, and the component's geometry designed, to maximise the desired effect (light absorption or emission). A Schottky junction is a similar case to a p–n junction, where instead of an n-type semiconductor, a metal directly serves the role of the "negative" charge provider. History The invention of the p–n junction is usually attributed to American physicist Russell Ohl of Bell Laboratories in 1939. Two years later (1941), Vadim Lashkaryov reported discovery of p–n junctions in Cu2O and silver sulphide photocells and selenium rectifiers. The modern theory of p-n junctions was elucidated by William Shockley in his classic work Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors (1950). Properties This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This section may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. (May 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Silicon atoms (Si) enlarged about 45,000,000x (Image size approximately 955 pm x 955 pm) The p–n junction possesses a useful property for modern semiconductor electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction between them can become depleted of charge carriers, depending on the relative voltages of the two semiconductor regions. By manipulating flow of charge carriers across this depleted layer, p–n junctions are commonly used as diodes: circuit elements that allow a flow of electricity in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction. Bias is the application of a voltage relative to a p–n junction region: Forward bias is in the direction of easy current flow Reverse bias is in the direction of little or no current flow. The forward-bias and the reverse-bias properties of the p–n junction imply that it can be used as a diode. A p–n junction diode allows charge carriers to flow in one direction, but not in the opposite direction; negative charge carriers (electrons) can easily flow through the junction from n to p but not from p to n, and the reverse is true for positive charge carriers (holes). When the p–n junction is forward-biased, charge carriers flow freely due to the reduction in energy barriers seen by electrons and holes. When the p–n junction is reverse-biased, however, the junction barrier (and therefore resistance) becomes greater and charge flow is minimal. Equilibrium (zero bias) In a p–n junction, without an external applied voltage, an equilibrium condition is reached in which a potential difference forms across the junction. This potential difference is called built-in potential V b i {\displaystyle V_{\rm {bi}}} . At the junction, some of the free electrons in the n-type wander into the p-type due to random thermal migration ("diffusion"). As they diffuse into the p-type they combine with holes, and cancel each other out. In a similar way some of the positive holes in the p-type diffuse into the n-type and combine with free electrons, and cancel each other out. The positively charged ("donor") dopant atoms in the n-type are part of the crystal, and cannot move. Thus, in the n-type, a region near the junction has a fixed amount of positive charge. The negatively charged ("acceptor") dopant atoms in the p-type are part of the crystal, and cannot move. Thus, in the p-type, a region near the junction becomes negatively charged. The result is a region near the junction that acts to repel the mobile charges away from the junction through the electric field that these charged regions create. The regions near the p–n interface lose their neutrality and most of their mobile carriers, forming the space charge region or depletion layer (see figure A). Figure A. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Electron and hole concentration are reported with blue and red lines, respectively. Gray regions are charge-neutral. Light-red zone is positively charged. Light-blue zone is negatively charged. The electric field is shown on the bottom, the electrostatic force on electrons and holes and the direction in which the diffusion tends to move electrons and holes. (The log concentration curves should actually be smoother with slope varying with field strength.) The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both electrons and holes. There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process that tends to generate more space charge, and the electric field generated by the space charge that tends to counteract the diffusion. The carrier concentration profile at equilibrium is shown in figure A with blue and red lines. Also shown are the two counterbalancing phenomena that establish equilibrium. Figure B. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Under the junction, plots for the charge density, the electric field, and the voltage are reported. (The log concentration curves should actually be smoother, like the voltage.) The space charge region is a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions (donors or acceptors) that have been left uncovered by majority carrier diffusion. When equilibrium is reached, the charge density is approximated by the displayed step function. In fact, since the y-axis of figure A is log-scale, the region is almost completely depleted of majority carriers (leaving a charge density equal to the net doping level), and the edge between the space charge region and the neutral region is quite sharp (see figure B, Q(x) graph). The space charge region has the same magnitude of charge on both sides of the p–n interfaces, thus it extends farther on the less doped side in this example (the n side in figures A and B). Forward bias See also: p–n diode § Forward bias PN junction operation in forward-bias mode, showing reducing depletion width. In forward bias, the p-type is connected with the positive terminal and the n-type is connected with the negative terminal. The panels show energy band diagram, electric field, and net charge density. Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1e15 cm−3 (160 μC/cm3) doping level, leading to built-in potential of ~0.59 V. Reducing depletion width can be inferred from the shrinking carrier motion across the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance. Electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes that cross into the n-type material) diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that can flow through the diode. Only majority carriers (electrons in n-type material or holes in p-type) can flow through a semiconductor for a macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the flow of electrons across the junction. The forward bias causes a force on the electrons pushing them from the N side toward the P side. With forward bias, the depletion region is narrow enough that electrons can cross the junction and inject into the p-type material. However, they do not continue to flow through the p-type material indefinitely, because it is energetically favorable for them to recombine with holes. The average length an electron travels through the p-type material before recombining is called the diffusion length, and it is typically on the order of micrometers. Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into the p-type material, the electric current continues uninterrupted, because holes (the majority carriers) begin to flow in the opposite direction. The total current (the sum of the electron and hole currents) is constant in space, because any variation would cause charge buildup over time (this is Kirchhoff's current law). The flow of holes from the p-type region into the n-type region is exactly analogous to the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons and holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and voltages are reversed). Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow through the diode involves electrons flowing through the n-type region toward the junction, holes flowing through the p-type region in the opposite direction toward the junction, and the two species of carriers constantly recombining in the vicinity of the junction. The electrons and holes travel in opposite directions, but they also have opposite charges, so the overall current is in the same direction on both sides of the diode, as required. The Shockley diode equation models the forward-bias operational characteristics of a p–n junction outside the avalanche (reverse-biased conducting) region. Reverse bias A silicon p–n junction in reverse bias Connecting the p-type region to the negative terminal of the voltage supply and the n-type region to the positive terminal corresponds to reverse bias. If a diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the cathode is comparatively higher than at the anode. Therefore, very little current flows until the diode breaks down. The connections are illustrated in the adjacent diagram. Because the p-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of the power supply, the 'holes' in the p-type material are pulled away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons are pulled away from the junction, with similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator. The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage. This effect is used to advantage in Zener diode regulator circuits. Zener diodes have a low breakdown voltage. A standard value for breakdown voltage is for instance 5.6 V. This means that the voltage at the cathode cannot be more than about 5.6 V higher than the voltage at the anode (though there is a slight rise with current), because the diode breaks down, and therefore conducts, if the voltage gets any higher. This effect limits the voltage over the diode. Another application of reverse biasing is Varactor diodes, where the width of the depletion zone (controlled with the reverse bias voltage) changes the capacitance of the diode. Governing equations Size of depletion region See also: Band bending For a p–n junction, let C A ( x ) {\displaystyle C_{A}(x)} be the concentration of negatively-charged acceptor atoms and C D ( x ) {\displaystyle C_{D}(x)} be the concentrations of positively-charged donor atoms. Let N 0 ( x ) {\displaystyle N_{0}(x)} and P 0 ( x ) {\displaystyle P_{0}(x)} be the equilibrium concentrations of electrons and holes respectively. Thus, by Poisson's equation: − d 2 V d x 2 = ρ ε = q ε [ ( P 0 − N 0 ) + ( C D − C A ) ] {\displaystyle -{\frac {\mathrm {d} ^{2}V}{\mathrm {d} x^{2}}}={\frac {\rho }{\varepsilon }}={\frac {q}{\varepsilon }}\left} where V {\displaystyle V} is the electric potential, ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is the charge density, ε {\displaystyle \varepsilon } is permittivity and q {\displaystyle q} is the magnitude of the electron charge. For a general case, the dopants have a concentration profile that varies with depth x, but for a simple case of an abrupt junction, C A {\displaystyle C_{A}} can be assumed to be constant on the p side of the junction and zero on the n side, and C D {\displaystyle C_{D}} can be assumed to be constant on the n side of the junction and zero on the p side. Let d p {\displaystyle d_{p}} be the width of the depletion region on the p-side and d n {\displaystyle d_{n}} the width of the depletion region on the n-side. Then, since P 0 = N 0 = 0 {\displaystyle P_{0}=N_{0}=0} within the depletion region, it must be that d p C A = d n C D {\displaystyle d_{p}C_{A}=d_{n}C_{D}} because the total charge on the p and the n side of the depletion region sums to zero. Therefore, letting D {\displaystyle D} and Δ V {\displaystyle \Delta V} represent the entire depletion region and the potential difference across it, Δ V = ∫ D ∫ q ε [ ( P 0 − N 0 ) + ( C D − C A ) ] d x d x = C A C D C A + C D q 2 ε ( d p + d n ) 2 {\displaystyle \Delta V=\int _{D}\int {\frac {q}{\varepsilon }}\left\,\mathrm {d} x\,\mathrm {d} x={\frac {C_{A}C_{D}}{C_{A}+C_{D}}}{\frac {q}{2\varepsilon }}(d_{p}+d_{n})^{2}} And thus, letting d {\displaystyle d} be the total width of the depletion region, we get d = 2 ε q C A + C D C A C D Δ V {\displaystyle d={\sqrt {{\frac {2\varepsilon }{q}}{\frac {C_{A}+C_{D}}{C_{A}C_{D}}}\Delta V}}} Δ V {\displaystyle \Delta V} can be written as Δ V 0 + Δ V ext {\displaystyle \Delta V_{0}+\Delta V_{\text{ext}}} , where we have broken up the voltage difference into the equilibrium plus external components. The equilibrium potential results from diffusion forces, and thus we can calculate Δ V 0 {\displaystyle \Delta V_{0}} by implementing the Einstein relation and assuming the semiconductor is nondegenerate (i.e., the product P 0 N 0 = n i 2 {\displaystyle {P}_{0}{N}_{0}={n}_{i}^{2}} is independent of the Fermi energy): Δ V 0 = k T q ln ⁡ ( C A C D P 0 N 0 ) = k T q ln ⁡ ( C A C D n i 2 ) {\displaystyle \Delta V_{0}={\frac {kT}{q}}\ln \left({\frac {C_{A}C_{D}}{P_{0}N_{0}}}\right)={\frac {kT}{q}}\ln \left({\frac {C_{A}C_{D}}{n_{i}^{2}}}\right)} where T is the temperature of the semiconductor and k is Boltzmann constant. Current across depletion region The Shockley ideal diode equation characterizes the current across a p–n junction as a function of external voltage and ambient conditions (temperature, choice of semiconductor, etc.). To see how it can be derived, we must examine the various reasons for current. The convention is that the forward (+) direction be pointed against the diode's built-in potential gradient at equilibrium. Forward current ( J F {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{F}} ) Diffusion current: current due to local imbalances in carrier concentration n {\displaystyle n} , via the equation J D ∝ − q ∇ n {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{D}\propto -q\nabla n} Reverse current ( J R {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{R}} ) Field current Generation current See also Alloy-junction transistor Capacitance–voltage profiling Deep-level transient spectroscopy Delocalized electron Diode modelling Field-effect transistor n–p–n transistor p–n–p transistor Semiconductor detector Semiconductor device Transistor–transistor logic References ^ Riordan, Michael; Hoddeson, Lillian (1988). Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 88–97. ISBN 978-0-393-31851-7. ^ Lashkaryov, V. E. (2008) . "Investigation of a Barrier Layer by the Thermoprobe Method" (PDF). Ukr. J. Phys. 53 (special edition): 53–56. ISSN 2071-0194. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-28. ^ Shockley, William (1950). Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors: With Applications to Transistor Electronics, Bell Telephone Laboratories series, Van Nostrand. ISBN 0882753827, 780882753829. ^ Mishra, Umesh (2008). Semiconductor Device Physics and Design. Springer. pp. P155. ISBN 978-1-4020-6480-7. ^ Hook, J. R.; H. E. Hall (2001). Solid State Physics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-92805-8. ^ Luque, Antonio; Hegedus, Steven (29 March 2011). Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-97612-8. Further reading Shockley, William (1949). "The Theory of p-n Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction Transistors". Bell System Technical Journal. 28 (3): 435–489. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to PN-junction diagrams. The PN Junction. How Diodes Work? (English version) Educational video on the P-N junction. "P-N Junction" – PowerGuru, August, 2012. Authority control databases: National Germany Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"p–n diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_diode"},{"link_name":"Diode § Semiconductor diodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode#Semiconductor_diodes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PN_diode_with_electrical_symbol.svg"},{"link_name":"diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"},{"link_name":"semiconductor materials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_material"},{"link_name":"p-type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-type_semiconductor"},{"link_name":"n-type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-type_semiconductor"},{"link_name":"crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"electron holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_hole"},{"link_name":"depletion region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_region"},{"link_name":"semiconductor electronic device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_device"},{"link_name":"diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"},{"link_name":"bipolar junction transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor"},{"link_name":"integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"Solar cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_cell"},{"link_name":"light-emitting diodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode"},{"link_name":"Schottky junction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schottky_junction"}],"text":"See also: p–n diode and Diode § Semiconductor diodesA p–n junction diode. The circuit symbol is also shown.A p–n junction is a combination of two types of semiconductor materials, p-type and n-type, in a single crystal. The \"n\" (negative) side contains freely-moving electrons, while the \"p\" (positive) side contains freely-moving electron holes. Connecting the two materials causes creation of a depletion region near the boundary, as the free electrons fill the available holes, which in turn allows electric current to pass through the junction only in one direction.p–n junctions represent the simplest case of a semiconductor electronic device; a p-n junction by itself, when connected on both sides to a circuit, is a diode. More complex circuit components can be created by further combinations of p-type and n-type semiconductors; for example, the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a semiconductor in the form n–p–n or p–n–p. Combinations of such semiconductor devices on a single chip allow for the creation of integrated circuits.Solar cells and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are essentially p-n junctions where the semiconductor materials are chosen, and the component's geometry designed, to maximise the desired effect (light absorption or emission). A Schottky junction is a similar case to a p–n junction, where instead of an n-type semiconductor, a metal directly serves the role of the \"negative\" charge provider.","title":"p–n junction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russell Ohl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_Ohl"},{"link_name":"Bell Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Vadim Lashkaryov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vadim_Lashkaryov"},{"link_name":"photocells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photocell"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"William Shockley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley"},{"link_name":"Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrons_and_Holes_in_Semiconductors_with_Applications_to_Transistor_Electronics"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The invention of the p–n junction is usually attributed to American physicist Russell Ohl of Bell Laboratories in 1939.[1] Two years later (1941), Vadim Lashkaryov reported discovery of p–n junctions in Cu2O and silver sulphide photocells and selenium rectifiers.[2] The modern theory of p-n junctions was elucidated by William Shockley in his classic work Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors (1950).[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silicium-atomes.png"},{"link_name":"Silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon"},{"link_name":"conductive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductivity"},{"link_name":"depleted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_region"},{"link_name":"charge carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_carrier"},{"link_name":"diodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"},{"link_name":"electricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity"},{"link_name":"Forward bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_bias"},{"link_name":"Reverse bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_bias"},{"link_name":"diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Silicon atoms (Si) enlarged about 45,000,000x (Image size approximately 955 pm x 955 pm)The p–n junction possesses a useful property for modern semiconductor electronics. A p-doped semiconductor is relatively conductive. The same is true of an n-doped semiconductor, but the junction between them can become depleted of charge carriers, depending on the relative voltages of the two semiconductor regions. By manipulating flow of charge carriers across this depleted layer, p–n junctions are commonly used as diodes: circuit elements that allow a flow of electricity in one direction but not in the other (opposite) direction.Bias is the application of a voltage relative to a p–n junction region:Forward bias is in the direction of easy current flow\nReverse bias is in the direction of little or no current flow.The forward-bias and the reverse-bias properties of the p–n junction imply that it can be used as a diode. A p–n junction diode allows charge carriers to flow in one direction, but not in the opposite direction; negative charge carriers (electrons) can easily flow through the junction from n to p but not from p to n, and the reverse is true for positive charge carriers (holes). When the p–n junction is forward-biased, charge carriers flow freely due to the reduction in energy barriers seen by electrons and holes.[4] When the p–n junction is reverse-biased, however, the junction barrier (and therefore resistance) becomes greater and charge flow is minimal.","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"potential difference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_difference"},{"link_name":"space charge region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_charge_region"},{"link_name":"depletion layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_layer"},{"link_name":"figure A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pn-junction-equilibrium.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pn-junction-equilibrium.svg"},{"link_name":"electric field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_field"},{"link_name":"figure A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pn-junction-equilibrium.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pn-junction-equilibrium-graphs.png"},{"link_name":"space charge region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_charge_region"},{"link_name":"donors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donor_(semiconductors)"},{"link_name":"acceptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptor_(semiconductors)"},{"link_name":"majority carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majority_carrier"},{"link_name":"figure B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pn-junction-equilibrium-graphs.png"}],"sub_title":"Equilibrium (zero bias)","text":"In a p–n junction, without an external applied voltage, an equilibrium condition is reached in which a potential difference forms across the junction. This potential difference is called built-in potential \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n b\n i\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\rm {bi}}}\n \n.At the junction, some of the free electrons in the n-type wander into the p-type due to random thermal migration (\"diffusion\"). As they diffuse into the p-type they combine with holes, and cancel each other out. In a similar way some of the positive holes in the p-type diffuse into the n-type and combine with free electrons, and cancel each other out. The positively charged (\"donor\") dopant atoms in the n-type are part of the crystal, and cannot move. Thus, in the n-type, a region near the junction has a fixed amount of positive charge. The negatively charged (\"acceptor\") dopant atoms in the p-type are part of the crystal, and cannot move. Thus, in the p-type, a region near the junction becomes negatively charged. The result is a region near the junction that acts to repel the mobile charges away from the junction through the electric field that these charged regions create. The regions near the p–n interface lose their neutrality and most of their mobile carriers, forming the space charge region or depletion layer (see figure A).Figure A. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Electron and hole concentration are reported with blue and red lines, respectively. Gray regions are charge-neutral. Light-red zone is positively charged. Light-blue zone is negatively charged. The electric field is shown on the bottom, the electrostatic force on electrons and holes and the direction in which the diffusion tends to move electrons and holes. (The log concentration curves should actually be smoother with slope varying with field strength.)The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both electrons and holes. There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process that tends to generate more space charge, and the electric field generated by the space charge that tends to counteract the diffusion. The carrier concentration profile at equilibrium is shown in figure A with blue and red lines. Also shown are the two counterbalancing phenomena that establish equilibrium.Figure B. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Under the junction, plots for the charge density, the electric field, and the voltage are reported. (The log concentration curves should actually be smoother, like the voltage.)The space charge region is a zone with a net charge provided by the fixed ions (donors or acceptors) that have been left uncovered by majority carrier diffusion. When equilibrium is reached, the charge density is approximated by the displayed step function. In fact, since the y-axis of figure A is log-scale, the region is almost completely depleted of majority carriers (leaving a charge density equal to the net doping level), and the edge between the space charge region and the neutral region is quite sharp (see figure B, Q(x) graph). The space charge region has the same magnitude of charge on both sides of the p–n interfaces, thus it extends farther on the less doped side in this example (the n side in figures A and B).","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"p–n diode § Forward bias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_diode#Forward_bias"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PN_band.gif"},{"link_name":"majority carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majority_carriers"},{"link_name":"micrometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometers"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Kirchhoff's current law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirchhoff%27s_current_law"},{"link_name":"Shockley diode equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shockley_diode_equation"}],"sub_title":"Forward bias","text":"See also: p–n diode § Forward biasPN junction operation in forward-bias mode, showing reducing depletion width.In forward bias, the p-type is connected with the positive terminal and the n-type is connected with the negative terminal. The panels show energy band diagram, electric field, and net charge density. Both p and n junctions are doped at a 1e15 cm−3 (160 μC/cm3) doping level, leading to built-in potential of ~0.59 V. Reducing depletion width can be inferred from the shrinking carrier motion across the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance. Electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes that cross into the n-type material) diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that can flow through the diode.Only majority carriers (electrons in n-type material or holes in p-type) can flow through a semiconductor for a macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the flow of electrons across the junction. The forward bias causes a force on the electrons pushing them from the N side toward the P side. With forward bias, the depletion region is narrow enough that electrons can cross the junction and inject into the p-type material. However, they do not continue to flow through the p-type material indefinitely, because it is energetically favorable for them to recombine with holes. The average length an electron travels through the p-type material before recombining is called the diffusion length, and it is typically on the order of micrometers.[5]Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into the p-type material, the electric current continues uninterrupted, because holes (the majority carriers) begin to flow in the opposite direction. The total current (the sum of the electron and hole currents) is constant in space, because any variation would cause charge buildup over time (this is Kirchhoff's current law). The flow of holes from the p-type region into the n-type region is exactly analogous to the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons and holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and voltages are reversed).Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow through the diode involves electrons flowing through the n-type region toward the junction, holes flowing through the p-type region in the opposite direction toward the junction, and the two species of carriers constantly recombining in the vicinity of the junction. The electrons and holes travel in opposite directions, but they also have opposite charges, so the overall current is in the same direction on both sides of the diode, as required.The Shockley diode equation models the forward-bias operational characteristics of a p–n junction outside the avalanche (reverse-biased conducting) region.","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PN_Junction_in_Reverse_Bias.png"},{"link_name":"cathode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode"},{"link_name":"anode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anode"},{"link_name":"holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_hole"},{"link_name":"depletion region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_region"},{"link_name":"Zener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_breakdown"},{"link_name":"avalanche breakdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalanche_breakdown"},{"link_name":"Zener diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_diode"},{"link_name":"breakdown voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltage"},{"link_name":"Varactor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varactor"},{"link_name":"depletion zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_zone"}],"sub_title":"Reverse bias","text":"A silicon p–n junction in reverse biasConnecting the p-type region to the negative terminal of the voltage supply and the n-type region to the positive terminal corresponds to reverse bias. If a diode is reverse-biased, the voltage at the cathode is comparatively higher than at the anode. Therefore, very little current flows until the diode breaks down. The connections are illustrated in the adjacent diagram.Because the p-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of the power supply, the 'holes' in the p-type material are pulled away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons are pulled away from the junction, with similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator.The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n junction depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage.This effect is used to advantage in Zener diode regulator circuits. Zener diodes have a low breakdown voltage. A standard value for breakdown voltage is for instance 5.6 V. This means that the voltage at the cathode cannot be more than about 5.6 V higher than the voltage at the anode (though there is a slight rise with current), because the diode breaks down, and therefore conducts, if the voltage gets any higher. This effect limits the voltage over the diode.Another application of reverse biasing is Varactor diodes, where the width of the depletion zone (controlled with the reverse bias voltage) changes the capacitance of the diode.","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Governing equations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Band bending","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_bending"},{"link_name":"electric potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_potential"},{"link_name":"charge density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_density"},{"link_name":"permittivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permittivity"},{"link_name":"Einstein relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_relation_(kinetic_theory)"},{"link_name":"Fermi energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_energy"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LuqueHegedus2011-6"}],"sub_title":"Size of depletion region","text":"See also: Band bendingFor a p–n junction, let \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n A\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C_{A}(x)}\n \n be the concentration of negatively-charged acceptor atoms and \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n D\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C_{D}(x)}\n \n be the concentrations of positively-charged donor atoms. Let \n \n \n \n \n N\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle N_{0}(x)}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n x\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P_{0}(x)}\n \n be the equilibrium concentrations of electrons and holes respectively. Thus, by Poisson's equation:−\n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n 2\n \n \n V\n \n \n \n d\n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n ρ\n ε\n \n \n =\n \n \n q\n ε\n \n \n \n [\n \n (\n \n P\n \n 0\n \n \n −\n \n N\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n +\n (\n \n C\n \n D\n \n \n −\n \n C\n \n A\n \n \n )\n \n ]\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle -{\\frac {\\mathrm {d} ^{2}V}{\\mathrm {d} x^{2}}}={\\frac {\\rho }{\\varepsilon }}={\\frac {q}{\\varepsilon }}\\left[(P_{0}-N_{0})+(C_{D}-C_{A})\\right]}where \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is the electric potential, \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho }\n \n is the charge density, \n \n \n \n ε\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varepsilon }\n \n is permittivity and\n\n \n \n \n q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle q}\n \n is the magnitude of the electron charge.For a general case, the dopants have a concentration profile that varies with depth x, but for a simple case of an abrupt junction, \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n A\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle C_{A}}\n \n can be assumed to be constant on the p side of the junction and zero on the n side, and \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle C_{D}}\n \n can be assumed to be constant on the n side of the junction and zero on the p side. Let \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle d_{p}}\n \n be the width of the depletion region on the p-side and \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle d_{n}}\n \n the width of the depletion region on the n-side. Then, since \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n 0\n \n \n =\n \n N\n \n 0\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P_{0}=N_{0}=0}\n \n within the depletion region, it must be thatd\n \n p\n \n \n \n C\n \n A\n \n \n =\n \n d\n \n n\n \n \n \n C\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle d_{p}C_{A}=d_{n}C_{D}}because the total charge on the p and the n side of the depletion region sums to zero. Therefore, letting \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n {\\displaystyle D}\n \n and \n \n \n \n Δ\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta V}\n \n represent the entire depletion region and the potential difference across it,Δ\n V\n =\n \n ∫\n \n D\n \n \n ∫\n \n \n q\n ε\n \n \n \n [\n \n (\n \n P\n \n 0\n \n \n −\n \n N\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n +\n (\n \n C\n \n D\n \n \n −\n \n C\n \n A\n \n \n )\n \n ]\n \n \n \n d\n \n x\n \n \n d\n \n x\n =\n \n \n \n \n C\n \n A\n \n \n \n C\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n A\n \n \n +\n \n C\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n q\n \n 2\n ε\n \n \n \n (\n \n d\n \n p\n \n \n +\n \n d\n \n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta V=\\int _{D}\\int {\\frac {q}{\\varepsilon }}\\left[(P_{0}-N_{0})+(C_{D}-C_{A})\\right]\\,\\mathrm {d} x\\,\\mathrm {d} x={\\frac {C_{A}C_{D}}{C_{A}+C_{D}}}{\\frac {q}{2\\varepsilon }}(d_{p}+d_{n})^{2}}And thus, letting \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n {\\displaystyle d}\n \n be the total width of the depletion region, we getd\n =\n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n ε\n \n q\n \n \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n A\n \n \n +\n \n C\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n A\n \n \n \n C\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n \n Δ\n V\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle d={\\sqrt {{\\frac {2\\varepsilon }{q}}{\\frac {C_{A}+C_{D}}{C_{A}C_{D}}}\\Delta V}}}Δ\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta V}\n \n can be written as \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n V\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n Δ\n \n V\n \n ext\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta V_{0}+\\Delta V_{\\text{ext}}}\n \n, where we have broken up the voltage difference into the equilibrium plus external components. The equilibrium potential results from diffusion forces, and thus we can calculate \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n V\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta V_{0}}\n \n by implementing the Einstein relation and assuming the semiconductor is nondegenerate (i.e., the product \n \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n N\n \n \n 0\n \n \n =\n \n \n n\n \n \n i\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {P}_{0}{N}_{0}={n}_{i}^{2}}\n \n is independent of the Fermi energy):Δ\n \n V\n \n 0\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n k\n T\n \n q\n \n \n ln\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n \n \n \n C\n \n A\n \n \n \n C\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n \n P\n \n 0\n \n \n \n N\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n =\n \n \n \n k\n T\n \n q\n \n \n ln\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n \n \n \n C\n \n A\n \n \n \n C\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta V_{0}={\\frac {kT}{q}}\\ln \\left({\\frac {C_{A}C_{D}}{P_{0}N_{0}}}\\right)={\\frac {kT}{q}}\\ln \\left({\\frac {C_{A}C_{D}}{n_{i}^{2}}}\\right)}TkBoltzmann constant[6]","title":"Governing equations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shockley ideal diode equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shockley_ideal_diode_equation"}],"sub_title":"Current across depletion region","text":"The Shockley ideal diode equation characterizes the current across a p–n junction as a function of external voltage and ambient conditions (temperature, choice of semiconductor, etc.). To see how it can be derived, we must examine the various reasons for current. The convention is that the forward (+) direction be pointed against the diode's built-in potential gradient at equilibrium.Forward current (\n \n \n \n \n \n J\n \n \n F\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {J} _{F}}\n \n)\nDiffusion current: current due to local imbalances in carrier concentration \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n, via the equation \n \n \n \n \n \n J\n \n \n D\n \n \n ∝\n −\n q\n ∇\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {J} _{D}\\propto -q\\nabla n}\n \n\nReverse current (\n \n \n \n \n \n J\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {J} _{R}}\n \n)\nField current\nGeneration current","title":"Governing equations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x"}],"text":"Shockley, William (1949). \"The Theory of p-n Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction Transistors\". Bell System Technical Journal. 28 (3): 435–489. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"A p–n junction diode. The circuit symbol is also shown.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/PN_diode_with_electrical_symbol.svg/220px-PN_diode_with_electrical_symbol.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Silicon atoms (Si) enlarged about 45,000,000x (Image size approximately 955 pm x 955 pm)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Silicium-atomes.png/110px-Silicium-atomes.png"},{"image_text":"Figure A. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Electron and hole concentration are reported with blue and red lines, respectively. Gray regions are charge-neutral. Light-red zone is positively charged. Light-blue zone is negatively charged. The electric field is shown on the bottom, the electrostatic force on electrons and holes and the direction in which the diffusion tends to move electrons and holes. (The log concentration curves should actually be smoother with slope varying with field strength.)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Pn-junction-equilibrium.svg/260px-Pn-junction-equilibrium.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Figure B. A p–n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero-bias voltage applied. Under the junction, plots for the charge density, the electric field, and the voltage are reported. (The log concentration curves should actually be smoother, like the voltage.)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Pn-junction-equilibrium-graphs.png/260px-Pn-junction-equilibrium-graphs.png"},{"image_text":"PN junction operation in forward-bias mode, showing reducing depletion width.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/PN_band.gif/260px-PN_band.gif"},{"image_text":"A silicon p–n junction in reverse bias","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/PN_Junction_in_Reverse_Bias.png/220px-PN_Junction_in_Reverse_Bias.png"}]

[{"title":"Alloy-junction transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy-junction_transistor"},{"title":"Capacitance–voltage profiling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitance%E2%80%93voltage_profiling"},{"title":"Deep-level transient spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-level_transient_spectroscopy"},{"title":"Delocalized electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delocalized_electron"},{"title":"Diode modelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_modelling"},{"title":"Field-effect transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field-effect_transistor"},{"title":"n–p–n transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%E2%80%93p%E2%80%93n_transistor"},{"title":"p–n–p transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n%E2%80%93p_transistor"},{"title":"Semiconductor detector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_detector"},{"title":"Semiconductor device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_device"},{"title":"Transistor–transistor logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor%E2%80%93transistor_logic"}]

[{"reference":"Riordan, Michael; Hoddeson, Lillian (1988). Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 88–97. ISBN 978-0-393-31851-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Riordan_(physicist)","url_text":"Riordan, Michael"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lillian_Hoddeson","url_text":"Hoddeson, Lillian"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SZ6wm5ZSUmsC&pg=PA92","url_text":"Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31851-7","url_text":"978-0-393-31851-7"}]},{"reference":"Lashkaryov, V. E. (2008) [1941]. \"Investigation of a Barrier Layer by the Thermoprobe Method\" (PDF). Ukr. J. Phys. 53 (special edition): 53–56. ISSN 2071-0194. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vadim_Lashkaryov","url_text":"Lashkaryov, V. E."},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150928014344/http://ujp.bitp.kiev.ua/files/journals/53/si/53SI11p.pdf","url_text":"\"Investigation of a Barrier Layer by the Thermoprobe Method\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2071-0194","url_text":"2071-0194"},{"url":"http://ujp.bitp.kiev.ua/files/journals/53/si/53SI11p.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Mishra, Umesh (2008). Semiconductor Device Physics and Design. Springer. pp. P155. ISBN 978-1-4020-6480-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-6480-7","url_text":"978-1-4020-6480-7"}]},{"reference":"Hook, J. R.; H. E. Hall (2001). Solid State Physics. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-92805-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92805-8","url_text":"978-0-471-92805-8"}]},{"reference":"Luque, Antonio; Hegedus, Steven (29 March 2011). Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-97612-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=sLMkCsde1u4C","url_text":"Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-97612-8","url_text":"978-0-470-97612-8"}]},{"reference":"Shockley, William (1949). \"The Theory of p-n Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction Transistors\". Bell System Technical Journal. 28 (3): 435–489. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x","url_text":"10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x"}]}]

[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=P%E2%80%93n_junction&action=edit","external_links_name":"help improve it"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SZ6wm5ZSUmsC&pg=PA92","external_links_name":"Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150928014344/http://ujp.bitp.kiev.ua/files/journals/53/si/53SI11p.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Investigation of a Barrier Layer by the Thermoprobe Method\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2071-0194","external_links_name":"2071-0194"},{"Link":"http://ujp.bitp.kiev.ua/files/journals/53/si/53SI11p.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=sLMkCsde1u4C","external_links_name":"Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x","external_links_name":"10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBtEckh3L9Q","external_links_name":"The PN Junction. How Diodes Work? (English version)"},{"Link":"http://www.powerguru.org/2012/08/22/p-n-junction/","external_links_name":"\"P-N Junction\""},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4174949-2","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007531628405171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85119913","external_links_name":"United States"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Italy

Roman Italy

["1 Characteristics","2 History","2.1 Augustan organization","2.2 Diocletianic and Constantinian re-organizations","2.3 Late Antiquity","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"]

Coordinates: 42°00′00″N 12°30′00″E / 42.0000°N 12.5000°E / 42.0000; 12.5000Italy during the Ancient Rome era ItalyItalia (Latin)Roman Empire at its greatest extent c. 117 AD, with Italy in red and provinces in pinkCapitalRome: full-fledged until Diocletianic times, from then on mostly only de jure. Mediolanum and Ravenna: Imperial residences; de facto capital in the Late Empire (of the whole Empire or only the Western part)Common languagesLatinReligion Roman polytheism, followed by Nicene- Chalcedonian ChristianityGovernmentMixed constitutionLegislatureSenate and People of RomeHistorical eraClassical Antiquity, Late AntiquityPopulation• AD 1 Estimates vary from 4 to 10 million (c.1 million in Rome) ISO 3166 codeIT Preceded by Succeeded by Archaic Italy Kingdom of Italy under Odoacer Part of a series on the History of Italy Early Prehistoric Italy Nuragic civilization (18th–3rd c. BC) Etruscan civilization (12th–6th c. BC) Magna Graecia (8th–3rd c. BC) Ancient Rome Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC) Republic (509 BC–27 BC) Roman expansion in Italy Roman Italy Populares and Optimates Empire (27 BC–286 AD) Western Empire (286 AD–476 AD) Praetorian prefecture of Italy Romano-Barbarian Kingdoms Odoacer's 476–493 Ostrogothic 493–553 Vandal 435–534 Lombard (independence) 565–774 Lombard (under the Frankish rule) 774–885 Frankish (as part of the Carolingian Empire) 885–961 Germanic (as part of the Holy Roman Empire) 961–1801 Medieval Italy in the Middle Ages Byzantine reconquest of Italy (6th–8th c.) Islam and Normans in southern Italy Maritime republics and Italian city-states Guelphs and Ghibellines Early modern Italian Renaissance (14th–16th c.) Italian Wars (1494–1559) Catholic revival (1545–1648) Mid-16th c. to early 19th c. Napoleonic Italy (1801–1814) Republic Kingdom Risorgimento (1815–1871) Young Italy Modern Monarchy (1861–1946) Colonial Empire (1882–1960) Italy in World War I (1914–1918) Fascism (1922–1943) Italy in World War II (1940–1945) Fascist Italian Social Republic, Partisans and Italian Civil War (1943–1945) Republic (1946–present) Years of Lead (1970s–1980s) Maxi Trial (1986–1992) Mani pulite (1992–2001) Great Recession (2007–2009) European migrant crisis (2014–2016) COVID-19 pandemic (2020–present) By topic Citizenship Currency and coinage Economy Fashion Flags Genetic Historic states Judaism LGBT Military Music Name Postage Railway Timeline Italy portalvte Italia (in both the Latin and Italian languages), also referred to as Roman Italy, was the homeland of the ancient Romans. According to Roman mythology, Italy was the ancestral home promised by Jupiter to Aeneas of Troy and his descendants, Romulus and Remus, who were the founders of Rome. Aside from the legendary accounts, Rome was an Italic city-state that changed its form of government from Kingdom to Republic and then grew within the context of a peninsula dominated by the Gauls, Ligures, Veneti, Camunni and Histri in the North, the Etruscans, Latins, Falisci, Picentes and Umbri tribes (such as the Sabines) in the Centre, and the Iapygian tribes (such as the Messapians), the Oscan tribes (such as the Samnites) and Greek colonies in the South. The consolidation of Italy into a single entity occurred during the Roman expansion in the peninsula, when Rome formed a permanent association with most of the local tribes and cities. The strength of the Italian confederacy was a crucial factor in the rise of Rome, starting with the Punic and Macedonian wars between the 3rd and 2nd century BC. As Roman provinces were being established throughout the Mediterranean, Italy maintained a special status which made it domina provinciarum ("ruler of the provinces"), and – especially in relation to the first centuries of imperial stability – rectrix mundi ("governor of the world") and omnium terrarum parens ("parent of all lands"). Such a status meant that, within Italy in times of peace, Roman magistrates also exercised the imperium domi (police power) as an alternative to the imperium militiae (military power). Italy's inhabitants had Latin Rights as well as religious and financial privileges. The period between the end of the 2nd century BC and the 1st century BC was turbulent, beginning with the Servile Wars, continuing with the opposition of aristocratic élite to populist reformers and leading to a Social War in the middle of Italy. However, Roman citizenship was recognized to the rest of the Italians by the end of the conflict and then extended to Cisalpine Gaul when Julius Caesar became Roman dictator. In the context of the transition from Republic to Principate, Italy swore allegiance to Octavian Augustus and was then organized in eleven regions from the Alps to the Ionian Sea with more than two centuries of stability afterward. Several emperors made notable accomplishments in this period: Claudius incorporated Britain into the Roman Empire, Vespasian subjugated the Great Revolt of Judea and reformed the financial system, Trajan conquered Dacia and defeated Parthia, and Marcus Aurelius epitomized the ideal of the philosopher king. The Crisis of the Third Century hit Italy particularly hard, but the Roman empire managed to survive and reconquer breakaway regions. In 286 AD, the Emperor Diocletian moved the imperial residence associated with the western provinces (the later Western Roman Empire) from Rome to Mediolanum. Meanwhile, the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Malta were added to Italy by Diocletian in 292 AD, and Italian cities such as Mediolanum and Ravenna continued to serve as de facto capitals for the West. The Bishop of Rome had gained importance gradually from the reign of Constantine, and was given religious primacy with the Edict of Thessalonica under Theodosius I. Italy was invaded several times by the wandering Germanic peoples and fell under the control of Odoacer, when Romulus Augustus was deposed in 476 AD. Since then, no single authority was established in Italy as a whole except for a brief Period when the Byzantine Empire reconquered Italy. Even the modern Republic of Italy only consists of most of Italian region, excluding Corsica and some other areas. Characteristics Northern and southern section of Italia under Augustus and successors Following the end of the Social War in 87 BC, Rome had allowed its fellow Italian allies full rights in Roman society and granted Roman citizenship to all fellow Italic peoples. After having been for centuries the heart of the Roman Empire, from the 3rd century the government and the cultural center began to move eastward: first the Edict of Caracalla in 212 AD, extended Roman citizenship to all free men within the Imperial boundaries. Christianity then began to establish itself as the dominant religion from Constantine's reign (306–337), raising the power of Eastern metropolises, later grouped into Pentarchy. Although not founded as a capital city in 330, Constantinople grew in importance. It finally gained the rank of eastern capital when given an praefectus urbi in 359 and the senators who were clari became senators of the lowest rank as clarissimi. As a result, Italy began to decline in favour of the provinces, which resulted in the division of the Empire into two administrative units in 395: the Western Roman Empire, with its capital at Mediolanum (now Milan), and the Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital at Constantinople (now Istanbul). In 402, the Imperial residence was moved to Ravenna from Milan, confirming the decline of the city of Rome (which was sacked in 410 for the first time in almost eight centuries). History The name Italia covered an area whose borders evolved over time. According to Strabo's Geographica, before the expansion of the Roman Republic, the name was used by Greeks to indicate the land between the strait of Messina and the line connecting the gulf of Salerno and gulf of Taranto (corresponding roughly to the current region of Calabria); later the term was extended by Romans to include the Italian Peninsula up to the Rubicon, a river located between Northern and Central Italy. In 49 BC, with the Lex Roscia, Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to the people of the Cisalpine Gaul; while in 42 BC the hitherto existing province was abolished, thus extending Italy to the north up to the southern foot of the Alps. Under Augustus, the peoples of today's Aosta Valley and of the western and northern Alps were subjugated (so the western border of Roman Italy was moved to the Varus river), and the Italian eastern border was brought to the Arsia in Istria. Lastly, in the late 3rd century, Italy came to also include the islands of Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia, as well as Raetia and part of Pannonia. The city of Emona (modern Ljubljana, Slovenia) was the easternmost town of Italy. Augustan organization At the beginning of the Roman Imperial era, Italy was a collection of territories with different political statuses. Some cities, called municipia, had some independence from Rome, while others, the coloniae, were founded by the Romans themselves. Around 7 BC, Augustus divided Italy into eleven regiones, as reported by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia: Roman Italia (in green) as organized by Augustus The Tropaeum Alpium The Victory Monument of the Alps, La Turbie, France, marked the Augustan border between Italy and Gaul Regio I Latium et Campania Regio II Apulia et Calabria Regio III Lucania et Bruttium Regio IV Samnium Regio V Picenum Regio VI Umbria et Ager Gallicus Regio VII Etruria Regio VIII Aemilia Regio IX Liguria Regio X Venetia et Histria Regio XI Transpadana Italy was privileged by Augustus and his heirs, with the construction, among other public structures, of a dense network of Roman roads. The Italian economy flourished: agriculture, handicraft and industry had a sensible growth, allowing the export of goods to the provinces. The Italian population may have grown as well: three census were ordered by Augustus, also assuming role of Roman censor, in order to record the number of Roman citizens throughout the empire. The surviving totals were 4,063,000 in 28 BC, 4,233,000 in 8 BC, and 4,937,000 in AD 14, but it is still debated whether these counted all citizens, all adult male citizens, or citizens sui iuris. Estimates for the population of mainland Italy, including Cisalpine Gaul, at the beginning of the 1st century range from 6,000,000 according to Karl Julius Beloch in 1886, to 14,000,000 according to Elio Lo Cascio in 2009. Diocletianic and Constantinian re-organizations During the Crisis of the Third Century the Roman Empire was on the verge of disintegration under the combined pressures of invasions, military anarchy and civil wars, and hyperinflation. In 284, Emperor Diocletian restored political stability. He carried out thorough administrative reforms to maintain order. He created the so-called Tetrarchy whereby the empire was ruled by two senior emperors called Augusti and two junior vice-emperors called Caesars. He decreased the size of the Roman provinces by doubling their number to reduce the power of the provincial governors. He grouped the provinces into several dioceses (Latin: diocesis) and put them under the supervision of the Imperial vicarius (vice, deputy), who was the head of the diocese. During the Crisis of the Third Century the importance of Rome declined because the city was far from the troubled frontiers. Diocletian and his colleagues usually resided in four Imperial seats. The Augusti, Diocletian and Maximian, who were responsible for the East and West respectively, established themselves at Nicomedia, in north-western Anatolia (closer to the Persian frontier in the east) and Milan, in northern Italy (closer to the European frontiers) respectively. The seats of the Caesars were Augusta Treverorum (on the River Rhine frontier) for Constantius Chlorus and Sirmium (on the River Danube frontier) for Galerius who also resided at Thessaloniki. Under Diocletian Italy became the Dioecesis Italiciana. It included Raetia. It was subdivided the following provinces: Liguria (today's Liguria and western Piedmont) Transpadana (eastern Piedmont and Lombardy) Rhaetia (eastern Switzerland, western and central Austria, part of southern Germany, and part of northeastern Italy) Venetia et Histria (today's Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Trentino-Alto Adige and Istria county) Aemilia (Emilia-Romagna) Tuscia (Etruria) et Umbria (Tuscany and Umbria) Flaminia (Picenum and the former Ager Gallicus, in today's Marche) Latium et Campania (the coastal parts of Lazio and Campania) Samnium (Abruzzo, Molise and Irpinia) Apulia et Calabria (today's Apulia) Lucania et Bruttium (Basilicata and Calabria) Sicilia (Sicily and Malta) Corsica et Sardinia Italia annonaria and Italia suburbicaria dioceses Constantine subdivided the Empire into four praetorian prefectures. The Diocesis Italiciana became the Praetorian prefecture of Italy (praefectura praetoria Italiae), and was subdivided into two dioceses. It still included Raetia. The two dioceses and their provinces were: Diocesis Italia annonaria (Italy of the annona - its inhabitants had the obligation to provide the court, the administration and the troops, first allocated in Milan and then in Ravenna, supplies, wine and timber) Alpes Cottiae (modern Liguria and western part of Piedmont) Liguria (western Lombardy and eastern part of Piedmont) Venetia et Histria (Istria , Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trentino-Alto Adige, Veneto and eastern and central Lombardy) Raetia I (eastern Switzerland and western Austria) Rhaetia II (central Austria, part of southern Germany, and part of northeastern Italy) Aemilia (the Emilia part of Emilia-Romagna) Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium (Romagna and northern Marche) Diocesis Italia suburbicaria (Italy "under the government of the urbs", i.e. Rome) Tuscia (Etruria) et Umbria (Tuscany, Umbria and the northern part of coastal Lazio) Picenum suburbicarium (Piceno, in southern Marche) Valeria Sabina (the modern province of Rieti, other areas of Lazio and areas of Umbria and Abruzzo) Campania (central and southern coastal Lazio and coastal Campania except for the modern province of Salerno) Samnium (Abruzzo, Molise and the mountain areas of modern Campania; i.e., the modern provinces of Benevento and Avellino and part of the province of Caserta) Apulia et Calabria (today's Apulia) Lucania et Bruttium (modern Calabria, Basilicata and the province of Salerno in modern Campania) Sicilia (Sicily and Malta) Sardinia Corsica Late Antiquity In 330, Constantine completed the rebuilding of Byzantium as Constantinople. He established the Imperial court, a Senate, financial and judicial administrations, as well as the military structures. The new city, however, did not receive an urban prefect until 359 which raised it to the status of eastern capital. After the death of Theodosius in 395 and the subsequent division of the Empire, Italy was home base of the Western Roman Empire. As a result of Alaric's invasion in 402 the western seat was moved from Mediolanum to Ravenna. Alaric, king of Visigoths, sacked Rome itself in 410; something that had not happened for eight centuries. Northern Italy was attacked by Attila's Huns in 452. Rome was sacked in 455 again by the Vandals under the command of Genseric. The Praetorian prefecture of Italy (in yellow) stretched from the Danube river to North Africa According to Notitia Dignitatum, one of the very few surviving documents of Roman government updated to the 420s, Roman Italy was governed by a praetorian prefect, Prefectus praetorio Italiae (who also governed the Diocese of Africa and the Diocese of Pannonia), one vicarius, and one comes rei militaris. The regions of Italy were governed at the end of the fourth century by eight consulares (Venetiae et Histriae, Aemiliae, Liguriae, Flaminiae et Piceni annonarii, Tusciae et Umbriae, Piceni suburbicarii, Campaniae, and Siciliae), two correctores (Apuliae et Calabriae and Lucaniae et Bruttiorum) and seven praesides (Alpium Cottiarum, Rhaetia Prima and Secunda, Samnii, Valeriae, Sardiniae, and Corsicae). In the fifth century, with the Emperors controlled by their barbarian generals, the Western Imperial government maintained weak control over Italy itself, whose coasts were periodically under attack. In 476, with the abdication of Romulus Augustulus, the Western Roman Empire had formally fallen unless one considers Julius Nepos, the legitimate emperor recognized by Constantinople as the last. He was assassinated in 480 and may have been recognized by Odoacer. Italy remained under Odoacer and his Kingdom of Italy, and then under the Ostrogothic Kingdom. The Germanic successor states under Odoacer and Theodoric the Great continued to use the Roman administrative apparatus, as well as being nominal subjects of the Eastern emperor at Constantinople. In 535 Roman Emperor Justinian invaded Italy which suffered twenty years of disastrous war. In August 554, Justinian issued a Pragmatic sanction which maintained most of the organization of Diocletian. The "Prefecture of Italy" thus survived, and was reestablished under Roman control in the course of Justinian's Gothic War. As a result of the Lombard invasion in 568, the Byzantines lost most of Italy, except the territories of the Exarchate of Ravenna – a corridor from Venice to Lazio via Perugia – and footholds in the south Naples and the toe and heel of the peninsula. References ^ Journal of Roman Archaeology, Volume 18, Part 1 ^ Ligt, Luuk de; Northwood, S. J. (2008). People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy 300 BC-AD 14. ISBN 978-9004171183. ^ Dyson, Stephen L. (14 July 2014). The Creation of the Roman Frontier. ISBN 9781400854899. ^ Hannibal's war, by J. F. Lazenby ^ Bleicken, Jochen (15 October 2015). Augustus: The Biography. ISBN 9780241003909. ^ Rogers, Lester Burton; Adams, Fay; Brown, Walker (1956). "Story of Nations". ^ Mommsen, Theodor (1855). History of Rome, Book II: From the Abolition of the Monarchy in Rome to the Union of Italy. Leipzig: Reimer & Hirsel. ^ A. Fear; P. Liddel, eds. (2010). "The Glory of Italy and Rome's Universal Destiny in Strabo's Geographika". Historiae Mundi. Studies in Universal History. London: Duckworth. pp. 87–101. Retrieved 20 November 2021. ^ Keaveney, Arthur (January 1987). Arthur Keaveney: Rome and the Unification of Italy. ISBN 9780709931218. Retrieved 20 November 2021. ^ Billanovich, Giuseppe (2008). Libreria Universitaria Hoepli, Lezioni di filologia, Giuseppe Billanovich e Roberto Pesce: Corpus Iuris Civilis, Italia non erat provincia, sed domina provinciarum, Feltrinelli, p.363 (in Italian). ISBN 9788896543092. Retrieved 20 November 2021. ^ Bleicken, Jochen (15 October 2015). Italy: the absolute center of the Republic and the Roman Empire. ISBN 9780241003909. Retrieved 20 November 2021. ^ Morcillo, Martha García (2010). "The Roman Italy: Rectrix Mundi and Omnium Terrarum Parens". In A. Fear; P. Liddel (eds.). Historiae Mundi. Studies in Universal History. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 9781472519801. Retrieved 20 November 2021. ^ Altri nomi e appellativi relazionati allo status dell'Italia in epoca romana (in Italian). Bloomsbury. 20 November 2013. ISBN 9781472519801. Retrieved 20 November 2021. ^ "Antico appellativo dell'Italia romana: Italia Omnium Terrarum Parens" (in Italian). Retrieved 20 November 2021. ^ Video of Roman Milan (in Italian) ^ Keaveney, Arthur (1987). Rome and the Unification of Italy. London: Croom Helm. ISBN 9781904675372. ^ Cassius, Dio. Historia Romana. Vol. 41. 36. ^ Laffi, Umberto (1992). "La provincia della Gallia Cisalpina". Athenaeum (in Italian) (80). Firenze: 5–23. ^ a b Aurigemma, Salvatore. "Gallia Cisalpina". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Enciclopedia Italiana. Retrieved 14 October 2014. ^ "Italy (ancient Roman territory)". britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 10 November 2013. ^ Rostovtzeff, Michael (1957). The social and economic history of the Roman Empire. Vol. 1 (2 ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 73–74. ^ Hin, Saskia (2007). Counting Romans (PDF). Leiden: Princeton/Stanford Working Papers. ^ Lo Cascio, Elio (2009). Urbanization as a Proxy of Demographic and Economic Growth. Oxford: Scholarship Online. ISBN 9780199562596. ^ Salvatore Cosentino (2008). Storia dell'Italia bizantina (VI-XI secolo): da Giustiniano ai Normanni (in Italian). Bononia University Press. p. 19. ISBN 9788873953609. Further reading Potter, Timothy W. (1990). Roman Italy. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06975-7. Salmon, Edward T. (1982). The Making of Roman Italy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801414381. Whatmough, Joshua (1937). The Foundations of Roman Italy. London: Methuen & Company. ISBN 9780598820341. Lomas, Kathryn (1996). Roman Italy, 338 BC-AD 200. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-16072-2. Launaro, Alessandro (2011). Peasants and Slaves: The Rural Population of Roman Italy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107004795. Hin, Saskia (2013). The Demography of Roman Italy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00393-4. Clarke, John R. (1991). The Houses of Roman Italy, 100 BC-AD 250. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07267-7. Laurence, Ray (2002). The Roads of Roman Italy: Mobility and Cultural Change. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16616-0. External links (in Italian) Geographical regions in Roman history: Italy vteItaly articlesHistoryOverview Timeline of Italian history By topic Citizenship Currency and coinage Economy Fashion Flags Genetic Historic states Judaism LGBT Military Music Name Postage Railways Prehistory Prehistory Neolithic Villanovan Terramare Rinaldone Apennine Nuragic Golasecca Canegrate Latial Ancient Ancient peoples Italic peoples Latins Osci Picentes Samnites Umbri Veneti Etruscans Celts Magna Graecia Ligures Messapians Ancient Rome Kingdom Republic Roman conquest Roman Italy Empire Western Empire Middle Ages Middle Ages Italy under Odoacer Ostrogoths Byzantium Lombards Papal States the Holy Roman Empire the Sardinian Judicates Arabs Normans Guelphs and Ghibellines Lombard League Kingdom of Sicily War of the Sicilian Vespers Kingdom of Naples Early modern Italian city-states Florence Siena Milan Maritime republics Venice Genoa Pisa Amalfi Kingdom of Sardinia Grand Duchy of Tuscany Duchy of Savoy Renaissance Italian Wars Early Modern period Napoleonic Italy Austrian occupation and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia Kingdom of the Two Sicilies Late modern Unification First War of Independence Second War of Independence Niçard exodus Expedition of the Thousand Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy Third War of Independence Capture of Rome Monarchy and the World Wars Kingdom of Italy Colonial Empire World War I Fourth War of Independence Fascist Italy World War II Resistance and Social Republic Civil War Contemporary Republic Institutional referendum Istrian–Dalmatian exodus Economic Boom Years of Lead Maxi Trial Mani pulite Coronavirus pandemic Geography Italian geographical region Peninsula Climate Climate change Geology Fauna Flora Mountains Prealps Alps Apennines Volcanism Volcanoes Beaches Canals Caves Earthquakes Islands Lakes Marine protected areas National parks Regional parks Rivers Valleys SubdivisionsCentral Lazio Marche Tuscany Umbria Northern ItalyNortheast Emilia-Romagna Friuli-Venezia Giulia Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Veneto Northwest Aosta Valley Liguria Lombardy Piedmont Southern ItalySouth Abruzzo Apulia Basilicata Calabria Campania Molise Insular Sardinia Sicily Politics Constitution Elections Foreign relations Government Human rights LGBT rights Judiciary Law Law enforcement Military Nationality Parliament Political parties President (List) Prime Minister (List) Council of Ministers Regions Provinces Metropolitan cities Cities Comune Municipalities Security and intelligence Economy Economy Italian regions by GDP Agriculture Automotive industry Banking Banks Central Bank Brands Companies Energy Exports Science and technology Stock exchange Taxation Telecommunications Tourism Trade unions Transport air rail road Welfare Wine Society Aristocracy Censorship Corruption Crime Demographics Education Emigration and diaspora Gambling Health Healthcare Immigration Inventions and discoveries Italians People Languages Italian Regional Life expectancy Orders, decorations, and medals Poverty Prostitution Public administration Racism Religion Social class Terrorism Water supply and sanitation Women Culture Duecento Trecento Quattrocento Cinquecento Seicento Settecento Ottocento Anthem Architecture Art Castles Cathedrals Cinema Coat of arm Cuisine Design Fashion Flag Folklore Gardens Internet Italophilia Libraries Literature Media Museums Music Mythology National symbols Palaces Philosophy Public holidays Sport Television Theatre Traditions World Heritage Sites  Italy portal Category vteProvinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD) Achaia Aegyptus Africa proconsularis Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Graiae et Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia and Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete and Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Lusitania Hispania Tarraconensis Italia † Iudaea Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia † Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until Diocletian's reforms. vteLate Roman and early Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD)HistoryAs found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century.Western Roman Empire (395–476)Praetorian prefectureof GaulDiocese of Gaul Alpes Poeninae et Graiae Belgica I Belgica II Germania I Germania II Lugdunensis I Lugdunensis II Lugdunensis III Lugdunensis IV Maxima Sequanorum Diocese of Vienne1 Alpes Maritimae Aquitanica I Aquitanica II Narbonensis I Narbonensis II Novempopulania Viennensis Diocese of Spain Baetica Balearica Carthaginensis Gallaecia Lusitania Mauretania Tingitana Tarraconensis Diocese of the Britains Britannia I Britannia II Flavia Caesariensis Maxima Caesariensis Valentia (?) Praetorian prefectureof ItalyDiocese of Suburbicarian Italy Apulia et Calabria Campania Corsica Lucania et Bruttium Picenum Suburbicarium Samnium Sardinia Sicilia Tuscia et Umbria Valeria Diocese of Annonarian Italy Alpes Cottiae Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium Liguria et Aemilia Raetia I Raetia II Venetia et Histria Diocese of Africa2 Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana) Byzacena Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Sitifensis Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy) Tripolitania (Roman province) Eastern Roman Empire (395–c. 640)Praetorian prefectureof IllyricumDiocese of Pannonia3 Dalmatia Noricum mediterraneum Noricum ripense Pannonia I Pannonia II Savia Valeria ripensis Diocese of Dacia Dacia Mediterranea Dacia Ripensis Dardania Moesia I Praevalitana Diocese of Macedonia Achaea Creta Epirus Nova Epirus Vetus Macedonia Prima Macedonia II Salutaris Thessalia Praetorian prefectureof the EastDiocese of Thrace5 Europa Haemimontus Moesia II4 Rhodope Scythia4 Thracia Diocese of Asia5 Asia Caria4 Hellespontus Islands4 Lycaonia (370) Lycia Lydia Pamphylia Pisidia Phrygia Pacatiana Phrygia Salutaris Diocese of Pontus5 Armenia I5 Armenia II5 Armenia Maior5 Armenian Satrapies5 Armenia III (536) Armenia IV (536) Bithynia Cappadocia I5 Cappadocia II5 Galatia I5 Galatia II Salutaris5 Helenopontus5 Honorias5 Paphlagonia5 Pontus Polemoniacus5 Diocese of the East5 Arabia Cilicia I Cilicia II Cyprus4 Euphratensis Isauria Mesopotamia Osroene Palaestina I Palaestina II Palaestina III Salutaris Phoenice I Phoenice II Libanensis Syria I Syria II Salutaris Theodorias (528) Diocese of Egypt5 Aegyptus I Aegyptus II Arcadia Augustamnica I Augustamnica II Libya Superior Libya Inferior Thebais Superior Thebais Inferior Other territories Taurica Quaestura exercitus (536) Spania (552) 1 Later the Septem Provinciae 2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa 3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum 4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536 5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536 vteList of historic states of ItalyPre-Roman period Etruscan civilization Etruria Samnites Latins Osci Celts Cisalpine Gaul Veneti Ligures Nuragic civilization Umbri Magna Graecia Iapygians Picentes Ancient Rome Roman Kingdom (753 BC–509 BC) Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) Roman Empire (27 BC–395 AD) Western Roman Empire (395–476 AD) MedievalandEarly ModernstatesBarbarian kingdoms(476–774) Odoacer's rule (476–493) Ostrogothic rule (493–553) Vandal rule (435–534) Lombard rule (568–774) Duchy of Benevento Duchy of Friuli Duchy of Ivrea Duchy of Spoleto Duchy of Tridentum Duchy of Tuscia Byzantine Empire (584–751) Exarchate of Ravenna (584–751) Duchy of Rome (533–751) Duchy of Perugia (554–752) Duchy of the Pentapolis (554–752) Exarchate of Africa (585–698) Papal States(754–1870) Patrimony of Saint Peter Campagna e Marittima Province Holy See Duchy of Castro Duchy of Ferrara Duchy of Parma and Piacenza Duchy of Urbino Holy Roman Empireand otherindependentstates Bishopric of Bressanone Corsican Republic City of Fiume and its District County of Gorizia Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca County of Guastalla County of Santa Fiora Duchy of Guastalla Kingdom of Italy Ancona Ceva Finale March of Friuli Patria del Friuli (Patriarchate of Aquileia) Ivrea Istria Mantua Milan March of Montferrat Duchy of Montferrat Trieste Turin Tuscany Verona Duchy of Ivrea Duchy of Mantua Duchy of Massa and Carrara Duchy of Merania Duchy of Mirandola Duchy of Modena and Reggio Principality of Piombino Duchy of Reggio Marquisate of Saluzzo Duchy of Spoleto Bishopric of Tarantasia Prince-Bishopric of Trento Grand Duchy of Tuscany Savoyard state Savoy County of Savoy Piedmont Duchy of Aosta County of Nice County of Tenda Republic of Venice(697–1797) Dogado Domini di Terraferma Stato da Màr Other Republics(c. 1000–1797) Republic of Cospaia Republic of Florence Republic of Lucca Republic of Massa Republic of Siena Republic of Genoa Republic of Noli Republic of Pisa Republic of Ancona Southern Italy(774–1139)Byzantine Duchy of Amalfi Duchy of Gaeta Catepanate of Italy Longobardia Theme of Lucania Duchy of Naples Theme of Sicily and Byzantine Sicily Duchy of Sorrento Arab Emirate of Bari Muslim Sicily Lombard Principality of Benevento Principality of Salerno Principality of Capua Norman County of Apulia and Calabria County of Aversa County of Sicily Principality of Taranto Sardinia (from the 9th century) Judicates Agugliastra Arborea Cagliari Gallura Logudoro Oristano Republic of Sassari Kingdom of Sardinia (1324–1861) Kingdom of Sicily(1130–1816) andKingdom of Naples(1282–1816) State of the Presidi Duke of San Donato Duchy of Sora Principality of Taranto Terra Sancti Benedicti Neapolitan Republic (1647–1648) Hospitaller Malta Gozo Malta Protectorate Crown Colony of Malta French Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras(1792–1815)Republics Cisalpinia Cispadania Italy Liguria Lucca Parthenopea Piedmont Rome Subalpinia Transpadania Monarchies Benevento Etruria Guastalla Italy Lucca and Piombino Massa and Carrara Naples Pontecorvo Tuscany Elba Corsica Post-Napoleonicstates Duchy of Genoa (1815–1848) Duchy of Lucca (1815–1847) Duchy of Massa and Carrara (1814–1829) Duchy of Modena and Reggio (1814–1859) Duchy of Parma and Piacenza (1814–1859) Grand Duchy of Tuscany (1815–1859) Italian United Provinces (1831) Provisional Government of Milan (1848) Republic of San Marco (1848–1849) Roman Republic (1849–1850) United Provinces of Central Italy (1859–1860) Kingdom of Sardinia (1814–1860) Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (1816–1861) Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (1815–1866) Papal States (1814–1870) Post-unification Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) Italian Empire (1882–1960) Free State of Fiume (1920–1924) Italian Social Republic (1943–1945) Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954) vteHistory of the Roman and Byzantine Empire in modern territories Albania (Classical - Medieval) Algeria Armenia (Classical - Late Antique) Azerbaijan Austria Balkans Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria (Classical - High Medieval) Britain (England) Crimea (Classical - Medieval) Croatia Cyprus (Classical - Medieval) Egypt (Classical ~ Late Antique) France (Corsica (Classical - Early Medieval)) Georgia Germany Greece (Classical - Medieval) (Crete (Classical - Medieval)) Hungary Israel (Classical ~ Late Antique) Italy (Classical - Medieval) (Sicily (Classical - Medieval), Sardinia (Classical - Early Medieval)) Lebanon (Classical ~ Late Antique) Libya Liechtenstein Luxembourg Malta Macedonia Monaco Montenegro Morocco The Netherlands North Africa Palestine (Classical ~ Late Antique) Portugal Romania Scotland Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain (Classical - Late Antique) Switzerland Syria (Classical ~ Late Antique) Tunisia (Roman Carthage) Turkey (Classical - Medieval) (Thrace (Classical - Medieval)) Wales vteClassical antiquity by regionEuropa Graecia Italia Gallia Dacia Thracia Illyria Hispania Britannia Germania Asia Scythia Anatolia Levant (Greater Syria) Arabia Africa Libya Aegyptus Carthage Igbo-Ukwu vte CampaniaProvinces Avellino Benevento Caserta Naples Salerno Places Amalfi Coast Cilento Irpinia Islands Samnium Sorrentine Peninsula Terra di Lavoro Vallo di Diano Cities, towns and villages List of communes History Kingdom of Naples Monarchs Viceroys Two Sicilies Magna Graecia Samnite Wars Italia province Duchy of Naples Duchy of Benevento Principality of Capua Principality of Salerno Duchy of Amalfi Duchy of Sorrento Duchy of Apulia and Calabria Ancient Campania Politics andgovernment Elections in Campania List of presidents of Campania Culture Demographics Geography Music Flag Coat of arms Categories 42°00′00″N 12°30′00″E / 42.0000°N 12.5000°E / 42.0000; 12.5000

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expansion in the peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy"},{"link_name":"permanent association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socii"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"rise of Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_of_Rome"},{"link_name":"Punic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punic_wars"},{"link_name":"Macedonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonian_wars"},{"link_name":"Roman provinces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_provinces"},{"link_name":"domina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominus_(title)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-books.google.it-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"first centuries of imperial stability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pax_Romana"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"imperium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium"},{"link_name":"Latin Rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Rights"},{"link_name":"turbulent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Servile Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servile_Wars"},{"link_name":"aristocratic élite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimates"},{"link_name":"populist reformers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populares"},{"link_name":"Social War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9388_BC)"},{"link_name":"Roman citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_citizenship"},{"link_name":"Cisalpine Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul"},{"link_name":"Julius Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar"},{"link_name":"Roman dictator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_dictator"},{"link_name":"from Republic to Principate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Augustus"},{"link_name":"Octavian Augustus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octavian_Augustus"},{"link_name":"Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alps"},{"link_name":"Ionian Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionian_Sea"},{"link_name":"two centuries of stability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pax_Romana"},{"link_name":"Claudius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius"},{"link_name":"Vespasian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespasian"},{"link_name":"Great Revolt of Judea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Revolt_of_Judea"},{"link_name":"Trajan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan"},{"link_name":"Dacia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dacia"},{"link_name":"Parthia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia"},{"link_name":"Marcus Aurelius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius"},{"link_name":"philosopher king","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosopher_king"},{"link_name":"Crisis of the Third Century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century"},{"link_name":"Diocletian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian"},{"link_name":"Western Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Mediolanum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediolanum"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Corsica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Corsica"},{"link_name":"Sardinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Sardinia"},{"link_name":"Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Sicily"},{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta"},{"link_name":"Diocletian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian"},{"link_name":"Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Bishop of Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Rome"},{"link_name":"Constantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Edict of Thessalonica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edict_of_Thessalonica"},{"link_name":"Theodosius I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_I"},{"link_name":"wandering Germanic peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_Period"},{"link_name":"Odoacer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoacer"},{"link_name":"Romulus Augustus was deposed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposition_of_Romulus_Augustus"},{"link_name":"Republic of Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"Italian region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy_(geographical_region)"}],"text":"Italy during the Ancient Rome eraItalia (in both the Latin and Italian languages), also referred to as Roman Italy, was the homeland of the ancient Romans.[3][4][5][6] According to Roman mythology, Italy was the ancestral home promised by Jupiter to Aeneas of Troy and his descendants, Romulus and Remus, who were the founders of Rome. Aside from the legendary accounts, Rome was an Italic city-state that changed its form of government from Kingdom to Republic and then grew within the context of a peninsula dominated by the Gauls, Ligures, Veneti, Camunni and Histri in the North, the Etruscans, Latins, Falisci, Picentes and Umbri tribes (such as the Sabines) in the Centre, and the Iapygian tribes (such as the Messapians), the Oscan tribes (such as the Samnites) and Greek colonies in the South.The consolidation of Italy into a single entity occurred during the Roman expansion in the peninsula, when Rome formed a permanent association with most of the local tribes and cities.[7] The strength of the Italian confederacy was a crucial factor in the rise of Rome, starting with the Punic and Macedonian wars between the 3rd and 2nd century BC. As Roman provinces were being established throughout the Mediterranean, Italy maintained a special status which made it domina provinciarum (\"ruler of the provinces\"),[8][9][10] and – especially in relation to the first centuries of imperial stability – rectrix mundi (\"governor of the world\")[11][12] and omnium terrarum parens (\"parent of all lands\").[13][14] Such a status meant that, within Italy in times of peace, Roman magistrates also exercised the imperium domi (police power) as an alternative to the imperium militiae (military power). Italy's inhabitants had Latin Rights as well as religious and financial privileges.The period between the end of the 2nd century BC and the 1st century BC was turbulent, beginning with the Servile Wars, continuing with the opposition of aristocratic élite to populist reformers and leading to a Social War in the middle of Italy. However, Roman citizenship was recognized to the rest of the Italians by the end of the conflict and then extended to Cisalpine Gaul when Julius Caesar became Roman dictator. In the context of the transition from Republic to Principate, Italy swore allegiance to Octavian Augustus and was then organized in eleven regions from the Alps to the Ionian Sea with more than two centuries of stability afterward. Several emperors made notable accomplishments in this period: Claudius incorporated Britain into the Roman Empire, Vespasian subjugated the Great Revolt of Judea and reformed the financial system, Trajan conquered Dacia and defeated Parthia, and Marcus Aurelius epitomized the ideal of the philosopher king.The Crisis of the Third Century hit Italy particularly hard, but the Roman empire managed to survive and reconquer breakaway regions. In 286 AD, the Emperor Diocletian moved the imperial residence associated with the western provinces (the later Western Roman Empire) from Rome to Mediolanum.[15] Meanwhile, the islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Malta were added to Italy by Diocletian in 292 AD, and Italian cities such as Mediolanum and Ravenna continued to serve as de facto capitals for the West. The Bishop of Rome had gained importance gradually from the reign of Constantine, and was given religious primacy with the Edict of Thessalonica under Theodosius I. Italy was invaded several times by the wandering Germanic peoples and fell under the control of Odoacer, when Romulus Augustus was deposed in 476 AD. Since then, no single authority was established in Italy as a whole except for a brief Period when the Byzantine Empire reconquered Italy. Even the modern Republic of Italy only consists of most of Italian region, excluding Corsica and some other areas.","title":"Roman Italy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shepherd_Map_of_Ancient_Italy,_Northern_Part.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shepherd-c-030-031.jpg"},{"link_name":"Social War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9387_BC)"},{"link_name":"its fellow Italian allies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socii"},{"link_name":"Roman citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_citizenship"},{"link_name":"Italic peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_peoples"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Edict of Caracalla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutio_Antoniniana"},{"link_name":"Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"Constantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Pentarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentarchy"},{"link_name":"Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople"},{"link_name":"praefectus urbi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praefectus_urbi"},{"link_name":"senators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_the_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"clarissimi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarissimus"},{"link_name":"Western Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Mediolanum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediolanum"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan"},{"link_name":"Eastern Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Istanbul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul"},{"link_name":"Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna"},{"link_name":"sacked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(410)"}],"text":"Northern and southern section of Italia under Augustus and successorsFollowing the end of the Social War in 87 BC, Rome had allowed its fellow Italian allies full rights in Roman society and granted Roman citizenship to all fellow Italic peoples.[16] After having been for centuries the heart of the Roman Empire, from the 3rd century the government and the cultural center began to move eastward: first the Edict of Caracalla in 212 AD, extended Roman citizenship to all free men within the Imperial boundaries. Christianity then began to establish itself as the dominant religion from Constantine's reign (306–337), raising the power of Eastern metropolises, later grouped into Pentarchy.Although not founded as a capital city in 330, Constantinople grew in importance. It finally gained the rank of eastern capital when given an praefectus urbi in 359 and the senators who were clari became senators of the lowest rank as clarissimi. As a result, Italy began to decline in favour of the provinces, which resulted in the division of the Empire into two administrative units in 395: the Western Roman Empire, with its capital at Mediolanum (now Milan), and the Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital at Constantinople (now Istanbul). In 402, the Imperial residence was moved to Ravenna from Milan, confirming the decline of the city of Rome (which was sacked in 410 for the first time in almost eight centuries).","title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Strabo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo"},{"link_name":"Geographica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographica"},{"link_name":"Roman Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"strait of Messina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Messina"},{"link_name":"gulf of Salerno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Salerno"},{"link_name":"gulf of Taranto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Taranto"},{"link_name":"Calabria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabria"},{"link_name":"Italian Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Rubicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubicon"},{"link_name":"Northern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Italy"},{"link_name":"Central Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Italy"},{"link_name":"Lex Roscia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lex_Roscia"},{"link_name":"Julius Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar"},{"link_name":"Cisalpine Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alps"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-au-19"},{"link_name":"Aosta Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aosta_Valley"},{"link_name":"Varus river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Var_(river)"},{"link_name":"Arsia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C5%A1a_(river)"},{"link_name":"Istria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istria"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-au-19"},{"link_name":"Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicilia_(Roman_province)"},{"link_name":"Corsica and Sardinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsica_and_Sardinia"},{"link_name":"Raetia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raetia"},{"link_name":"Pannonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonia"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Emona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emona"},{"link_name":"Ljubljana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljubljana"}],"text":"The name Italia covered an area whose borders evolved over time. According to Strabo's Geographica, before the expansion of the Roman Republic, the name was used by Greeks to indicate the land between the strait of Messina and the line connecting the gulf of Salerno and gulf of Taranto (corresponding roughly to the current region of Calabria); later the term was extended by Romans to include the Italian Peninsula up to the Rubicon, a river located between Northern and Central Italy.In 49 BC, with the Lex Roscia, Julius Caesar gave Roman citizenship to the people of the Cisalpine Gaul;[17] while in 42 BC the hitherto existing province was abolished, thus extending Italy to the north up to the southern foot of the Alps.[18][19] Under Augustus, the peoples of today's Aosta Valley and of the western and northern Alps were subjugated (so the western border of Roman Italy was moved to the Varus river), and the Italian eastern border was brought to the Arsia in Istria.[19] Lastly, in the late 3rd century, Italy came to also include the islands of Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia, as well as Raetia and part of Pannonia.[20] The city of Emona (modern Ljubljana, Slovenia) was the easternmost town of Italy.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"municipia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipium"},{"link_name":"coloniae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)"},{"link_name":"Augustus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus"},{"link_name":"Pliny the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Naturalis Historia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny%27s_Natural_History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_Italy.gif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:La_Turbie_BW_1.JPG"},{"link_name":"Tropaeum Alpium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropaeum_Alpium"},{"link_name":"La Turbie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Turbie"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul"},{"link_name":"Latium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latium"},{"link_name":"Campania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campania"},{"link_name":"Apulia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apulia"},{"link_name":"Calabria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salento"},{"link_name":"Lucania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucania"},{"link_name":"Bruttium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabria"},{"link_name":"Samnium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samnium"},{"link_name":"Picenum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picenum"},{"link_name":"Umbria et Ager Gallicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regio_VI_Umbria"},{"link_name":"Etruria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruria"},{"link_name":"Aemilia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilia_(region_of_Italy)"},{"link_name":"Liguria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liguria"},{"link_name":"Venetia et Histria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetia_et_Histria"},{"link_name":"Transpadana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul"},{"link_name":"Roman roads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_roads"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Roman censor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_censor"},{"link_name":"sui iuris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_iuris"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Karl Julius Beloch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Julius_Beloch"},{"link_name":"Elio Lo Cascio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elio_Lo_Cascio"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Augustan organization","text":"At the beginning of the Roman Imperial era, Italy was a collection of territories with different political statuses. Some cities, called municipia, had some independence from Rome, while others, the coloniae, were founded by the Romans themselves. Around 7 BC, Augustus divided Italy into eleven regiones, as reported by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia:Roman Italia (in green) as organized by AugustusThe Tropaeum Alpium The Victory Monument of the Alps, La Turbie, France, marked the Augustan border between Italy and GaulRegio I Latium et Campania\nRegio II Apulia et Calabria\nRegio III Lucania et Bruttium\nRegio IV Samnium\nRegio V Picenum\nRegio VI Umbria et Ager Gallicus\nRegio VII Etruria\nRegio VIII Aemilia\nRegio IX Liguria\nRegio X Venetia et Histria\nRegio XI TranspadanaItaly was privileged by Augustus and his heirs, with the construction, among other public structures, of a dense network of Roman roads. The Italian economy flourished: agriculture, handicraft and industry had a sensible growth, allowing the export of goods to the provinces.[21] The Italian population may have grown as well: three census were ordered by Augustus, also assuming role of Roman censor, in order to record the number of Roman citizens throughout the empire. The surviving totals were 4,063,000 in 28 BC, 4,233,000 in 8 BC, and 4,937,000 in AD 14, but it is still debated whether these counted all citizens, all adult male citizens, or citizens sui iuris.[22] Estimates for the population of mainland Italy, including Cisalpine Gaul, at the beginning of the 1st century range from 6,000,000 according to Karl Julius Beloch in 1886, to 14,000,000 according to Elio Lo Cascio in 2009.[23]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Crisis of the Third Century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century"},{"link_name":"Diocletian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian"},{"link_name":"Tetrarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrarchy"},{"link_name":"Augusti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus_(title)"},{"link_name":"Caesars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar_(title)"},{"link_name":"Roman provinces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_province"},{"link_name":"dioceses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_diocese"},{"link_name":"vicarius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarius"},{"link_name":"Maximian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximian"},{"link_name":"Nicomedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicomedia"},{"link_name":"Anatolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia"},{"link_name":"Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan"},{"link_name":"Augusta Treverorum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusta_Treverorum"},{"link_name":"Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhine"},{"link_name":"Constantius Chlorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantius_Chlorus"},{"link_name":"Sirmium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirmium"},{"link_name":"Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danube"},{"link_name":"Galerius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galerius"},{"link_name":"Raetia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raetia"},{"link_name":"Liguria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liguria"},{"link_name":"Piedmont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piedmont"},{"link_name":"Lombardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombardy"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Veneto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veneto"},{"link_name":"Friuli-Venezia Giulia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friuli-Venezia_Giulia"},{"link_name":"Trentino-Alto Adige","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige"},{"link_name":"Istria county","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istria_County"},{"link_name":"Emilia-Romagna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilia-Romagna"},{"link_name":"Etruria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruria"},{"link_name":"Tuscany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscany"},{"link_name":"Umbria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbria"},{"link_name":"Picenum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picenum"},{"link_name":"Ager Gallicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ager_Gallicus"},{"link_name":"Marche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marche"},{"link_name":"Lazio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazio"},{"link_name":"Campania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campania"},{"link_name":"Abruzzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abruzzo"},{"link_name":"Molise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molise"},{"link_name":"Irpinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irpinia"},{"link_name":"Apulia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apulia"},{"link_name":"Basilicata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilicata"},{"link_name":"Calabria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabria"},{"link_name":"Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicily"},{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta"},{"link_name":"Corsica et Sardinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsica_and_Sardinia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Italia_Dioceses_in_400_AD.png"},{"link_name":"Constantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great"},{"link_name":"praetorian prefectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture"},{"link_name":"Praetorian prefecture of Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"Raetia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raetia"},{"link_name":"annona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cura_Annonae"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Liguria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liguria"},{"link_name":"Piedmont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piedmont"},{"link_name":"Lombardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombardy"},{"link_name":"Istria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istria"},{"link_name":"Croatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia"},{"link_name":"Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Friuli-Venezia Giulia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friuli-Venezia_Giulia"},{"link_name":"Trentino-Alto Adige","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trentino-Alto_Adige"},{"link_name":"Veneto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veneto"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Emilia-Romagna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilia-Romagna"},{"link_name":"Romagna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romagna"},{"link_name":"Marche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marche"},{"link_name":"urbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/urbs"},{"link_name":"Etruria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruria"},{"link_name":"Tuscany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscany"},{"link_name":"Umbria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbria"},{"link_name":"Lazio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazio"},{"link_name":"Piceno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascoli_Piceno"},{"link_name":"Marche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marche"},{"link_name":"Sabina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabina_(region)"},{"link_name":"province of Rieti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Rieti"},{"link_name":"Umbria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbria"},{"link_name":"Abruzzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abruzzo"},{"link_name":"Lazio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazio"},{"link_name":"Campania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campania"},{"link_name":"province of Salerno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Salerno"},{"link_name":"Abruzzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abruzzo"},{"link_name":"Molise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molise"},{"link_name":"Benevento","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Benevento"},{"link_name":"Avellino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Avellino"},{"link_name":"province of Caserta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Caserta"},{"link_name":"Apulia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apulia"},{"link_name":"Calabria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabria"},{"link_name":"Basilicata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilicata"},{"link_name":"province of Salerno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Salerno"},{"link_name":"Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicily"},{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta"},{"link_name":"Sardinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardinia"},{"link_name":"Corsica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsica"}],"sub_title":"Diocletianic and Constantinian re-organizations","text":"During the Crisis of the Third Century the Roman Empire was on the verge of disintegration under the combined pressures of invasions, military anarchy and civil wars, and hyperinflation. In 284, Emperor Diocletian restored political stability. He carried out thorough administrative reforms to maintain order. He created the so-called Tetrarchy whereby the empire was ruled by two senior emperors called Augusti and two junior vice-emperors called Caesars. He decreased the size of the Roman provinces by doubling their number to reduce the power of the provincial governors. He grouped the provinces into several dioceses (Latin: diocesis) and put them under the supervision of the Imperial vicarius (vice, deputy), who was the head of the diocese. During the Crisis of the Third Century the importance of Rome declined because the city was far from the troubled frontiers. Diocletian and his colleagues usually resided in four Imperial seats. The Augusti, Diocletian and Maximian, who were responsible for the East and West respectively, established themselves at Nicomedia, in north-western Anatolia (closer to the Persian frontier in the east) and Milan, in northern Italy (closer to the European frontiers) respectively. The seats of the Caesars were Augusta Treverorum (on the River Rhine frontier) for Constantius Chlorus and Sirmium (on the River Danube frontier) for Galerius who also resided at Thessaloniki.Under Diocletian Italy became the Dioecesis Italiciana. It included Raetia. It was subdivided the following provinces:Liguria (today's Liguria and western Piedmont)\nTranspadana (eastern Piedmont and Lombardy)\nRhaetia (eastern Switzerland, western and central Austria, part of southern Germany, and part of northeastern Italy)\nVenetia et Histria (today's Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Trentino-Alto Adige and Istria county)\nAemilia (Emilia-Romagna)\nTuscia (Etruria) et Umbria (Tuscany and Umbria)\nFlaminia (Picenum and the former Ager Gallicus, in today's Marche)\nLatium et Campania (the coastal parts of Lazio and Campania)\nSamnium (Abruzzo, Molise and Irpinia)\nApulia et Calabria (today's Apulia)\nLucania et Bruttium (Basilicata and Calabria)\nSicilia (Sicily and Malta)\nCorsica et SardiniaItalia annonaria and Italia suburbicaria diocesesConstantine subdivided the Empire into four praetorian prefectures. The Diocesis Italiciana became the Praetorian prefecture of Italy (praefectura praetoria Italiae), and was subdivided into two dioceses. It still included Raetia. The two dioceses and their provinces were:Diocesis Italia annonaria (Italy of the annona - its inhabitants had the obligation to provide the court, the administration and the troops, first allocated in Milan and then in Ravenna, supplies, wine and timber)[24]Alpes Cottiae (modern Liguria and western part of Piedmont)\nLiguria (western Lombardy and eastern part of Piedmont)\nVenetia et Histria (Istria [which is now part of Croatia, Slovenia and Italy], Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trentino-Alto Adige, Veneto and eastern and central Lombardy)\nRaetia I (eastern Switzerland and western Austria)\nRhaetia II (central Austria, part of southern Germany, and part of northeastern Italy)\nAemilia (the Emilia part of Emilia-Romagna)\nFlaminia et Picenum Annonarium (Romagna and northern Marche)Diocesis Italia suburbicaria (Italy \"under the government of the urbs\", i.e. Rome)Tuscia (Etruria) et Umbria (Tuscany, Umbria and the northern part of coastal Lazio)\nPicenum suburbicarium (Piceno, in southern Marche)\nValeria Sabina (the modern province of Rieti, other areas of Lazio and areas of Umbria and Abruzzo)\nCampania (central and southern coastal Lazio and coastal Campania except for the modern province of Salerno)\nSamnium (Abruzzo, Molise and the mountain areas of modern Campania; i.e., the modern provinces of Benevento and Avellino and part of the province of Caserta)\nApulia et Calabria (today's Apulia)\nLucania et Bruttium (modern Calabria, Basilicata and the province of Salerno in modern Campania)\nSicilia (Sicily and Malta)\nSardinia\nCorsica","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Constantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Theodosius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_I"},{"link_name":"Western Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Mediolanum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediolanum"},{"link_name":"Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Alaric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaric_I"},{"link_name":"Visigoths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visigoth"},{"link_name":"Northern Italy was attacked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Aquileia"},{"link_name":"Attila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attila"},{"link_name":"Huns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns"},{"link_name":"Rome was sacked in 455","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(455)"},{"link_name":"Vandals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandals"},{"link_name":"Genseric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genseric"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Praetorian_Prefectures_of_the_Roman_Empire_395_AD.png"},{"link_name":"Praetorian prefecture of Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"Notitia Dignitatum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatum"},{"link_name":"praetorian prefect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefect"},{"link_name":"Prefectus praetorio Italiae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"Diocese of Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Africa"},{"link_name":"Diocese of Pannonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Pannonia"},{"link_name":"vicarius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicarius"},{"link_name":"comes rei militaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comes_rei_militaris"},{"link_name":"consulares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consularis"},{"link_name":"correctores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrector"},{"link_name":"praesides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praeses"},{"link_name":"Romulus Augustulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus"},{"link_name":"Western Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Julius Nepos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Nepos"},{"link_name":"Odoacer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoacer"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoacer#Duke_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"Ostrogothic Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Odoacer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoacer"},{"link_name":"Theodoric the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Eastern emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Roman Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_emperor"},{"link_name":"Justinian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian"},{"link_name":"Pragmatic sanction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatic_sanction"},{"link_name":"Diocletian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian"},{"link_name":"Justinian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justinian"},{"link_name":"Gothic War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93552)"},{"link_name":"Byzantines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Exarchate of Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna"}],"sub_title":"Late Antiquity","text":"In 330, Constantine completed the rebuilding of Byzantium as Constantinople. He established the Imperial court, a Senate, financial and judicial administrations, as well as the military structures. The new city, however, did not receive an urban prefect until 359 which raised it to the status of eastern capital. After the death of Theodosius in 395 and the subsequent division of the Empire, Italy was home base of the Western Roman Empire. As a result of Alaric's invasion in 402 the western seat was moved from Mediolanum to Ravenna. Alaric, king of Visigoths, sacked Rome itself in 410; something that had not happened for eight centuries. Northern Italy was attacked by Attila's Huns in 452. Rome was sacked in 455 again by the Vandals under the command of Genseric.The Praetorian prefecture of Italy (in yellow) stretched from the Danube river to North AfricaAccording to Notitia Dignitatum, one of the very few surviving documents of Roman government updated to the 420s, Roman Italy was governed by a praetorian prefect, Prefectus praetorio Italiae (who also governed the Diocese of Africa and the Diocese of Pannonia), one vicarius, and one comes rei militaris. The regions of Italy were governed at the end of the fourth century by eight consulares (Venetiae et Histriae, Aemiliae, Liguriae, Flaminiae et Piceni annonarii, Tusciae et Umbriae, Piceni suburbicarii, Campaniae, and Siciliae), two correctores (Apuliae et Calabriae and Lucaniae et Bruttiorum) and seven praesides (Alpium Cottiarum, Rhaetia Prima and Secunda, Samnii, Valeriae, Sardiniae, and Corsicae). In the fifth century, with the Emperors controlled by their barbarian generals, the Western Imperial government maintained weak control over Italy itself, whose coasts were periodically under attack.In 476, with the abdication of Romulus Augustulus, the Western Roman Empire had formally fallen unless one considers Julius Nepos, the legitimate emperor recognized by Constantinople as the last. He was assassinated in 480 and may have been recognized by Odoacer. Italy remained under Odoacer and his Kingdom of Italy, and then under the Ostrogothic Kingdom. The Germanic successor states under Odoacer and Theodoric the Great continued to use the Roman administrative apparatus, as well as being nominal subjects of the Eastern emperor at Constantinople. In 535 Roman Emperor Justinian invaded Italy which suffered twenty years of disastrous war. In August 554, Justinian issued a Pragmatic sanction which maintained most of the organization of Diocletian. The \"Prefecture of Italy\" thus survived, and was reestablished under Roman control in the course of Justinian's Gothic War.\nAs a result of the Lombard invasion in 568, the Byzantines lost most of Italy, except the territories of the Exarchate of Ravenna – a corridor from Venice to Lazio via Perugia – and footholds in the south Naples and the toe and heel of the peninsula.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Potter, Timothy W.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_W._Potter"},{"link_name":"Roman Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=dLyYAnf9EPcC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-520-06975-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-06975-7"},{"link_name":"Salmon, Edward T.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Togo_Salmon"},{"link_name":"The Making of Roman Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=3_gNAQAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0801414381","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801414381"},{"link_name":"The Foundations of Roman Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=s-QrAAAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780598820341","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780598820341"},{"link_name":"Roman Italy, 338 BC-AD 200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=J9OK-XR8Dp8C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-312-16072-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-16072-2"},{"link_name":"Peasants and Slaves: The Rural Population of Roman Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Uukt6U7ROE4C"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1107004795","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107004795"},{"link_name":"The Demography of Roman Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=jZN7AAAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-107-00393-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00393-4"},{"link_name":"The Houses of Roman Italy, 100 BC-AD 250","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=4Q7qcegqaRYC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-520-07267-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07267-7"},{"link_name":"The Roads of Roman Italy: Mobility and Cultural Change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=sUhT_AcJyYEC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-415-16616-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-16616-0"}],"text":"Potter, Timothy W. (1990). Roman Italy. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06975-7.\nSalmon, Edward T. (1982). The Making of Roman Italy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801414381.\nWhatmough, Joshua (1937). The Foundations of Roman Italy. London: Methuen & Company. ISBN 9780598820341.\nLomas, Kathryn (1996). Roman Italy, 338 BC-AD 200. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-16072-2.\nLaunaro, Alessandro (2011). Peasants and Slaves: The Rural Population of Roman Italy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107004795.\nHin, Saskia (2013). The Demography of Roman Italy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00393-4.\nClarke, John R. (1991). The Houses of Roman Italy, 100 BC-AD 250. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07267-7.\nLaurence, Ray (2002). The Roads of Roman Italy: Mobility and Cultural Change. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16616-0.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Roman Italia (in green) as organized by Augustus","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Roman_Italy.gif/220px-Roman_Italy.gif"},{"image_text":"The Tropaeum Alpium The Victory Monument of the Alps, La Turbie, France, marked the Augustan border between Italy and Gaul","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/La_Turbie_BW_1.JPG/220px-La_Turbie_BW_1.JPG"},{"image_text":"Italia annonaria and Italia suburbicaria dioceses","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Italia_Dioceses_in_400_AD.png/220px-Italia_Dioceses_in_400_AD.png"},{"image_text":"The Praetorian prefecture of Italy (in yellow) stretched from the Danube river to North Africa","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Praetorian_Prefectures_of_the_Roman_Empire_395_AD.png/300px-Praetorian_Prefectures_of_the_Roman_Empire_395_AD.png"}]

[{"reference":"Ligt, Luuk de; Northwood, S. J. (2008). People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy 300 BC-AD 14. ISBN 978-9004171183.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4toKjuTLOQUC&q=c.10+million+inhabitants+Italy&pg=PA223","url_text":"People, Land, and Politics: Demographic Developments and the Transformation of Roman Italy 300 BC-AD 14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004171183","url_text":"978-9004171183"}]},{"reference":"Dyson, Stephen L. (14 July 2014). The Creation of the Roman Frontier. ISBN 9781400854899.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Pr__AwAAQBAJ&q=Italy+Romah+homeland&pg=PA126","url_text":"The Creation of the Roman Frontier"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781400854899","url_text":"9781400854899"}]},{"reference":"Bleicken, Jochen (15 October 2015). Augustus: The Biography. ISBN 9780241003909.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OXqfCgAAQBAJ&q=Italia+roman+homeland&pg=PT375","url_text":"Augustus: The Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780241003909","url_text":"9780241003909"}]},{"reference":"Rogers, Lester Burton; Adams, Fay; Brown, Walker (1956). \"Story of Nations\".","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=twEOAQAAIAAJ&q=Italy+homeland+of+the+Romans","url_text":"\"Story of Nations\""}]},{"reference":"Mommsen, Theodor (1855). History of Rome, Book II: From the Abolition of the Monarchy in Rome to the Union of Italy. Leipzig: Reimer & Hirsel.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen","url_text":"Mommsen, Theodor"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Rome_(Mommsen)","url_text":"History of Rome"}]},{"reference":"A. Fear; P. Liddel, eds. (2010). \"The Glory of Italy and Rome's Universal Destiny in Strabo's Geographika\". Historiae Mundi. Studies in Universal History. London: Duckworth. pp. 87–101. Retrieved 20 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/362374","url_text":"\"The Glory of Italy and Rome's Universal Destiny in Strabo's Geographika\""}]},{"reference":"Keaveney, Arthur (January 1987). Arthur Keaveney: Rome and the Unification of Italy. ISBN 9780709931218. Retrieved 20 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ojoOAAAAQAAJ","url_text":"Arthur Keaveney: Rome and the Unification of Italy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780709931218","url_text":"9780709931218"}]},{"reference":"Billanovich, Giuseppe (2008). Libreria Universitaria Hoepli, Lezioni di filologia, Giuseppe Billanovich e Roberto Pesce: Corpus Iuris Civilis, Italia non erat provincia, sed domina provinciarum, Feltrinelli, p.363 (in Italian). ISBN 9788896543092. Retrieved 20 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=fVylk1KUS84C&dq=Italia+domina+provinciarum&pg=PR13","url_text":"Libreria Universitaria Hoepli, Lezioni di filologia, Giuseppe Billanovich e Roberto Pesce: Corpus Iuris Civilis, Italia non erat provincia, sed domina provinciarum, Feltrinelli, p.363"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788896543092","url_text":"9788896543092"}]},{"reference":"Bleicken, Jochen (15 October 2015). Italy: the absolute center of the Republic and the Roman Empire. ISBN 9780241003909. Retrieved 20 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OXqfCgAAQBAJ&dq=Italia+roman+homeland&pg=PT375","url_text":"Italy: the absolute center of the Republic and the Roman Empire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780241003909","url_text":"9780241003909"}]},{"reference":"Morcillo, Martha García (2010). \"The Roman Italy: Rectrix Mundi and Omnium Terrarum Parens\". In A. Fear; P. Liddel (eds.). Historiae Mundi. Studies in Universal History. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 9781472519801. Retrieved 20 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hb6OAQAAQBAJ&dq=Rectrix+mundi+omnium+terrarum+parens&pg=PA97","url_text":"\"The Roman Italy: Rectrix Mundi and Omnium Terrarum Parens\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472519801","url_text":"9781472519801"}]},{"reference":"Altri nomi e appellativi relazionati allo status dell'Italia in epoca romana (in Italian). Bloomsbury. 20 November 2013. ISBN 9781472519801. Retrieved 20 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hb6OAQAAQBAJ&dq=Rectrix+mundi+omnium+terrarum+parens&pg=PA97","url_text":"Altri nomi e appellativi relazionati allo status dell'Italia in epoca romana"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472519801","url_text":"9781472519801"}]},{"reference":"\"Antico appellativo dell'Italia romana: Italia Omnium Terrarum Parens\" (in Italian). Retrieved 20 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abebooks.it/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=22910180903&searchurl=sortby%3D20%26tn%3Ditalia%2Bomnium%2Bterrarum%2Bparens&cm_sp=snippet-_-srp1-_-title1","url_text":"\"Antico appellativo dell'Italia romana: Italia Omnium Terrarum Parens\""}]},{"reference":"Keaveney, Arthur (1987). Rome and the Unification of Italy. London: Croom Helm. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix-like_operating_system

Unix-like

["1 Definition","2 History","3 Categories","3.1 Genetic UNIX","3.2 Trademark or branded UNIX","3.3 Functional UNIX","4 Compatibility layers","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Operating system that behaves similarly to Unix, e.g. Linux Evolution of Unix and Unix-like systems, starting in 1969 A Unix-like (sometimes referred to as UN*X or *nix) operating system is one that behaves in a manner similar to a Unix system, although not necessarily conforming to or being certified to any version of the Single UNIX Specification. A Unix-like application is one that behaves like the corresponding Unix command or shell. Although there are general philosophies for Unix design, there is no technical standard defining the term, and opinions can differ about the degree to which a particular operating system or application is Unix-like. Some well-known examples of Unix-like operating systems include Linux and BSD. These systems are often used on servers as well as on personal computers and other devices. Many popular applications, such as the Apache web server and the Bash shell, are also designed to be used on Unix-like systems. One of the key features of Unix-like systems is their ability to support multiple users and processes simultaneously. This allows users to run multiple programs at the same time and to share resources such as memory and disk space. This is in contrast to many older operating systems, which were designed to only support a single user or process at a time. Another important feature of Unix-like systems is their modularity. This means that the operating system is made up of many small, interchangeable components that can be added or removed as needed. This makes it easy to customize the operating system to suit the needs of different users or environments. Definition The Open Group owns the UNIX trademark and administers the Single UNIX Specification, with the "UNIX" name being used as a certification mark. They do not approve of the construction "Unix-like", and consider it a misuse of their trademark. Their guidelines require "UNIX" to be presented in uppercase or otherwise distinguished from the surrounding text, strongly encourage using it as a branding adjective for a generic word such as "system", and discourage its use in hyphenated phrases. Other parties frequently treat "Unix" as a genericized trademark. Some add a wildcard character to the name to make an abbreviation like "Un*x" or "*nix", since Unix-like systems often have Unix-like names such as AIX, A/UX, HP-UX, IRIX, Linux, Minix, Ultrix, Xenix, and XNU. These patterns do not literally match many system names, but are still generally recognized to refer to any UNIX system, descendant, or work-alike, even those with completely dissimilar names such as Darwin/macOS, illumos/Solaris or FreeBSD. In 2007, Wayne R. Gray sued to dispute the status of UNIX as a trademark, but lost his case, and lost again on appeal, with the court upholding the trademark and its ownership. History This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Simplified history of Unix-like operating systems "Unix-like" systems started to appear in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Many proprietary versions, such as Idris (1978), UNOS (1982), Coherent (1983), and UniFlex (1985), aimed to provide businesses with the functionality available to academic users of UNIX. When AT&T allowed relatively inexpensive commercial binary sublicensing of UNIX in 1979, a variety of proprietary systems were developed based on it, including AIX, HP-UX, IRIX, SunOS, Tru64, Ultrix, and Xenix. These largely displaced the proprietary clones. Growing incompatibility among these systems led to the creation of interoperability standards, including POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification. Various free, low-cost, and unrestricted substitutes for UNIX emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, including 4.4BSD, Linux, and Minix. Some of these have in turn been the basis for commercial "Unix-like" systems, such as BSD/OS and macOS. Several versions of (Mac) OS X/macOS running on Intel-based Mac computers have been certified under the Single UNIX Specification. The BSD variants are descendants of UNIX developed by the University of California at Berkeley, with UNIX source code from Bell Labs. However, the BSD code base has evolved since then, replacing all the AT&T code. Since the BSD variants are not certified as compliant with the Single UNIX Specification, they are referred to as "UNIX-like" rather than "UNIX". Categories Dennis Ritchie, one of the original creators of Unix, expressed his opinion that Unix-like systems such as Linux are de facto Unix systems. Eric S. Raymond and Rob Landley have suggested that there are three kinds of Unix-like systems: Genetic UNIX Those systems with a historical connection to the AT&T codebase. Most commercial UNIX systems fall into this category. So do the BSD systems, which are descendants of work done at the University of California, Berkeley in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Some of these systems have no original AT&T code but can still trace their ancestry to AT&T designs. Trademark or branded UNIX These systems‍—‌largely commercial in nature‍—‌have been determined by the Open Group to meet the Single UNIX Specification and are allowed to carry the UNIX name. Most such systems are commercial derivatives of the System V code base in one form or another, although Apple macOS 10.5 and later is a BSD variant that has been certified, and EulerOS and Inspur K-UX are Linux distributions that have been certified. A few other systems (such as IBM z/OS) earned the trademark through a POSIX compatibility layer and are not otherwise inherently Unix systems. Many ancient UNIX systems no longer meet this definition. Functional UNIX Broadly, any Unix-like system that behaves in a manner roughly consistent with the UNIX specification, including having a "program which manages your login and command line sessions"; more specifically, this can refer to systems such as Linux or Minix that behave similarly to a UNIX system but have no genetic or trademark connection to the AT&T code base. Most free/open-source implementations of the UNIX design, whether genetic UNIX or not, fall into the restricted definition of this third category due to the expense of obtaining Open Group certification, which costs thousands of dollars. Around 2001 Linux was given the opportunity to get a certification including free help from the POSIX chair Andrew Josey for the symbolic price of one dollar. There have been some activities to make Linux POSIX-compliant, with Josey having prepared a list of differences between the POSIX standard and the Linux Standard Base specification, but in August 2005, this project was shut down because of missing interest at the LSB work group. Compatibility layers Some non-Unix-like operating systems provide a Unix-like compatibility layer, with varying degrees of Unix-like functionality. IBM z/OS's UNIX System Services is sufficiently complete as to be certified as trademark UNIX. Cygwin, MSYS, and MSYS2 each provide a GNU environment on top of the Microsoft Windows user API, sufficient for most common open source software to be compiled and run. The MKS Toolkit and UWIN are comprehensive interoperability tools which allow the porting of Unix programs to Windows. Windows NT-type systems have a POSIX environmental subsystem. Subsystem for Unix-based Applications (previously Interix) provides Unix-like functionality as a Windows NT subsystem (discontinued). Windows Subsystem for Linux provides a Linux-compatible kernel interface developed by Microsoft and containing no Linux code, with Ubuntu user-mode binaries running on top of it. Windows Subsystem for Linux version 2 (WSL2) provides a fully functional Linux environment running in a virtual machine. OpenHarmony employs the third-party musl libc library and native APIs ports, providing support on POSIX for Linux syscalls within the Linux kernel and LiteOS default kernels side of the system multi-kernel Kernel Abstract Layer subsystem for vendor and developers interoperability. HarmonyOS with HarmonyOS NEXT system has OpenHarmony user mode that contains musl libc library and native APIs ports, providing support with POSIX for Linux syscalls within the default kernels of the Linux kernel standard system and LiteOS small and lightweight system side of the system multi-kernel Kernel Abstract Layer subsystem for interoperability on legacy Unix-like functionalities. Other means of Windows-Unix interoperability include: The above Windows packages can be used with various X servers for Windows Hummingbird Connectivity provides several ways for Windows machines to connect to Unix and Linux machines, from terminal emulators to X clients and servers, and others The Windows Resource Kits for versions of Windows NT include a Bourne Shell, some command-line tools, and a version of Perl Hamilton C shell is a version of csh written specifically for Windows. See also List of Unix-like systems Berkeley Software Distribution Linux kernel and Linux distribution List of Linux distributions List of Unix commands List of operating systems Free Software Foundation and GNU Project References ^ "Legal: Trademark Guidelines". The Open Group. Archived from the original on October 2, 2013. Retrieved November 4, 2013. ^ Eric S. Raymond; Guy L. Steele Jr. "UN*X". The Jargon File. Retrieved January 22, 2009. ^ Gray v. Novell, X/Open Company, The SCO Group (11th Cir. January 7, 2011), Text. ^ "More Wayne Gray. No! Again? Still?! Yes. He Wants to Reopen Discovery in the USPTO Dispute". Groklaw. April 22, 2011. Archived from the original on June 18, 2022. Retrieved September 26, 2022. ^ "Mac OS X Version 10.5 on Intel-based Macintosh computers". The Open Group. Retrieved December 4, 2014. ^ "Mac OS X Version 10.6 on Intel-based Macintosh computers". The Open Group. Retrieved December 4, 2014. ^ "Mac OS X Version 10.8 on Intel-based Macintosh computers". The Open Group. Retrieved December 4, 2014. ^ "OS X Version 10.9 on Intel-based Macintosh computers". The Open Group. Retrieved December 4, 2014. ^ "OS X version 10.10 Yosemite on Intel-based Mac computers". The Open Group. Retrieved October 23, 2015. ^ "OS X version 10.11 El Capitan on Intel-based Mac computers". The Open Group. Retrieved October 23, 2015. ^ "macOS version 10.12 Sierra on Intel-based Mac computers". The Open Group. Retrieved October 13, 2016. ^ Interview with Dennis M. Ritchie Manuel Benet, LinuxFocus, July 1999 ^ The meaning of 'Unix' Eric Raymond and Rob Landley, OSI Position Paper on the SCO-vs.-IBM Complaint ^ "Introduction to UNIX – Part 1: Basic Concepts". Archived from the original on April 5, 2018. Retrieved April 4, 2014. ^ "The Open Brand Fee Schedule". The Open Group. November 6, 2003. Retrieved July 22, 2022. ^ Andrew Josey (August 20, 2005). "Conflicts between ISO/IEC 9945 (POSIX) and the Linux Standard Base". The Open Group. Retrieved July 23, 2012. ^ "What is the Windows Subsystem for Linux?". Microsoft Docs. July 18, 2023. External links Unix-like Definition, by The Linux Information Project (LINFO) UNIX history – a history time line graph of most UNIX and Unix-like systems by Éric Lévénez Grokline's UNIX Ownership History Project – a project to map out the technical history of UNIX and Unix-like systems at the Wayback Machine (archived June 22, 2004) vteUnix and Unix-like operating systems and compatibility layers Architecture Filesystem History Philosophy Security Shell OperatingsystemsBSD 386BSD FreeBSD NetBSD OpenBSD DragonFly BSD NeXTSTEP Darwin macOS iOS audioOS iPadOS tvOS watchOS bridgeOS SunOS Ultrix Linux Android Arch ChromeOS Debian Fedora Gentoo Red Hat SUSE Ubuntu Other distributions System V A/UX AIX HP-UX IRIX OpenServer Solaris OpenSolaris Illumos Tru64 UNIX UnixWare Other Coherent Domain/OS GNU Hurd LynxOS Minix MOS OSF/1 QNX BlackBerry 10 Research Unix SerenityOS Xenix more... Compatibilitylayers Cygwin Darling Eunice GNV Interix MachTen Microsoft POSIX subsystem MKS Toolkit PASE P.I.P.S. PWS/VSE-AF UNIX System Services UserLAnd Technologies Windows Services for UNIX Windows Subsystem for Linux Italics indicate discontinued systems. Category Commons vteUnix shells Almquist Bash Bourne csh fish Hamilton Korn PowerShell PWB Qshell rc sash tcsh Thompson Wish Zsh Comparison of command shells vteUnix command-line interface programs and shell builtinsFile system cat chattr chmod chown chgrp cksum cmp cp dd du df file fuser ln ls mkdir mv pax pwd rm rmdir split tee touch type umask Processes at bg crontab fg kill nice ps time User environment env exit logname mesg talk tput uname who write Text processing awk basename comm csplit cut diff dirname ed ex fold head iconv join m4 more nl paste patch printf read sed sort strings tail tr troff uniq vi wc xargs Shell builtins alias cd echo test unset wait Searching find grep Documentation man Software development ar ctags lex make nm strip yacc Miscellaneous bc cal expr lp od sleep true and false Categories Standard Unix programs Unix SUS2008 utilities List vteOperating systemsGeneral Comparison Forensic engineering History List Timeline Usage share User features comparison Variants Disk operating system Distributed operating system Embedded operating system Hobbyist operating system Just enough operating system Mobile operating system Network operating system Object-oriented operating system Real-time operating system Supercomputer operating system KernelArchitectures Exokernel Hybrid Microkernel Monolithic Multikernel vkernel Rump kernel Unikernel Components Device driver Loadable kernel module User space and kernel space Process managementConcepts Computer multitasking (Cooperative, Preemptive) Context switch Interrupt IPC Process Process control block Real-time Thread Time-sharing Schedulingalgorithms Fixed-priority preemptive Multilevel feedback queue Round-robin Shortest job next Memory management,resource protection Bus error General protection fault Memory paging Memory protection Protection ring Segmentation fault Virtual memory Storage access,file systems Boot loader Defragmentation Device file File attribute Inode Journal Partition Virtual file system Virtual tape library Supporting concepts API Computer network HAL Live CD Live USB Shell CLI User interface PXE

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unix_history-simple.svg"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"Single UNIX Specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_UNIX_Specification"},{"link_name":"application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_software"},{"link_name":"Unix command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_POSIX_commands"},{"link_name":"shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_shell"},{"link_name":"philosophies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_philosophy"},{"link_name":"technical standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_standard"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"BSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Software_Distribution"},{"link_name":"Apache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_HTTP_Server"},{"link_name":"Bash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bash_(Unix_shell)"},{"link_name":"modularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modularity"}],"text":"Evolution of Unix and Unix-like systems, starting in 1969A Unix-like (sometimes referred to as UN*X or *nix) operating system is one that behaves in a manner similar to a Unix system, although not necessarily conforming to or being certified to any version of the Single UNIX Specification. A Unix-like application is one that behaves like the corresponding Unix command or shell. Although there are general philosophies for Unix design, there is no technical standard defining the term, and opinions can differ about the degree to which a particular operating system or application is Unix-like.Some well-known examples of Unix-like operating systems include Linux and BSD. These systems are often used on servers as well as on personal computers and other devices. Many popular applications, such as the Apache web server and the Bash shell, are also designed to be used on Unix-like systems.One of the key features of Unix-like systems is their ability to support multiple users and processes simultaneously. This allows users to run multiple programs at the same time and to share resources such as memory and disk space. This is in contrast to many older operating systems, which were designed to only support a single user or process at a time. Another important feature of Unix-like systems is their modularity. This means that the operating system is made up of many small, interchangeable components that can be added or removed as needed. This makes it easy to customize the operating system to suit the needs of different users or environments.","title":"Unix-like"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Open Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Open_Group"},{"link_name":"UNIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIX"},{"link_name":"trademark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark"},{"link_name":"certification mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certification_mark"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"genericized trademark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genericized_trademark"},{"link_name":"wildcard character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildcard_character"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jargonfile_UNasteriskX-2"},{"link_name":"AIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_AIX"},{"link_name":"A/UX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A/UX"},{"link_name":"HP-UX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP-UX"},{"link_name":"IRIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRIX"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Minix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minix"},{"link_name":"Ultrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrix"},{"link_name":"Xenix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenix"},{"link_name":"XNU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XNU"},{"link_name":"Darwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"illumos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illumos"},{"link_name":"Solaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"FreeBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBSD"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The Open Group owns the UNIX trademark and administers the Single UNIX Specification, with the \"UNIX\" name being used as a certification mark. They do not approve of the construction \"Unix-like\", and consider it a misuse of their trademark. Their guidelines require \"UNIX\" to be presented in uppercase or otherwise distinguished from the surrounding text, strongly encourage using it as a branding adjective for a generic word such as \"system\", and discourage its use in hyphenated phrases.[1]Other parties frequently treat \"Unix\" as a genericized trademark. Some add a wildcard character to the name to make an abbreviation like \"Un*x\"[2] or \"*nix\", since Unix-like systems often have Unix-like names such as AIX, A/UX, HP-UX, IRIX, Linux, Minix, Ultrix, Xenix, and XNU. These patterns do not literally match many system names, but are still generally recognized to refer to any UNIX system, descendant, or work-alike, even those with completely dissimilar names such as Darwin/macOS, illumos/Solaris or FreeBSD.In 2007, Wayne R. Gray sued to dispute the status of UNIX as a trademark, but lost his case, and lost again on appeal, with the court upholding the trademark and its ownership.[3][4]","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unix_timeline.en.svg"},{"link_name":"proprietary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"link_name":"Idris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"UNOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNOS_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"Coherent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherent_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"UniFlex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UniFlex"},{"link_name":"AT&T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation"},{"link_name":"AIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_AIX"},{"link_name":"HP-UX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP-UX"},{"link_name":"IRIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRIX"},{"link_name":"SunOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SunOS"},{"link_name":"Tru64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tru64_UNIX"},{"link_name":"Ultrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrix"},{"link_name":"Xenix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenix"},{"link_name":"POSIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSIX"},{"link_name":"Single UNIX Specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_UNIX_Specification"},{"link_name":"4.4BSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Software_Distribution"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Minix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minix"},{"link_name":"BSD/OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD/OS"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"Single UNIX Specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_UNIX_Specification"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-leopard_unix_cert-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-snow_leopard_unix_cert-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mountain_lion_unix_cert-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mavericks_unix_cert-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Bell Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs"},{"link_name":"BSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Software_Distribution"}],"text":"Simplified history of Unix-like operating systems\"Unix-like\" systems started to appear in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Many proprietary versions, such as Idris (1978), UNOS (1982), Coherent (1983), and UniFlex (1985), aimed to provide businesses with the functionality available to academic users of UNIX.When AT&T allowed relatively inexpensive commercial binary sublicensing of UNIX in 1979, a variety of proprietary systems were developed based on it, including AIX, HP-UX, IRIX, SunOS, Tru64, Ultrix, and Xenix. These largely displaced the proprietary clones. Growing incompatibility among these systems led to the creation of interoperability standards, including POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification.Various free, low-cost, and unrestricted substitutes for UNIX emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, including 4.4BSD, Linux, and Minix. Some of these have in turn been the basis for commercial \"Unix-like\" systems, such as BSD/OS and macOS. Several versions of (Mac) OS X/macOS running on Intel-based Mac computers have been certified under the Single UNIX Specification.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11] The BSD variants are descendants of UNIX developed by the University of California at Berkeley, with UNIX source code from Bell Labs. However, the BSD code base has evolved since then, replacing all the AT&T code. Since the BSD variants are not certified as compliant with the Single UNIX Specification, they are referred to as \"UNIX-like\" rather than \"UNIX\".","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dennis Ritchie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Ritchie"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"de facto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Eric S. Raymond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Dennis Ritchie, one of the original creators of Unix, expressed his opinion that Unix-like systems such as Linux are de facto Unix systems.[12] Eric S. Raymond and Rob Landley have suggested that there are three kinds of Unix-like systems:[13]","title":"Categories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"AT&T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T"},{"link_name":"BSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Software_Distribution"},{"link_name":"University of California, Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley"}],"sub_title":"Genetic UNIX","text":"Those systems with a historical connection to the AT&T codebase. Most commercial UNIX systems fall into this category. So do the BSD systems, which are descendants of work done at the University of California, Berkeley in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Some of these systems have no original AT&T code but can still trace their ancestry to AT&T designs.","title":"Categories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Open Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Group"},{"link_name":"Single UNIX Specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_UNIX_Specification"},{"link_name":"EulerOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EulerOS"},{"link_name":"Inspur K-UX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspur_K-UX"},{"link_name":"ancient UNIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_UNIX"}],"sub_title":"Trademark or branded UNIX","text":"These systems‍—‌largely commercial in nature‍—‌have been determined by the Open Group to meet the Single UNIX Specification and are allowed to carry the UNIX name. Most such systems are commercial derivatives of the System V code base in one form or another, although Apple macOS 10.5 and later is a BSD variant that has been certified, and EulerOS and Inspur K-UX are Linux distributions that have been certified. A few other systems (such as IBM z/OS) earned the trademark through a POSIX compatibility layer and are not otherwise inherently Unix systems. Many ancient UNIX systems no longer meet this definition.","title":"Categories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_(computing)"},{"link_name":"command line sessions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_line_interpreter"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Minix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minix"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Linux Standard Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_Standard_Base"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Functional UNIX","text":"Broadly, any Unix-like system that behaves in a manner roughly consistent with the UNIX specification, including having a \"program which manages your login and command line sessions\";[14] more specifically, this can refer to systems such as Linux or Minix that behave similarly to a UNIX system but have no genetic or trademark connection to the AT&T code base. Most free/open-source implementations of the UNIX design, whether genetic UNIX or not, fall into the restricted definition of this third category due to the expense of obtaining Open Group certification, which costs thousands of dollars.[15]Around 2001 Linux was given the opportunity to get a certification including free help from the POSIX chair Andrew Josey for the symbolic price of one dollar.[citation needed] There have been some activities to make Linux POSIX-compliant, with Josey having prepared a list of differences between the POSIX standard and the Linux Standard Base specification,[16] but in August 2005, this project was shut down because of missing interest at the LSB work group.[citation needed]","title":"Categories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"compatibility layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compatibility_layer"},{"link_name":"z/OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z/OS"},{"link_name":"UNIX System Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIX_System_Services"},{"link_name":"Cygwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cygwin"},{"link_name":"MSYS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSYS"},{"link_name":"MSYS2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSYS2"},{"link_name":"GNU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"user API","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_API"},{"link_name":"open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"link_name":"MKS Toolkit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MKS_Toolkit"},{"link_name":"UWIN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UWIN"},{"link_name":"POSIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSIX"},{"link_name":"environmental subsystem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_subsystem"},{"link_name":"Subsystem for Unix-based Applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsystem_for_Unix-based_Applications"},{"link_name":"Interix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interix"},{"link_name":"Windows NT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"subsystem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"Windows Subsystem for Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Subsystem_for_Linux"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Ubuntu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"binaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable_and_Linkable_Format"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Windows Subsystem for Linux version 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Subsystem_for_Linux#WSL_2"},{"link_name":"OpenHarmony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenHarmony"},{"link_name":"POSIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSIX"},{"link_name":"syscalls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_call"},{"link_name":"HarmonyOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarmonyOS"},{"link_name":"HarmonyOS NEXT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarmonyOS_NEXT"},{"link_name":"POSIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSIX"},{"link_name":"Linux kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_kernel"},{"link_name":"LiteOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LiteOS"},{"link_name":"Hummingbird Connectivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hummingbird_Connectivity"},{"link_name":"Resource Kits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_Kit"},{"link_name":"Bourne Shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourne_Shell"},{"link_name":"Perl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl"},{"link_name":"Hamilton C shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_C_shell"},{"link_name":"csh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_shell"}],"text":"Some non-Unix-like operating systems provide a Unix-like compatibility layer, with varying degrees of Unix-like functionality.IBM z/OS's UNIX System Services is sufficiently complete as to be certified as trademark UNIX.\nCygwin, MSYS, and MSYS2 each provide a GNU environment on top of the Microsoft Windows user API, sufficient for most common open source software to be compiled and run.\nThe MKS Toolkit and UWIN are comprehensive interoperability tools which allow the porting of Unix programs to Windows.\nWindows NT-type systems have a POSIX environmental subsystem.\nSubsystem for Unix-based Applications (previously Interix) provides Unix-like functionality as a Windows NT subsystem (discontinued).\nWindows Subsystem for Linux provides a Linux-compatible kernel interface developed by Microsoft and containing no Linux code, with Ubuntu user-mode binaries running on top of it.[17]\nWindows Subsystem for Linux version 2 (WSL2) provides a fully functional Linux environment running in a virtual machine.\nOpenHarmony employs the third-party musl libc library and native APIs ports, providing support on POSIX for Linux syscalls within the Linux kernel and LiteOS default kernels side of the system multi-kernel Kernel Abstract Layer subsystem for vendor and developers interoperability.\nHarmonyOS with HarmonyOS NEXT system has OpenHarmony user mode that contains musl libc library and native APIs ports, providing support with POSIX for Linux syscalls within the default kernels of the Linux kernel standard system and LiteOS small and lightweight system side of the system multi-kernel Kernel Abstract Layer subsystem for interoperability on legacy Unix-like functionalities.Other means of Windows-Unix interoperability include:The above Windows packages can be used with various X servers for Windows\nHummingbird Connectivity provides several ways for Windows machines to connect to Unix and Linux machines, from terminal emulators to X clients and servers, and others\nThe Windows Resource Kits for versions of Windows NT include a Bourne Shell, some command-line tools, and a version of Perl\nHamilton C shell is a version of csh written specifically for Windows.","title":"Compatibility layers"}]

[{"image_text":"Evolution of Unix and Unix-like systems, starting in 1969","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Unix_history-simple.svg/350px-Unix_history-simple.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Simplified history of Unix-like operating systems","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Unix_timeline.en.svg/500px-Unix_timeline.en.svg.png"}]

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[{"reference":"\"Legal: Trademark Guidelines\". The Open Group. Archived from the original on October 2, 2013. Retrieved November 4, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.opengroup.org/content/legal-trademark-guidelines","url_text":"\"Legal: Trademark Guidelines\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131002190823/http://www.opengroup.org/content/legal-trademark-guidelines","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Eric S. Raymond; Guy L. Steele Jr. \"UN*X\". The Jargon File. Retrieved January 22, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond","url_text":"Eric S. Raymond"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_L._Steele_Jr.","url_text":"Guy L. Steele Jr."},{"url":"http://catb.org/jargon/html/U/UN-asterisk-X.html","url_text":"\"UN*X\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jargon_File","url_text":"The Jargon File"}]},{"reference":"Gray v. Novell, X/Open Company, The SCO Group","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"More Wayne Gray. No! Again? Still?! Yes. He Wants to Reopen Discovery in the USPTO Dispute\". Groklaw. April 22, 2011. Archived from the original on June 18, 2022. Retrieved September 26, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220618122518/http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20110422153653630","url_text":"\"More Wayne Gray. No! Again? Still?! Yes. He Wants to Reopen Discovery in the USPTO Dispute\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groklaw","url_text":"Groklaw"},{"url":"http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20110422153653630","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Mac OS X Version 10.5 on Intel-based Macintosh computers\". The Open Group. Retrieved December 4, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.opengroup.org/openbrand/register/brand3555.htm","url_text":"\"Mac OS X Version 10.5 on Intel-based Macintosh computers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mac OS X Version 10.6 on Intel-based Macintosh computers\". The Open Group. Retrieved December 4, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.opengroup.org/openbrand/register/brand3581.htm","url_text":"\"Mac OS X Version 10.6 on Intel-based Macintosh computers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mac OS X Version 10.8 on Intel-based Macintosh computers\". The Open Group. Retrieved December 4, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.opengroup.org/openbrand/register/brand3591.htm","url_text":"\"Mac OS X Version 10.8 on Intel-based Macintosh computers\""}]},{"reference":"\"OS X Version 10.9 on Intel-based Macintosh computers\". The Open Group. Retrieved December 4, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.opengroup.org/openbrand/register/brand3602.htm","url_text":"\"OS X Version 10.9 on Intel-based Macintosh computers\""}]},{"reference":"\"OS X version 10.10 Yosemite on Intel-based Mac computers\". The Open Group. Retrieved October 23, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.opengroup.org/openbrand/register/brand3607.htm","url_text":"\"OS X version 10.10 Yosemite on Intel-based Mac computers\""}]},{"reference":"\"OS X version 10.11 El Capitan on Intel-based Mac computers\". The Open Group. Retrieved October 23, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.opengroup.org/openbrand/register/brand3612.htm","url_text":"\"OS X version 10.11 El Capitan on Intel-based Mac computers\""}]},{"reference":"\"macOS version 10.12 Sierra on Intel-based Mac computers\". The Open Group. Retrieved October 13, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.opengroup.org/openbrand/register/brand3627.htm","url_text":"\"macOS version 10.12 Sierra on Intel-based Mac computers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Introduction to UNIX – Part 1: Basic Concepts\". Archived from the original on April 5, 2018. Retrieved April 4, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180405170333/http://structbio.vanderbilt.edu/comp/unix/part01.php","url_text":"\"Introduction to UNIX – Part 1: Basic Concepts\""},{"url":"http://structbio.vanderbilt.edu/comp/unix/part01.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Open Brand Fee Schedule\". The Open Group. November 6, 2003. Retrieved July 22, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.opengroup.org/openbrand/Brandfees.htm","url_text":"\"The Open Brand Fee Schedule\""}]},{"reference":"Andrew Josey (August 20, 2005). \"Conflicts between ISO/IEC 9945 (POSIX) and the Linux Standard Base\". The Open Group. Retrieved July 23, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.opengroup.org/personal/ajosey/tr20-08-2005.txt","url_text":"\"Conflicts between ISO/IEC 9945 (POSIX) and the Linux Standard Base\""}]},{"reference":"\"What is the Windows Subsystem for Linux?\". Microsoft Docs. July 18, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/wsl/about","url_text":"\"What is the Windows Subsystem for Linux?\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_eukaryotic_common_ancestor

Eukaryogenesis

["1 Context","2 Symbiogenesis","3 Last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA)","3.1 Eukaryotic sex","4 Scenarios","5 Diversification: crown eukaryotes","6 References","7 External links"]

Process of forming the first eukaryotic cell LUCA and LECA: the origins of the eukaryotes. The point of fusion (marked "?") below LECA is the FECA, the first eukaryotic common ancestor, some 2.2 billion years ago. Much earlier, some 4 billion years ago, the LUCA gave rise to the two domains of prokaryotes, the bacteria and the archaea. After the LECA, some 2 billion years ago, the eukaryotes diversified into a crown group, which gave rise to animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Eukaryogenesis, the process which created the eukaryotic cell and lineage, is a milestone in the evolution of life, since eukaryotes include all complex cells and almost all multicellular organisms. The process is widely agreed to have involved symbiogenesis, in which archaea and bacteria came together to create the first eukaryotic common ancestor (FECA). This cell had a new level of complexity and capability, with a nucleus, at least one centriole and cilium, facultatively aerobic mitochondria, sex (meiosis and syngamy), a dormant cyst with a cell wall of chitin and/or cellulose and peroxisomes. It evolved into a population of single-celled organisms that included the last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA), gaining capabilities along the way, though the sequence of the steps involved has been disputed, and may not have started with symbiogenesis. In turn, the LECA gave rise to the eukaryotes' crown group, containing the ancestors of animals, fungi, plants, and a diverse range of single-celled organisms. Context Further information: Abiogenesis, Last universal common ancestor, and last eukaryotic common ancestor Life arose on Earth once it had cooled enough for oceans to form. The last universal common ancestor (LUCA) was an organism which had ribosomes and the genetic code; it lived some 4 billion years ago. It gave rise to two main branches of prokaryotic life, the bacteria and the archaea. From among these small-celled, rapidly-dividing ancestors arose the Eukaryotes, with much larger cells, nuclei, and distinctive biochemistry. The eukaryotes form a domain that contains all complex cells and most types of multicellular organism, including the animals, plants, and fungi. Symbiogenesis Further information: Symbiogenesis In the theory of symbiogenesis, a merger of an archaean and an aerobic bacterium created the eukaryotes, with aerobic mitochondria, some 2.2 billion years ago. A second merger, 1.6 billion years ago, added chloroplasts, creating the green plants. According to the theory of symbiogenesis (also known as the endosymbiotic theory) championed by Lynn Margulis, a member of the archaea gained a bacterial cell as a component. The archaeal cell was a member of the Asgard group. The bacterium was one of the Alphaproteobacteria, which had the ability to use oxygen in its respiration. This enabled it – and the archaeal cells that included it – to survive in the presence of oxygen, which was poisonous to other organisms adapted to reducing conditions. The endosymbiotic bacteria became the eukaryotic cell's mitochondria, providing most of the energy of the cell. Lynn Margulis and colleagues have suggested that the cell also acquired a Spirochaete bacterium as a symbiont, providing the cell skeleton of microtubules and the ability to move, including the ability to pull chromosomes into two sets during mitosis, cell division. More recently, the Asgard archaean has been identified as belonging to the Heimdallarchaeota. Last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA) The last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA) is the hypothetical last common ancestor of all living eukaryotes, around 2 billion years ago, and was most likely a biological population. It is believed to have been a protist with a nucleus, at least one centriole and cilium, facultatively aerobic mitochondria, sex (meiosis and syngamy), a dormant cyst with a cell wall of chitin and/or cellulose, and peroxisomes. It had been proposed that the LECA fed by phagocytosis, engulfing other organisms. However, in 2022, Nico Bremer and colleagues confirmed that the LECA had mitochondria, and stated that it had multiple nuclei, but disputed that it was phagotrophic. This would mean that the ability found in many eukaryotes to engulf materials developed later, rather than being acquired first and then used to engulf the alphaproteobacteria that became mitochondria. The LECA has been described as having "spectacular cellular complexity". Its cell was divided into compartments. It appears to have inherited a set of endosomal sorting complex proteins that enable membranes to be remodelled, including pinching off vesicles to form endosomes. Its apparatuses for transcribing DNA into RNA, and then for translating the RNA into proteins, were separated, permitting extensive RNA processing and allowing the expression of genes to become more complex. It had mechanisms for reshuffling its genetic material, and possibly for manipulating its own evolvability. All of these gave the LECA "a compelling cohort of selective advantages". Eukaryotic sex Sex in eukaryotes is a composite process, consisting of meiosis and fertilisation, which can be coupled to reproduction. Dacks and Roger proposed on the basis of a phylogenetic analysis that facultative sex was likely present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes. Early in eukaryotic evolution, about 2 billion years ago, organisms needed a solution to the major problem that oxidative metabolism releases reactive oxygen species that damage the genetic material, DNA. Eukaryotic sex provides a process, homologous recombination during meiosis, for using informational redundancy to repair such DNA damage. Scenarios Biologists have proposed multiple scenarios for the creation of the eukaryotes. While there is broad agreement that the LECA must have had a nucleus, mitochondria, and internal membranes, the order in which these were acquired has been disputed. In the syntrophic model, the first eukaryotic common ancestor (FECA, around 2.2 gya) gained mitochondria, then membranes, then a nucleus. In the phagotrophic model, it gained a nucleus, then membranes, then mitochondria. In a more complex process, it gained all three in short order, then other capabilities. Other models have been proposed. Whatever happened, many lineages must have been created, but the LECA either out-competed or came together with the other lineages to form a single point of origin for the eukaryotes. Nick Lane and William Martin have argued that mitochondria came first, on the grounds that energy had been the limiting factor on the size of the prokaryotic cell. The phagotrophic model presupposes the ability to engulf food, enabling the cell to engulf the aerobic bacterium that became the mitochondrion. Eugene Koonin and others, noting that the archaea share many features with eukaryotes, argue that rudimentary eukaryotic traits such as membrane-lined compartments were acquired before endosymbiosis added mitochondria to the early eukaryotic cell, while the cell wall was lost. In the same way, mitochondrial acquisition must not be regarded as the end of the process, for still new complex families of genes had to be developed after or during the endosymbiotic exchange. In this way, from FECA to LECA, we can think of organisms that can be considered as protoeukaryotes. At the end of the process, LECA was already a complex organism with the presence of protein families involved in cellular compartmentalization. Diversification: crown eukaryotes In turn, the LECA gave rise to the eukaryotes' crown group, containing the ancestors of animals, fungi, plants, and a diverse range of single-celled organisms with the new capabilities and complexity of the eukaryotic cell. Single cells without cell walls are fragile and have a low probability of being fossilised. If fossilised, they have few features to distinguish them clearly from prokaryotes: size, morphological complexity, and (eventually) multicellularity. Early eukaryote fossils, from the late Paleoproterozoic, include acritarch microfossils with relatively robust ornate carbonaceous vesicles of Tappania from 1.63 gya and Shuiyousphaeridium from 1.8 gya. References ^ a b c McGrath, Casey (31 May 2022). "Highlight: Unraveling the Origins of LUCA and LECA on the Tree of Life". Genome Biology and Evolution. 14 (6): evac072. doi:10.1093/gbe/evac072. PMC 9168435. ^ Weiss, Madeline C.; Sousa, F. L.; Mrnjavac, N.; et al. (2016). "The physiology and habitat of the last universal common ancestor" (PDF). Nature Microbiology. 1 (9): 16116. doi:10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.116. PMID 27562259. S2CID 2997255. ^ a b Gabaldón, T. (October 2021). "Origin and Early Evolution of the Eukaryotic Cell". Annual Review of Microbiology. 75 (1): 631–647. doi:10.1146/annurev-micro-090817-062213. PMID 34343017. S2CID 236916203. ^ a b Woese, C.R.; Kandler, Otto; Wheelis, Mark L. (June 1990). "Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 87 (12): 4576–4579. Bibcode:1990PNAS...87.4576W. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576. PMC 54159. PMID 2112744. ^ a b Latorre, A.; Durban, A; Moya, A.; Pereto, J. (2011). "The role of symbiosis in eukaryotic evolution". In Gargaud, Muriel; López-Garcìa, Purificacion; Martin H. (eds.). Origins and Evolution of Life: An astrobiological perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 326–339. ISBN 978-0-521-76131-4. Archived from the original on 24 March 2019. Retrieved 27 August 2017. ^ Margulis, Lynn; Chapman, Michael; Guerrero, Ricardo; Hall, John (29 August 2006). "The last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA): Acquisition of cytoskeletal motility from aerotolerant spirochetes in the Proterozoic Eon". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (35): 13080–13085. Bibcode:2006PNAS..10313080M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0604985103. PMC 1559756. PMID 16938841. ^ Williams, Tom A.; Cox, Cymon J.; Foster, Peter G.; Szöllősi, Gergely J.; Embley, T. Martin (9 December 2019). "Phylogenomics provides robust support for a two-domains tree of life". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 4 (1): 138–147. Bibcode:2019NatEE...4..138W. doi:10.1038/s41559-019-1040-x. PMC 6942926. PMID 31819234. ^ O'Malley, Maureen A.; Leger, Michelle M.; Wideman, Jeremy G.; Ruiz-Trillo, Iñaki (18 February 2019). "Concepts of the last eukaryotic common ancestor". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 3 (3): 338–344. Bibcode:2019NatEE...3..338O. doi:10.1038/s41559-019-0796-3. hdl:10261/201794. PMID 30778187. S2CID 256718457. ^ a b Leander, B. S. (May 2020). "Predatory protists". Current Biology. 30 (10): R510–R516. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.052. PMID 32428491. S2CID 218710816. ^ a b Strassert, Jürgen F. H.; Irisarri, Iker; Williams, Tom A.; Burki, Fabien (25 March 2021). "A molecular timescale for eukaryote evolution with implications for the origin of red algal-derived plastids". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 1879. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.1879S. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-22044-z. PMC 7994803. PMID 33767194. ^ Bremer, Nico; Tria, Fernando D. K.; Skejo, Josip; Garg, Sriram G.; Martin, William F. (31 May 2022). "Ancestral State Reconstructions Trace Mitochondria But Not Phagocytosis to the Last Eukaryotic Common Ancestor". Genome Biology and Evolution. 14 (6). doi:10.1093/gbe/evac079. PMC 9185374. PMID 35642316. ^ a b c d e Koumandou, V. Lila; Wickstead, Bill; Ginger, Michael L.; van der Giezen, Mark; Dacks, Joel B.; Field, Mark C. (2013). "Molecular paleontology and complexity in the last eukaryotic common ancestor". Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 48 (4): 373–396. doi:10.3109/10409238.2013.821444. PMC 3791482. PMID 23895660. ^ Makarova, Kira S.; Yutin, Natalya; Bell, Stephen D.; Koonin, Eugene V. (6 September 2010). "Evolution of diverse cell division and vesicle formation systems in Archaea". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 8 (10): 731–741. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2406. PMC 3293450. PMID 20818414. ^ Martin, William; Koonin, Eugene V. (2006). "Introns and the origin of nucleus–cytosol compartmentalization". Nature. 440 (7080): 41–45. doi:10.1038/nature04531. ISSN 0028-0836. ^ a b c Horandl, E.; Speijer, D. (7 February 2018). "How oxygen gave rise to eukaryotic sex". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 285 (1872). The Royal Society. doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.2706. PMC 5829205. PMID 29436502. ^ Dacks, J.; Roger, A. J. (1999). "The first sexual lineage and the relevance of facultative sex". Journal of Molecular Evolution. 48 (6): 779–783. Bibcode:1999JMolE..48..779D. doi:10.1007/pl00013156. PMID 10229582. S2CID 9441768. ^ Lane, Nick; Martin, William F. (2010). "The energetics of genome complexity". Nature. 467 (7318): 929–934. Bibcode:2010Natur.467..929L. doi:10.1038/nature09486. PMID 20962839. S2CID 17086117. ^ Koonin, Eugene V. (March 2005). "The incredible expanding ancestor of eukaryotes". Cell. 140 (5): 606–608. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2010.02.022. PMC 3293451. PMID 20211127. ^ Martijn, J.; Ettema, T.J.G. (February 2013). "From archaeon to eukaryote: the evolutionary dark ages of the eukaryotic cell". Biochem Soc Trans. 41 (1): 451–7. doi:10.1042/BST20120292. PMID 23356327. ^ Van de Peer, Yves; Baldaufrid, Sandra L.; Doolittle, W. Ford; Meyerid, Axel (2000). "An Updated and Comprehensive rRNA Phylogeny of (Crown) Eukaryotes Based on Rate-Calibrated Evolutionary Distances". Journal of Molecular Evolution. 51 (6): 565–576. Bibcode:2000JMolE..51..565V. doi:10.1007/s002390010120. PMID 11116330. S2CID 9400485. ^ a b Butterfield, N.J. (2015). "Early evolution of the Eukaryota". Palaeontology. 58 (1): 5–17. Bibcode:2015Palgy..58....5B. doi:10.1111/pala.12139. External links Attraction and sex among our microbial Last Eukaryotic Common Ancestors, The Atlantic, November 11, 2020 vteEukaryote classification Domain Archaea Bacteria Eukaryota (major groups Excavata Diaphoretickes Hacrobia Rhizaria Alveolata Stramenopiles Plants Amorphea Amoebozoa Opisthokonta Animals Fungi) AmorpheaAmoebozoa Discosea Tubulinea Eumycetozoa Variosea Archamoebea Cutosea    Obazoa    Apusomonadida Breviatea OpisthokontaHolomycota Rotosphaerida Fungi¹    Holozoa    Tunicaraptor †Bicellum Ichthyosporea Pluriformea Filozoa Filasterea Choanozoa Choanoflagellata Animalia¹ Diaphoretickes Provora Haptista Centroplasthelida Haptophyta     TSAR     Telonemia      SAR     Rhizaria Cercozoa Endomyxa Foraminifera Radiolaria Alveolata Colponemida* Ciliophora Myzozoa Apicomplexa Chrompodellida Dinoflagellata Perkinsozoa Stramenopiles Platysulcus Bigyra Bicosoecida Placidozoa Sagenista Gyrista Developea Pirsoniales Hyphochytriomycetes Ochrophyta Oomycetes Actinophryida      CAM     Pan-Cryptista Microheliella Cryptista Palpitomonas Cryptophyta Archaeplastida Glaucophyta Picozoa Rhodelphidia Rhodophyta Viridiplantae(Plants sensu lato) Prasinodermophyta Chlorophyta Streptophyta Chlorokybus Mesostigma Klebsormidiophyceae Charophyceae Coleochaetophyceae Zygnematophyceae Embryophyta¹ Excavates*Discoba Jakobida Tsukubamonas Discicristata Heterolobosea Euglenozoa Metamonada Barthelona Anaeramoebae Anaeromonada Fornicata Parabasalia Malawimonada Malawimonadidae Imasidae Incertae sedis †Acritarchs †Grypania †Gunflint microbiota †Chitinozoan Meteora sporadica Hemimastigophora Spironematellidae Paramastigidae Ancyromonadida Ancyromonadidae Planomonadidae CRuMs Collodictyonidae Mantamonadida Rigifilida ¹traditional kingdoms excluded from protists *paraphyletic groups bold denotes groups with over 1,000 species

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Much earlier, some 4 billion years ago, the LUCA gave rise to the two domains of prokaryotes, the bacteria and the archaea. After the LECA, some 2 billion years ago, the eukaryotes diversified into a crown group, which gave rise to animals, plants, fungi, and protists.Eukaryogenesis, the process which created the eukaryotic cell and lineage, is a milestone in the evolution of life, since eukaryotes include all complex cells and almost all multicellular organisms. The process is widely agreed to have involved symbiogenesis, in which archaea and bacteria came together to create the first eukaryotic common ancestor (FECA). This cell had a new level of complexity and capability, with a nucleus, at least one centriole and cilium, facultatively aerobic mitochondria, sex (meiosis and syngamy), a dormant cyst with a cell wall of chitin and/or cellulose and peroxisomes. It evolved into a population of single-celled organisms that included the last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA), gaining capabilities along the way, though the sequence of the steps involved has been disputed, and may not have started with symbiogenesis. In turn, the LECA gave rise to the eukaryotes' crown group, containing the ancestors of animals, fungi, plants, and a diverse range of single-celled organisms.","title":"Eukaryogenesis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Abiogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis"},{"link_name":"Last universal common ancestor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor"},{"link_name":"last eukaryotic common ancestor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_eukaryotic_common_ancestor"},{"link_name":"Life arose on Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abiogenesis"},{"link_name":"last universal common ancestor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor"},{"link_name":"organism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism"},{"link_name":"ribosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome"},{"link_name":"genetic code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_code"},{"link_name":"prokaryotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote"},{"link_name":"bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"},{"link_name":"archaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McGrath_2022-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Weiss_et_al_2016-2"},{"link_name":"domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_(biology)"},{"link_name":"multicellular organism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicellular_organism"},{"link_name":"animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal"},{"link_name":"plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant"},{"link_name":"fungi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gabald%C3%B3n-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-w1990-4"}],"text":"Further information: Abiogenesis, Last universal common ancestor, and last eukaryotic common ancestorLife arose on Earth once it had cooled enough for oceans to form. The last universal common ancestor (LUCA) was an organism which had ribosomes and the genetic code; it lived some 4 billion years ago. It gave rise to two main branches of prokaryotic life, the bacteria and the archaea. From among these small-celled, rapidly-dividing ancestors arose the Eukaryotes, with much larger cells, nuclei, and distinctive biochemistry.[1][2] The eukaryotes form a domain that contains all complex cells and most types of multicellular organism, including the animals, plants, and fungi.[3][4]","title":"Context"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Symbiogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiogenesis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Symbiogenesis_2_mergers.svg"},{"link_name":"symbiogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiogenesis"},{"link_name":"archaean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea"},{"link_name":"mitochondria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrion"},{"link_name":"chloroplasts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloroplast"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-latorre-5"},{"link_name":"symbiogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiogenesis"},{"link_name":"Lynn Margulis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Margulis"},{"link_name":"Asgard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asgard_(archaea)"},{"link_name":"Alphaproteobacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphaproteobacteria"},{"link_name":"reducing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox"},{"link_name":"mitochondria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrion"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McGrath_2022-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-latorre-5"},{"link_name":"Lynn Margulis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Margulis"},{"link_name":"Spirochaete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirochaete"},{"link_name":"cell skeleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoskeleton"},{"link_name":"microtubules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtubule"},{"link_name":"chromosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome"},{"link_name":"mitosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Margulis_Chapman_Guerrero_Hall_2006-6"},{"link_name":"Heimdallarchaeota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimdallarchaeota"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Williams_Cox_Foster_Sz%C3%B6ll%C5%91si_2019_pp._138%E2%80%93147-7"}],"text":"Further information: SymbiogenesisIn the theory of symbiogenesis, a merger of an archaean and an aerobic bacterium created the eukaryotes, with aerobic mitochondria, some 2.2 billion years ago. A second merger, 1.6 billion years ago, added chloroplasts, creating the green plants.[5]According to the theory of symbiogenesis (also known as the endosymbiotic theory) championed by Lynn Margulis, a member of the archaea gained a bacterial cell as a component. The archaeal cell was a member of the Asgard group. The bacterium was one of the Alphaproteobacteria, which had the ability to use oxygen in its respiration. This enabled it – and the archaeal cells that included it – to survive in the presence of oxygen, which was poisonous to other organisms adapted to reducing conditions. The endosymbiotic bacteria became the eukaryotic cell's mitochondria, providing most of the energy of the cell.[1][5] Lynn Margulis and colleagues have suggested that the cell also acquired a Spirochaete bacterium as a symbiont, providing the cell skeleton of microtubules and the ability to move, including the ability to pull chromosomes into two sets during mitosis, cell division.[6] More recently, the Asgard archaean has been identified as belonging to the Heimdallarchaeota.[7]","title":"Symbiogenesis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"last common ancestor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gabald%C3%B3n-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-w1990-4"},{"link_name":"biological population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O'Malley_Leger_Wideman_Ruiz-Trillo_2019-8"},{"link_name":"centriole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centriole"},{"link_name":"cilium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilium"},{"link_name":"meiosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis"},{"link_name":"syngamy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syngamy"},{"link_name":"cyst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyst"},{"link_name":"chitin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitin"},{"link_name":"cellulose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose"},{"link_name":"peroxisomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peroxisome"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leander_R510%E2%80%93R516-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strassert_Irisarri_Williams_Burki_2021-10"},{"link_name":"phagocytosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phagocytosis"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leander_R510%E2%80%93R516-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Strassert_Irisarri_Williams_Burki_2021-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bremer_Tria_Skejo_Garg_2022-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koumandou_Wickstead_Ginger_van_der_Giezen_2013-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koumandou_Wickstead_Ginger_van_der_Giezen_2013-12"},{"link_name":"endosomal sorting complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESCRT"},{"link_name":"vesicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesicle_(biology_and_chemistry)"},{"link_name":"endosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosome"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Makarova_Yutin_Bell_Koonin_2010-13"},{"link_name":"transcribing DNA into RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotic_transcription"},{"link_name":"translating the RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(biology)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martin_Koonin_2006_pp._41%E2%80%9345-14"},{"link_name":"evolvability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolvability"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koumandou_Wickstead_Ginger_van_der_Giezen_2013-12"}],"text":"The last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA) is the hypothetical last common ancestor of all living eukaryotes, around 2 billion years ago,[3][4] and was most likely a biological population.[8] It is believed to have been a protist with a nucleus, at least one centriole and cilium, facultatively aerobic mitochondria, sex (meiosis and syngamy), a dormant cyst with a cell wall of chitin and/or cellulose, and peroxisomes.[9][10]It had been proposed that the LECA fed by phagocytosis, engulfing other organisms.[9][10] However, in 2022, Nico Bremer and colleagues confirmed that the LECA had mitochondria, and stated that it had multiple nuclei, but disputed that it was phagotrophic. This would mean that the ability found in many eukaryotes to engulf materials developed later, rather than being acquired first and then used to engulf the alphaproteobacteria that became mitochondria.[11]The LECA has been described as having \"spectacular cellular complexity\".[12] Its cell was divided into compartments.[12] It appears to have inherited a set of endosomal sorting complex proteins that enable membranes to be remodelled, including pinching off vesicles to form endosomes.[13]\nIts apparatuses for transcribing DNA into RNA, and then for translating the RNA into proteins, were separated, permitting extensive RNA processing and allowing the expression of genes to become more complex.[14] It had mechanisms for reshuffling its genetic material, and possibly for manipulating its own evolvability. All of these gave the LECA \"a compelling cohort of selective advantages\".[12]","title":"Last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"meiosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis"},{"link_name":"fertilisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation"},{"link_name":"reproduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horandl_2018-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"phylogenetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetics"},{"link_name":"reactive oxygen species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horandl_2018-15"},{"link_name":"homologous recombination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homologous_recombination"},{"link_name":"repair such DNA damage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_repair"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Horandl_2018-15"}],"sub_title":"Eukaryotic sex","text":"Sex in eukaryotes is a composite process, consisting of meiosis and fertilisation, which can be coupled to reproduction.[15] Dacks and Roger[16] proposed on the basis of a phylogenetic analysis that facultative sex was likely present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes. Early in eukaryotic evolution, about 2 billion years ago, organisms needed a solution to the major problem that oxidative metabolism releases reactive oxygen species that damage the genetic material, DNA.[15] Eukaryotic sex provides a process, homologous recombination during meiosis, for using informational redundancy to repair such DNA damage.[15]","title":"Last eukaryotic common ancestor (LECA)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gya"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koumandou_Wickstead_Ginger_van_der_Giezen_2013-12"},{"link_name":"Nick Lane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nick_Lane"},{"link_name":"William Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_F._Martin"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lane_Martin_2010-17"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koumandou_Wickstead_Ginger_van_der_Giezen_2013-12"},{"link_name":"Eugene Koonin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Koonin"},{"link_name":"membrane-lined compartments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organelle"},{"link_name":"cell wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_wall"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koonin_2005-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Biologists have proposed multiple scenarios for the creation of the eukaryotes. While there is broad agreement that the LECA must have had a nucleus, mitochondria, and internal membranes, the order in which these were acquired has been disputed. In the syntrophic model, the first eukaryotic common ancestor (FECA, around 2.2 gya) gained mitochondria, then membranes, then a nucleus. In the phagotrophic model, it gained a nucleus, then membranes, then mitochondria. In a more complex process, it gained all three in short order, then other capabilities. Other models have been proposed. Whatever happened, many lineages must have been created, but the LECA either out-competed or came together with the other lineages to form a single point of origin for the eukaryotes.[12] Nick Lane and William Martin have argued that mitochondria came first, on the grounds that energy had been the limiting factor on the size of the prokaryotic cell.[17] The phagotrophic model presupposes the ability to engulf food, enabling the cell to engulf the aerobic bacterium that became the mitochondrion.[12]Eugene Koonin and others, noting that the archaea share many features with eukaryotes, argue that rudimentary eukaryotic traits such as membrane-lined compartments were acquired before endosymbiosis added mitochondria to the early eukaryotic cell, while the cell wall was lost. In the same way, mitochondrial acquisition must not be regarded as the end of the process, for still new complex families of genes had to be developed after or during the endosymbiotic exchange. In this way, from FECA to LECA, we can think of organisms that can be considered as protoeukaryotes. At the end of the process, LECA was already a complex organism with the presence of protein families involved in cellular compartmentalization.[18][19]","title":"Scenarios"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"crown group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_group"},{"link_name":"animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal"},{"link_name":"fungi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus"},{"link_name":"plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant"},{"link_name":"range of single-celled organisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Van_de_Peer_Baldaufrid_Doolittle_Meyerid_2000-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Butterfield_2015-21"},{"link_name":"being fossilised","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taphonomy"},{"link_name":"multicellularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicellularity"},{"link_name":"Paleoproterozoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoproterozoic"},{"link_name":"acritarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acritarch"},{"link_name":"Tappania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tappania"},{"link_name":"gya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gya"},{"link_name":"Shuiyousphaeridium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuiyousphaeridium"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Butterfield_2015-21"}],"text":"In turn, the LECA gave rise to the eukaryotes' crown group, containing the ancestors of animals, fungi, plants, and a diverse range of single-celled organisms with the new capabilities and complexity of the eukaryotic cell.[20][21] Single cells without cell walls are fragile and have a low probability of being fossilised. If fossilised, they have few features to distinguish them clearly from prokaryotes: size, morphological complexity, and (eventually) multicellularity. Early eukaryote fossils, from the late Paleoproterozoic, include acritarch microfossils with relatively robust ornate carbonaceous vesicles of Tappania from 1.63 gya and Shuiyousphaeridium from 1.8 gya.[21]","title":"Diversification: crown eukaryotes"}]

[{"image_text":"LUCA and LECA: the origins of the eukaryotes.[1] The point of fusion (marked \"?\") below LECA is the FECA, the first eukaryotic common ancestor, some 2.2 billion years ago. Much earlier, some 4 billion years ago, the LUCA gave rise to the two domains of prokaryotes, the bacteria and the archaea. After the LECA, some 2 billion years ago, the eukaryotes diversified into a crown group, which gave rise to animals, plants, fungi, and protists.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/LUCA_and_LECA_McGrath_2022.jpg/440px-LUCA_and_LECA_McGrath_2022.jpg"},{"image_text":"In the theory of symbiogenesis, a merger of an archaean and an aerobic bacterium created the eukaryotes, with aerobic mitochondria, some 2.2 billion years ago. A second merger, 1.6 billion years ago, added chloroplasts, creating the green plants.[5]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Symbiogenesis_2_mergers.svg/400px-Symbiogenesis_2_mergers.svg.png"}]

[{"reference":"McGrath, Casey (31 May 2022). \"Highlight: Unraveling the Origins of LUCA and LECA on the Tree of Life\". Genome Biology and Evolution. 14 (6): evac072. doi:10.1093/gbe/evac072. PMC 9168435.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9168435","url_text":"\"Highlight: Unraveling the Origins of LUCA and LECA on the Tree of Life\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgbe%2Fevac072","url_text":"10.1093/gbe/evac072"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9168435","url_text":"9168435"}]},{"reference":"Weiss, Madeline C.; Sousa, F. L.; Mrnjavac, N.; et al. (2016). \"The physiology and habitat of the last universal common ancestor\" (PDF). Nature Microbiology. 1 (9): 16116. doi:10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.116. PMID 27562259. S2CID 2997255.","urls":[{"url":"http://complexityexplorer.s3.amazonaws.com/supplemental_materials/3.6+Early+Metabolisms/Weiss_et_al_Nat_Microbiol_2016.pdf","url_text":"\"The physiology and habitat of the last universal common ancestor\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnmicrobiol.2016.116","url_text":"10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.116"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27562259","url_text":"27562259"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2997255","url_text":"2997255"}]},{"reference":"Gabaldón, T. (October 2021). \"Origin and Early Evolution of the Eukaryotic Cell\". Annual Review of Microbiology. 75 (1): 631–647. doi:10.1146/annurev-micro-090817-062213. PMID 34343017. S2CID 236916203.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-micro-090817-062213","url_text":"10.1146/annurev-micro-090817-062213"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34343017","url_text":"34343017"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236916203","url_text":"236916203"}]},{"reference":"Woese, C.R.; Kandler, Otto; Wheelis, Mark L. (June 1990). \"Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 87 (12): 4576–4579. Bibcode:1990PNAS...87.4576W. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576. PMC 54159. PMID 2112744.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Woese","url_text":"Woese, C.R."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Kandler","url_text":"Kandler, Otto"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Wheelis","url_text":"Wheelis, Mark L."},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC54159","url_text":"\"Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990PNAS...87.4576W","url_text":"1990PNAS...87.4576W"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.87.12.4576","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC54159","url_text":"54159"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2112744","url_text":"2112744"}]},{"reference":"Latorre, A.; Durban, A; Moya, A.; Pereto, J. (2011). \"The role of symbiosis in eukaryotic evolution\". In Gargaud, Muriel; López-Garcìa, Purificacion; Martin H. (eds.). Origins and Evolution of Life: An astrobiological perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 326–339. ISBN 978-0-521-76131-4. Archived from the original on 24 March 2019. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shockley_diode_equation

Shockley diode equation

["1 Limitations","2 Derivation","3 Photovoltaic energy conversion","4 References"]

Electrical engineering equation Diode law current–voltage curves at 25 °C, 50 °C, and two ideality factors. The logarithmic scale used for the bottom plot is useful for expressing the equation's exponential relationship. The Shockley diode equation, or the diode law, named after transistor co-inventor William Shockley of Bell Labs, models the exponential current–voltage (I–V) relationship of semiconductor diodes in moderate constant current forward bias or reverse bias: I D = I S ( e V D n V T − 1 ) , {\displaystyle I_{\text{D}}=I_{\text{S}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{D}}}{nV_{\text{T}}}}-1\right),} where I D {\displaystyle I_{\text{D}}} is the diode current, I S {\displaystyle I_{\text{S}}} is the reverse-bias saturation current (or scale current), V D {\displaystyle V_{\text{D}}} is the voltage across the diode, V T {\displaystyle V_{\text{T}}} is the thermal voltage, and n {\displaystyle n} is the ideality factor, also known as the quality factor or emission coefficient. The equation is called the Shockley ideal diode equation when the ideality factor n {\displaystyle n} equals 1, thus n {\displaystyle n} is sometimes omitted. The ideality factor typically varies from 1 to 2 (though can in some cases be higher), depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material. The ideality factor was added to account for imperfect junctions observed in real transistors, mainly due to carrier recombination as charge carriers cross the depletion region. The thermal voltage V T {\displaystyle V_{\text{T}}} is approximately 25.852 mV at 300 K (27 °C; 80 °F). At an arbitrary temperature, it is a known constant: V T = k T q , {\displaystyle V_{\text{T}}={\frac {kT}{q}},} where k {\displaystyle k} is the Boltzmann constant, T {\displaystyle T} is the absolute temperature of the p–n junction, and q {\displaystyle q} is the elementary charge (the magnitude of an electron's charge). The reverse saturation current I S {\displaystyle I_{\text{S}}} is not constant for a given device, but varies with temperature; usually more significantly than V T {\displaystyle V_{\text{T}}} , so that V D {\displaystyle V_{\text{D}}} typically decreases as T {\displaystyle T} increases. Under reverse bias, the diode equation's exponential term is near 0, so the current is near the somewhat constant − I S {\displaystyle -I_{\text{S}}} reverse current value (roughly a picoampere for silicon diodes or a microampere for germanium diodes, although this is obviously a function of size). For moderate forward bias voltages the exponential becomes much larger than 1, since the thermal voltage is very small in comparison. The − 1 {\displaystyle -1} in the diode equation is then negligible, so the forward diode current will approximate I S e V D n V T . {\displaystyle I_{\text{S}}e^{\frac {V_{\text{D}}}{nV_{\text{T}}}}.} The use of the diode equation in circuit problems is illustrated in the article on diode modeling. Limitations Internal resistance causes "leveling off" of a real diode's I–V curve at high forward bias. The Shockley equation doesn't model this, but adding a resistance in series will. The reverse breakdown region (particularly of interest for Zener diodes) is not modeled by the Shockley equation. The Shockley equation doesn't model noise (such as Johnson–Nyquist noise from the internal resistance, or shot noise). The Shockley equation is a constant current (steady state) relationship, and thus doesn't account for the diode's transient response, which includes the influence of its internal junction and diffusion capacitance and reverse recovery time. Derivation Shockley derives an equation for the voltage across a p-n junction in a long article published in 1949. Later he gives a corresponding equation for current as a function of voltage under additional assumptions, which is the equation we call the Shockley ideal diode equation. He calls it "a theoretical rectification formula giving the maximum rectification", with a footnote referencing a paper by Carl Wagner, Physikalische Zeitschrift 32, pp. 641–645 (1931). To derive his equation for the voltage, Shockley argues that the total voltage drop can be divided into three parts: the drop of the quasi-Fermi level of holes from the level of the applied voltage at the p terminal to its value at the point where doping is neutral (which we may call the junction), the difference between the quasi-Fermi level of the holes at the junction and that of the electrons at the junction, the drop of the quasi-Fermi level of the electrons from the junction to the n terminal. He shows that the first and the third of these can be expressed as a resistance times the current: I D R 1 . {\displaystyle I_{\text{D}}R_{1}.} As for the second, the difference between the quasi-Fermi levels at the junction, he says that we can estimate the current flowing through the diode from this difference. He points out that the current at the p terminal is all holes, whereas at the n terminal it is all electrons, and the sum of these two is the constant total current. So the total current is equal to the decrease in hole current from one side of the diode to the other. This decrease is due to an excess of recombination of electron-hole pairs over generation of electron-hole pairs. The rate of recombination is equal to the rate of generation when at equilibrium, that is, when the two quasi-Fermi levels are equal. But when the quasi-Fermi levels are not equal, then the recombination rate is e ( ϕ p − ϕ n ) / V T {\displaystyle e^{(\phi _{\text{p}}-\phi _{\text{n}})/V_{\text{T}}}} times the rate of generation. We then assume that most of the excess recombination (or decrease in hole current) takes place in a layer going by one hole diffusion length L p {\displaystyle L_{\text{p}}} into the n material and one electron diffusion length L n {\displaystyle L_{\text{n}}} into the p material, and that the difference between the quasi-Fermi levels is constant in this layer at V J . {\displaystyle V_{\text{J}}.} Then we find that the total current, or the drop in hole current, is I D = I S ( e V J V T − 1 ) , {\displaystyle I_{\text{D}}=I_{\text{S}}\left(e^{\frac {V_{\text{J}}}{V_{\text{T}}}}-1\right),} where I S = g q ( L p + L n ) , {\displaystyle I_{\text{S}}=gq(L_{\text{p}}+L_{\text{n}}),} and g {\displaystyle g} is the generation rate. We can solve for V J {\displaystyle V_{\text{J}}} in terms of I D {\displaystyle I_{\text{D}}} : V J = V T ln ⁡ ( 1 + I D I S ) , {\displaystyle V_{\text{J}}=V_{\text{T}}\ln \left(1+{\frac {I_{\text{D}}}{I_{\text{S}}}}\right),} and the total voltage drop is then V = I D R 1 + V T ln ⁡ ( 1 + I D I S ) . {\displaystyle V=I_{\text{D}}R_{1}+V_{\text{T}}\ln \left(1+{\frac {I_{\text{D}}}{I_{\text{S}}}}\right).} When we assume that R 1 {\displaystyle R_{1}} is small, we obtain V = V J {\displaystyle V=V_{\text{J}}} and the Shockley ideal diode equation. The small current that flows under high reverse bias is then the result of thermal generation of electron–hole pairs in the layer. The electrons then flow to the n terminal, and the holes to the p terminal. The concentrations of electrons and holes in the layer is so small that recombination there is negligible. In 1950, Shockley and coworkers published a short article describing a germanium diode that closely followed the ideal equation. In 1954, Bill Pfann and W. van Roosbroek (who were also of Bell Telephone Laboratories) reported that while Shockley's equation was applicable to certain germanium junctions, for many silicon junctions the current (under appreciable forward bias) was proportional to e V J / A V T , {\displaystyle e^{V_{\text{J}}/AV_{\text{T}}},} with A having a value as high as 2 or 3. This is the ideality factor n {\displaystyle n} above. Photovoltaic energy conversion In 1981, Alexis de Vos and Herman Pauwels showed that a more careful analysis of the quantum mechanics of a junction, under certain assumptions, gives a current versus voltage characteristic of the form I D ( V ) = − q A [ F i − 2 F o ( V ) ] , {\displaystyle I_{\text{D}}(V)=-qA,} in which A is the cross-sectional area of the junction, and Fi is the number of incoming photons per unit area, per unit time, with energy over the band-gap energy, and Fo(V) is outgoing photons, given by F o ( V ) = ∫ ν g ∞ 1 exp ⁡ ( h ν − q V k T c ) − 1 2 π ν 2 c 2 d ν . {\displaystyle F_{o}(V)=\int _{\nu _{g}}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{\exp \left({\frac {h\nu -qV}{kT_{c}}}\right)-1}}{\frac {2\pi \nu ^{2}}{c^{2}}}\,d\nu .} The factor of 2 multiplying the outgoing flux is needed because photons are emitted from both sides, but the incoming flux is assumed to come from just one side. Although the analysis was done for photovoltaic cells under illumination, it applies also when the illumination is simply background thermal radiation, provided that a factor of 2 is then used for this incoming flux as well. The analysis gives a more rigorous expression for ideal diodes in general, except that it assumes that the cell is thick enough that it can produce this flux of photons. When the illumination is just background thermal radiation, the characteristic is I D ( V ) = 2 q [ F o ( V ) − F o ( 0 ) ] . {\displaystyle I_{\text{D}}(V)=2q.} Note that, in contrast to the Shockley law, the current goes to infinity as the voltage goes to the gap voltage hνg/q. This of course would require an infinite thickness to provide an infinite amount of recombination. This equation was recently revised to account for the new temperature scaling in the revised current I S {\displaystyle I_{\text{S}}} using a recent model for 2D materials based Schottky diode. References ^ McAllister, Willy (2022-11-14). "Diode equation". Spinning Numbers. Retrieved 2023-01-17. ^ William Shockley (Jul 1949). "The Theory of p-n Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction Transistors". The Bell System Technical Journal. 28 (3): 435–489. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x.. Equation 3.13 on page 454. ^ Ibid. p. 456. ^ F. S. Goucher; et al. (Dec 1950). "Theory and Experiment for a Germanium p-n Junction". Physical Review. 81. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.81.637.2. ^ W. G. Pfann; W. van Roosbroek (Nov 1954). "Radioactive and Photoelectric p‐n Junction Power Sources". Journal of Applied Physics. 25 (11): 1422–1434. Bibcode:1954JAP....25.1422P. doi:10.1063/1.1721579. ^ A. De Vos and H. Pauwels (1981). "On the Thermodynamic Limit of Photovoltaic Energy Conversion". Appl. Phys. 25 (2): 119–125. Bibcode:1981ApPhy..25..119D. doi:10.1007/BF00901283. S2CID 119693148.. Appendix. ^ Y. S. Ang, H. Y. Yang and L. K. Ang (August 2018). "Universal scaling in nanoscale lateral Schottky heterostructures". Phys. Rev. Lett. 121: 056802.

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The logarithmic scale used for the bottom plot is useful for expressing the equation's exponential relationship.The Shockley diode equation, or the diode law, named after transistor co-inventor William Shockley of Bell Labs, models the exponential current–voltage (I–V) relationship of semiconductor diodes in moderate constant current forward bias or reverse bias:I\n \n D\n \n \n =\n \n I\n \n S\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n e\n \n \n \n V\n \n D\n \n \n \n n\n \n V\n \n T\n \n \n \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n )\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{D}}=I_{\\text{S}}\\left(e^{\\frac {V_{\\text{D}}}{nV_{\\text{T}}}}-1\\right),}whereI\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{D}}}\n \n is the diode current,\n\n \n \n \n \n I\n \n S\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{S}}}\n \n is the reverse-bias saturation current (or scale current),\n\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\text{D}}}\n \n is the voltage across the diode,\n\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n T\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\text{T}}}\n \n is the thermal voltage, and\n\n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n is the ideality factor, also known as the quality factor or emission coefficient.The equation is called the Shockley ideal diode equation when the ideality factor \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n equals 1, thus \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n is sometimes omitted. The ideality factor typically varies from 1 to 2 (though can in some cases be higher), depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material. The ideality factor was added to account for imperfect junctions observed in real transistors, mainly due to carrier recombination as charge carriers cross the depletion region.The thermal voltage \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n T\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\text{T}}}\n \n is approximately 25.852 mV at 300 K (27 °C; 80 °F). At an arbitrary temperature, it is a known constant:V\n \n T\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n k\n T\n \n q\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\text{T}}={\\frac {kT}{q}},}wherek\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n is the Boltzmann constant,\n\n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n is the absolute temperature of the p–n junction, and\n\n \n \n \n q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle q}\n \n is the elementary charge (the magnitude of an electron's charge).The reverse saturation current \n \n \n \n \n I\n \n S\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{S}}}\n \n is not constant for a given device, but varies with temperature; usually more significantly than \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n T\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\text{T}}}\n \n, so that \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\text{D}}}\n \n typically decreases as \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n increases.Under reverse bias, the diode equation's exponential term is near 0, so the current is near the somewhat constant \n \n \n \n −\n \n I\n \n S\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle -I_{\\text{S}}}\n \n reverse current value (roughly a picoampere for silicon diodes or a microampere for germanium diodes,[1] although this is obviously a function of size).For moderate forward bias voltages the exponential becomes much larger than 1, since the thermal voltage is very small in comparison. The \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle -1}\n \n in the diode equation is then negligible, so the forward diode current will approximateI\n \n S\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n \n V\n \n D\n \n \n \n n\n \n V\n \n T\n \n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{S}}e^{\\frac {V_{\\text{D}}}{nV_{\\text{T}}}}.}The use of the diode equation in circuit problems is illustrated in the article on diode modeling.","title":"Shockley diode equation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"in series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_series"},{"link_name":"reverse breakdown region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakdown_voltage#Diodes_and_other_semiconductors"},{"link_name":"Zener diodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_diodes"},{"link_name":"noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"Johnson–Nyquist noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson%E2%80%93Nyquist_noise"},{"link_name":"shot noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shot_noise#Effects_of_interactions"},{"link_name":"constant current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_current"},{"link_name":"diode's transient response","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_diode#Transient_response"},{"link_name":"junction and diffusion capacitance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_diode#Capacitance"},{"link_name":"reverse recovery time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode#Reverse-recovery_effect"}],"text":"Internal resistance causes \"leveling off\" of a real diode's I–V curve at high forward bias. The Shockley equation doesn't model this, but adding a resistance in series will.The reverse breakdown region (particularly of interest for Zener diodes) is not modeled by the Shockley equation.The Shockley equation doesn't model noise (such as Johnson–Nyquist noise from the internal resistance, or shot noise).The Shockley equation is a constant current (steady state) relationship, and thus doesn't account for the diode's transient response, which includes the influence of its internal junction and diffusion capacitance and reverse recovery time.","title":"Limitations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"p-n junction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-n_junction"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Carl Wagner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Wagner"},{"link_name":"Physikalische Zeitschrift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physikalische_Zeitschrift"},{"link_name":"quasi-Fermi level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-Fermi_level"},{"link_name":"germanium diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium_diode"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Bill Pfann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gardner_Pfann"},{"link_name":"W. van Roosbroek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=W._van_Roosbroek&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Shockley derives an equation for the voltage across a p-n junction in a long article published in 1949.[2] Later he gives a corresponding equation for current as a function of voltage under additional assumptions, which is the equation we call the Shockley ideal diode equation.[3] He calls it \"a theoretical rectification formula giving the maximum rectification\", with a footnote referencing a paper by Carl Wagner, Physikalische Zeitschrift 32, pp. 641–645 (1931).To derive his equation for the voltage, Shockley argues that the total voltage drop can be divided into three parts:the drop of the quasi-Fermi level of holes from the level of the applied voltage at the p terminal to its value at the point where doping is neutral (which we may call the junction),\nthe difference between the quasi-Fermi level of the holes at the junction and that of the electrons at the junction,\nthe drop of the quasi-Fermi level of the electrons from the junction to the n terminal.He shows that the first and the third of these can be expressed as a resistance times the current: \n \n \n \n \n I\n \n D\n \n \n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{D}}R_{1}.}\n \n As for the second, the difference between the quasi-Fermi levels at the junction, he says that we can estimate the current flowing through the diode from this difference. He points out that the current at the p terminal is all holes, whereas at the n terminal it is all electrons, and the sum of these two is the constant total current. So the total current is equal to the decrease in hole current from one side of the diode to the other. This decrease is due to an excess of recombination of electron-hole pairs over generation of electron-hole pairs. The rate of recombination is equal to the rate of generation when at equilibrium, that is, when the two quasi-Fermi levels are equal. But when the quasi-Fermi levels are not equal, then the recombination rate is \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n (\n \n ϕ\n \n p\n \n \n −\n \n ϕ\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n /\n \n \n V\n \n T\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{(\\phi _{\\text{p}}-\\phi _{\\text{n}})/V_{\\text{T}}}}\n \n times the rate of generation. We then assume that most of the excess recombination (or decrease in hole current) takes place in a layer going by one hole diffusion length \n \n \n \n \n L\n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle L_{\\text{p}}}\n \n into the n material and one electron diffusion length \n \n \n \n \n L\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle L_{\\text{n}}}\n \n into the p material, and that the difference between the quasi-Fermi levels is constant in this layer at \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n J\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\text{J}}.}\n \n Then we find that the total current, or the drop in hole current, isI\n \n D\n \n \n =\n \n I\n \n S\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n e\n \n \n \n V\n \n J\n \n \n \n V\n \n T\n \n \n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n )\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{D}}=I_{\\text{S}}\\left(e^{\\frac {V_{\\text{J}}}{V_{\\text{T}}}}-1\\right),}whereI\n \n S\n \n \n =\n g\n q\n (\n \n L\n \n p\n \n \n +\n \n L\n \n n\n \n \n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{S}}=gq(L_{\\text{p}}+L_{\\text{n}}),}and \n \n \n \n g\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g}\n \n is the generation rate. We can solve for \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n J\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\text{J}}}\n \n in terms of \n \n \n \n \n I\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{D}}}\n \n:V\n \n J\n \n \n =\n \n V\n \n T\n \n \n ln\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n 1\n +\n \n \n \n I\n \n D\n \n \n \n I\n \n S\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\text{J}}=V_{\\text{T}}\\ln \\left(1+{\\frac {I_{\\text{D}}}{I_{\\text{S}}}}\\right),}and the total voltage drop is thenV\n =\n \n I\n \n D\n \n \n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n V\n \n T\n \n \n ln\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n 1\n +\n \n \n \n I\n \n D\n \n \n \n I\n \n S\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V=I_{\\text{D}}R_{1}+V_{\\text{T}}\\ln \\left(1+{\\frac {I_{\\text{D}}}{I_{\\text{S}}}}\\right).}When we assume that \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle R_{1}}\n \n is small, we obtain \n \n \n \n V\n =\n \n V\n \n J\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V=V_{\\text{J}}}\n \n and the Shockley ideal diode equation.The small current that flows under high reverse bias is then the result of thermal generation of electron–hole pairs in the layer. The electrons then flow to the n terminal, and the holes to the p terminal. The concentrations of electrons and holes in the layer is so small that recombination there is negligible.In 1950, Shockley and coworkers published a short article describing a germanium diode that closely followed the ideal equation.[4]In 1954, Bill Pfann and W. van Roosbroek (who were also of Bell Telephone Laboratories) reported that while Shockley's equation was applicable to certain germanium junctions, for many silicon junctions the current (under appreciable forward bias) was proportional to \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n V\n \n J\n \n \n \n /\n \n A\n \n V\n \n T\n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{V_{\\text{J}}/AV_{\\text{T}}},}\n \n with A having a value as high as 2 or 3.[5] This is the ideality factor \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n above.","title":"Derivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alexis de Vos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexis_de_Vos&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Herman Pauwels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Herman_Pauwels&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"photovoltaic cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaic_cell"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"In 1981, Alexis de Vos and Herman Pauwels showed that a more careful analysis of the quantum mechanics of a junction, under certain assumptions, gives a current versus voltage characteristic of the formI\n \n D\n \n \n (\n V\n )\n =\n −\n q\n A\n [\n \n F\n \n i\n \n \n −\n 2\n \n F\n \n o\n \n \n (\n V\n )\n ]\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{D}}(V)=-qA[F_{i}-2F_{o}(V)],}in which A is the cross-sectional area of the junction, and Fi is the number of incoming photons per unit area, per unit time, with energy over the band-gap energy, and Fo(V) is outgoing photons, given by[6]F\n \n o\n \n \n (\n V\n )\n =\n \n ∫\n \n \n ν\n \n g\n \n \n \n \n ∞\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n exp\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n \n \n h\n ν\n −\n q\n V\n \n \n k\n \n T\n \n c\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n π\n \n ν\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n d\n ν\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F_{o}(V)=\\int _{\\nu _{g}}^{\\infty }{\\frac {1}{\\exp \\left({\\frac {h\\nu -qV}{kT_{c}}}\\right)-1}}{\\frac {2\\pi \\nu ^{2}}{c^{2}}}\\,d\\nu .}The factor of 2 multiplying the outgoing flux is needed because photons are emitted from both sides, but the incoming flux is assumed to come from just one side.\nAlthough the analysis was done for photovoltaic cells under illumination, it applies also when the illumination is simply background thermal radiation, provided that a factor of 2 is then used for this incoming flux as well. The analysis gives a more rigorous expression for ideal diodes in general, except that it assumes that the cell is thick enough that it can produce this flux of photons. When the illumination is just background thermal radiation, the characteristic isI\n \n D\n \n \n (\n V\n )\n =\n 2\n q\n [\n \n F\n \n o\n \n \n (\n V\n )\n −\n \n F\n \n o\n \n \n (\n 0\n )\n ]\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{D}}(V)=2q[F_{o}(V)-F_{o}(0)].}Note that, in contrast to the Shockley law, the current goes to infinity as the voltage goes to the gap voltage hνg/q. This of course would require an infinite thickness to provide an infinite amount of recombination.This equation was recently revised to account for the new temperature scaling in the revised current \n \n \n \n \n I\n \n S\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{S}}}\n \n using a recent model[7] for 2D materials based Schottky diode.","title":"Photovoltaic energy conversion"}]

[{"image_text":"Diode law current–voltage curves at 25 °C, 50 °C, and two ideality factors. The logarithmic scale used for the bottom plot is useful for expressing the equation's exponential relationship.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Diode_Law_Graph.jpg/220px-Diode_Law_Graph.jpg"}]

[{"reference":"McAllister, Willy (2022-11-14). \"Diode equation\". Spinning Numbers. Retrieved 2023-01-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://spinningnumbers.org/a/diode-equation.html","url_text":"\"Diode equation\""}]},{"reference":"William Shockley (Jul 1949). \"The Theory of p-n Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction Transistors\". The Bell System Technical Journal. 28 (3): 435–489. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bellsystemtechni28amerrich","url_text":"\"The Theory of p-n Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction Transistors\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bell_System_Technical_Journal","url_text":"The Bell System Technical Journal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x","url_text":"10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x"}]},{"reference":"F. S. Goucher; et al. (Dec 1950). \"Theory and Experiment for a Germanium p-n Junction\". Physical Review. 81. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.81.637.2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review","url_text":"Physical Review"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.81.637.2","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRev.81.637.2"}]},{"reference":"W. G. Pfann; W. van Roosbroek (Nov 1954). \"Radioactive and Photoelectric p‐n Junction Power Sources\". Journal of Applied Physics. 25 (11): 1422–1434. Bibcode:1954JAP....25.1422P. doi:10.1063/1.1721579.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._G._Pfann","url_text":"W. G. Pfann"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Applied_Physics","url_text":"Journal of Applied Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954JAP....25.1422P","url_text":"1954JAP....25.1422P"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1721579","url_text":"10.1063/1.1721579"}]},{"reference":"A. De Vos and H. Pauwels (1981). \"On the Thermodynamic Limit of Photovoltaic Energy Conversion\". Appl. Phys. 25 (2): 119–125. Bibcode:1981ApPhy..25..119D. doi:10.1007/BF00901283. S2CID 119693148.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981ApPhy..25..119D","url_text":"1981ApPhy..25..119D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00901283","url_text":"10.1007/BF00901283"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119693148","url_text":"119693148"}]},{"reference":"Y. S. Ang, H. Y. Yang and L. K. Ang (August 2018). \"Universal scaling in nanoscale lateral Schottky heterostructures\". Phys. Rev. Lett. 121: 056802.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.056802","url_text":"\"Universal scaling in nanoscale lateral Schottky heterostructures\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phys._Rev._Lett.","url_text":"Phys. Rev. Lett."}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_(programming_language)

Euler (programming language)

["1 Overview","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Euler" programming language – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) EulerParadigmsMulti-paradigm: procedural, imperative, structuredFamilyALGOL WirthDesigned byNiklaus WirthHelmut WeberDevelopersStanford UniversityETH ZurichFirst appeared1965; 59 years ago (1965)Typing disciplinedynamicScopeLexicalInfluenced byALGOL 60 Euler is a programming language created by Niklaus Wirth and Helmut Weber, conceived as an extension and generalization of ALGOL 60. The designers' goals were to create a language that is: Simpler, yet more flexible, than ALGOL 60 Useful and processed with reasonable efficiency Definable with rigorous formality Available sources indicate that Euler was operational by 1965. Overview Euler employs a general data type concept. In Euler, arrays, procedures, and switches are not quantities which are declared and named by identifiers: in contrast to ALGOL, they are not quantities on the same level as variables. Rather, these quantities are on the level of numeric and boolean constants. Thus, besides the traditional numeric and logical constants, Euler introduces several added types: Reference Label Symbol List (array) Procedure Undefined All constants can be assigned to variables, which have the same form as in ALGOL, but for which no fixed types are specified: Euler uses dynamic typing. Further, a procedure can produce a value of any type when executed, and this type can vary from one call of the procedure to the next. Similarly, the elements of a list can have values of any type and these can differ from element to element within a list. So, when the list elements are labels, a switch is obtained. If the elements are procedures, a procedure list is obtained, which is unavailable in ALGOL 60. If the elements are lists themselves, then a general tree structure is obtained. Euler provides general type-test and type-conversion operators. See also Wirth–Weber precedence relationship Simple precedence parser References ^ Wirth, Niklaus; Weber, Helmut (1966). "Euler: a generalization of ALGOL, and its formal definition: Part I". Communications of the ACM. 9 (1): 13–25. ^ Wirth, Niklaus; Weber, Helmut (1966). "Euler: a generalization of ALGOL, and its formal definition: Part II". Communications of the ACM. 9 (2): 89–99. ^ Christopher, Thomas W. (1997). Euler: An Experiment in Language Definition (PDF) (Report). Illinois Institute of Technology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 September 2006. External links EULER on GitHub - EULER IV for the Burroughs B5500 from 1965 euler on GitHub - An implementation written in Icon from 2000-2001 vteNiklaus WirthSoftwareProgramminglanguagesEuler (1965) → PL360 (1966) → ALGOL W (1966) → Pascal (1970) → Modula (1975) → Modula-2 (1978) → Object Pascal (1986) → Oberon (1987) → Oberon-2 (1991) → Lola (1995) → Active Oberon (1998) → Oberon-07 (2007)Operating systemsOberon System (1987) → Active Object System (AOS, 2002), Bluebottle (2005), A2 (2008)Formalisms Wirth's law Wirth syntax notation Wirth–Weber precedence relationship Books Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs WorkstationsLilith (1977) → Ceres (1985)Workplaces Stanford University (1963–67) University of Zurich (1963–67) ETH Zurich (1968–99) Xerox PARC (1976–77, 1984–85) Collaborators Jürg Gutknecht Tony Hoare de:Hanspeter Mössenböck Larry Tesler Awards Turing Award SIGPLAN Programming Languages Achievement Award Fellow of the Computer History Museum Marcel Benoist Prize Category

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[]

[{"title":"Wirth–Weber precedence relationship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirth%E2%80%93Weber_precedence_relationship"},{"title":"Simple precedence parser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_precedence_parser"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitchell_Scholarship

Mitchell Scholarship

["1 Background","2 Scholarship purpose","3 Alumni","4 Placement","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Fellowship for Americans to study in Ireland AwardMitchell ScholarshipAwarded forgraduate study in Ireland for AmericansSponsored byU.S.-Ireland AllianceEstablished1998Websitewww.us-irelandalliance.org The George J. Mitchell Scholarships, awarded annually by the US-Ireland Alliance, provides funding for graduate study in Ireland (in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland). The first class of scholars began their studies in 2000. On average, approximately 350 young Americans apply for the 12 scholarships. In 2020, the US-Ireland Alliance announced that applications for the George J. Mitchell Scholar Class of 2022 increased by 22%, resulting in a record 453 individual applicants for the program. Background The George J. Mitchell Scholarship is organized under the auspices of the US-Ireland Alliance, a non-profit non-partisan organization based in Arlington, VA. The program began in 1998, created by US-Ireland Alliance president Trina Vargo with early support from the Irish and British Governments. Over the last decade, the program has been largely funded by the United States Department of State, with additional support from the Northern Ireland Government, Becton Dickinson, and Cross Atlantic Capital Partners. In 2010, the Irish Parliament passed legislation whereby it will match any contributions, up to 20 million euros, to an endowment for the Scholarship program. A Mitchell Scholarship award includes tuition, housing, airfare, and a cash stipend. Scholarship purpose The Mitchell Scholars Program, named in honor of former U.S. Senator George J. Mitchell's pivotal contribution to the Northern Ireland peace process, is designed to introduce and connect future American leaders to the island of Ireland and recognize and foster intellectual achievement, leadership, and a commitment to service. Alumni Alumni of the Mitchell Scholarship program have pursued careers in a variety of fields including medicine, law, academia, politics, journalism, the armed services, and the arts. Notable alumni include Rebecca Aslakson, Chair of Anesthesiology University of Vermont; Matt Haney, member of the California Assembly; author Winnie M Li, wizarding gastro-pub entrepreneur Matt Cortland; author Deirdre Mask; Laela Sturdy, Managing Partner at CapitalG; entrepreneur Sasha Seymore; Alec Schierenbeck, former Supreme Court Clerk and General Counsel for New York City’s Deputy Mayor for Housing; Monica Bell, Professor of Law at Yale Law School; Robert Mulcare, Managing Director at New Mountain Capital; and Tommy Vitolo, Representative of the Massachusetts State Legislature. Placement Mitchell Scholars are placed at universities in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, including Trinity College, Dublin, University College Cork, Technological University Dublin, University of Limerick, University of Galway, Maynooth University, University College Dublin, Dublin City University, Ulster University and Queen's University Belfast. See also Churchill Scholarship Fulbright Scholarship Gates Cambridge Scholarship Harkness Fellowship Harry S. Truman Scholarship Marshall Scholarship Rhodes Scholarship Jardine Scholarship References ^ Vargo, Trina. "Class of 2014 Mitchell Scholars selected". US-Ireland Alliance. Retrieved 11 December 2012. ^ "Class of 2022 George J. Mitchell Scholars | US-Ireland Alliance". www.us-irelandalliance.org. Retrieved 2021-03-21. ^ Vargo, Trina (July 19, 1998). "The Irish, Here and There; For Irish Americans, Peace Means Change". The Washington Post. Retrieved 11 December 2012. ^ Kay, Sean (2011). Celtic Revival? The Rise, Fall, and Renewal of Global Ireland. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 264. ISBN 978-1442211094. ^ Kay, Sean (2011). Celtic Revival? The Rise, Fall, and Renewal of Global Ireland. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 264. ISBN 978-1442211094. External links Official website

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"US-Ireland Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US-Ireland_Alliance"},{"link_name":"graduate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_school"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Republic of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"AwardThe George J. Mitchell Scholarships, awarded annually by the US-Ireland Alliance, provides funding for graduate study in Ireland (in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland). The first class of scholars began their studies in 2000. On average, approximately 350 young Americans apply for the 12 scholarships.[1] In 2020, the US-Ireland Alliance announced that applications for the George J. Mitchell Scholar Class of 2022 increased by 22%, resulting in a record 453 individual applicants for the program.[2]","title":"Mitchell Scholarship"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"US-Ireland Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US-Ireland_Alliance"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Trina Vargo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trina_Vargo"},{"link_name":"United States Department of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Government"},{"link_name":"Becton Dickinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becton_Dickinson"},{"link_name":"Cross Atlantic Capital Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cross_Atlantic_Capital_Partners&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Irish Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oireachtas"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The George J. Mitchell Scholarship is organized under the auspices of the US-Ireland Alliance, a non-profit non-partisan organization based in Arlington, VA. The program began in 1998,[3] created by US-Ireland Alliance president Trina Vargo with early support from the Irish and British Governments. Over the last decade, the program has been largely funded by the United States Department of State, with additional support from the Northern Ireland Government, Becton Dickinson, and Cross Atlantic Capital Partners. In 2010, the Irish Parliament passed legislation whereby it will match any contributions, up to 20 million euros, to an endowment for the Scholarship program.[4] A Mitchell Scholarship award includes tuition, housing, airfare, and a cash stipend.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George J. Mitchell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_J._Mitchell"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The Mitchell Scholars Program, named in honor of former U.S. Senator George J. Mitchell's pivotal contribution to the Northern Ireland peace process, is designed to introduce and connect future American leaders to the island of Ireland and recognize and foster intellectual achievement, leadership, and a commitment to service.[5]","title":"Scholarship purpose"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Matt Haney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Haney"},{"link_name":"California Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Winnie M Li","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnie_M_Li"},{"link_name":"CapitalG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CapitalG"},{"link_name":"Tommy Vitolo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Vitolo"}],"text":"Alumni of the Mitchell Scholarship program have pursued careers in a variety of fields including medicine, law, academia, politics, journalism, the armed services, and the arts. Notable alumni include Rebecca Aslakson, Chair of Anesthesiology University of Vermont; Matt Haney, member of the California Assembly; author Winnie M Li, wizarding gastro-pub entrepreneur Matt Cortland; author Deirdre Mask; Laela Sturdy, Managing Partner at CapitalG; entrepreneur Sasha Seymore; Alec Schierenbeck, former Supreme Court Clerk and General Counsel for New York City’s Deputy Mayor for Housing; Monica Bell, Professor of Law at Yale Law School; Robert Mulcare, Managing Director at New Mountain Capital; and Tommy Vitolo, Representative of the Massachusetts State Legislature.","title":"Alumni"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Republic of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Trinity College, Dublin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College,_Dublin"},{"link_name":"University College Cork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_Cork_-_National_University_of_Ireland,_Cork"},{"link_name":"Technological University Dublin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_University_Dublin"},{"link_name":"University of Limerick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Limerick"},{"link_name":"University of Galway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Galway"},{"link_name":"Maynooth University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maynooth_University"},{"link_name":"University College Dublin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_Dublin"},{"link_name":"Dublin City University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin_City_University"},{"link_name":"Ulster University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_University"},{"link_name":"Queen's University Belfast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_University_Belfast"}],"text":"Mitchell Scholars are placed at universities in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, including Trinity College, Dublin, University College Cork, Technological University Dublin, University of Limerick, University of Galway, Maynooth University, University College Dublin, Dublin City University, Ulster University and Queen's University Belfast.","title":"Placement"}]

[]

[{"title":"Churchill Scholarship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churchill_Scholarship"},{"title":"Fulbright Scholarship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulbright_Scholarships"},{"title":"Gates Cambridge Scholarship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gates_Cambridge_Scholarship"},{"title":"Harkness Fellowship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harkness_Fellowship"},{"title":"Harry S. Truman Scholarship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_S._Truman_Scholarship"},{"title":"Marshall Scholarship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Scholarship"},{"title":"Rhodes Scholarship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodes_Scholarship"},{"title":"Jardine Scholarship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jardine_Scholarship"}]

[{"reference":"Vargo, Trina. \"Class of 2014 Mitchell Scholars selected\". US-Ireland Alliance. Retrieved 11 December 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.us-irelandalliance.org/content/393/en/Scholarships/Program%20News/Class%20of%202014%20Mitchell%20Scholars%20selected.html","url_text":"\"Class of 2014 Mitchell Scholars selected\""}]},{"reference":"\"Class of 2022 George J. Mitchell Scholars | US-Ireland Alliance\". www.us-irelandalliance.org. Retrieved 2021-03-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.us-irelandalliance.org/mitchellscholarship/news/class-of-2022-george-j-mitchell-scholars-announced","url_text":"\"Class of 2022 George J. Mitchell Scholars | US-Ireland Alliance\""}]},{"reference":"Vargo, Trina (July 19, 1998). \"The Irish, Here and There; For Irish Americans, Peace Means Change\". The Washington Post. Retrieved 11 December 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.us-irelandalliance.org/content/94/en/Leadership/Opinions/Trina%20Vargo%20On%20The%20Creation%20Of%20The%20US-Ireland%20Alliance%20(Washington%20Post).html","url_text":"\"The Irish, Here and There; For Irish Americans, Peace Means Change\""}]},{"reference":"Kay, Sean (2011). Celtic Revival? The Rise, Fall, and Renewal of Global Ireland. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 264. ISBN 978-1442211094.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1442211094","url_text":"978-1442211094"}]},{"reference":"Kay, Sean (2011). Celtic Revival? The Rise, Fall, and Renewal of Global Ireland. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 264. ISBN 978-1442211094.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1442211094","url_text":"978-1442211094"}]}]

[{"Link":"https://www.us-irelandalliance.org/mitchellscholarship","external_links_name":"www.us-irelandalliance.org"},{"Link":"http://www.us-irelandalliance.org/content/393/en/Scholarships/Program%20News/Class%20of%202014%20Mitchell%20Scholars%20selected.html","external_links_name":"\"Class of 2014 Mitchell Scholars selected\""},{"Link":"https://www.us-irelandalliance.org/mitchellscholarship/news/class-of-2022-george-j-mitchell-scholars-announced","external_links_name":"\"Class of 2022 George J. Mitchell Scholars | US-Ireland Alliance\""},{"Link":"http://www.us-irelandalliance.org/content/94/en/Leadership/Opinions/Trina%20Vargo%20On%20The%20Creation%20Of%20The%20US-Ireland%20Alliance%20(Washington%20Post).html","external_links_name":"\"The Irish, Here and There; For Irish Americans, Peace Means Change\""},{"Link":"http://www.us-irelandalliance.org/content/3/en/George%20Mitchell%20Scholarship%20Program%20%7C%20US-Ireland%20Alliance.html","external_links_name":"Official website"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Shadow

The Last Shadow

["1 See also","2 References"]

Book by Orson Scott Card The Last Shadow First editionAuthorOrson Scott CardCover artistJohn HarrisLanguageEnglishSeriesEnder's Game seriesGenreScience fictionPublisherTor BooksPublication date16 November 2021Publication placeUnited StatesPreceded byChildren of the Mind, Shadows in Flight  The Last Shadow is a 2021 science fiction novel by American writer Orson Scott Card, part of his Ender's Game series. It links the Shadow Saga (the parallel companion series) back to the original Ender series. This book brings the two series back together, and wraps up some of the plot threads left dangling in Shadow of the Giant (the fourth book in the Shadow Saga). The events in the book follow those in Children of the Mind, the final book in the Ender series. Card has said that he began writing the first pages of the novel while quarantined during the COVID-19 pandemic. The novel was originally set to be titled Shadows in Flight, but Card decided to swap titles with the fifth book in the Shadow series (released on 17 January 2012), which serves as a bridge to the final book. The concluding events of Shadows in Flight were initially planned for the first chapter of the final book, with working title Shadows Alive. Ender's Game series Chronology In chronological order Earth Unaware Earth Afire Earth Awakens The Swarm The Hive The Queens "Mazer in Prison" "The Polish Boy" "Teacher's Pest" "Pretty Boy" "Cheater" Ender's Game 'Recruiting Valentine' A War of Gifts Ender's Shadow 'The League War' Children of the Fleet Ender in Exile Shadow of the Hegemon Shadow Puppets Shadow of the Giant Shadows in Flight "Investment Counselor" Speaker for the Dead Xenocide Children of the Mind The Last Shadow In publication order Ender's Game Speaker for the Dead Xenocide Children of the Mind Ender's Shadow Shadow of the Hegemon Shadow Puppets First Meetings Shadow of the Giant A War of Gifts: An Ender Story Ender in Exile Shadows in Flight Earth Unaware Earth Afire Earth Awakens The Swarm Children of the Fleet The Hive The Last Shadow The Queens vte    Chart       Short Stories     Novels     Comics     Audioplay     Film First Meetings(in the Enderverse)(2002 (2003)) Ender's Game Investment Counselor The Polish Boy Teacher's Pest    Formic Wars:Burning Earth(2011) Formic Wars:Silent Strike(2012) First FormicWar Trilogy Earth Unaware(2012) Earth Afire(2013) Earth Awakens(2014) War of Gifts(2010) Mazer in Prison Recruiting Valentine The League War War of Gifts OSCs InterGalacticMedicine Show(2008) Mazer in Prison Cheater Pretty Boy A Young Man withProspects Second FormicWar Trilogy The Swarm(2016) The Hive(2019) The Queens(TBA) Mazer in Prison(2005) Mazer in Prison(2010) The Polish Boy(2002) Cheater(2006) Pretty Boy(2006) Teacher's Pest(2003)      Ender's Shadow(1999) Ender's Shadow: Battle School(2009) Command School(2010) Ultimate collection(2012)      Ender's GameAlive(2013)       Recruiting Valentine(2009)     The League War(2010)    Ender's Game(1977)   Ender's Game(1985) Ender's Game: Battle School(2009) Command School(2010) Ultimate collection(2012)   Ender's Game(2013) Ender's Stocking(2007)   A War of Gifts(2007)    War of Gifts(2009)         The Shadow Trilogy Shadow of the Hegemon(2001) Shadow Puppets(2002) Shadow of the Giant(2005) Ender's Homecoming(2008) A Young Man withProspects (2007) Ender in Flight(2008) The Gold Bug(2007) Ender in Exile(2008) Ender in Exile(2011)   Gold Bug(2010) Fleet School Children of the Fleet(2017) ...(TBC)    Governor Wiggin(2017) Investment Counselor(1999) Renegat(2017) Shadows in Flight(2012)     Speaker for the Dead(2011) Gloriously Bright(1991)    The Speaker Trilogy Speaker for the Dead(1986) Xenocide(1991) Children of the Mind(1996) Messenger(2018) The Last Shadow(2021) ^ a b c The events of Ender's Game, Ender's Shadow and A War of Gifts take place in roughly the same time period.The events of A War of Gifts only take place during the time at Battle School). ^ a b The events of Ender in Exile and the Shadow Trilogy take place in roughly the same time period.- First part of Ender in Exile (2/3) takes place during the Shadow Trilogy.- Last part of Ender in Exile (1/3) takes places after Shadow of the Giant. ^ a b Note on the following (maybe not yet so common) Trilogies:"Speaker Trilogy": Original set of sequels to Ender's Game, also referred to as:- "Ender Quartet" (Ender's Game combined with "Speaker Trilogy"), also referred to as:- "Ender Quintet" ("Ender Quartet" combined with Ender in Exile)."Shadow Trilogy": Original set of sequels to Ender's Shadow, also referred to as:- "Bean Quartet"/"Shadow Quartet" (Ender's Shadow combined with "Shadow Trilogy"), also referred to as:- "Bean Quintet"/"Shadow Quintet" ("Bean Quartet" combined with Shadows in Flight), could be referred to as:- "Bean Sextet"/"Shadow Sextet" ("Bean Quintet" combined with The Last Shadow) ^ Title is also mentioned in regard to a possible sequel for the film. vte See also Novels portal List of Ender's Game characters Orson Scott Card bibliography References ^ Peterson, Matthew (12 November 2009). "Orson Scott Card – Online Radio Interview with the Author". The Author Hour radio show. ^ "Maybe Some Good Will Come Out of This – Uncle Orson Reviews Everything". ^ Card, Orson Scott (17 January 2012). Amazon.com: Shadows in Flight (The Shadow) (9780765332004): Orson Scott Card: Books. ISBN 978-0765332004. ^ Card, Orson Scott (15 July 2011). "Hatrack River Forums:Shadows in Flight". vteWorks by Orson Scott CardEnder's Game seriesBooksEnder Series Ender's Game (1985) Speaker for the Dead (1986) Xenocide (1991) Children of the Mind (1996) Ender in Exile (2008) Shadow Saga Ender's Shadow (1999) Shadow of the Hegemon (2001) Shadow Puppets (2002) Shadow of the Giant (2005) Shadows in Flight (2012) The Last Shadow (2021) Formic Wars Earth Unaware (2012) Earth Afire (2013) Earth Awakens (2014) The Swarm (2016) The Hive (2019) The Queens (TBA) First Meetings (2002) A War of Gifts: An Ender Story (2007) Children of the Fleet (2017) Short stories "Ender's Game" (1977) "Gloriously Bright" (1991) "Investment Counselor" "The Polish Boy" "Teacher's Pest" "Mazer in Prison" "Pretty Boy" "Cheater" "A Young Man with Prospects" "The Gold Bug" "Ender's Stocking" "Ender's Homecoming" "Ender in Flight" "Renegat" "Governor Wiggin" "Messenger" Other media Comics Film Characters Ender Wiggin Formics Jane The Tales of Alvin MakerBooks Seventh Son (1987) Red Prophet (1988) Prentice Alvin (1989) Alvin Journeyman (1995) Heartfire (1998) The Crystal City (2003) Other media "Prentice Alvin and the No-Good Plow" (poem, 1989) Red Prophet: The Tales of Alvin Maker (comic book, 2006) The Worthing seriesBooks Capitol (1979) Hot Sleep (1979) The Worthing Chronicle (1983) The Worthing Saga (1990) Other worksHomecoming Saga The Memory of Earth (1992) The Call of Earth (1992) The Ships of Earth (1994) Earthfall (1995) Earthborn (1995) Women of Genesis Sarah (2000) Rebekah (2001) Rachel and Leah (2004) The Wives of Israel (TBA) Mithermages series Sandmagic (1979) Stonefather (2008) The Lost Gate (2011) The Gate Thief (2013) Gatefather (2015) Mayflower series Lovelock (1994) Rasputin (TBA) The Empire duet Empire (2006) Hidden Empire (2009) The Pathfinder series Pathfinder (2010) Ruins (2012) Visitors (2014) Standalone novels A Planet Called Treason (1979) Songmaster (1980) Hart's Hope (1983) Saints (1984) Wyrms (1987) Treason (1988) The Abyss (1989) Lost Boys (1992) Pastwatch: The Redemption of Christopher Columbus (1996) Treasure Box (1996) Stone Tables (1997) Homebody (1998) Enchantment (1999) Magic Street (2005) Invasive Procedures (2007) Bully and the Beast (TBA) Story collections Unaccompanied Sonata and Other Stories (1980) Cardography (1987) The Folk of the Fringe (1989) Maps in a Mirror (1990) Keeper of Dreams (2008) Other works Listen, Mom and Dad (1977) Ainge (1981) Saintspeak (1981) Eye for Eye (1987) Loom (1990) The Secret of Monkey Island (1990) The Dig (1995) NeoHunter (1996) Magic Mirror (1999) Robota (2003) An Open Book (2004) Ultimate Iron Man (2005) Advent Rising (2005) InterGalactic Medicine Show (2005) Hamlet's Father (2011) Firefall (2014) This article about a science fiction novel (or novels) is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.See guidelines for writing about novels. Further suggestions might be found on the article's talk page.vte

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microvan

Microvan

["1 Economics","2 Design","3 Safety","4 Gallery","4.1 Kei microvans","4.2 Non-kei microvans","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Kei-class van This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Microvan" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. The specific issue is: an over-emphasis on Japan and Japanese kei vehicles. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (May 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) For the smallest classification of minivan, see Mini MPV. A Daihatsu Hijet (ninth generation) A microvan is a van or minivan which is within the Japanese kei car classification or similar, and is smaller than a mini MPV. In China, these vehicles are nicknamed miàn bāo chē ("bread-loaf vehicle") because of their shape. Similarly, in several Hispanic American countries, these vehicles are called pan de molde, which means "bread loaf". In Indonesia, it is commonly called a minibus due to their tall roof, perceived as resembling a miniature bus; the term is also used generally to refer to any type of three-row MPVs. Outside of China and Japan, microvans are also common in Southeast Asia, South Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East. Microvans share similar characteristics with other-sized MPVs; for instance, microvans commonly have rear sliding doors. Generally, they have capacity for six, seven, or eight passengers. As this category of vehicle has fixed third-row seats, a single vehicle cannot be used both for passenger transport and larger-cargo transport without refitting; therefore, microvans are not usually considered multi-purpose vehicles. Economics Tax and insurance benefits in some locations make these models particularly inexpensive. For example, in rural Japan, kei-car vehicles are exempted from a certification that adequate parking is available for the vehicle. They are, therefore, widely used for small businesses in these places. Design The first vehicle to adopt the bodystyle of a van, with the engine installed in front of the driver, was the 1970s Honda Life "StepVan". Some microvans use a drivetrain with the engine installed transversely, using front- or all-wheel drive, while others use a cabover approach where the engine is installed beneath the driver, while still using all-wheel or rear-wheel drive powertrains. Cabover variants usually share their chassis with kei truck derivatives from the same manufacturer. Most microvans have two swinging front doors, two sliding rear doors and a large tailgate. Seating can vary from two to nine; these seats are usually very thin and vertical to optimise room. The side windows in commercial-only versions of microvans are replaced by metallic panels; this type of microvan is sometimes called a "blind van". Some models also feature pick-up variants with one or two seat rows. Engines usually have displacements under 1.0 L; for example, Japanese microvans have a limit of 660 cc. Outside the Japanese market, microvans are available with 850-cc to 1.6-L engines. The kei car regulation is used only in Japan, though other Asian automakers also design microvans with similar characteristics. The microvans are commonly known as "kei one-box" in Japan; their pick-up versions are known as kei trucks. Safety Due to their inherent compact size, lack of crumple zones, and low weight, these vehicles tend to fare poorly in collisions with other vehicles and objects, so are not recommended to be driven at higher speeds. The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety in the United States recommends these vehicles only be driven on private land and not on public roads due to their poor safety in accidents. Gallery Kei microvans Subaru Sambar Van sixth generation Honda Acty Van third generation Suzuki Every fifth generation Mitsubishi Minicab Van fifth generation Subaru Dias Wagon Classic food truck Maruti Suzuki Omni, Indian licensed version of the Suzuki Carry Non-kei microvans Suzuki Every Landy/E-RV or Maruti Versa Perodua Rusa Subaru Domingo second generation Daihatsu Atrai Seven Mitsubishi Town Box Wide Wuling Sunshine, the world's best selling microvan See also Compact van Panel van References ^ Chinese Hero Cars: The Mian Bao Che Archived 2008-10-11 at the Wayback Machine - China Car Times ^ Nunn, Peter (January–February 2005). "Minicars: Cheap and Cheerful". JAMA. Retrieved 2012-05-10. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Microvans. Micro Van Owners Web Site/Forum

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In China, these vehicles are nicknamed miàn bāo chē (\"bread-loaf vehicle\") because of their shape.[1] Similarly, in several Hispanic American countries, these vehicles are called pan de molde, which means \"bread loaf\".[citation needed] In Indonesia, it is commonly called a minibus due to their tall roof, perceived as resembling a miniature bus; the term is also used generally to refer to any type of three-row MPVs.Outside of China and Japan, microvans are also common in Southeast Asia, South Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East. Microvans share similar characteristics with other-sized MPVs; for instance, microvans commonly have rear sliding doors. Generally, they have capacity for six, seven, or eight passengers.[citation needed] As this category of vehicle has fixed third-row seats, a single vehicle cannot be used both for passenger transport and larger-cargo transport without refitting; therefore, microvans are not usually considered multi-purpose vehicles.[citation needed]","title":"Microvan"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nunn-2"}],"text":"Tax and insurance benefits in some locations make these models particularly inexpensive. For example, in rural Japan, kei-car vehicles are exempted from a certification that adequate parking is available for the vehicle.[2] They are, therefore, widely used for small businesses in these places.","title":"Economics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Honda Life \"StepVan\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda_Life#Life_Step_Van"},{"link_name":"cabover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabover"},{"link_name":"kei truck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kei_truck"},{"link_name":"sliding rear doors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sliding_door_(vehicle)"},{"link_name":"commercial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_vehicle"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"pick-up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickup_truck"},{"link_name":"kei one-box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-box_styling#One-box_design"},{"link_name":"kei trucks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kei_truck"}],"text":"The first vehicle to adopt the bodystyle of a van, with the engine installed in front of the driver, was the 1970s Honda Life \"StepVan\". Some microvans use a drivetrain with the engine installed transversely, using front- or all-wheel drive, while others use a cabover approach where the engine is installed beneath the driver, while still using all-wheel or rear-wheel drive powertrains. Cabover variants usually share their chassis with kei truck derivatives from the same manufacturer.Most microvans have two swinging front doors, two sliding rear doors and a large tailgate. Seating can vary from two to nine; these seats are usually very thin and vertical to optimise room. The side windows in commercial-only versions of microvans are replaced by metallic panels; this type of microvan is sometimes called a \"blind van\".[citation needed] Some models also feature pick-up variants with one or two seat rows. Engines usually have displacements under 1.0 L; for example, Japanese microvans have a limit of 660 cc. Outside the Japanese market, microvans are available with 850-cc to 1.6-L engines.The kei car regulation is used only in Japan, though other Asian automakers also design microvans with similar characteristics. The microvans are commonly known as \"kei one-box\" in Japan; their pick-up versions are known as kei trucks.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Insurance Institute for Highway Safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance_Institute_for_Highway_Safety"}],"text":"Due to their inherent compact size, lack of crumple zones, and low weight, these vehicles tend to fare poorly in collisions with other vehicles and objects, so are not recommended to be driven at higher speeds. The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety in the United States recommends these vehicles only be driven on private land and not on public roads due to their poor safety in accidents.","title":"Safety"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2001_Subaru_Sambar_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Subaru Sambar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru_Sambar"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Honda_Acty_van_1999.jpg"},{"link_name":"Honda Acty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda_Acty"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2005_Suzuki_Every_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Suzuki Every","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki_Every"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mitsubishi_Minicab_of_Duskin_Service_Master_20080407a.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mitsubishi Minicab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitsubishi_Minicab"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Japanese_kitchen_car.jpg"},{"link_name":"Subaru Dias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru_Sambar"},{"link_name":"food truck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_truck"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maruti_Omni.jpg"},{"link_name":"Maruti Suzuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruti_Suzuki"},{"link_name":"Suzuki Carry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki_Carry"}],"sub_title":"Kei microvans","text":"Subaru Sambar Van sixth generation\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tHonda Acty Van third generation\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSuzuki Every fifth generation\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMitsubishi Minicab Van fifth generation\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSubaru Dias Wagon Classic food truck\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMaruti Suzuki Omni, Indian licensed version of the Suzuki Carry","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Suzuki_E-RV_(front),_Kajang.jpg"},{"link_name":"Suzuki Every","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki_Every"},{"link_name":"Maruti Versa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruti_Versa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Perodua_Rusa_(first_generation,_first_facelift)_(front),_Kajang.jpg"},{"link_name":"Perodua Rusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perodua_Rusa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Subaru_Domingo_001.JPG"},{"link_name":"Subaru Domingo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru_Sumo"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2000_Daihatsu_Atrai7_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Daihatsu Atrai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daihatsu_Atrai"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mitsubishi_Townboxwide.JPG"},{"link_name":"Mitsubishi Town Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitsubishi_Town_Box"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wuling_Sunshine_(Zhiguang)_facelift_II_front_8.2.18.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wuling Sunshine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuling_Sunshine"}],"sub_title":"Non-kei microvans","text":"Suzuki Every Landy/E-RV or Maruti Versa\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPerodua Rusa\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSubaru Domingo second generation\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDaihatsu Atrai Seven\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMitsubishi Town Box Wide\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tWuling Sunshine, the world's best selling microvan","title":"Gallery"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meletus

Meletus

["1 Life","2 Trial of Socrates","3 See also","4 References"]

Athenian and chief accuser of Socrates Meletus (Ancient Greek: Μέλητος; fl. 5th–4th century BCE), a citizen of Athens in the Classical Era, came from the Pithus deme and has become known for his prosecuting role in the trial - and eventual execution - of the philosopher Socrates in 399 BCE. Life Little is known of Meletus' life beyond what is portrayed in the Socratic literature, particularly Plato's dialogues, where he is named as the chief accuser of Socrates. In the Euthyphro, Plato describes Meletus as the youngest of the three prosecutors, having "a beak, and long straight hair, and a beard which is ill grown," and being unknown to Socrates prior to the prosecution. Meletus is also mentioned briefly in the Theaetetus. In Xenophon's Hellenica, he is reported as one of the envoys that were sent to negotiate a truce with the Lacedaemonians during the war between the democratic rebels and the Thirty Tyrants. The later Greek historian Diogenes Laërtius reported that after the execution of Socrates "Athenians felt such remorse" that they executed Meletus and banished his associates from the city, at the incitement of a disciple of Socrates, Antisthenes. This claim is generally rejected as apocryphal by modern scholarship. Trial of Socrates Main article: Trial of Socrates During the first three hours of trial, Meletus and the other two accusers each stood in the law court in the center of Athens to deliver previously crafted speeches to the jury against Socrates. No record of Meletus' speech survives. See also List of speakers in Plato's dialogues References ^ Plato, Euthyphro, 2b ^ Theaetetus 210d. ^ Nails, Debra. The People of Plato. Hackett Publishing. p. 202. ISBN 978-1-60384-403-1. Retrieved 4 August 2023. ^ "Hellenica". Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 12 August 2022. ^ Diogenes Laërtius, 2.43 ^ Diogenes Laërtius, 6.9 ^ Nails, Debra. The People of Plato. Hackett Publishing. p. 202. ISBN 978-1-60384-403-1. Retrieved 4 August 2023.

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[]

[{"title":"List of speakers in Plato's dialogues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_speakers_in_Plato%27s_dialogues"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharif_University_of_Technology

Sharif University of Technology

["1 History","2 Campuses","2.1 Main campus","2.2 International campus","3 Academic profile","3.1 Profile","4 World rankings","5 Student life","5.1 Political activities","5.2 Sharif University of Technology Association (SUTA)","6 Faculty and alumni","6.1 Chancellors","6.2 Notable alumni","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]

Coordinates: 35°42′6.47″N 51°21′5.18″E / 35.7017972°N 51.3514389°E / 35.7017972; 51.3514389University in Tehran, Iran Sharif University of Technologyدانشگاه صنعتی شریف Dāneshgāh-e sana'ti-e sharifFormer nameAryamehr University of TechnologyMotto in EnglishThe Place of Intellectuals and ElitesTransforming National Talents into Global BestsTypePublic Research UniversityEstablished1966; 58 years ago (1966)EndowmentUS$ 0.5 billion (2021)PresidentAbbas MousaviAcademic staff460 (Full-time) (Fall 2022)Administrative staff395 (2021)Students10,812 (Fall 2022)Undergraduates5,659 (2021)Postgraduates3,390 (2021)Doctoral students989 (2021)LocationTehran, Tehran province, Iran35°42′6.47″N 51°21′5.18″E / 35.7017972°N 51.3514389°E / 35.7017972; 51.3514389CampusUrban, 74 acres (29.9 ha)NewspaperSharif DailyScientia IranicaColors  Dark BlueSporting affiliations19 sportsIUSFWebsiteen.sharif.edu Sharif University of Technology (SUT; Persian: دانشگاه صنعتی شریف) is a public research university in Tehran, Iran. It is widely considered as the nation's most prestigious and leading institution for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. Established in 1966 under the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, it was formerly named the Aryamehr University of Technology (Persian: دانشگاه صنعتی آریامهر, romanized: Dāneŝgāhe Sannatiye Āryāmehr) and for a short period after the 1979 revolution, the university was called Tehran University of Technology. Following the revolution, the university was named after Majid Sharif Vaghefi. Today, the university provides both undergraduate and graduate programs in 15 main departments. The student body consists of about 6,000 undergraduate students and 4,700 graduate students from all the 31 provinces of Iran. Funding for Sharif University is provided by the government and through private funding. Undergraduate admission to Sharif is limited to the top 800 of the 500,000 students who pass the national entrance examination administered annually by the Iranian Ministry of Science, Research and Technology. In the 2013 Academic Ranking of World Universities Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences rankings, SUT was ranked 5th in the Middle East. It is in the top 251–275 universities in the world and 37th in Asia in the 2014 Times Higher Education World University Rankings. In the 2014 Times Higher Education top 100 for newer universities (less than 50 years old), SUT ranked 1st in the Middle East, 6th in Asia, and 27th in the world. In 2023, according to US News, the world ranking of this university reached 598. History Mohammad Ali Mojtahedi and members of the scientific board of Sharif University of Technology in 1967. The university was founded in 1966 with the name Aryamehr University of Industry by Mohammad Ali Mojtahedi. At that time, there were 54 faculty members and a total of 412 students who were selected by national examination. Also, only four departments were established: Electrical, Metallurgical, Mechanical, and Chemical Engineering. In 1972, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi appointed Sayyed Hosein Nasr as president of the university with the goal of modeling the school based on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but with roots in Iranian culture. In 1974 a new campus of the university was established in Isfahan. But later that campus became an independent university, named Isfahan University of Technology (IUT). The emblem of IUT still closely resembles SUT's emblem . Following the revolution, the university was named after Majid Sharif Vaghefi, who was one of the People's Mujahedin of Iran group's leaders who was killed by the members of a splinter group (later renamed to Peykar Organization) who had recently converted from Islam to Marxism and were adamant to forcefully change the Mujahedin's organization's ideology to Marxism. Currently, the university has about 12,000 students and over 700 faculty members in 16 main departments. During the Mahsa Amini protests in 2022, many students participated, with video footage of the protest and subsequent response by Iranian security forces published first to social media and then by major news organizations. Iranian state news agency IRNA reported that at least 37 students were arrested and most were released shortly afterwards. Campuses Main campus The main campus of the university is located in the Tarasht neighborhood, near Azadi Square, Tehran, Iran. It is located close to the Azadi Tower, which is the symbol of Tehran and one of the main transportation hubs. The endowment of Sharif University of Technology has been estimated at $25 million. International campus Sharif University also has an International Campus on Kish Island in Persian Gulf. The International Campus of Sharif University of Technology was established in 2005. Today there are two faculties active in this campus: Faculty of Engineering and Science, and Faculty of Management. The campus is currently admitting students for bachelor's, master's, and Ph.D. degrees in engineering courses and a master's degree in management. Academic profile A General view of the main campus Profile Sharif University was established in 1966 as an Engineering university with departments of Electrical, Metallurgical, Mechanical, and Chemical Engineering. World rankings University rankingsSharif University of TechnologyGlobal – OverallARWU World501–600 (2021)CWTS World371 (2021)QS World334 (2024)THE World401–500 (2022)USNWR Global598 (2023) In the 2020 Academic Ranking of World Universities (also known as Shanghai Ranking), the university ranked between 501 and 600 in the world and first in Iran. According to the QS Ranking, Sharif University of Technology has stood in the first place of Iran and maintained its international rank 334th. In the 2022-2023 U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking, the university ranked 598th in the world.Avicenna Building, the main classroom building Student life Political activities Through the student political movement after the 2nd of Khordad Movement, Sharif students were also actively involved. The major groups with political intentions at Sharif, during 1997–2003, were students Basij and the Association of Muslim students, briefly called Anjoman (Association). Most other smaller groups were allies of either Basij or Anjoman. Basij was a serious opposer of Mohammad Khatami, the president of the time. Whereas, Anjoman was a loyal follower. There have been several clashes between member students of the two groups. Free speech tribunes, occasionally end in harsh quarrel-like debates. However, the major clash between Anjoman and Basij occurred while the student movement was in silence in most other universities. In 2006, a serious controversy resulting in physical tensions, occurred after Basij attempted to bury bodies of unknown martyrs of the Iran–Iraq War at the universities' Mosque court. Sharif University of Technology Association (SUTA) This non-profit organization is registered in the state of California, USA and has many chapters and affiliates around the world. Its mission is to enhance professional, academic, and social contacts among its membership, and to strengthen the ties between the association members living outside of Iran and the university. Faculty and alumni See also: List of Sharif University of Technology people Chancellors Mohammad Ali Mojtahedi, 1965–1967 Fazlollah Reza, 1967–1968 Mohammad Reza Amin, 1968–1972 Seyyed Hossein Nasr, 1972–1975 Mehdi Zarghamee, 1975–1977 Alireza Mehran, 1977–1978 Hossein Ali Anvari, 1978–1979 Ali Mohammad Ranjbar, 1979–1980 Abbas Anvari, 1980–1982 Ali Akbar Salehi, 1982–1985 Abbas Anvari, 1985–1989 Ali Akbar Salehi, 1989–1993 Mohammad Etemadi, 1993–1995 Sayed Khatiboleslam Sadrnezhaad, 1995–1997 Saeed Sohrabpour, 1997–2010 Reza Roosta Azad, 2010–2014 Mahmud Fotuhi Firuzabad, 2014–2021 Rasoul Jalili, 2021–2023 Abbas Mousavi, 2023–present Notable alumni Alumni in academics include the late Maryam Mirzakhani, professor of mathematics at Stanford University and the first female to be awarded a Fields Medal. Imprisoned human rights blogger Kouhyar Goudarzi was an aerospace student at Sharif until pressure from state security forces allegedly caused his dismissal. Omid Kokabee, an applied physics and mechanics alumnus, was arrested while visiting Iran during his postdoctoral research in University of Texas at Austin. He was sentenced to 10 years in prison for "communicating with a hostile government" and "illegitimate/illegal earnings." Maryam Mirzakhani: professor of mathematics at Stanford University and the first female to be awarded a Fields Medal Elshan Moradi: chess grandmaster Ali Daei: former member and later head coach of Iranian national football team Adel Ferdosipour: football commentator Mohammad-Javad Larijani: Iranian conservative politician, mathematical logician, and former diplomat Eshaq Jahangiri: Vice president of Hassan Rouhani's government Ali Larijani: Iranian conservative politician, philosopher, former speaker of Iran's Parliament. See also List of Islamic educational institutions Higher education in Iran Pardis Technology Park Shahbal, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) developed at SUT Iranian Machine Design Competition References ^ "Sharif University of Technology – Introduction". Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 3 February 2017. ^ "Financial information". FarsNews. 10 December 2014. ^ "انتخاب ۷نفر از روسای دانشگاه‌ها تایید شد". mehrnews.com (in Persian). 3 March 2024. Retrieved 9 March 2024. ^ a b "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 2 November 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Iran Makes the Sciences A Part of Its Revolution". The Washington Post. ^ a b "Academic Ranking of World Universities – 2013". Shanghai Ranking Consultancy. Archived from the original on 6 October 2020. Retrieved 23 August 2013. ^ "Sharif University of Technology". Retrieved 3 February 2017. ^ "World University Rankings". 13 April 2015. Retrieved 3 February 2017. ^ "150 Under 50 Rankings". 13 April 2015. Retrieved 3 February 2017. ^ "Sharif University of Technology in Iran - US News Best Global Universities". U.S. News. ^ team, I. B. R. (27 May 2024). "Discover Sharif University: A Leading Institution in Iran". Iran Brands Review. Retrieved 28 May 2024. ^ a b Mirzayi, Mohammad (2005). Sharif University of Technology Booklet (in Persian). Sharif University Press. ^ "Biography / Dr. Seyyed Hossein Nasr". Retrieved 28 May 2008. ^ Leslie, Stuart W.; Robert Kargon (2006). "Exporting MIT: Science, Technology, and Nation-Building in India and Iran". Osiris. 21 (1): 123. doi:10.1086/507138. S2CID 146272994. ^ "Sharif University Introduction". Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2020. ^ "Iran protests: riot police use teargas on students at Sharif university". the Guardian. 3 October 2022. Retrieved 18 October 2022. ^ Rebane, Teele; Ritchie, Hannah; Karadsheh, Jomana; Fox, Kara (3 October 2022). "'It was a warzone.' Iranian security forces beat, shot and detained students of elite Tehran university, witnesses say, as crackdown escalates". CNN. Retrieved 18 October 2022. ^ Ershad, Alijani (4 October 2022). "'They shot at us': A Sharif University student recounts 'apocalyptic' repression of protests in Iran". The Observers - France 24. Retrieved 18 October 2022. ^ "Sharif University International Campus Website". Retrieved 17 November 2008. ^ Academic Ranking of World Universities 2021, Shanghai Ranking Consultancy, retrieved 24 September 2021 ^ CWTS Leiden Ranking 2020, Centre for Science and Technology Studies, Leiden University, retrieved 24 September 2020 ^ QS World University Rankings® 2022, Quacquarelli Symonds Limited, retrieved 24 September 2021 ^ World University Rankings 2021, THE Education Ltd, 25 August 2020, retrieved 2 September 2020 ^ Best Global Universities in Iran, U.S. News & World Report, retrieved 24 March 2022 ^ "QS World University Rankings". Top Universities. Retrieved 29 December 2020. ^ Esfandiari, Golnaz. "Iran: Students Protest Burials Of War Dead On Tehran Campuses". Radiofreeeurope/Radioliberty. Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty (RFEL). Retrieved 28 May 2008. ^ "SUTA Vision and Mission". Retrieved 22 February 2011. ^ "Kouhyar Goudarzi: "I Won't Be Released Any Time Soon," Trial Date Unknown". International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran. 12 April 2010. Retrieved 1 January 2012. ^ "Omid Kokabee (personal homepage)". Archived from the original on 19 September 2012. Retrieved 12 April 2013. ^ Shuster, Mike (7 October 2011). "Iran Charges Student Who Was In the U.S." NPR. ^ Maly, David (8 January 2013). "UT student Omid Kokabee gains more international support amid prison sentence". The Daily Texan. Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2013. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sharif University of Technology. Sharif University of Technology's home page Archived 2 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine vteSharif University of TechnologyAcademics Academics Department of Aerospace Engineering Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department of Chemistry Department of Civil Engineering Department of Computer Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Energy Engineering Department of Industrial Engineering Department of Management and Economics Department of Materials science and Engineering Department of Mathematical Science Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Physics Department of Languages & Linguistics Center Department of the Philosophy of Science Research Advanced Communications Research Institute Research Center for Marine Engineering Advanced Information & Communication Technology Center Alborz Observatory Biochemical and Bioenvironmental Engineeing Research Center Biomedical Engineering Research Center Center for Technology Studies Economical and Industrial Studies research Center Electronic Research Center Green University Hi-Tech Industrial Systems Research Center Institute for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Institute for Transportation Studies and Research Institute of Water and Energy Shahid Rezaee Research Center Sharif Applied Physics Research Center Sharif Energy Research Institute Tolou Technology Development Institute Sharif Upstream Petroleum Research Institute The Research Institute for Science, Technology and Industry Policy Bio Engineering and Health Systems Research Center (BEHSRC) People Alumni Faculty Presidents Mohammad Ali Mojtahedi Culture Sharif University of Technology Association (SUTA) Shahbal Pardis Technology Park Iranian Machine Design Competition IAESTE Iran FarsiTeX Impossibles RoboCup Sanctions against Iranian scientists Society of Students Against Poverty Sivan Design Group Campus Sharif University Metro Station SUT Languages and Linguistics Center SUT Avicenna Building Student Union (Shahid Rezaee Building) Jābir ibn Hayyān Building Aboreihan Birooni Khodro Central Library SUT Mosque Gym (I and II) Publication Office Restaurant International Campus vteColleges and universities in TehranPublicMSRT Allameh Tabatabaei University Alzahra University Amirkabir University of Technology Iran University of Science and Technology Kharazmi University K.N.Toosi University of Technology Shahid Beheshti University Sharif University of Technology Tarbiat Modares University Tehran University of Art University of Tehran MSRT (university systems) Payame Noor University Technical and Vocational University University of Applied Science and Technology MOHME Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences Iran University of Medical Sciences Tehran University of Medical Sciences University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences Other governmental Farhangian University Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University Malek Ashtar University of Technology Amin Police University Imam Hossein University Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences AJA University of Medical Sciences Shahed University Civil Aviation Technology College Iran Broadcasting University University of Judicial Sciences and Administrative Services PrivateIslamic Azad University Science and Research Central Tehran South Tehran North Tehran Tehran Medical Sciences West Tehran Non-profit Imam Sadiq University Soore University University of Science and Culture Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National Germany United States Other IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"public","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_university"},{"link_name":"research university","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_university"},{"link_name":"Tehran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"science, technology, engineering, and mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science,_technology,_engineering,_and_mathematics"},{"link_name":"STEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Shah_Pahlavi"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Persian"},{"link_name":"1979 revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_revolution"},{"link_name":"Majid Sharif Vaghefi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majid_Sharif_Vaghefi"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Speech-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Speech-4"},{"link_name":"Iranian Ministry of Science, Research and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Science,_Research_and_Technology_(Iran)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Academic Ranking of World Universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Ranking_of_World_Universities"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"Times Higher Education World University Rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_Higher_Education_World_University_Rankings"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-timeshighereducation.co.uk-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Times Higher Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_Higher_Education"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"US News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"University in Tehran, IranSharif University of Technology (SUT; Persian: دانشگاه صنعتی شریف) is a public research university in Tehran, Iran. It is widely considered as the nation's most prestigious and leading institution for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.Established in 1966 under the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, it was formerly named the Aryamehr University of Technology (Persian: دانشگاه صنعتی آریامهر, romanized: Dāneŝgāhe Sannatiye Āryāmehr) and for a short period after the 1979 revolution, the university was called Tehran University of Technology. Following the revolution, the university was named after Majid Sharif Vaghefi.Today, the university provides both undergraduate and graduate programs in 15 main departments. The student body consists of about 6,000[4] undergraduate students and 4,700[4] graduate students from all the 31 provinces of Iran. Funding for Sharif University is provided by the government and through private funding. Undergraduate admission to Sharif is limited to the top 800 of the 500,000 students who pass the national entrance examination administered annually by the Iranian Ministry of Science, Research and Technology.[5]In the 2013 Academic Ranking of World Universities Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences rankings, SUT was ranked 5th in the Middle East.[6] It is in the top 251–275 universities in the world and 37th in Asia in the 2014 Times Higher Education World University Rankings.[7][8] In the 2014 Times Higher Education top 100 for newer universities (less than 50 years old), SUT ranked 1st in the Middle East, 6th in Asia, and 27th in the world.[9] In 2023, according to US News, the world ranking of this university reached 598.[10][11]","title":"Sharif University of Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D5%87%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AB%D6%86%D5%AB_%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A4.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Ali Mojtahedi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Mojtahedi"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Ali Mojtahedi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Mojtahedi"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SharifBooklet-12"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Reza Pahlavi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi"},{"link_name":"Sayyed Hosein Nasr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hossein_Nasr"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Isfahan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan"},{"link_name":"Isfahan University of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan_University_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Majid Sharif Vaghefi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majid_Sharif_Vaghefi"},{"link_name":"People's Mujahedin of Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Mujahedin_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Mahsa Amini protests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahsa_Amini_protests"},{"link_name":"IRNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Republic_News_Agency"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"Mohammad Ali Mojtahedi and members of the scientific board of Sharif University of Technology in 1967.The university was founded in 1966 with the name Aryamehr University of Industry by Mohammad Ali Mojtahedi. At that time, there were 54 faculty members and a total of 412 students who were selected by national examination. Also, only four departments were established: Electrical, Metallurgical, Mechanical, and Chemical Engineering.[12]\nIn 1972, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi appointed Sayyed Hosein Nasr as president of the university with the goal of modeling the school based on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but with roots in Iranian culture.[13][14] In 1974 a new campus of the university was established in Isfahan. But later that campus became an independent university, named Isfahan University of Technology (IUT). The emblem of IUT still closely resembles SUT's emblem [citation needed]. Following the revolution, the university was named after Majid Sharif Vaghefi, who was one of the People's Mujahedin of Iran group's leaders who was killed by the members of a splinter group (later renamed to Peykar Organization) who had recently converted from Islam to Marxism and were adamant to forcefully change the Mujahedin's organization's ideology to Marxism.Currently, the university has about 12,000 students and over 700 faculty members in 16 main departments.[15] During the Mahsa Amini protests in 2022, many students participated, with video footage of the protest and subsequent response by Iranian security forces published first to social media and then by major news organizations. Iranian state news agency IRNA reported that at least 37 students were arrested and most were released shortly afterwards.[16][17][18]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Campuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tarasht","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarasht"},{"link_name":"Azadi Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azadi_Square"},{"link_name":"Tehran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Azadi Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azadi_Tower"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Main campus","text":"The main campus of the university is located in the Tarasht neighborhood, near Azadi Square, Tehran, Iran. It is located close to the Azadi Tower, which is the symbol of Tehran and one of the main transportation hubs. The endowment of Sharif University of Technology has been estimated at $25 million.[19]","title":"Campuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Campus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharif_University_of_Technology_International_Campus_-_Kish_Island"},{"link_name":"Kish Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kish_Island"},{"link_name":"Persian Gulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf"}],"sub_title":"International campus","text":"Sharif University also has an International Campus on Kish Island in Persian Gulf. The International Campus of Sharif University of Technology was established in 2005. Today there are two faculties active in this campus: Faculty of Engineering and Science, and Faculty of Management. The campus is currently admitting students for bachelor's, master's, and Ph.D. degrees in engineering courses and a master's degree in management.","title":"Campuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sharif_University_of_Technology.jpg"}],"text":"A General view of the main campus","title":"Academic profile"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SharifBooklet-12"}],"sub_title":"Profile","text":"Sharif University was established in 1966 as an Engineering university with departments of Electrical, Metallurgical, Mechanical, and Chemical Engineering.[12]","title":"Academic profile"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Academic Ranking of World Universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Ranking_of_World_Universities"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-6"},{"link_name":"QS Ranking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QS_World_University_Rankings"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report_Best_Global_University_Ranking"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ibn_Sina_Tower.JPG"}],"text":"In the 2020 Academic Ranking of World Universities[6] (also known as Shanghai Ranking), the university ranked between 501 and 600 in the world and first in Iran. According to the QS Ranking,[25] Sharif University of Technology has stood in the first place of Iran and maintained its international rank 334th. In the 2022-2023 U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking, the university ranked 598th in the world.Avicenna Building, the main classroom building","title":"World rankings"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2nd of Khordad Movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_reform_movement"},{"link_name":"Basij","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basij"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Khatami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Khatami"},{"link_name":"unknown martyrs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anonymous_martyr"},{"link_name":"Iran–Iraq War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Political activities","text":"Through the student political movement after the 2nd of Khordad Movement, Sharif students were also actively involved. The major groups with political intentions at Sharif, during 1997–2003, were students Basij and the Association of Muslim students, briefly called Anjoman (Association). Most other smaller groups were allies of either Basij or Anjoman.\nBasij was a serious opposer of Mohammad Khatami, the president of the time. Whereas, Anjoman was a loyal follower.\nThere have been several clashes between member students of the two groups. Free speech tribunes, occasionally end in harsh quarrel-like debates.\nHowever, the major clash between Anjoman and Basij occurred while the student movement was in silence in most other universities. In 2006, a serious controversy resulting in physical tensions, occurred after Basij attempted to bury bodies of unknown martyrs of the Iran–Iraq War at the universities' Mosque court.[26]","title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Sharif University of Technology Association (SUTA)","text":"This non-profit organization is registered in the state of California, USA and has many chapters and affiliates around the world. Its mission is to enhance professional, academic, and social contacts among its membership, and to strengthen the ties between the association members living outside of Iran and the university.[27]","title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Sharif University of Technology people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sharif_University_of_Technology_people"}],"text":"See also: List of Sharif University of Technology people","title":"Faculty and alumni"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mohammad Ali Mojtahedi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Ali_Mojtahedi"},{"link_name":"Fazlollah Reza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fazlollah_Reza"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Reza Amin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Amin"},{"link_name":"Seyyed Hossein Nasr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr"},{"link_name":"Mehdi Zarghamee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehdi_Zarghamee"},{"link_name":"Alireza Mehran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alireza_Mehran"},{"link_name":"Hossein Ali Anvari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hossein_Ali_Anvari"},{"link_name":"Ali Mohammad Ranjbar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Mohammad_Ranjbar"},{"link_name":"Abbas Anvari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_Anvari"},{"link_name":"Ali Akbar Salehi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Akbar_Salehi"},{"link_name":"Abbas Anvari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_Anvari"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Etemadi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Etemadi"},{"link_name":"Sayed Khatiboleslam Sadrnezhaad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayed_Khatiboleslam_Sadrnezhaad"},{"link_name":"Saeed Sohrabpour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saeed_Sohrabpour"},{"link_name":"Reza Roosta Azad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reza_Roosta_Azad"},{"link_name":"Mahmud Fotuhi Firuzabad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_Fotuhi_Firuzabad"}],"sub_title":"Chancellors","text":"Mohammad Ali Mojtahedi, 1965–1967\nFazlollah Reza, 1967–1968\nMohammad Reza Amin, 1968–1972\nSeyyed Hossein Nasr, 1972–1975\nMehdi Zarghamee, 1975–1977\nAlireza Mehran, 1977–1978\nHossein Ali Anvari, 1978–1979\nAli Mohammad Ranjbar, 1979–1980\nAbbas Anvari, 1980–1982\nAli Akbar Salehi, 1982–1985\nAbbas Anvari, 1985–1989\nAli Akbar Salehi, 1989–1993\nMohammad Etemadi, 1993–1995\nSayed Khatiboleslam Sadrnezhaad, 1995–1997\nSaeed Sohrabpour, 1997–2010\nReza Roosta Azad, 2010–2014\nMahmud Fotuhi Firuzabad, 2014–2021\nRasoul Jalili, 2021–2023\nAbbas Mousavi, 2023–present","title":"Faculty and alumni"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Maryam Mirzakhani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryam_Mirzakhani"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"Fields Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fields_Medal"},{"link_name":"Kouhyar Goudarzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kouhyar_Goudarzi"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ICHRI-28"},{"link_name":"Omid Kokabee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omid_Kokabee"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NPR-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DailyTexan-31"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maryam_Mirzakhani_in_Seoul_2014.jpg"},{"link_name":"Maryam Mirzakhani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryam_Mirzakhani"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"Fields Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fields_Medal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GM_Elshan_Moradiabadi.jpg"},{"link_name":"Elshan Moradi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elshan_Moradi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ali_Daei,_Saipa_vs._Al-Rayyan_pre-match_conference.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ali Daei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Daei"},{"link_name":"Iranian national football team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_national_football_team"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adel_Ferdosipour_2019.jpg"},{"link_name":"Adel Ferdosipour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adel_Ferdosipour"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohammad-Javad_Larijani.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mohammad-Javad Larijani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad-Javad_Larijani"},{"link_name":"conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Principlists"},{"link_name":"mathematical logician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logician"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eshaq_Jahangiri_portrait_2018.jpg"},{"link_name":"Eshaq Jahangiri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eshaq_Jahangiri"},{"link_name":"Vice president","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vice_President_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"Hassan Rouhani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_Rouhani"},{"link_name":"government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Hassan_Rouhani_(2013%E2%80%932017)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ali_Larijani_in_meeting_with_Malian_Par._Chairman_Issaka_Sidib%C3%A9_02_().jpg"},{"link_name":"Ali Larijani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Larijani"},{"link_name":"conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Principlists"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_speakers_of_the_Parliament_of_Iran"}],"sub_title":"Notable alumni","text":"Alumni in academics include the late Maryam Mirzakhani, professor of mathematics at Stanford University and the first female to be awarded a Fields Medal.Imprisoned human rights blogger Kouhyar Goudarzi was an aerospace student at Sharif until pressure from state security forces allegedly caused his dismissal.[28] Omid Kokabee, an applied physics and mechanics alumnus,[29] was arrested while visiting Iran during his postdoctoral research in University of Texas at Austin.[30] He was sentenced to 10 years in prison for \"communicating with a hostile government\" and \"illegitimate/illegal earnings.\"[31]Maryam Mirzakhani: professor of mathematics at Stanford University and the first female to be awarded a Fields Medal\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tElshan Moradi: chess grandmaster\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAli Daei: former member and later head coach of Iranian national football team\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAdel Ferdosipour: football commentator\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMohammad-Javad Larijani: Iranian conservative politician, mathematical logician, and former diplomat\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tEshaq Jahangiri: Vice president of Hassan Rouhani's government\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAli Larijani: Iranian conservative politician, philosopher, former speaker of Iran's Parliament.","title":"Faculty and alumni"}]

[{"image_text":"Mohammad Ali Mojtahedi and members of the scientific board of Sharif University of Technology in 1967.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/%D5%87%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AB%D6%86%D5%AB_%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A4.jpg/220px-%D5%87%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%AB%D6%86%D5%AB_%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80%D5%A4.jpg"},{"image_text":"A General view of the main campus","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Sharif_University_of_Technology.jpg/220px-Sharif_University_of_Technology.jpg"},{"image_text":"Avicenna Building, the main classroom building","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Ibn_Sina_Tower.JPG/190px-Ibn_Sina_Tower.JPG"}]

[{"title":"List of Islamic educational institutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Islamic_educational_institutions"},{"title":"Higher education in Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education_in_Iran"},{"title":"Pardis Technology Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardis_Technology_Park"},{"title":"Shahbal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahbal"},{"title":"Iranian Machine Design Competition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Machine_Design_Competition"}]

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Retrieved 12 April 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170118161747/http://www.dailytexanonline.com/news/2013/01/08/ut-student-omid-kokabee-gains-more-international-support-amid-prison-sentence","url_text":"\"UT student Omid Kokabee gains more international support amid prison sentence\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Texan","url_text":"The Daily Texan"},{"url":"http://www.dailytexanonline.com/news/2013/01/08/ut-student-omid-kokabee-gains-more-international-support-amid-prison-sentence","url_text":"the original"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census

Census

["1 Sampling","2 Residence definitions","3 Enumeration strategies","4 Technology","5 Development","6 Uses of census data","6.1 Census data and research","7 Privacy and data stewardship","8 History of censuses","8.1 Egypt","8.2 Ancient Greece","8.3 Israel","8.4 China","8.5 India","8.6 Rome","8.7 Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates","8.8 Medieval Europe","8.9 Inca Empire","8.10 Spanish Empire","9 World population estimates","10 Impact of COVID-19 on census","10.1 Impact","10.2 Adaptation","11 Modern implementation","12 See also","13 Sources","14 Notes","15 References","16 External links"]

Acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population A census taker visits a family of indigenous Dutch Travellers living in a caravan in the Netherlands in 1925 A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring, recording and calculating population information about the members of a given population. This term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common censuses include censuses of agriculture, traditional culture, business, supplies, and traffic censuses. The United Nations (UN) defines the essential features of population and housing censuses as "individual enumeration, universality within a defined territory, simultaneity and defined periodicity", and recommends that population censuses be taken at least every ten years. UN recommendations also cover census topics to be collected, official definitions, classifications and other useful information to co-ordinate international practices. The UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), in turn, defines the census of agriculture as "a statistical operation for collecting, processing and disseminating data on the structure of agriculture, covering the whole or a significant part of a country." "In a census of agriculture, data are collected at the holding level." The word is of Latin origin: during the Roman Republic, the census was a list of all adult males fit for military service. The modern census is essential to international comparisons of any type of statistics, and censuses collect data on many attributes of a population, not just the number of individuals. Censuses typically began as the only method of collecting national demographic data and are now part of a larger system of different surveys. Although population estimates remain an important function of a census, including exactly the geographic distribution of the population or the agricultural population, statistics can be produced about combinations of attributes, e.g., education by age and sex in different regions. Current administrative data systems allow for other approaches to enumeration with the same level of detail but raise concerns about privacy and the possibility of biasing estimates. A census can be contrasted with sampling in which information is obtained only from a subset of a population; typically, main population estimates are updated by such intercensal estimates. Modern census data are commonly used for research, business marketing, and planning, and as a baseline for designing sample surveys by providing a sampling frame such as an address register. Census counts are necessary to adjust samples to be representative of a population by weighting them as is common in opinion polling. Similarly, stratification requires knowledge of the relative sizes of different population strata, which can be derived from census enumerations. In some countries, the census provides the official counts used to apportion the number of elected representatives to regions (sometimes controversially – e.g., Utah v. Evans). In many cases, a carefully chosen random sample can provide more accurate information than attempts to get a population census. A world map showing countries' most recent censuses as of 2020 Sampling This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Census" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The Tehran census in 1869 A census is often construed as the opposite of a sample as its intent is to count everyone in a population, rather than a fraction. However, population censuses do rely on a sampling frame to count the population. This is the only way to be sure that everyone has been included, as otherwise those not responding would not be followed up on and individuals could be missed. The fundamental premise of a census is that the population is not known, and a new estimate is to be made by the analysis of primary data. The use of a sampling frame is counterintuitive as it suggests that the population size is already known. However, a census is also used to collect attribute data on the individuals in the nation, not only to assess population size. This process of sampling marks the difference between a historical census, which was a house-to-house process or the product of an imperial decree, and the modern statistical project. The sampling frame used by a census is almost always an address register. Thus, it is not known if there is anyone resident or how many people there are in each household. Depending on the mode of enumeration, a form is sent to the householder, an enumerator calls, or administrative records for the dwelling are accessed. As a preliminary to the dispatch of forms, census workers will check any address problems on the ground. While it may seem straightforward to use the postal service file for this purpose, this can be out of date and some dwellings may contain a number of independent households. A particular problem is what are termed "communal establishments", a category that includes student residences, religious orders, homes for the elderly, people in prisons etc. As these are not easily enumerated by a single householder, they are often treated differently and visited by special teams of census workers to ensure they are classified appropriately. Residence definitions Individuals are normally counted within households, and information is typically collected about the household structure and the housing. For this reason, international documents refer to censuses of population and housing. Normally the census response is made by a household, indicating details of individuals resident there. An important aspect of census enumerations is determining which individuals can be counted and which cannot be counted. Broadly, three definitions can be used: de facto residence; de jure residence; and permanent residence. This is important in considering individuals who have multiple or temporary addresses. Every person should be identified uniquely as resident in one place; but the place where they happen to be on Census Day, their de facto residence, may not be the best place to count them. Where an individual uses services may be more useful, and this is at their usual residence. An individual may be recorded at a "permanent" address, which might be a family home for students or long-term migrants. A precise definition of residence is needed, to decide whether visitors to a country should be included in the population count. This is becoming more important as students travel abroad for education for a period of several years. Other groups causing problems of enumeration are new-born babies, refugees, people away on holiday, people moving home around census day, and people without a fixed address. People with second homes because they are working in another part of the country or have a holiday cottage are difficult to fix at a particular address; this sometimes causes double counting or houses being mistakenly identified as vacant. Another problem is where people use a different address at different times e.g. students living at their place of education in term time but returning to a family home during vacations, or children whose parents have separated who effectively have two family homes. Census enumeration has always been based on finding people where they live, as there is no systematic alternative: any list used to find people is likely to be derived from census activities in the first place. Recent UN guidelines provide recommendations on enumerating such complex households. In the census of agriculture, data is collected at the agricultural holding unit. An agricultural holding is an economic unit of agricultural production under single management comprising all livestock kept and all land used wholly or partly for agricultural production purposes, without regard to title, legal form, or size. Single management may be exercised by an individual or household, jointly by two or more individuals or households, by a clan or tribe, or by a juridical person such as a corporation, cooperative or government agency. The holding's land may consist of one or more parcels, located in one or more separate areas or in one or more territorial or administrative divisions, providing the parcels share the same production means, such as labour, farm buildings, machinery or draught animals. Enumeration strategies An enumerator conducting a census survey using a mobile phone-based questionnaire in the rural Mutasa District in Zimbabwe in 2015 Historical censuses used crude enumeration assuming absolute accuracy. Modern approaches take into account the problems of overcount and undercount, and the coherence of census enumerations with other official sources of data. This reflects a realist approach to measurement, acknowledging that under any definition of residence there is a true value of the population but this can never be measured with complete accuracy. An important aspect of the census process is to evaluate the quality of the data. Many countries use a post-enumeration survey to adjust the raw census counts. This works in a similar manner to capture-recapture estimation for animal populations. Among census experts this method is called dual system enumeration (DSE). A sample of households are visited by interviewers who record the details of the household as at census day. These data are then matched to census records, and the number of people missed can be estimated by considering the numbers of people who are included in one count but not the other. This allows adjustments to the count for non-response, varying between different demographic groups. An explanation using a fishing analogy can be found in "Trout, Catfish and Roach..." which won an award from the Royal Statistical Society for excellence in official statistics in 2011. Triple system enumeration has been proposed as an improvement as it would allow evaluation of the statistical dependence of pairs of sources. However, as the matching process is the most difficult aspect of census estimation this has never been implemented for a national enumeration. It would also be difficult to identify three different sources that were sufficiently different to make the triple system effort worthwhile. The DSE approach has another weakness in that it assumes there is no person counted twice (over count). In de facto residence definitions this would not be a problem but in de jure definitions individuals risk being recorded on more than one form leading to double counting. A particular problem here is students who often have a term time and family address. Several countries have used a system known as short form/long form. This is a sampling strategy that randomly chooses a proportion of people to send a more detailed questionnaire to (the long form). Everyone receives the short form questions. This means more data are collected, but without imposing a burden on the whole population. This also reduces the burden on the statistical office. Indeed, in the UK until 2001 all residents were required to fill in the whole form but only a 10% sample were coded and analysed in detail. New technology means that all data are now scanned and processed. During the 2011 Canadian census there was controversy about the cessation of the mandatory long form census; the head of Statistics Canada, Munir Sheikh, resigned upon the federal government's decision to do so. The use of alternative enumeration strategies is increasing but these are not as simple as many people assume and are only used in developed countries. The Netherlands has been most advanced in adopting a census using administrative data. This allows a simulated census to be conducted by linking several different administrative databases at an agreed time. Data can be matched, and an overall enumeration established allowing for discrepancies between different data sources. A validation survey is still conducted in a similar way to the post enumeration survey employed in a traditional census. Other countries that have a population register use this as a basis for all the census statistics needed by users. This is most common among Nordic countries, but requires many distinct registers to be combined, including population, housing, employment and education. These registers are then combined and brought up to the standard of a statistical register by comparing the data in different sources and ensuring the quality is sufficient for official statistics to be produced. A recent innovation is the French instigation of a rolling census programme with different regions enumerated each year, so that the whole country is completely enumerated every 5 to 10 years. In Europe, in connection with the 2010 census round, many countries adopted alternative census methodologies, often based on the combination of data from registers, surveys and other sources. Technology Censuses have evolved in their use of technology: censuses in 2010 used many new types of computing. In Brazil, handheld devices were used by enumerators to locate residences on the ground. In many countries, census returns could be made via the Internet as well as in paper form. DSE is facilitated by computer matching techniques that can be automated, such as propensity score matching. In the UK, all census formats are scanned and stored electronically before being destroyed, replacing the need for physical archives. The record linking to perform an administrative census would not be possible without large databases being stored on computer systems. There are sometimes problems in introducing new technology. The US census had been intended to use handheld computers, but cost escalated, and this was abandoned, with the contract being sold to Brazil. Online response has some advantages, but one of the functions of the census is to make sure everyone is counted accurately. A system that allowed people to enter their address without verification would be open to abuse. Therefore, households have to be verified on the ground, typically by an enumerator visit or post out. Paper forms are still necessary for those without access to the internet. It is also possible that the hidden nature of an administrative census means that users are not engaged with the importance of contributing their data to official statistics. Alternatively, population estimations may be carried out remotely with geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing technologies. Development According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), "The information generated by a population and housing census – numbers of people, their distribution, their living conditions and other key data – is critical for development." This is because this type of data is essential for policymakers so that they know where to invest. Many countries have outdated or inaccurate data about their populations and thus have difficulty in addressing the needs of the population. The UNFPA said: "The unique advantage of the census is that it represents the entire statistical universe, down to the smallest geographical units, of a country or region. Planners need this information for all kinds of development work, including: assessing demographic trends; analysing socio-economic conditions; designing evidence-based poverty-reduction strategies; monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of policies; and tracking progress toward national and internationally agreed development goals." In addition to making policymakers aware of population issues, the census is also an important tool for identifying forms of social, demographic or economic exclusions, such as inequalities relating to race, ethics, and religion as well as disadvantaged groups such as those with disabilities and the poor. An accurate census can empower local communities by providing them with the necessary information to participate in local decision-making and ensuring they are represented. The importance of the census of agriculture for development is that it gives a snapshot of the structure of the agricultural sector in a country and, when compared with previous censuses, provides an opportunity to identify trends and structural transformations of the sector, and points towards areas for policy intervention. Census data are used as a benchmark for current statistics and their value is increased when they are employed together with other data sources. Uses of census data Early censuses in the 19th and 20th centuries collected paper documents which had to be collated by hand, so the statistical information obtained was quite basic. The government that owned the data could publish statistics on the state of the nation. The results were used to measure changes in the population and apportion representation. Population estimates could be compared to those of other countries. By the beginning of the 20th century, censuses were recording households and some indications of their employment. In some countries, census archives are released for public examination after many decades, allowing genealogists to track the ancestry of interested people. Archives provide a substantial historical record which may challenge established views. Information such as job titles and arrangements for the destitute and sick may also shed light on the historical structure of society. Political considerations influence the census in many countries. In Canada in 2010 for example, the government under the leadership of Stephen Harper abolished the mandatory long-form census. This abolition was a response to protests from some Canadians who resented the personal questions. The long-form census was reinstated by the Justin Trudeau government in 2016. Census data and research As governments assumed responsibility for schooling and welfare, large government research departments made extensive use of census data. Population projections could be made, to help plan for provision in local government and regions. Central government could also use census data to allocate funding. Even in the mid 20th century, census data was only directly accessible to large government departments. However, computers meant that tabulations could be used directly by university researchers, large businesses and local government offices. They could use the detail of the data to answer new questions and add to local and specialist knowledge. Nowadays, census data are published in a wide variety of formats to be accessible to business, all levels of government, media, students and teachers, charities, and any citizen who is interested; researchers in particular have an interest in the role of Census Field Officers (CFO) and their assistants. Data can be represented visually or analysed in complex statistical models, to show the difference between certain areas, or to understand the association between different personal characteristics. Census data offer a unique insight into small areas and small demographic groups which sample data would be unable to capture with precision. In the census of agriculture, users need census data to: support and contribute to evidence-based agricultural planning and policy-making. The census information is essential, for example, to monitor the performance of a policy or programme designed for crop diversification or to address food security issues; provide data to facilitate research, investment and business decisions both in the public and private sector; contribute to monitoring environmental changes and evaluating the impact of agricultural practices on the environment such as tillage practices, crop rotation or sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions; provide relevant data on work inputs and main work activities, as well as on the labour force in the agriculture sector; provide an important information base for monitoring some key indicators of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular those goals related to food security in agricultural holdings, the role of women in agricultural activities and rural poverty; provide baseline data both at the national and small administrative and geographical levels for formulating, monitoring and evaluating programmes and projects interventions; provide essential information on subsistence agriculture and for the estimation of the non-observed economy, which plays an important role in the compilation of the national accounts and the economic accounts for agriculture. Privacy and data stewardship Although the census provides useful statistical information about a population, the availability of this information could sometimes lead to abuses, political or otherwise, by the linking of individuals' identities to anonymous census data. This is particularly important when individuals' census responses are made available in microdata form, but even aggregate-level data can result in privacy breaches when dealing with small areas and/or rare subpopulations. For instance, when reporting data from a large city, it might be appropriate to give the average income for black males aged between 50 and 60. However, doing this for a town that only has two black males in this age group would be a breach of privacy because either of those persons, knowing his own income and the reported average, could determine the other man's income. Typically, census data are processed to obscure such individual information. Some agencies do this by intentionally introducing small statistical errors to prevent the identification of individuals in marginal populations; others swap variables for similar respondents. Whatever is done to reduce the privacy risk, new improved electronic analysis of data can threaten to reveal sensitive individual information. This is known as statistical disclosure control. Another possibility is to present survey results by means of statistical models in the form of a multivariate distribution mixture. The statistical information in the form of conditional distributions (histograms) can be derived interactively from the estimated mixture model without any further access to the original database. As the final product does not contain any protected microdata, the model-based interactive software can be distributed without any confidentiality concerns. Another method is simply to release no data at all, except very large scale data directly to the central government. Differing release strategies of governments have led to an international project (IPUMS) to co-ordinate access to microdata and corresponding metadata. Such projects such as SDMX also promote standardising metadata, so that best use can be made of the minimal data available. History of censuses Egypt Censuses in Egypt first appeared in the late Middle Kingdom and developed in the New Kingdom Pharaoh Amasis, according to Herodotus, required every Egyptian to declare annually to the nomarch, "whence he gained his living". Under the Ptolemies and the Romans several censuses were conducted in Egypt by government officials. Ancient Greece There are several accounts of ancient Greek city states carrying out censuses. Israel Censuses are mentioned several times in the Biblical narrative. God commands a per capita tax to be paid with the census for the upkeep of the Tabernacle. The Book of Numbers is named after the counting of the Israelite population according to the house of the Fathers after the exodus from Egypt. A second census was taken while the Israelites were camped in the "plains of Moab". King David performed a census that produced disastrous results. His son, King Solomon, had all of the foreigners in Israel counted. When the Romans conquered Judea in AD 6, the legate Publius Sulpicius Quirinius organised a census for tax purposes. The Gospel of Luke makes reference to this census in relation to the birth of Jesus; based on variant readings of this passage, a minority of biblical scholars, including N. T. Wright, speculate that this passage refers to a separate registration conducted during the reign of Herod the Great, several years before Quirinius' census. China One of the world's earliest preserved censuses was held in China in AD 2 during the Han dynasty, and is still considered by scholars to be quite accurate. The population was registered as having 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households but on this occasion only taxable families had been taken into account, indicating the income and the number of soldiers who could be mobilized. Another census was held in AD 144. India The oldest recorded census in India is thought to have occurred around 330 BC during the reign of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya under the leadership of Chanakya and Ashoka. Rome See also: Roman censor and Indiction The English term is taken directly from the Latin census, from censere ("to estimate"). The census played a crucial role in the administration of the Roman government, as it was used to determine the class a citizen belonged to for both military and tax purposes. Beginning in the middle republic, it was usually carried out every five years. It provided a register of citizens and their property from which their duties and privileges could be listed. It is said to have been instituted by the Roman king Servius Tullius in the 6th century BC, at which time the number of arms-bearing citizens was supposedly counted at around 80,000. The 6 AD "census of Quirinius" undertaken following the imposition of direct Roman rule in Judea was partially responsible for the development of the Zealot movement and several failed rebellions against Rome that ended in the Diaspora. The 15-year indiction cycle established by Diocletian in AD 297 was based on quindecennial censuses and formed the basis for dating in late antiquity and under the Byzantine Empire. Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates In the Middle Ages, the Caliphate began conducting regular censuses soon after its formation, beginning with the one ordered by the second Rashidun caliph, Umar. Medieval Europe The Domesday Book was undertaken in AD 1086 by William I of England so that he could properly tax the land he had recently conquered. In 1183, a census was taken of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, to ascertain the number of men and amount of money that could possibly be raised against an invasion by Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria. The first national census of France (L'État des paroisses et des feux) was undertaken in 1328, mostly for fiscal purposes. It estimated the French population at 16 to 17 million. Inca Empire In the 15th century, the Inca Empire had a unique way to record census information. The Incas did not have any written language but recorded information collected during censuses and other numeric information as well as non-numeric data on quipus, strings from llama or alpaca hair or cotton cords with numeric and other values encoded by knots in a base-10 positional system. Spanish Empire On May 25, 1577, King Philip II of Spain ordered by royal cédula the preparation of a general description of Spain's holdings in the Indies. Instructions and a questionnaire, issued in 1577 by the Office of the Cronista Mayor, were distributed to local officials in the Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru to direct the gathering of information. The questionnaire, composed of fifty items, was designed to elicit basic information about the nature of the land and the life of its peoples. The replies, known as "relaciones geográficas", were written between 1579 and 1585 and were returned to the Cronista Mayor in Spain by the Council of the Indies. World population estimates The earliest estimate of the world population was made by Giovanni Battista Riccioli in 1661; the next by Johann Peter Süssmilch in 1741, revised in 1762; the third by Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Dieterici in 1859. In 1931, Walter Willcox published a table in his book, International Migrations: Volume II Interpretations, that estimated the 1929 world population to be roughly 1.8 billion. The League of Nations and International Statistical Institute estimates of the world population in 1929 Impact of COVID-19 on census A census taker interviews a resident of Dasmariñas, Philippines, in October 2020 Impact The UNFPA predicts that the COVID-19 pandemic will threaten the successful conduct of censuses of population and housing in many countries through delays, interruptions that compromise quality, or complete cancellation of census projects. Domestic and donor financing for census may be diverted to address COVID-19 leaving census without crucial funds. Several countries have already taken decisions to postpone the census, with many others yet to announce the way forward. In some countries this is already happening. The pandemic has also affected the planning and implementation of censuses of agriculture in all world regions. The extent of the impact has varied according to the stages at which the censuses are, ranging from planning (i.e. staffing, procurement, preparation of frames, questionnaires), fieldwork (field training and enumeration) or data processing/analysis stages. The census of agriculture's reference period is the agricultural year. Thus, a delay in any census activity may be critical and can result in a full year postponement of the enumeration if the agricultural season is missed. Some publications have discussed the impact of COVID-19 on national censuses of agriculture. Adaptation The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) has requested a global effort to assure that even where census is delayed, census planning and preparations are not cancelled, but continue in order to assure that implementation can proceed safely when the pandemic is under control. While new census methods, including online, register-based, and hybrid approaches are being used across the world, these demand extensive planning and preconditions that cannot be created at short notice. The continuing low supply of personal protective equipment to protect against COVID-19 has immediate implications for conducting census in communities at risk of transmission. The UNFPA Procurement Office is partnering with other agencies to explore new supply chains and resources. Modern implementation Main article: Population and housing censuses by country See also List of national and international statistical services Languages in censuses Liber Censuum – Record of the real estate venues of the papacy from 492 to 1192 Race and ethnicity in censuses – Ethnic identity questions on national censuses Social research – Research conducted by social scientists Sources  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Programme for the Census of Agriculture 2020 Volume 1 – Programme, concepts and definitions​, FAO, FAO.  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from National agricultural census operations and COVID-19​, FAO, FAO.  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from Impact of COVID-19 on national censuses of agriculture (Status overview) (2020)​, FAO, FAO. Notes ^ United Nations (2008). Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Censuses Archived 2011-05-14 at the Wayback Machine. Statistical Papers: Series M No. 67/Rev. 2. p. 8. ISBN 978-92-1-161505-0. ^ "CES 2010 Census Recommendations" (PDF). Unece.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-10-27. Retrieved 2013-11-19. ^ a b c d World Programme for the Census of Agriculture 2020 Volume 1: Programme, concepts and definitions. FAO statistical development series No. 15. Rome: FAO. 2015. ISBN 978-92-5-108865-4. Archived from the original on 2020-11-10. Retrieved 2020-11-19. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO (CC BY 3.0 IGO) Archived 2019-11-24 at the Wayback Machine license. ^ "History and Development of the Census in England and Wales". theforgottenfamily.wordpress.org. 2017-01-19. Archived from the original on 2017-02-02. Retrieved 2017-01-20. ^ Salant, Priscilla, and Don A. Dillman. "How to Conduct your own Survey: Leading professional give you proven techniques for getting reliable results." (1995) ^ "Amar_darolkhaneh_Tarikhema_org.pdf" (PDF). tarikhema.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-11-03. Retrieved 20 November 2022. ^ "Communal establishment type". Scotland's Census. Retrieved 2024-01-10. ^ a b "Census". Deezer. Retrieved 2024-02-05. ^ "Measurement of emerging forms of families and households". UNECE. Archived from the original on 2012-11-09. Retrieved 2012-12-12. ^ "Census Quality Evaluation: considerations from an international perspective". United Nations Statistics Division. Archived from the original on 2013-01-17. Retrieved 2012-02-19. ^ Breiman, Leo (1994). "The 1991 Census Adjustment: Undercount or Bad Data?". Statistical Science. 9 (4): 458–75. doi:10.1214/ss/1177010259. ^ World Population and Housing Census Programme (2010) Post Enumeration Surveys: Operational guidelines Archived 2012-05-03 at the Wayback Machine, United Nations Secretariat, Dept of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division, Tech Report ^ Benton, P. Trout, Catfish and Roach: The beginner's guide to census population estimates Archived 2012-01-07 at the Wayback Machine, Office for National Statistics, UK ^ Other methods of census taking Archived 2012-03-14 at the Wayback Machine, Office for National Statistics, UK ^ "Introduction to Census 2001". Ons.gov.uk. 2001-04-29. Archived from the original on 2013-01-17. Retrieved 2012-12-12. ^ The Canadian Press (2010-07-21). "Text of Munir Sheikh's resignation statement". 680News. Archived from the original on 2011-12-19. Retrieved 2012-02-19. ^ " Population and Societies". Ined.fr. Archived from the original on 2013-01-17. Retrieved 2012-02-19. ^ Kukutai, Tahu (2014). "Whither the census? Continuity and change in census methodologies worldwide, 1985–2014". Journal of Population Research. 32: 3–22. doi:10.1007/s12546-014-9139-z. S2CID 154735445. ^ "Register-based statistics in the Nordic countries" (PDF). Unece.org. 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2012-10-15. Retrieved 2012-12-12. ^ Durr, Jean-Michel and François Clanché. "The French Rolling Census: a decade of experience" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-02-24. ^ "2010 Population Census Round – Confluence". unece.org. Archived from the original on 2012-11-07. Retrieved 2012-12-12. ^ Biljecki, F.; Arroyo Ohori, K.; Ledoux, H.; Peters, R.; Stoter, J. (2016). "Population Estimation Using a 3D City Model: A Multi-Scale Country-Wide Study in the Netherlands". PLOS ONE. 11 (6): e0156808. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1156808B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0156808. PMC 4890761. PMID 27254151. ^ a b "Census | UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund". UNFPA.org. Archived from the original on 2016-02-24. Retrieved 2016-07-20. ^ Corcos, Nick (2017). "Excavations in 2014 at Wade Street, Bristol - a documentary and archaeological analysis". Internet Archaeology (45). doi:10.11141/ia.45.3. ^ Kathrin Levitan (auth.), A Cultural History of the British Census: Envisioning the Multitude in the Nineteenth Century, ISBN 978-1-349-29824-2, 978-0-230-33760-2 Palgrave Macmillan US 2011. ^ Jennifer Ditchburn (June 29, 2010). "Tories scrap mandatory long-form census". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on September 20, 2018. Retrieved September 23, 2017. ^ Morphy, Frances (2007). Agency, Contingency and Census Process: Observations of the 2006 Indigenous Enumeration Strategy in Remote Aboriginal Australia. ANU E Press. ISBN 978-1921313585. Archived from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2016. One researcher spent time observing... the training of Census Field Officers (CFO) and their assistants.... ^ "The Census and Privacy". EPIC.org. Archived from the original on 2016-06-13. Retrieved 2016-07-20. ^ "Managing Confidentiality and Learning about SEIFA". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2006-04-18. Archived from the original on 2011-05-24. Retrieved 2010-11-30. ^ Grim J, Hora J, Somol P, Boček P, Pudil, P (2010). "Statistical Model of the 2001 Czech Census for Interactive Presentation". Journal of Official Statistics, vol. 26, no. 4. pp. 673–94. Archived from the original on 2011-07-24. Retrieved 2011-01-07. ^ D. Valbelle. "Les recensements dans l'Egypte pharaonique des troisième et deuxième millénaires" CRIPEL 9 (1987) 37–49. ^ Herodotus, Histories II, 177, 2 ^ Paul Cartledge, Peter Garnsey, Erich S. Gruen Hellenistic Constructs: Essays in Culture, History, and Historiography 242 ss. ^ Missiakoulis, Spyros (2010). "Cecrops, King of Athens: the First (?) Recorded Population Census in History". International Statistical Review. 78 (3): 413–18. doi:10.1111/j.1751-5823.2010.00124.x. S2CID 120868478. ^ Exodus 30:11–16 ^ Numbers 1–4 ^ Numbers 26 ^ 2 Samuel 24 and 1 Chronicles 21 ^ 2 Chronicles 2:17 ^ Luke 2:1–2 ^ Wright, Nicholas (9 March 1993). Who Was Jesus?. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-0802806949. ^ Robert Hymes (2000). John Stewart Bowman (ed.). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-231-11004-4. ^ Jeffrey Hays. "China – Facts and Details: Han Dynasty (206 B.C. – A.D. 220)". Archived from the original on 2010-11-23. ^ Twitchett, D., Loewe, M., and Fairbank, J.K. Cambridge History of China: The Ch'in and Han Empires 221 B.C.–A.D. 220. Cambridge University Press (1986), p. 240. ^ a b Nishijima (1986), pp. 595–96. ^ Yoon, H. (1985). "An early Chinese idea of a dynamic environmental cycle". GeoJournal. 10 (2): 211–12. doi:10.1007/bf00150742. S2CID 189888642. ^ "Han Dynasty Government". Facts and Details. Archived from the original on 14 July 2021. Retrieved 14 July 2021. ^ "Census Commissioner of India – Historical Background". Govt. of India. Archived from the original on 2011-08-19. Retrieved 2011-08-12. The records of census conducted appears from 300 BC. ^ Scheidel, Walter (2009) Rome and China: comparative perspectives on ancient world empires. Oxford University Press, p. 28. ^ Livy Ab urbe condita 1.42 ^ Livy Ab urbe condita 1.42, citing Fabius Pictor ^ al-Qādī, Wadād (July 2008). "Population Census and Land Surveys under the Umayyads (41–132/661–750)". Der Islam. 83 (2): 341–416. doi:10.1515/ISLAM.2006.015. S2CID 162245577. ^ D'altroy, Terence N. (2001). 154 ^ Willcox, Walter (1931). "International Migrations, Volume II: Interpretations" (PDF). NBER. 78 (3): 309. Bibcode:1931GeogJ..78..309C. doi:10.2307/1784930. JSTOR 1784930. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-04-25. ^ a b Technical Brief on the Implications of COVID-19 on Census (PDF). UNFPA. 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-06-05. ^ "Impact on censuses of agriculture and some mitigation measures (2020)". How Covid-19 is changing the world: a statistical perspective, Volume II (PDF). Committee for the Coordination of Statistical Activities (CCSA). 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-09-21. ^ Impact of COVID-19 on national censuses of agriculture (Status overview). Rome: FAO. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8984en. ISBN 978-92-5-132604-6. S2CID 242865907. Archived from the original on 2023-01-20. Retrieved 2020-11-19. ^ National agricultural census operations and COVID-19. Rome: FAO. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8605en. ISBN 978-92-5-132402-8. S2CID 240817441. Archived from the original on 2023-01-20. Retrieved 2020-11-19. ^ Castano, Jairo (2020). "Censuses of agriculture and COVID-19: Global situation and lessons". Statistical Journal of the IAOS. 36 (4). IOS Press: 861–865. doi:10.3233/SJI-200752. S2CID 229200096. References Alterman, Hyman, (1969). Counting People: The Census in History. Harcourt, Brace & Company. Behrisch, Lars. (2016) "Statistics and Politics in the 18th Century." Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung (2016): 238–57. Bielenstein, Hans, (1978). "Wang Mang, the restoration of the Han dynasty, and Later Han." In The Cambridge History of China, vol. 1, eds. Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, pp. 223–90, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Krüger, Stephen, (Fall 1991). "The Decennial Census", 19 Western State University Law Review 1; available at HeinOnline (subscription required). Effects of UK 'Jedi' hoax on 2001 UK census from ONS. U.S. Census Press Release on 1930 Census. U.S. Census Press Release on Soundex and WPA. Nishijima, Sadao (1986), "The economic and social history of Former Han", in Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.), Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 545–607, ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Census. "Census" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). 1911. Census of Ireland 1911. Online Historical Population Reports Project (OHPR). 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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Volkstelling_1925_Census.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dutch Travellers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Travellers"},{"link_name":"caravan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_home"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_population"},{"link_name":"national population and housing censuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_and_housing_censuses_by_country"},{"link_name":"censuses of agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census_of_agriculture"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"UN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"Food and Agriculture Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"Roman Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"international comparisons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_comparisons"},{"link_name":"administrative data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_data"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theforgottenfamily.wordpress.org-4"},{"link_name":"sampling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"intercensal estimates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercensal_estimate"},{"link_name":"marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing"},{"link_name":"opinion polling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinion_poll"},{"link_name":"stratification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratified_sampling"},{"link_name":"Utah v. Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah_v._Evans"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lastcensus.svg"}],"text":"A census taker visits a family of indigenous Dutch Travellers living in a caravan in the Netherlands in 1925A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring, recording and calculating population information about the members of a given population. This term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common censuses include censuses of agriculture, traditional culture, business, supplies, and traffic censuses. The United Nations (UN) defines the essential features of population and housing censuses as \"individual enumeration, universality within a defined territory, simultaneity and defined periodicity\", and recommends that population censuses be taken at least every ten years. UN recommendations also cover census topics to be collected, official definitions, classifications and other useful information to co-ordinate international practices.[1][2]The UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), in turn, defines the census of agriculture as \"a statistical operation for collecting, processing and disseminating data on the structure of agriculture, covering the whole or a significant part of a country.\" \"In a census of agriculture, data are collected at the holding level.\"[3]The word is of Latin origin: during the Roman Republic, the census was a list of all adult males fit for military service. The modern census is essential to international comparisons of any type of statistics, and censuses collect data on many attributes of a population, not just the number of individuals. Censuses typically began as the only method of collecting national demographic data and are now part of a larger system of different surveys. Although population estimates remain an important function of a census, including exactly the geographic distribution of the population or the agricultural population, statistics can be produced about combinations of attributes, e.g., education by age and sex in different regions. Current administrative data systems allow for other approaches to enumeration with the same level of detail but raise concerns about privacy and the possibility of biasing estimates.[4]A census can be contrasted with sampling in which information is obtained only from a subset of a population; typically, main population estimates are updated by such intercensal estimates. Modern census data are commonly used for research, business marketing, and planning, and as a baseline for designing sample surveys by providing a sampling frame such as an address register. Census counts are necessary to adjust samples to be representative of a population by weighting them as is common in opinion polling. Similarly, stratification requires knowledge of the relative sizes of different population strata, which can be derived from census enumerations. In some countries, the census provides the official counts used to apportion the number of elected representatives to regions (sometimes controversially – e.g., Utah v. Evans). In many cases, a carefully chosen random sample can provide more accurate information than attempts to get a population census.[5]A world map showing countries' most recent censuses as of 2020","title":"Census"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tehran_Census_1869.png"},{"link_name":"Tehran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"sampling frame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_frame"},{"link_name":"counterintuitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterintuitive"},{"link_name":"communal establishments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Communal_establishments&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The Tehran census in 1869[6]A census is often construed as the opposite of a sample as its intent is to count everyone in a population, rather than a fraction. However, population censuses do rely on a sampling frame to count the population. This is the only way to be sure that everyone has been included, as otherwise those not responding would not be followed up on and individuals could be missed. The fundamental premise of a census is that the population is not known, and a new estimate is to be made by the analysis of primary data. The use of a sampling frame is counterintuitive as it suggests that the population size is already known. However, a census is also used to collect attribute data on the individuals in the nation, not only to assess population size. This process of sampling marks the difference between a historical census, which was a house-to-house process or the product of an imperial decree, and the modern statistical project.The sampling frame used by a census is almost always an address register. Thus, it is not known if there is anyone resident or how many people there are in each household. Depending on the mode of enumeration, a form is sent to the householder, an enumerator calls, or administrative records for the dwelling are accessed. As a preliminary to the dispatch of forms, census workers will check any address problems on the ground. While it may seem straightforward to use the postal service file for this purpose, this can be out of date and some dwellings may contain a number of independent households. A particular problem is what are termed \"communal establishments\", a category that includes student residences, religious orders, homes for the elderly, people in prisons etc. As these are not easily enumerated by a single householder, they are often treated differently and visited by special teams of census workers to ensure they are classified appropriately.[7]","title":"Sampling"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"de facto residence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_range"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"}],"text":"Individuals are normally counted within households, and information is typically collected about the household structure and the housing. For this reason, international documents refer to censuses of population and housing. Normally the census response is made by a household, indicating details of individuals resident there. An important aspect of census enumerations is determining which individuals can be counted and which cannot be counted. Broadly, three definitions can be used: de facto residence; de jure residence; and permanent residence. This is important in considering individuals who have multiple or temporary addresses. Every person should be identified uniquely as resident in one place; but the place where they happen to be on Census Day, their de facto residence, may not be the best place to count them. Where an individual uses services may be more useful, and this is at their usual residence. An individual may be recorded at a \"permanent\" address, which might be a family home for students or long-term migrants.[8]A precise definition of residence is needed, to decide whether visitors to a country should be included in the population count. This is becoming more important as students travel abroad for education for a period of several years. Other groups causing problems of enumeration are new-born babies, refugees, people away on holiday, people moving home around census day, and people without a fixed address.People with second homes because they are working in another part of the country or have a holiday cottage are difficult to fix at a particular address; this sometimes causes double counting or houses being mistakenly identified as vacant. Another problem is where people use a different address at different times e.g. students living at their place of education in term time but returning to a family home during vacations, or children whose parents have separated who effectively have two family homes. Census enumeration has always been based on finding people where they live, as there is no systematic alternative: any list used to find people is likely to be derived from census activities in the first place. Recent UN guidelines provide recommendations on enumerating such complex households.[9]In the census of agriculture, data is collected at the agricultural holding unit. An agricultural holding is an economic unit of agricultural production under single management comprising all livestock kept and all land used wholly or partly for agricultural production purposes, without regard to title, legal form, or size. Single management may be exercised by an individual or household, jointly by two or more individuals or households, by a clan or tribe, or by a juridical person such as a corporation, cooperative or government agency. The holding's land may consist of one or more parcels, located in one or more separate areas or in one or more territorial or administrative divisions, providing the parcels share the same production means, such as labour, farm buildings, machinery or draught animals.[3]","title":"Residence definitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Enumerator.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mutasa District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutasa_District"},{"link_name":"Zimbabwe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"gobbledegook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"capture-recapture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture-recapture"},{"link_name":"demographic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Royal Statistical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Statistical_Society"},{"link_name":"official statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_statistics"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"sampling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"2011 Canadian census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Canadian_census"},{"link_name":"Statistics Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_Canada"},{"link_name":"Munir Sheikh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munir_Sheikh"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"administrative data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_data"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"An enumerator conducting a census survey using a mobile phone-based questionnaire in the rural Mutasa District in Zimbabwe in 2015Historical censuses used crude enumeration assuming[clarification needed] absolute accuracy. Modern approaches take into account the problems of overcount and undercount, and the coherence of census enumerations with other official sources of data.[clarification needed][10] This reflects a realist approach to measurement, acknowledging that under any definition of residence there is a true value of the population[gobbledegook] but this can never be measured with complete accuracy. An important aspect of the census process is to evaluate the quality of the data.[11]Many countries use a post-enumeration survey to adjust the raw census counts.[12] This works in a similar manner to capture-recapture estimation for animal populations. Among census experts this method is called dual system enumeration (DSE). A sample of households are visited by interviewers who record the details of the household as at census day. These data are then matched to census records, and the number of people missed can be estimated by considering the numbers of people who are included in one count but not the other. This allows adjustments to the count for non-response, varying between different demographic groups. An explanation using a fishing analogy can be found in \"Trout, Catfish and Roach...\"[13] which won an award from the Royal Statistical Society for excellence in official statistics in 2011.Triple system enumeration has been proposed as an improvement as it would allow evaluation of the statistical dependence of pairs of sources. However, as the matching process is the most difficult aspect of census estimation this has never been implemented for a national enumeration. It would also be difficult to identify three different sources that were sufficiently different to make the triple system effort worthwhile. The DSE approach has another weakness in that it assumes there is no person counted twice (over count). In de facto residence definitions this would not be a problem but in de jure definitions individuals risk being recorded on more than one form leading to double counting. A particular problem here is students who often have a term time and family address.Several countries have used a system known as short form/long form.[14] This is a sampling strategy that randomly chooses a proportion of people to send a more detailed questionnaire to (the long form). Everyone receives the short form questions. This means more data are collected, but without imposing a burden on the whole population. This also reduces the burden on the statistical office. Indeed, in the UK until 2001 all residents were required to fill in the whole form but only a 10% sample were coded and analysed in detail.[15] New technology means that all data are now scanned and processed. During the 2011 Canadian census there was controversy about the cessation of the mandatory long form census; the head of Statistics Canada, Munir Sheikh, resigned upon the federal government's decision to do so.[16]The use of alternative enumeration strategies is increasing[17] but these are not as simple as many people assume and are only used in developed countries.[18] The Netherlands has been most advanced in adopting a census using administrative data. This allows a simulated census to be conducted by linking several different administrative databases at an agreed time. Data can be matched, and an overall enumeration established allowing for discrepancies between different data sources. A validation survey is still conducted in a similar way to the post enumeration survey employed in a traditional census.Other countries that have a population register use this as a basis for all the census statistics needed by users. This is most common among Nordic countries, but requires many distinct registers to be combined, including population, housing, employment and education. These registers are then combined and brought up to the standard of a statistical register by comparing the data in different sources and ensuring the quality is sufficient for official statistics to be produced.[19]A recent innovation is the French instigation of a rolling census programme with different regions enumerated each year, so that the whole country is completely enumerated every 5 to 10 years.[20] In Europe, in connection with the 2010 census round, many countries adopted alternative census methodologies, often based on the combination of data from registers, surveys and other sources.[21]","title":"Enumeration strategies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"propensity score matching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propensity_score_matching"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"geographic information system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system"},{"link_name":"remote sensing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensing"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"Censuses have evolved in their use of technology: censuses in 2010 used many new types of computing. In Brazil, handheld devices were used by enumerators to locate residences on the ground. In many countries, census returns could be made via the Internet as well as in paper form. DSE is facilitated by computer matching techniques that can be automated, such as propensity score matching. In the UK, all census formats are scanned and stored electronically before being destroyed, replacing the need for physical archives. The record linking to perform an administrative census would not be possible without large databases being stored on computer systems.There are sometimes problems in introducing new technology. The US census had been intended to use handheld computers, but cost escalated, and this was abandoned, with the contract being sold to Brazil. Online response has some advantages, but one of the functions of the census is to make sure everyone is counted accurately. A system that allowed people to enter their address without verification would be open to abuse. Therefore, households have to be verified on the ground, typically by an enumerator visit or post out[clarification needed]. Paper forms are still necessary for those without access to the internet. It is also possible that the hidden nature[clarification needed] of an administrative census means that users are not engaged with the importance of contributing their data to official statistics.Alternatively, population estimations may be carried out remotely with geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing technologies.[22]","title":"Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United Nations Population Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unfpa.org-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-unfpa.org-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"}],"text":"According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), \"The information generated by a population and housing census – numbers of people, their distribution, their living conditions and other key data – is critical for development.\"[23] This is because this type of data is essential for policymakers so that they know where to invest. Many countries have outdated or inaccurate data about their populations and thus have difficulty in addressing the needs of the population.The UNFPA said:[23]\"The unique advantage of the census is that it represents the entire statistical universe, down to the smallest geographical units, of a country or region. Planners need this information for all kinds of development work, including: assessing demographic trends; analysing socio-economic conditions;[24] designing evidence-based poverty-reduction strategies; monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of policies; and tracking progress toward national and internationally agreed development goals.\"In addition to making policymakers aware of population issues, the census is also an important tool for identifying forms of social, demographic or economic exclusions, such as inequalities relating to race, ethics, and religion as well as disadvantaged groups such as those with disabilities and the poor.An accurate census can empower local communities by providing them with the necessary information to participate in local decision-making and ensuring they are represented.The importance of the census of agriculture for development is that it gives a snapshot of the structure of the agricultural sector in a country and, when compared with previous censuses, provides an opportunity to identify trends and structural transformations of the sector, and points towards areas for policy intervention. Census data are used as a benchmark for current statistics and their value is increased when they are employed together with other data sources.[3]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Stephen Harper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Harper"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ditchburn-26"},{"link_name":"Justin Trudeau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justin_Trudeau"}],"text":"Early censuses in the 19th and 20th centuries collected paper documents which had to be collated by hand, so the statistical information obtained was quite basic. The government that owned the data could publish statistics on the state of the nation.[25] The results were used to measure changes in the population and apportion representation. Population estimates could be compared to those of other countries.By the beginning of the 20th century, censuses were recording households and some indications of their employment. In some countries, census archives are released for public examination after many decades, allowing genealogists to track the ancestry of interested people. Archives provide a substantial historical record which may challenge established views. Information such as job titles and arrangements for the destitute and sick may also shed light on the historical structure of society.Political considerations influence the census in many countries. In Canada in 2010 for example, the government under the leadership of Stephen Harper abolished the mandatory long-form census. This abolition was a response to protests from some Canadians who resented the personal questions.[26] The long-form census was reinstated by the Justin Trudeau government in 2016.","title":"Uses of census data"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-8"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Sustainable Development Goals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals"},{"link_name":"subsistence agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"}],"sub_title":"Census data and research","text":"As governments assumed responsibility for schooling and welfare, large government research departments made extensive use of census data. Population projections could be made, to help plan for provision in local government and regions. Central government could also use census data to allocate funding. Even in the mid 20th century, census data was only directly accessible to large government departments. However, computers meant that tabulations could be used directly by university researchers, large businesses and local government offices. They could use the detail of the data to answer new questions and add to local and specialist knowledge.[8]Nowadays, census data are published in a wide variety of formats to be accessible to business, all levels of government, media, students and teachers, charities, and any citizen who is interested; researchers in particular have an interest in the role of Census Field Officers (CFO) and their assistants.[27] Data can be represented visually or analysed in complex statistical models, to show the difference between certain areas, or to understand the association between different personal characteristics. Census data offer a unique insight into small areas and small demographic groups which sample data would be unable to capture with precision.In the census of agriculture, users need census data to:support and contribute to evidence-based agricultural planning and policy-making. The census information is essential, for example, to monitor the performance of a policy or programme designed for crop diversification or to address food security issues;\nprovide data to facilitate research, investment and business decisions both in the public and private sector;\ncontribute to monitoring environmental changes and evaluating the impact of agricultural practices on the environment such as tillage practices, crop rotation or sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions;\nprovide relevant data on work inputs and main work activities, as well as on the labour force in the agriculture sector;\nprovide an important information base for monitoring some key indicators of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular those goals related to food security in agricultural holdings, the role of women in agricultural activities and rural poverty;\nprovide baseline data both at the national and small administrative and geographical levels for formulating, monitoring and evaluating programmes and projects interventions;\nprovide essential information on subsistence agriculture and for the estimation of the non-observed economy, which plays an important role in the compilation of the national accounts and the economic accounts for agriculture.[3]","title":"Uses of census data"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"microdata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microdata_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"statistical disclosure control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_disclosure_control"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"conditional distributions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_probability_distribution"},{"link_name":"histograms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histogram"},{"link_name":"mixture model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixture_distribution"},{"link_name":"IPUMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPUMS"},{"link_name":"SDMX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDMX"}],"text":"Although the census provides useful statistical information about a population, the availability of this information could sometimes lead to abuses, political or otherwise, by the linking of individuals' identities to anonymous census data.[28] This is particularly important when individuals' census responses are made available in microdata form, but even aggregate-level data can result in privacy breaches when dealing with small areas and/or rare subpopulations.For instance, when reporting data from a large city, it might be appropriate to give the average income for black males aged between 50 and 60. However, doing this for a town that only has two black males in this age group would be a breach of privacy because either of those persons, knowing his own income and the reported average, could determine the other man's income.Typically, census data are processed to obscure such individual information. Some agencies do this by intentionally introducing small statistical errors to prevent the identification of individuals in marginal populations;[29] others swap variables for similar respondents. Whatever is done to reduce the privacy risk, new improved electronic analysis of data can threaten to reveal sensitive individual information. This is known as statistical disclosure control.Another possibility is to present survey results by means of statistical models in the form of a multivariate distribution mixture.[30] The statistical information in the form of conditional distributions (histograms) can be derived interactively from the estimated mixture model without any further access to the original database. As the final product does not contain any protected microdata, the model-based interactive software can be distributed without any confidentiality concerns.Another method is simply to release no data at all, except very large scale data directly to the central government. Differing release strategies of governments have led to an international project (IPUMS) to co-ordinate access to microdata and corresponding metadata. Such projects such as SDMX also promote standardising metadata, so that best use can be made of the minimal data available.","title":"Privacy and data stewardship"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History of censuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Censuses in Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census_in_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Middle Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"New Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Pharaoh Amasis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amasis_I"},{"link_name":"Herodotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus"},{"link_name":"nomarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomarch"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Ptolemies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemies"},{"link_name":"Romans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Egypt"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Egypt","text":"Censuses in Egypt first appeared in the late Middle Kingdom and developed in the New Kingdom[31] Pharaoh Amasis, according to Herodotus, required every Egyptian to declare annually to the nomarch, \"whence he gained his living\".[32] Under the Ptolemies and the Romans several censuses were conducted in Egypt by government officials.[33]","title":"History of censuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Ancient Greece","text":"There are several accounts of ancient Greek city states carrying out censuses.[34]","title":"History of censuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Biblical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"per capita tax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_per_head"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Tabernacle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabernacle"},{"link_name":"Book of Numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Numbers"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"plains of Moab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plains_of_Moab"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Solomon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Publius Sulpicius Quirinius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius_Sulpicius_Quirinius"},{"link_name":"census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census_of_Quirinius"},{"link_name":"Gospel of Luke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke"},{"link_name":"birth of Jesus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"N. T. Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N._T._Wright"},{"link_name":"Herod the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herod_the_Great"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"Israel","text":"Censuses are mentioned several times in the Biblical narrative. God commands a per capita tax to be paid with the census[35] for the upkeep of the Tabernacle. The Book of Numbers is named after the counting of the Israelite population[36] according to the house of the Fathers after the exodus from Egypt. A second census was taken while the Israelites were camped in the \"plains of Moab\".[37] King David performed a census that produced disastrous results.[38] His son, King Solomon, had all of the foreigners in Israel counted.[39]When the Romans conquered Judea in AD 6, the legate Publius Sulpicius Quirinius organised a census for tax purposes. The Gospel of Luke makes reference to this census in relation to the birth of Jesus;[40] based on variant readings of this passage, a minority of biblical scholars, including N. T. Wright, speculate that this passage refers to a separate registration conducted during the reign of Herod the Great, several years before Quirinius' census.[41]","title":"History of censuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hymes-42"},{"link_name":"Han dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Twitchett-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENishijima1986595%E2%80%9396-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTENishijima1986595%E2%80%9396-45"}],"sub_title":"China","text":"One of the world's earliest preserved censuses[42] was held in China in AD 2 during the Han dynasty, and is still considered by scholars to be quite accurate.[43][44][45][46] The population was registered as having 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households but on this occasion only taxable families had been taken into account, indicating the income and the number of soldiers who could be mobilized.[47][45] Another census was held in AD 144.","title":"History of censuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"census in India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census_of_India"},{"link_name":"Chandragupta Maurya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandragupta_Maurya"},{"link_name":"Chanakya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanakya"},{"link_name":"Ashoka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashoka"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"sub_title":"India","text":"The oldest recorded census in India is thought to have occurred around 330 BC during the reign of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya under the leadership of Chanakya and Ashoka.[48]","title":"History of censuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Roman censor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_censor"},{"link_name":"Indiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiction"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"censere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/censere"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Servius Tullius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servius_Tullius"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"census of Quirinius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census_of_Quirinius"},{"link_name":"Judea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Judea"},{"link_name":"Zealot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zealot"},{"link_name":"Diaspora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Diaspora"},{"link_name":"indiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiction"},{"link_name":"Diocletian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocletian"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_calendar"}],"sub_title":"Rome","text":"See also: Roman censor and IndictionThe English term is taken directly from the Latin census, from censere (\"to estimate\"). The census played a crucial role in the administration of the Roman government, as it was used to determine the class a citizen belonged to for both military and tax purposes. Beginning in the middle republic, it was usually carried out every five years.[49] It provided a register of citizens and their property from which their duties and privileges could be listed. It is said to have been instituted by the Roman king Servius Tullius in the 6th century BC,[50] at which time the number of arms-bearing citizens was supposedly counted at around 80,000.[51] The 6 AD \"census of Quirinius\" undertaken following the imposition of direct Roman rule in Judea was partially responsible for the development of the Zealot movement and several failed rebellions against Rome that ended in the Diaspora. The 15-year indiction cycle established by Diocletian in AD 297 was based on quindecennial censuses and formed the basis for dating in late antiquity and under the Byzantine Empire.","title":"History of censuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Caliphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate"},{"link_name":"Rashidun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"caliph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliph"},{"link_name":"Umar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umar"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates","text":"In the Middle Ages, the Caliphate began conducting regular censuses soon after its formation, beginning with the one ordered by the second Rashidun caliph, Umar.[52]","title":"History of censuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Domesday Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesday_Book"},{"link_name":"William I of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"crusader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusade"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"Saladin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saladin"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"}],"sub_title":"Medieval Europe","text":"The Domesday Book was undertaken in AD 1086 by William I of England so that he could properly tax the land he had recently conquered. In 1183, a census was taken of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, to ascertain the number of men and amount of money that could possibly be raised against an invasion by Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria.The first national census of France (L'État des paroisses et des feux) was undertaken in 1328, mostly for fiscal purposes. It estimated the French population at 16 to 17 million.","title":"History of censuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Inca Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inca_Empire"},{"link_name":"quipus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quipus"},{"link_name":"llama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llama"},{"link_name":"alpaca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpaca"},{"link_name":"base-10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base-10"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"}],"sub_title":"Inca Empire","text":"In the 15th century, the Inca Empire had a unique way to record census information. The Incas did not have any written language but recorded information collected during censuses and other numeric information as well as non-numeric data on quipus, strings from llama or alpaca hair or cotton cords with numeric and other values encoded by knots in a base-10 positional system.[53]","title":"History of censuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"King Philip II of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain"}],"sub_title":"Spanish Empire","text":"On May 25, 1577, King Philip II of Spain ordered by royal cédula the preparation of a general description of Spain's holdings in the Indies. Instructions and a questionnaire, issued in 1577 by the Office of the Cronista Mayor, were distributed to local officials in the Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru to direct the gathering of information. The questionnaire, composed of fifty items, was designed to elicit basic information about the nature of the land and the life of its peoples. The replies, known as \"relaciones geográficas\", were written between 1579 and 1585 and were returned to the Cronista Mayor in Spain by the Council of the Indies.","title":"History of censuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Giovanni Battista Riccioli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Riccioli"},{"link_name":"Johann Peter Süssmilch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Peter_S%C3%BCssmilch"},{"link_name":"Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Dieterici","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Wilhelm_Dieterici"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1929_world_population_estimate.png"},{"link_name":"League of Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"International Statistical Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Statistical_Institute"}],"text":"The earliest estimate of the world population was made by Giovanni Battista Riccioli in 1661; the next by Johann Peter Süssmilch in 1741, revised in 1762; the third by Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Dieterici in 1859.[54]In 1931, Walter Willcox published a table in his book, International Migrations: Volume II Interpretations, that estimated the 1929 world population to be roughly 1.8 billion.The League of Nations and International Statistical Institute estimates of the world population in 1929","title":"World population estimates"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_Philippine_Statistics_Authority_(PSA)_enumerator_interviews_a_resident_of_Molino_Homes_II_Subdivision.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dasmariñas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasmari%C3%B1as"},{"link_name":"Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippines"}],"text":"A census taker interviews a resident of Dasmariñas, Philippines, in October 2020","title":"Impact of COVID-19 on census"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"}],"sub_title":"Impact","text":"The UNFPA predicts that the COVID-19 pandemic will threaten the successful conduct of censuses of population and housing in many countries through delays, interruptions that compromise quality, or complete cancellation of census projects. Domestic and donor financing for census may be diverted to address COVID-19 leaving census without crucial funds. Several countries have already taken decisions to postpone the census, with many others yet to announce the way forward. In some countries this is already happening.[55]The pandemic has also affected the planning and implementation of censuses of agriculture in all world regions. The extent of the impact has varied according to the stages at which the censuses are, ranging from planning (i.e. staffing, procurement, preparation of frames, questionnaires), fieldwork (field training and enumeration) or data processing/analysis stages. The census of agriculture's reference period is the agricultural year. Thus, a delay in any census activity may be critical and can result in a full year postponement of the enumeration if the agricultural season is missed. Some publications have discussed the impact of COVID-19 on national censuses of agriculture.[56][57][58][59]","title":"Impact of COVID-19 on census"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United Nations Population Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund"},{"link_name":"personal protective equipment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment"},{"link_name":"supply chains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_chain"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-55"}],"sub_title":"Adaptation","text":"The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) has requested a global effort to assure that even where census is delayed, census planning and preparations are not cancelled, but continue in order to assure that implementation can proceed safely when the pandemic is under control. While new census methods, including online, register-based, and hybrid approaches are being used across the world, these demand extensive planning and preconditions that cannot be created at short notice. The continuing low supply of personal protective equipment to protect against COVID-19 has immediate implications for conducting census in communities at risk of transmission. The UNFPA Procurement Office is partnering with other agencies to explore new supply chains and resources.[55]","title":"Impact of COVID-19 on census"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Modern implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg"},{"link_name":"free content","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_content"},{"link_name":"license statement/permission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Programme_for_the_Census_of_Agriculture_2020_Volume_1%E2%80%93_Programme,_concepts_and_definitions.pdf"},{"link_name":"World Programme for the Census of Agriculture 2020 Volume 1 – Programme, concepts and definitions​","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/506491e2-2ed4-4a7d-8104-6358d0e40adc"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg"},{"link_name":"free content","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_content"},{"link_name":"license statement/permission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:National_agricultural_census_operations_and_COVID-19.pdf"},{"link_name":"National agricultural census operations and COVID-19​","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.4060/ca8605en"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg"},{"link_name":"free content","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_content"},{"link_name":"license statement/permission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Impact_of_COVID-19_on_national_censuses_of_agriculture_(Status_overview)_(2020).pdf"},{"link_name":"Impact of COVID-19 on national censuses of agriculture (Status overview) (2020)​","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.4060/ca8984en"}],"text":"This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Programme for the Census of Agriculture 2020 Volume 1 – Programme, concepts and definitions​, FAO, FAO.This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from National agricultural census operations and COVID-19​, FAO, FAO.This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from Impact of COVID-19 on national censuses of agriculture (Status overview) (2020)​, FAO, FAO.","title":"Sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Censuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/census/docs/P&R_Rev2.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110514112357/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/census/docs/P%26R_Rev2.pdf"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-92-1-161505-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-1-161505-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"CES 2010 Census 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lessons\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.3233%2FSJI-200752"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.3233/SJI-200752","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.3233%2FSJI-200752"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"229200096","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:229200096"}],"text":"^ United Nations (2008). 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(2001). 154\n\n^ Willcox, Walter (1931). \"International Migrations, Volume II: Interpretations\" (PDF). NBER. 78 (3): 309. Bibcode:1931GeogJ..78..309C. doi:10.2307/1784930. JSTOR 1784930. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-04-25.\n\n^ a b Technical Brief on the Implications of COVID-19 on Census (PDF). UNFPA. 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-06-05.\n\n^ \"Impact on censuses of agriculture and some mitigation measures (2020)\". How Covid-19 is changing the world: a statistical perspective, Volume II (PDF). Committee for the Coordination of Statistical Activities (CCSA). 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-09-21.\n\n^ Impact of COVID-19 on national censuses of agriculture (Status overview). Rome: FAO. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8984en. ISBN 978-92-5-132604-6. S2CID 242865907. Archived from the original on 2023-01-20. Retrieved 2020-11-19.\n\n^ National agricultural census operations and COVID-19. Rome: FAO. 2020. doi:10.4060/ca8605en. ISBN 978-92-5-132402-8. S2CID 240817441. Archived from the original on 2023-01-20. Retrieved 2020-11-19.\n\n^ Castano, Jairo (2020). \"Censuses of agriculture and COVID-19: Global situation and lessons\". Statistical Journal of the IAOS. 36 (4). IOS Press: 861–865. doi:10.3233/SJI-200752. S2CID 229200096.","title":"Notes"}]

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[{"reference":"\"CES 2010 Census Recommendations\" (PDF). Unece.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-10-27. Retrieved 2013-11-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/stats/publications/CES_2010_Census_Recommendations_English.pdf","url_text":"\"CES 2010 Census Recommendations\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111027034936/http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/stats/publications/CES_2010_Census_Recommendations_English.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"World Programme for the Census of Agriculture 2020 Volume 1: Programme, concepts and definitions. FAO statistical development series No. 15. Rome: FAO. 2015. ISBN 978-92-5-108865-4. Archived from the original on 2020-11-10. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter_identification_problem

Parameter identification problem

["1 In simultaneous equations models","1.1 Standard example, with two equations","1.2 More equations","2 See also","3 References","4 Further reading","5 External links"]

Parameter estimation technique in statistics, particularly econometricsThis article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message) In economics and econometrics, the parameter identification problem arises when the value of one or more parameters in an economic model cannot be determined from observable variables. It is closely related to non-identifiability in statistics and econometrics, which occurs when a statistical model has more than one set of parameters that generate the same distribution of observations, meaning that multiple parameterizations are observationally equivalent. For example, this problem can occur in the estimation of multiple-equation econometric models where the equations have variables in common. In simultaneous equations models Further information: Simultaneous equations model and System of linear equations Standard example, with two equations Consider a linear model for the supply and demand of some specific good. The quantity demanded varies negatively with the price: a higher price decreases the quantity demanded. The quantity supplied varies directly with the price: a higher price increases the quantity supplied. Assume that, say for several years, we have data on both the price and the traded quantity of this good. Unfortunately this is not enough to identify the two equations (demand and supply) using regression analysis on observations of Q and P: one cannot estimate a downward slope and an upward slope with one linear regression line involving only two variables. Additional variables can make it possible to identify the individual relations. Supply and demand In the graph shown here, the supply curve (red line, upward sloping) shows the quantity supplied depending positively on the price, while the demand curve (black lines, downward sloping) shows quantity depending negatively on the price and also on some additional variable Z, which affects the location of the demand curve in quantity-price space. This Z might be consumers' income, with a rise in income shifting the demand curve outwards. This is symbolically indicated with the values 1, 2 and 3 for Z. With the quantities supplied and demanded being equal, the observations on quantity and price are the three white points in the graph: they reveal the supply curve. Hence the effect of Z on demand makes it possible to identify the (positive) slope of the supply equation. The (negative) slope parameter of the demand equation cannot be identified in this case. In other words, the parameters of an equation can be identified if it is known that some variable does not enter into the equation, while it does enter the other equation. A situation in which both the supply and the demand equation are identified arises if there is not only a variable Z entering the demand equation but not the supply equation, but also a variable X entering the supply equation but not the demand equation: supply:    Q = a S + b S P + c X {\displaystyle Q=a_{S}+b_{S}P+cX\,} demand:   Q = a D + b D P + d Z {\displaystyle Q=a_{D}+b_{D}P+dZ\,} with positive bS and negative bD. Here both equations are identified if c and d are nonzero. Note that this is the structural form of the model, showing the relations between the Q and P. The reduced form however can be identified easily. Fisher points out that this problem is fundamental to the model, and not a matter of statistical estimation: It is important to note that the problem is not one of the appropriateness of a particular estimation technique. In the situation described , there clearly exists no way using any technique whatsoever in which the true demand (or supply) curve can be estimated. Nor, indeed, is the problem here one of statistical inference—of separating out the effects of random disturbance. There is no disturbance in this model It is the logic of the supply-demand equilibrium itself which leads to the difficulty. (Fisher 1966, p. 5) More equations More generally, consider a linear system of M equations, with M > 1. An equation cannot be identified from the data if less than M − 1 variables are excluded from that equation. This is a particular form of the order condition for identification. (The general form of the order condition deals also with restrictions other than exclusions.) The order condition is necessary but not sufficient for identification. The rank condition is a necessary and sufficient condition for identification. In the case of only exclusion restrictions, it must "be possible to form at least one nonvanishing determinant of order M − 1 from the columns of A corresponding to the variables excluded a priori from that equation" (Fisher 1966, p. 40), where A is the matrix of coefficients of the equations. This is the generalization in matrix algebra of the requirement "while it does enter the other equation" mentioned above (in the line above the formulas). See also Identifiability, the related problem in statistics Errors-in-variables model#Linear model Instrumental variable#Identification Set identification References Fisher, Franklin M. (1966). The Identification Problem in Econometrics. ISBN 0-88275-344-4. Greenberg, Edward; Webster, Charles E. Jr. (1983). "The Identification Problem". Advanced Econometrics : A Bridge to the Literature. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 221–241. ISBN 0-471-09077-8. Gujarati, Damodar N.; Porter, Dawn C. (2009). Basic Econometrics (Fifth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin. pp. 692–698. ISBN 978-0-07-337577-9. Hayashi, Fumio (2000). Econometrics. Princeton University Press. pp. 200–203. ISBN 0-691-01018-8. Kmenta, Jan (1986). Elements of Econometrics (Second ed.). New York: Macmillan. pp. 660–672. ISBN 0-02-365070-2. Koopmans, Tjalling C. (1949). "Identification problems in economic model construction". Econometrica. 17 (2): 125–144. doi:10.2307/1905689. JSTOR 1905689. ("A classic and masterful exposition of the subject", Fisher 1966, p. 31) Further reading Lewbel, Arthur (2019-12-01). "The Identification Zoo: Meanings of Identification in Econometrics". Journal of Economic Literature. 57 (4). American Economic Association: 835–903. doi:10.1257/jel.20181361. ISSN 0022-0515. Matzkin, Rosa L. (2013). "Nonparametric Identification in Structural Economic Models". Annual Review of Economics. 5 (1): 457–486. doi:10.1146/annurev-economics-082912-110231. Rothenberg, Thomas J. (1971). "Identification in Parametric Models". Econometrica. 39 (3): 577–591. doi:10.2307/1913267. ISSN 0012-9682. JSTOR 1913267. Hsiao, Cheng (1983), Identification, Handbook of Econometrics, Vol. 1, Ch.4, North-Holland Publishing Company External links Lecture on the identification problem on YouTube by Mark Thoma

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"},{"link_name":"econometrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econometrics"},{"link_name":"parameters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter"},{"link_name":"economic model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_model"},{"link_name":"non-identifiability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identifiability"},{"link_name":"statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"},{"link_name":"statistical model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_model"},{"link_name":"observationally equivalent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_equivalence"}],"text":"In economics and econometrics, the parameter identification problem arises when the value of one or more parameters in an economic model cannot be determined from observable variables. It is closely related to non-identifiability in statistics and econometrics, which occurs when a statistical model has more than one set of parameters that generate the same distribution of observations, meaning that multiple parameterizations are observationally equivalent.For example, this problem can occur in the estimation of multiple-equation econometric models where the equations have variables in common.","title":"Parameter identification problem"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Simultaneous equations model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simultaneous_equations_model"},{"link_name":"System of linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_linear_equations"}],"text":"Further information: Simultaneous equations model and System of linear equations","title":"In simultaneous equations models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"supply and demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand"},{"link_name":"regression analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_analysis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Supply_and_demand.png"},{"link_name":"structural form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_form"},{"link_name":"reduced form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduced_form"}],"sub_title":"Standard example, with two equations","text":"Consider a linear model for the supply and demand of some specific good. The quantity demanded varies negatively with the price: a higher price decreases the quantity demanded. The quantity supplied varies directly with the price: a higher price increases the quantity supplied.Assume that, say for several years, we have data on both the price and the traded quantity of this good. Unfortunately this is not enough to identify the two equations (demand and supply) using regression analysis on observations of Q and P: one cannot estimate a downward slope and an upward slope with one linear regression line involving only two variables. Additional variables can make it possible to identify the individual relations.Supply and demandIn the graph shown here, the supply curve (red line, upward sloping) shows the quantity supplied depending positively on the price, while the demand curve (black lines, downward sloping) shows quantity depending negatively on the price and also on some additional variable Z, which affects the location of the demand curve in quantity-price space. This Z might be consumers' income, with a rise in income shifting the demand curve outwards. This is symbolically indicated with the values 1, 2 and 3 for Z.With the quantities supplied and demanded being equal, the observations on quantity and price are the three white points in the graph: they reveal the supply curve. Hence the effect of Z on demand makes it possible to identify the (positive) slope of the supply equation. The (negative) slope parameter of the demand equation cannot be identified in this case. In other words, the parameters of an equation can be identified if it is known that some variable does not enter into the equation, while it does enter the other equation.A situation in which both the supply and the demand equation are identified arises if there is not only a variable Z entering the demand equation but not the supply equation, but also a variable X entering the supply equation but not the demand equation:supply:    \n \n \n \n Q\n =\n \n a\n \n S\n \n \n +\n \n b\n \n S\n \n \n P\n +\n c\n X\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q=a_{S}+b_{S}P+cX\\,}demand:   \n \n \n \n Q\n =\n \n a\n \n D\n \n \n +\n \n b\n \n D\n \n \n P\n +\n d\n Z\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q=a_{D}+b_{D}P+dZ\\,}with positive bS and negative bD. Here both equations are identified if c and d are nonzero.Note that this is the structural form of the model, showing the relations between the Q and P. The reduced form however can be identified easily.Fisher points out that this problem is fundamental to the model, and not a matter of statistical estimation:It is important to note that the problem is not one of the appropriateness of a particular estimation technique. In the situation described [without the Z variable], there clearly exists no way using any technique whatsoever in which the true demand (or supply) curve can be estimated. Nor, indeed, is the problem here one of statistical inference—of separating out the effects of random disturbance. There is no disturbance in this model [...] It is the logic of the supply-demand equilibrium itself which leads to the difficulty. (Fisher 1966, p. 5)","title":"In simultaneous equations models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"order condition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_condition"},{"link_name":"rank condition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank_condition"},{"link_name":"necessary and sufficient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessity_and_sufficiency"}],"sub_title":"More equations","text":"More generally, consider a linear system of M equations, with M > 1.An equation cannot be identified from the data if less than M − 1 variables are excluded from that equation. This is a particular form of the order condition for identification. (The general form of the order condition deals also with restrictions other than exclusions.) The order condition is necessary but not sufficient for identification.The rank condition is a necessary and sufficient condition for identification. In the case of only exclusion restrictions, it must \"be possible to form at least one nonvanishing determinant of order M − 1 from the columns of A corresponding to the variables excluded a priori from that equation\" (Fisher 1966, p. 40), where A is the matrix of coefficients of the equations. This is the generalization in matrix algebra of the requirement \"while it does enter the other equation\" mentioned above (in the line above the formulas).","title":"In simultaneous equations models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lewbel, Arthur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Lewbel"},{"link_name":"Journal of Economic Literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_Literature"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1257/jel.20181361","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1257%2Fjel.20181361"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0022-0515","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0515"},{"link_name":"Matzkin, Rosa L.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosa_Matzkin"},{"link_name":"Annual Review of Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Economics"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1146/annurev-economics-082912-110231","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-economics-082912-110231"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/1913267","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F1913267"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0012-9682","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0012-9682"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1913267","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/1913267"},{"link_name":"North-Holland Publishing Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North-Holland_Publishing_Company"}],"text":"Lewbel, Arthur (2019-12-01). \"The Identification Zoo: Meanings of Identification in Econometrics\". Journal of Economic Literature. 57 (4). American Economic Association: 835–903. doi:10.1257/jel.20181361. ISSN 0022-0515.\nMatzkin, Rosa L. (2013). \"Nonparametric Identification in Structural Economic Models\". Annual Review of Economics. 5 (1): 457–486. doi:10.1146/annurev-economics-082912-110231.\nRothenberg, Thomas J. (1971). \"Identification in Parametric Models\". Econometrica. 39 (3): 577–591. doi:10.2307/1913267. ISSN 0012-9682. JSTOR 1913267.\nHsiao, Cheng (1983), Identification, Handbook of Econometrics, Vol. 1, Ch.4, North-Holland Publishing Company","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Supply and demand","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Supply_and_demand.png/325px-Supply_and_demand.png"}]

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ISBN 978-0-07-337577-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damodar_N._Gujarati","url_text":"Gujarati, Damodar N."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawn_C._Porter","url_text":"Porter, Dawn C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-337577-9","url_text":"978-0-07-337577-9"}]},{"reference":"Hayashi, Fumio (2000). Econometrics. Princeton University Press. pp. 200–203. ISBN 0-691-01018-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumio_Hayashi","url_text":"Hayashi, Fumio"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QyIW8WUIyzcC&pg=PA200","url_text":"Econometrics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01018-8","url_text":"0-691-01018-8"}]},{"reference":"Kmenta, Jan (1986). Elements of Econometrics (Second ed.). New York: Macmillan. pp. 660–672. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sambre

Sambre

["1 Course","2 Main tributaries","3 Events","4 Battles","5 References","6 External links"]

Coordinates: 50°27′43″N 4°52′15″E / 50.46194°N 4.87083°E / 50.46194; 4.87083River in France and Belgium SambreThe Sambre in the centre of NamurLocationCountriesBelgium and FrancePhysical characteristicsSource  • locationPicardy • elevation199 m (653 ft) Mouth  • locationMeuse at Namur • coordinates50°27′43″N 4°52′15″E / 50.46194°N 4.87083°E / 50.46194; 4.87083Length193 km (120 mi)Basin size2,740 square kilometres (1,060 sq mi)Basin featuresProgressionMeuse→ North Sea The Sambre (French: ) is a river in northern France and in Wallonia, Belgium. It is a left-bank tributary of the Meuse, which it joins in the Wallonian capital Namur. The source of the Sambre is near Le Nouvion-en-Thiérache, in the Aisne département. It passes through the Franco-Belgian coal basin, formerly an important industrial district. The navigable course begins in Landrecies at the junction with the Canal de la Sambre à l'Oise, which links with the central French waterway network (or did, until navigation was interrupted in 2006 following structural failures). It runs 54 km and 9 locks 38.50m long and 5.20m wide down to the Belgian border at Jeumont. From the border the river is canalised in two distinct sections over a distance of 88 km with 17 locks. The Haute-Sambre is 39 km long and includes 10 locks of the same dimensions as in France, down to the industrial town of Charleroi. The rest of the Belgian Sambre was upgraded to European Class IV dimensions (1350-tonne barges) in the immediate post-World War II period. It lies at the western end of the sillon industriel, which is still Wallonia's industrial backbone, despite the cessation of all the coal-mining and a decline in the steel industry. The river flows into the Meuse at Namur, Belgium. The navigable waterway is managed in France by Voies Navigables de France and in Belgium by the Service Public Wallon - Direction générale opérationnelle de la Mobilité et des Voies hydrauliques (Operational Directorate of Mobility and Inland Waterways) Course The Sambre flows through the following départements of France, provinces of Belgium and towns: Aisne (F): Barzy-en-Thiérache Nord (F): Landrecies, Aulnoye-Aymeries, Hautmont, Maubeuge Hainaut (B): Thuin, Montigny-le-Tilleul, Charleroi Namur (B): Floreffe, Namur The Sambre at Aulne Abbey in Belgium The Sambre at Flawinne (Namur) The Sambre at Ham-sur-Sambre The Sambre at Moustier-sur-Sambre A barge on the Sambre in Namur The Sambre in Namur The canalised Sambre running through the centre of Charleroi Main tributaries Helpe Mineure Helpe Majeure Eau d’Heure (Eau d'Heure lakes) Hantes Thure Biesmelle Thyria Eau d’Yves Piéton, northern tributary, confluence in Charleroi. Hanzinne, confluence in Châtelet Biesmes d’Aiseau Orneau Ligne Eau d’Eppe Ruisseau de Fosses Solre Events On 24 February 1912, Regina Magritte, the mother of the famous surrealist painter Réné Magritte, drowned herself in this river at Châtelet. Battles The 19th-century theory that the Sambre was the location of Julius Caesar's battle against a Belgic confederation (57 BC), was discarded a long time ago, but is still repeated. Three important battles were fought in Fleurus, a suburb of Charleroi on the north bank of the Sambre: the Thirty Years' War Battle of Fleurus (1622), the Nine Years' War Battle of Fleurus (1690), and the crucial 26 June 1794 Battle of Fleurus (1794), the most significant battle of the Flanders Campaign in the Low Countries during the French Revolutionary Wars. The last was fought on both banks of the river, culminating a campaign that had involved multiple crossings and re-crossings of the river. Heavy fighting occurred along the river during World War I, especially at the siege of Namur in 1914 (Battle of Charleroi) and in the last month of the war Battle of the Sambre (1918). References ^ Edwards-May, David (2010). Inland Waterways of France. St Ives, Cambs., UK: Imray. pp. 246–249. ISBN 978-1-846230-14-1. ^ Edwards-May, David (2014). European Waterways Map and Concise Directory. Lambersart, France: Transmanche. pp. 11–12, 17–20 and fold-out map. ISBN 979-10-94429-00-6. ^ a b c d e Sandre. "Fiche cours d'eau - La Sambre Canalisée (D0--022-)"., see tab "Affluents" ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Contrats de rivière en Wallonie - Sambre". Environnement.wallonie.be. Retrieved 25 March 2018. ^ "Le Ruisseau "le Piéton" - Piéton, Village du Hainaut". Pieton.eu. Retrieved 25 March 2018. ^ Harris, James C. (2007-08-01). "The Murderer Threatened (L'assassin Menacé)". Archives of General Psychiatry. 64 (8): 882–883. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.8.882. ISSN 0003-990X. PMID 17679631. ^ Pierre Turquin ("La Bataille de la Selle (du Sabis) en l' An 57 avant J.-C." in Les Études Classiques 23/2 (1955), 113-156) has proved beyond reasonable doubt that the battle was fought at the River Selle, west of modern Saulzoir. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sambre. River Sambre and Canal de la Sambre à l'Oise with maps and details of places, moorings and facilities for boats, by the author of Inland Waterways of France, Imray Navigation details for 80 French rivers and canals (French waterways website section) Authority control databases International VIAF 2 National France 2 BnF data 2 Israel Other IdRef 2

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[sɑ̃bʁ]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/French"},{"link_name":"river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Wallonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallonia"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"Meuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meuse"},{"link_name":"Namur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namur"},{"link_name":"Le Nouvion-en-Thiérache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Nouvion-en-Thi%C3%A9rache"},{"link_name":"Aisne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aisne"},{"link_name":"département","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Departments_of_France"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Charleroi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleroi"},{"link_name":"sillon industriel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sillon_industriel"},{"link_name":"Wallonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallonia"},{"link_name":"Meuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meuse"},{"link_name":"Namur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namur_(city)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"River in France and BelgiumThe Sambre (French: [sɑ̃bʁ]) is a river in northern France and in Wallonia, Belgium. It is a left-bank tributary of the Meuse, which it joins in the Wallonian capital Namur.The source of the Sambre is near Le Nouvion-en-Thiérache, in the Aisne département. It passes through the Franco-Belgian coal basin, formerly an important industrial district. The navigable course begins in Landrecies at the junction with the Canal de la Sambre à l'Oise, which links with the central French waterway network (or did, until navigation was interrupted in 2006 following structural failures).[1] It runs 54 km and 9 locks 38.50m long and 5.20m wide down to the Belgian border at Jeumont. From the border the river is canalised in two distinct sections over a distance of 88 km with 17 locks. The Haute-Sambre is 39 km long and includes 10 locks of the same dimensions as in France, down to the industrial town of Charleroi. The rest of the Belgian Sambre was upgraded to European Class IV dimensions (1350-tonne barges) in the immediate post-World War II period. It lies at the western end of the sillon industriel, which is still Wallonia's industrial backbone, despite the cessation of all the coal-mining and a decline in the steel industry. The river flows into the Meuse at Namur, Belgium.The navigable waterway is managed in France by Voies Navigables de France and in Belgium by the Service Public Wallon - Direction générale opérationnelle de la Mobilité et des Voies hydrauliques (Operational Directorate of Mobility and Inland Waterways)[2]","title":"Sambre"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"départements of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Departments_of_France"},{"link_name":"provinces of Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces_of_Belgium"},{"link_name":"Aisne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aisne"},{"link_name":"Barzy-en-Thiérache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barzy-en-Thi%C3%A9rache"},{"link_name":"Nord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nord_(French_department)"},{"link_name":"Landrecies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landrecies"},{"link_name":"Aulnoye-Aymeries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulnoye-Aymeries"},{"link_name":"Hautmont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hautmont"},{"link_name":"Maubeuge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maubeuge"},{"link_name":"Hainaut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainaut_(province)"},{"link_name":"Thuin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thuin"},{"link_name":"Montigny-le-Tilleul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montigny-le-Tilleul"},{"link_name":"Charleroi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleroi"},{"link_name":"Namur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namur_(province)"},{"link_name":"Floreffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floreffe"},{"link_name":"Namur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namur_(city)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AulneRv1bJPG.jpg"},{"link_name":"Aulne Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulne_Abbey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flawinne_Riv1a.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ham-sur-Sambre_Vi1a.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moustier-sur-Sambre_U1a.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vami_p%C3%A9niche_on_the_Sambre_river_in_Namur_(DSCF5450).jpg"},{"link_name":"Namur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namur"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:La_Sambre_in_Namur_viewed_from_Quai_de_l%27Abbaye_(DSCF5606).jpg"},{"link_name":"Namur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namur"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charleroi_-_Sambre_-_p%C3%A9niche_%22Atlantic%22_-_02.jpg"},{"link_name":"Charleroi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleroi"}],"text":"The Sambre flows through the following départements of France, provinces of Belgium and towns:Aisne (F): Barzy-en-Thiérache\nNord (F): Landrecies, Aulnoye-Aymeries, Hautmont, Maubeuge\nHainaut (B): Thuin, Montigny-le-Tilleul, Charleroi\nNamur (B): Floreffe, NamurThe Sambre at Aulne Abbey in Belgium\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Sambre at Flawinne (Namur)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Sambre at Ham-sur-Sambre\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Sambre at Moustier-sur-Sambre\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA barge on the Sambre in Namur\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Sambre in Namur\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe canalised Sambre running through the centre of Charleroi","title":"Course"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Helpe Mineure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helpe_Mineure"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sandre-3"},{"link_name":"Helpe Majeure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helpe_Majeure"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sandre-3"},{"link_name":"Eau d’Heure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eau_d%E2%80%99Heure&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tributaries-4"},{"link_name":"Eau d'Heure lakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eau_d%27Heure_lakes"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sandre-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tributaries-4"},{"link_name":"Thure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thure_(river)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sandre-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tributaries-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tributaries-4"},{"link_name":"Thyria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thyria_(river)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tributaries-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tributaries-4"},{"link_name":"Piéton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%A9ton"},{"link_name":"Charleroi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charleroi"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tributaries-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Hanzinne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanzinne_(river)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tributaries-4"},{"link_name":"Châtelet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2telet,_Belgium"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tributaries-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tributaries-4"},{"link_name":"Ligne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligne_(river)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tributaries-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tributaries-4"},{"link_name":"Ruisseau de Fosses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ruisseau_de_Fosses&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tributaries-4"},{"link_name":"Solre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solre"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sandre-3"}],"text":"Helpe Mineure[3]\nHelpe Majeure[3]\nEau d’Heure[4] (Eau d'Heure lakes)\nHantes[3][4]\nThure[3][4]\nBiesmelle[4]\nThyria[4]\nEau d’Yves[4]\nPiéton, northern tributary, confluence in Charleroi.[4][5]\nHanzinne,[4] confluence in Châtelet\nBiesmes d’Aiseau[4]\nOrneau[4]\nLigne[4]\nEau d’Eppe[4]\nRuisseau de Fosses[4]\nSolre[3]","title":"Main tributaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"surrealist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrealism"},{"link_name":"Réné Magritte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Magritte"},{"link_name":"Châtelet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2telet,_Belgium"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"On 24 February 1912, Regina Magritte, the mother of the famous surrealist painter Réné Magritte, drowned herself in this river at Châtelet.[6]","title":"Events"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Julius Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar"},{"link_name":"Belgic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgae"},{"link_name":"confederation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Fleurus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleurus"},{"link_name":"Thirty Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"Battle of Fleurus (1622)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fleurus_(1622)"},{"link_name":"Nine Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"Battle of Fleurus (1690)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fleurus_(1690)"},{"link_name":"Battle of Fleurus (1794)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fleurus_(1794)"},{"link_name":"Flanders Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Countries_theatre_of_the_War_of_the_First_Coalition"},{"link_name":"Low Countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Countries"},{"link_name":"French Revolutionary Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Battle of Charleroi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Charleroi"},{"link_name":"Battle of the Sambre (1918)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sambre_(1918)"}],"text":"The 19th-century theory that the Sambre was the location of Julius Caesar's battle against a Belgic confederation (57 BC), was discarded a long time ago,[7] but is still repeated.Three important battles were fought in Fleurus, a suburb of Charleroi on the north bank of the Sambre: the Thirty Years' War Battle of Fleurus (1622), the Nine Years' War Battle of Fleurus (1690), and the crucial 26 June 1794 Battle of Fleurus (1794), the most significant battle of the Flanders Campaign in the Low Countries during the French Revolutionary Wars. The last was fought on both banks of the river, culminating a campaign that had involved multiple crossings and re-crossings of the river.Heavy fighting occurred along the river during World War I, especially at the siege of Namur in 1914 (Battle of Charleroi) and in the last month of the war Battle of the Sambre (1918).","title":"Battles"}]

[]

[{"reference":"Edwards-May, David (2010). Inland Waterways of France. St Ives, Cambs., UK: Imray. pp. 246–249. ISBN 978-1-846230-14-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-846230-14-1","url_text":"978-1-846230-14-1"}]},{"reference":"Edwards-May, David (2014). European Waterways Map and Concise Directory. Lambersart, France: Transmanche. pp. 11–12, 17–20 and fold-out map. ISBN 979-10-94429-00-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/979-10-94429-00-6","url_text":"979-10-94429-00-6"}]},{"reference":"Sandre. \"Fiche cours d'eau - La Sambre Canalisée (D0--022-)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_d%27administration_nationale_des_donn%C3%A9es_et_r%C3%A9f%C3%A9rentiels_sur_l%27eau","url_text":"Sandre"},{"url":"https://www.sandre.eaufrance.fr/geo/CoursEau_Carthage2017/D0--022-","url_text":"\"Fiche cours d'eau - La Sambre Canalisée (D0--022-)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Contrats de rivière en Wallonie - Sambre\". Environnement.wallonie.be. Retrieved 25 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://environnement.wallonie.be/contrat_riviere/contriv/sambre.htm","url_text":"\"Contrats de rivière en Wallonie - Sambre\""}]},{"reference":"\"Le Ruisseau \"le Piéton\" - Piéton, Village du Hainaut\". Pieton.eu. Retrieved 25 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pieton.eu/le-ruisseau-le-pieton.html","url_text":"\"Le Ruisseau \"le Piéton\" - Piéton, Village du Hainaut\""}]},{"reference":"Harris, James C. (2007-08-01). \"The Murderer Threatened (L'assassin Menacé)\". Archives of General Psychiatry. 64 (8): 882–883. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.8.882. ISSN 0003-990X. PMID 17679631.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.8.882","url_text":"\"The Murderer Threatened (L'assassin Menacé)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1001%2Farchpsyc.64.8.882","url_text":"10.1001/archpsyc.64.8.882"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-990X","url_text":"0003-990X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17679631","url_text":"17679631"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compal_Electronics

Compal Electronics

["1 Overview","2 History","3 CCI","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

Taiwanese contract Notebook manufacturer This article is about the Taiwanese electronics manufacturer. For the Portuguese Beverages & Food company, see Sumol + Compal. Not to be confused with Compaq. Compal Electronics, Inc.Headquarters in Neihu, TaipeiCompany typePublicTraded asTWSE: 2324IndustryComputer hardwareElectronicsFoundedJune 1, 1984; 40 years ago (1984-06-01) Taipei, TaiwanHeadquartersNeihu, Taipei, TaiwanKey peopleRock Hsu (Chairman)Ray Chen (President & CEO)ProductsNotebooks, PDAs, televisions, and othersRevenue US$26.34 billion (2015)Number of employeesOver 6,915 worldwideWebsitewww.compal.com Compal Electronics, Inc. (simplified Chinese: 仁宝电脑工业股份有限公司; traditional Chinese: 仁寶電腦工業股份有限公司) is a Taiwanese original design manufacturer (ODM), handling the production of notebook computers, monitors, tablets and televisions for a variety of clients around the world, including Apple Inc., Alphabet Inc., Acer, Lenovo, Dell, Toshiba, Hewlett-Packard, Fujitsu, and Framework. It also licenses brands of its clients. It is the second-largest contract laptop manufacturer in the world behind Quanta Computer, and shipped over 48 million notebooks in 2010. Overview The company is known for producing selected models for Dell (Alienware included), Hewlett-Packard, Compaq, and Toshiba. Compal has designed and built laptops for all major brands and custom builders for over 22 years. The company is listed in Taiwan Stock Exchange. As of 2017, revenues were US$24 billion, with a total workforce of 64,000. The company's headquarters is in Taipei, Taiwan, with offices in mainland China, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Compal's main production facility is in Kunshan, China. Compal is the second largest notebook manufacturer in the world after Quanta Computers, also based in Taiwan. History Compal was founded in June 1984 as a computer peripherals supplier. It went public in April 1990. In September 2011, Compal announced it would form a joint venture with Lenovo to make laptops in China. The venture was expected to start producing laptops by the end of 2012. In January 2015, Toshiba announced that due to intense price competition, it will stop selling televisions in the USA and will instead license the Toshiba TV brand to Compal. In September 2018, it was revealed that due to overwhelming demand for the Apple Watch, Compal was brought on as a second contract manufacturer to produce the Apple Watch Series 4. CCI Compal Communications headquarters Compal subsidiary Compal Communications (華寶通訊, CCI) is a major manufacturer of mobile phones. The phones are produced on an ODM basis, i.e., the handsets are sold through other brands. In 2006, CCI produced 68.8 million handsets and was the largest mobile handset ODM in the world. CCI's largest customer by far was Motorola. Motorola's volumes have been reduced year by year, and CCI's volumes have followed. In 2007, the volume was 48.7 million. See also Companies portalElectronics portal List of companies of Taiwan References ^ a b c d e "Company Information". Compal. Retrieved 2015-02-02. ^ "Taiwan's Compal sees 2011 notebook shipments up 15 pct". Reuters. 2011-01-14. Retrieved 2011-01-14. ^ Stocks – International Herald Tribune ^ Lee, Sheena (2007-04-23). "Taiwan's Compal Q1 net profit up 18 pct y/y". Reuters. ^ "Company Profile". Compal Electronics. Archived from the original on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2011-01-14. ^ "China's Lenovo and Taiwan's Compal enter joint venture to make laptops". The Washington Post. 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2011-09-27. ^ "Toshiba gives up selling TVs in the U.S". Consumer Reports. January 30, 2015. Retrieved 2015-02-02. Citing intense price competition in the U.S. TV market, Toshiba says it will stop selling TVs in this country and will instead license the Toshiba TV brand to Compal, a Taiwan-based electronics company. ^ "Apple Watch Series 4 Expected to Gain Second Manufacturer Following 'Much Better Than Expected' Demand". Retrieved 2018-09-26. ^ "Mobile handset ODMs squeezed by EMS providers and Motorola's disappointing performance". Archived from the original on 2011-07-10. Retrieved 2010-09-17. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Compal Electronics. Company website vte FTSE TWSE Taiwan 50 companiesTechnology UMC (TWSE: 2303) Delta Electronics (TWSE: 2308) Hon Hai (TWSE: 2317) Yageo (TWSE: 2327) TSMC (TWSE: 2330) Accton (TWSE: 2345) Asus (TWSE: 2357) Realtek (TWSE: 2379) Quanta (TWSE: 2382) Advantech (TWSE: 2395) Nanya Technology (TWSE: 2408) MediaTek (TWSE: 2454) Largan (TWSE: 3008) Novatek (TWSE: 3034) Unimicron (TWSE: 3037) Taiwan Mobile (TWSE: 3045) Wistron (TWSE: 3231) InnoLux (TWSE: 3481) ASE Group (TWSE: 3711) Far EasTone (TWSE: 4904) Pegatron (TWSE: 4938) Wiwynn Corporation (TWSE: 6669) Industry Taiwan Cement (TWSE: 1101) Uni-President (TWSE: 1216) Formosa Plastics Corp (TWSE: 1301) Nan Ya Plastics (TWSE: 1303) Formosa Chem & Fibre (TWSE: 1326) 亞德客AirTac (TWSE: 1590) China Steel (TWSE: 2002) Hotai Motor (TWSE: 2207) Lite-On (TWSE: 2301) Evergreen Marine (TWSE: 2603) Chunghwa Telecom (TWSE: 2412) PCSC (TWSE: 2912) Formosa Petrochemical (TWSE: 6505) Feng Tay (TWSE: 9910) Financial Chang Hwa Bank (TWSE: 2801) Hua Nan Financial Holdings (TWSE: 2880) Fubon Financial Holding Co. (TWSE: 2881) Cathay Financial Holding (TWSE: 2882) China Development Financial Holding Corporation (TWSE: 2883) E.SUN Financial Holding(TWSE: 2884) Yuanta Financial Holding (TWSE: 2885) Mega Financial Holding (TWSE: 2886) Taishin Financial Holdings (TWSE: 2887) Bank SinoPac (TWSE: 2890) CTBC Financial Holding (TWSE: 2891) First Financial Holding(TWSE: 2892) Chailease Finance (TWSE: 5871) Shanghai Commercial and Savings Bank (TWSE: 5876) Taiwan Cooperative Bank (TWSE: 5880) Taiwan 50 (TWSE: 0050) FB Taiwan 50 (TWSE: 006208) vteMajor EMS, ODMs, and OEMsCompanies with an annual revenue of over US$3 billion Celestica Compal Electronics Flex Foxconn Jabil Pegatron Quanta Sanmina Corporation TPV Technology Wistron Corporation See also Largest IT companies Electronics manufacturing services Original design manufacturer Original equipment manufacturer Authority control databases ISNI VIAF This article about a technological corporation or company is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This article about a Taiwanese corporation or company is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sumol + Compal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumol_%2B_Compal"},{"link_name":"Compaq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compaq"},{"link_name":"simplified Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"traditional Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"original design manufacturer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_design_manufacturer"},{"link_name":"notebook computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop"},{"link_name":"monitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_monitor"},{"link_name":"tablets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_computer"},{"link_name":"televisions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisions"},{"link_name":"Apple Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"Alphabet Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet_Inc."},{"link_name":"Acer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_Inc."},{"link_name":"Lenovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenovo"},{"link_name":"Dell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell"},{"link_name":"Toshiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba"},{"link_name":"Hewlett-Packard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"Fujitsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujitsu"},{"link_name":"Framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framework_Computer"},{"link_name":"licenses brands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand_licensing"},{"link_name":"contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract_manufacturer"},{"link_name":"Quanta Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quanta_Computer"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"This article is about the Taiwanese electronics manufacturer. For the Portuguese Beverages & Food company, see Sumol + Compal.Not to be confused with Compaq.Compal Electronics, Inc. (simplified Chinese: 仁宝电脑工业股份有限公司; traditional Chinese: 仁寶電腦工業股份有限公司) is a Taiwanese original design manufacturer (ODM), handling the production of notebook computers, monitors, tablets and televisions for a variety of clients around the world, including Apple Inc., Alphabet Inc., Acer, Lenovo, Dell, Toshiba, Hewlett-Packard, Fujitsu, and Framework. It also licenses brands of its clients.It is the second-largest contract laptop manufacturer in the world behind Quanta Computer, and shipped over 48 million notebooks in 2010.[2]","title":"Compal Electronics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alienware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienware"},{"link_name":"Taiwan Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"Taipei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei"},{"link_name":"mainland China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainland_China"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Kunshan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunshan"},{"link_name":"Quanta Computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quanta_Computers"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The company is known for producing selected models for Dell (Alienware included), Hewlett-Packard, Compaq, and Toshiba. Compal has designed and built laptops for all major brands and custom builders for over 22 years. The company is listed in Taiwan Stock Exchange. As of 2017, revenues were US$24 billion, with a total workforce of 64,000. The company's headquarters is in Taipei, Taiwan, with offices in mainland China, South Korea, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Compal's main production facility is in Kunshan, China.Compal is the second largest notebook manufacturer in the world after Quanta Computers, also based in Taiwan.[3][4]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-coprofile-1"},{"link_name":"peripherals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-coprofile-1"},{"link_name":"Lenovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenovo"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Toshiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba"},{"link_name":"license","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand_licensing"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Apple Watch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Watch"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Compal was founded in June 1984[1] as a computer peripherals supplier.[5] It went public in April 1990.[1]In September 2011, Compal announced it would form a joint venture with Lenovo to make laptops in China.[6] The venture was expected to start producing laptops by the end of 2012.In January 2015, Toshiba announced that due to intense price competition, it will stop selling televisions in the USA and will instead license the Toshiba TV brand to Compal.[7]In September 2018, it was revealed that due to overwhelming demand for the Apple Watch, Compal was brought on as a second contract manufacturer to produce the Apple Watch Series 4.[8]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Compal_Comm_HQ_20130929.jpg"},{"link_name":"ODM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_design_manufacturer"},{"link_name":"Motorola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Compal Communications headquartersCompal subsidiary Compal Communications (華寶通訊, CCI) is a major manufacturer of mobile phones. The phones are produced on an ODM basis, i.e., the handsets are sold through other brands. In 2006, CCI produced 68.8 million handsets and was the largest mobile handset ODM in the world. CCI's largest customer by far was Motorola. Motorola's volumes have been reduced year by year, and CCI's volumes have followed. In 2007, the volume was 48.7 million.[9]","title":"CCI"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consideration

Consideration

["1 Legal rules regarding consideration","2 History and comparative law","3 Monetary value of consideration","4 Pre-existing legal duties","5 Bundled terms","6 Past consideration","7 Option contracts and conditional consideration","8 In settlements","9 Criticism","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References"]

Concept in the common law of contracts For other uses, see Consideration (disambiguation). Look up consideration in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Contract law Formation Capacity Offer and acceptance Meeting of the minds2 Abstraction principle4,5 Posting rule1 Mirror image rule Invitation to treat Firm offer Consideration1,4 Implication-in-fact Collateral contract Defences Misrepresentation Mistake Threats and unequal bargaining power Illegality and public policy Unconscionability Culpa in contrahendo2 Force majeure Frustration of purpose Impossibility Impracticability Hardship Set-off Illusory promise1 Statute of frauds1 Non est factum1 Unclean hands1 Accord and satisfaction1 Exculpatory clause Interpretation Parol evidence3 Contract of adhesion Integration clause Contra proferentem UNIDROIT Principles Dispute resolution Choice of law clause Forum selection clause Hague Choice of Court Convention Arbitration New York Convention UNCITRAL Model Law Mediation Singapore Mediation Convention Enforcement of foreign judgments Hague Judgments Convention Rights of third parties Privity of contract1 Assignment Delegation Novation Third-party beneficiary Breach of contract Anticipatory repudiation Cover Exclusion clause Efficient breach Deviation Fundamental breach Remedies Specific performance3 Money damages Liquidated, stipulated, or penal damages3 Rescission Quasi-contractual obligations Promissory estoppel1 Quantum meruit1 Unjust enrichment Restitution Negotiorum gestio2 Duties of parties Duty of honest contractual performance (or doctrine of abuse of rights)6 Duty of good faith (also implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing or duty to negotiate in good faith)7 Contract A and Contract B in Canadian contract law6 Related areas of law Conflict of laws Commercial law By jurisdiction Australia Canada China (mainland) Ireland India Saudi Arabia United Kingdom England and Wales Scotland United States Other law areas Tort law Property law Wills, trusts, and estates Criminal law Evidence Notes 1 Specific to common law jurisdictions 2 Specific to civil and mixed law jurisdictions 3 Historically restricted in common law jurisdictions but generally accepted elsewhere; availability varies between contemporary common law jurisdictions 4 Specific to the German Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch and other civil codes based on the pandectist tradition 5 Explicitly rejected by the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts 6 Specific to Canadian contract law both in Québec and in the country's common law provinces 7 Specific to civil law jurisdictions, the American Uniform Commercial Code, and Canadian jurisprudence in both Québec and the common law provinces pertaining to contractual and pre-contractual negotiation vte Consideration is a concept of English common law and is a necessity for simple contracts but not for special contracts (contracts by deed). The concept has been adopted by other common law jurisdictions. The court in Currie v Misa declared consideration to be a "Right, Interest, Profit, Benefit, or Forbearance, Detriment, Loss, Responsibility". Thus, consideration is a promise of something of value given by a promissor in exchange for something of value given by a promisee; and typically the thing of value is goods, money, or an act. Forbearance to act, such as an adult promising to refrain from smoking, is enforceable only if one is thereby surrendering a legal right. Consideration may be thought of as the concept of value offered and accepted by people or organisations entering into contracts. Anything of value promised by one party to the other when making a contract can be treated as "consideration": for example, if A contracts to buy a car from B for $5,000, A's consideration is the promise of $5,000, and B's consideration is the promise of the car. Additionally, if A signs a contract with B such that A will paint B's house for $500, A's consideration is the service of painting B's house, and B's consideration is $500 paid to A. Further if A signs a contract with B such that A will not repaint his own house in any other colour than white, and B will pay A $500 per year to keep this deal up, there is also a consideration. Although A did not promise to affirmatively do anything, A did promise not to do something that he was allowed to do, and so A did pass consideration. A's consideration to B is the forbearance in painting his own house in a colour other than white, and B's consideration to A is $500 per year. Conversely, if A signs a contract to buy a car from B for $0, B's consideration is still the car, but A is giving no consideration, and so there is no valid contract. However, if B still gives the title to the car to A, then B cannot take the car back, since, while it may not be a valid contract, it is a valid gift. In common law it is a prerequisite that both parties offer consideration before a contract can be thought of as binding. The doctrine of consideration is irrelevant in many jurisdictions, although contemporary commercial litigant relations have held the relationship between a promise and a deed is a reflection of the nature of contractual considerations. If there is no element of consideration found, there is thus no contract formed. However, even if a court decides there is no contract, there might be a possible recovery under the doctrines of quantum meruit (sometimes referred to as a quasi-contract) or promissory estoppel. Legal rules regarding consideration There are a number of common issues as to whether consideration exists in a contract. Under English law: Part payment is not good consideration. Consideration must move from the promisee but need not flow to the promisor. Consideration must be sufficient but need not be adequate. Consideration cannot be illusory. Consideration must not be past. Past consideration is not good consideration. Moral consideration is not sufficient (except for contracts by deed, where "love and affection" is often cited as the consideration). Performance of existing duties is not good consideration. Meanwhile, the Indian Contract Act, 1872 which continues in force in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India (the most populous common law jurisdiction) provides that valid consideration exists "when at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or abstain from doing something" or, in other words, when each party receives something in return for entering into a contractual obligation. An agreement must be supported by a lawful consideration on both sides. Under the act, valid consideration must satisfy the following criteria: It must move at the desire of the promisor. An act constituting consideration must have been done at the desire or request of the promisor. If it is done at the instance of a third party or without the desire of the promisor, it will not be good consideration. For example, A saves B's goods from a fire without B asking him to do so; A cannot demand payment for his service. Consideration may move from the promisee or any other person. Under Indian law, consideration may be from the promisee of any other person i.e., even a stranger. This means that as long as there is consideration for the promisee, it is immaterial who has furnished it. Consideration must be an act, abstinence or forbearance or a returned promise. Consideration may be past, present or future. Past consideration is not consideration according to English law. However it is a consideration as per Indian law. Example of past consideration is, A renders some service to B at latter's desire. After a month B promises to compensate A for service rendered to him earlier. When consideration is given simultaneously with promise, it is said to be present consideration. For example, A receives Rs.50/- in return for which he promises to deliver certain goods to B. The money A receives is the present consideration. When consideration to one party to other is to pass subsequently to the maker of the contract, is said to be future consideration. For example. A promises to deliver certain goods to B after a week. B promises to pay the price after a fortnight, such consideration is future. Consideration must be real. Consideration must be real, competent and having some value in the eyes of law. For example, A promises to restore life to B's dead wife, if B pays him Rs.1000/—. A's promise is physically impossible to perform, hence there is no real consideration. Consideration must be something which the promisor is not already bound to do. A promise to do something what one is already bound to do, either by law, is not a good consideration, since it adds nothing to the previous existing legal consideration. Consideration need not be adequate. Consideration need not necessarily be equal in value to something given. So long as consideration exists, the courts are not concerned as to adequacy, provided it is for some value. Additionally, under the Indian Contract Act 1872, any consideration is invalid if it is: Forbidden by law It involves injury to a person or property of another Courts regards it as immoral It is of such nature that, if permitted, it would defeat the provisions of any law It is fraudulent, or involves or implies injury to the person or property of another It is contrary to public policy The consideration conveyed by at least one side seeks to restrain legal proceedings The consideration includes public offices or titles The consideration involves involuntary labour or otherwise infringes upon the personal liberty of a party to the contract The consideration includes a marriage or a pecuniary inducement to marry. The most noticeable distinction between the English and Indian criteria for consideration is that English law prohibits past consideration while Indian law does not. History and comparative law Systems based on Roman law (including Germany and Scotland) do not require consideration, and some commentators consider it unnecessary and have suggested that the doctrine of consideration should be abandoned, and estoppel used to replace it as a basis for contracts. However, legislation, rather than judicial development, has been touted as the only way to remove this entrenched common law doctrine. Lord Justice Denning famously stated that "The doctrine of consideration is too firmly fixed to be overthrown by a side-wind". The reason that both exist in common law jurisdictions is thought by leading scholars to be the result of the combining by 19th-century judges of two distinct threads: first the consideration requirement was at the heart of the action of assumpsit, which had grown up in medieval times and remained the normal action for breach of a simple contract in England and Wales until 1884 when the old forms of action were abolished; secondly, the notion of agreement between two or more parties as being the essential legal and moral foundation of contract in all legal systems, was promoted by the 18th-century French writer Pothier in his Traite des Obligations, much read (especially after translation into English in 1805) by English judges and jurists. The latter chimed well with the fashionable will theories of the time, especially John Stuart Mill's influential ideas on free will, and got grafted on to the traditional common law requirement for consideration to ground an action in assumpsit. Civil law systems take the approach that an exchange of promises, or a concurrence of wills alone, rather than an exchange in valuable rights is the correct basis. So if A promises to give B a book and B accepts the offer without giving anything in return, B would have a legal right to the book and A could not change her mind about giving it to B as a gift. However, in common law systems the concept of culpa in contrahendo, a form of estoppel, is increasingly used to create obligations during pre-contractual negotiations. Estoppel is an equitable doctrine that provides for the creation of legal obligations if a party has given another an assurance and the other has relied on the assurance to his detriment. Monetary value of consideration Generally, courts do not inquire whether the deal between two parties was monetarily fair—merely that each party passed some legal obligation or duty to the other party. The dispositive issue is the presence of consideration, not the adequacy of the consideration. The values between consideration passed by each party to a contract need not be comparable. For instance, if A offers B $200 to buy B's mansion, luxury sports car, and private jet, there is still consideration on both sides. A's consideration is $200, and B's consideration is the mansion, car, and jet. Courts in the United States generally leave parties to their own contracts and do not intervene. The old English rule of consideration questioned whether a party gave the value of a peppercorn to the other party. As a result, contracts in the United States have sometimes have had one party pass nominal amounts of consideration, typically citing $1. Thus, licensing contracts that do not involve any money at all often cite as consideration, "for the sum of $1 and other good and valuable consideration." However, some courts in the United States may take issue with nominal consideration, or consideration with virtually no value. Some courts have since thought this was a sham. Since contract disputes are typically resolved in state court, some state courts have found that merely providing $1 to another is not a sufficiently legal duty, and therefore no legal consideration passes in these kinds of deals, and consequently, no contract is formed. However, this is a minority position. Pre-existing legal duties Main article: Pre-existing duty rule A party that already has a legal duty to provide money, an object, a service, or a forbearance, does not provide consideration when promising merely to uphold that duty. That legal duty can arise from law, or obligation under a previous contract. The prime example of this sub-issue is where an uncle gives his thirteen-year-old nephew (a resident of the state of New York) the following offer: "if you do not smoke cigarettes or drink alcohol until your 18th birthday, then I will pay you $5,000". On the nephew's 18th birthday, he tells the uncle to pay up, and the uncle does not pay. In the subsequent lawsuit, the uncle wins, because the nephew, by U.S. criminal law, already had a duty to refrain from smoking cigarettes while under 18 and from drinking alcohol while under age 21. The same applies if the consideration is a performance for which the parties had previously contracted. For example, A agrees to paint B's house for $500, but halfway through the job A tells B that he will not finish unless B increases the payment to $750. If B agrees, and A then finishes the job, B still only needs to pay A the $500 originally agreed to, because A was already contractually obligated to paint the house for that amount. An exception to this rule holds for settlements, such as an accord and satisfaction. If a creditor has a credit against a debtor for $10,000, and offers to settle it for $5,000, it is still binding, if accepted, even though the debtor had a legal duty to repay the entire $10,000. Pre-existing duties relating to at-will employment depend largely on state law. Generally, at-will employment allows the employer to terminate the employee for good or even no reason (as long as the reason, if any, is not explicitly illegal), and allows the employee to resign for any reason. There are no duties of continued employment in the future. Therefore, when an employee demands a raise, there is no issue with consideration because the employee has no legal duty to continue working. Similarly, when an employer demands a pay-cut, there is also no contractual issue with consideration, because the employer has no legal duty to continue employing the worker. However, certain states require additional consideration other than the prospect of continued employment, to enforce terms demanded later by the employer, in particular, non-competition clauses. Bundled terms Contracts where a legally valueless term is bundled with a term that does have legal value are still generally enforceable. Consider the uncle's situation above. If the same uncle had instead told his 13-year-old nephew the following offer: "if you do not smoke cigarettes, do not drink alcohol, swear or play cards for money (gamble) before your 21st birthday, then I will pay you $5,000". On the nephew's 21st birthday, he asks the uncle to pay up, and this time, in the subsequent lawsuit, the nephew may win. Although the promise of not drinking alcohol and gambling while under the age of 21 was not valuable consideration (it was already legally prohibited), most states allow smoking by age 18 and swearing is not illegal at any age. Even though smoking is legally restricted until age 18, it is legal for those above 18, and thus the promise to forbear from it entirely has legal value. However, the uncle would still be relieved from the liability if his nephew drank alcohol, even though that consideration is valueless, because it was paired with something of legal value; therefore, adherence to the entire, collective agreement is necessary. Past consideration Generally, past consideration is not a valid consideration and has no legal value. Past consideration is consideration that has already flowed from the promisee to the promisor. That is, the promisee's act or forbearance predates the promisor's promise. Past consideration therefore cannot be used as a basis when claiming damages. An exception to this rule is where there is a duty owed to a third party. An act done before the giving of a promise to make a payment or to confer some other benefit can sometimes be consideration for the promise. For this to hold, three conditions must be satisfied (Pao On v Lau Yiu Long ): The act must have been done at the promisor's request The parties must have understood the act was to be remunerated either by a payment or the conferment of some other benefit Payment/conferment of the benefit must have been legally enforceable had it been promised in advance Option contracts and conditional consideration Generally, conditional consideration is valid consideration. Suppose A is a movie script writer and B runs a movie production company. A says to B, "buy my script." B says "How about this – I will pay you $5,000 so that you do not let anyone else produce your movie until one year from now. If I do produce your movie in that year, then I will give you another $50,000, and no one else can produce it. If I do not produce your movie in that year, then you're free to go." If the two subsequently get into a dispute, the issue of whether a contract exists is answered. B had an option contract—he could decide to produce the script, or not. B's consideration passed was the $5,000 down, and the possibility of $50,000. A's consideration passed was the exclusive rights to the movie script for at least one year. In settlements Suppose B commits a tort against A, causing $5,000 in compensatory damages and $3,000 in punitive damages. Since there is no guarantee that A would win against B if it went to court, A may agree to drop the case if B pays the $5,000 compensatory damages. This is sufficient consideration, since B's consideration is a guaranteed recovery, and A's consideration is that B only has to pay $5,000, instead of $8,000. Criticism The primary criticism of the doctrine of consideration is that, in its present form, it is purely a formality that merely serves to complicate commerce and create legal uncertainty by opening up otherwise simple contracts to scrutiny as to whether the consideration purportedly tendered satisfies the requirements of the law. While the purpose of the doctrine was ostensibly to protect parties seeking to void oppressive contracts, this is currently accomplished through the use of a sophisticated variety of defences available to the party seeking to void a contract. In practice, the doctrine of consideration has resulted in a phenomenon similar to that of Ḥiyal in Islamic contracts, whereby parties to a contract use technicalities to satisfy requirements while in actual fact circumventing them in practice. Typically, this is often described in the form of "peppercorn" consideration, i.e. consideration that is trivial but still satisfies the requirements of law, although texts and commentators making such assertions do have a credible basis for doing so. The doctrine of consideration is expressly rejected by the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts on the grounds that it yields uncertainty and unnecessary litigation, thereby hindering international trade. Similarly, the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods similarly does not require consideration for a contract to be valid, thereby excluding the doctrine with regard to contracts covered by the convention even in common law jurisdictions where it would otherwise apply. Consequently, the continued existence of the doctrine in common law jurisdictions is controversial. Scots lawyer Harvey McGregor's "Contract Code", a Law Commission-sponsored proposal to both unite and codify English and Scots Law, proposed the abolition of consideration. Some commentators have suggested that consideration be replaced by estoppel as a basis for contracts. However, any change to the doctrine of consideration in the jurisdictions in which it exists would need to implemented by legislation. See also Consideration under English law Consideration under American law Consideration is not required for a contract under Scots contract law Notes ^ If the object or the consideration of an agreement is for doing an act forbidden by law, the agreement is void. for example, A promises B to obtain employment in public service and B promises to pay Rs one lakh to A. The agreement is void as procuring a government job through unlawful means is prohibited. ^ For example, A borrows Rs.100/— from B and executes a bond to work for B without pay for a period of 2 years. In case of default, A owes the principal sum at once and a huge amount of interest. This contract was held void as it involved injury to the person. ^ An agreement which tends to be injurious to the public or against the public good is void. For example, agreements of trading with a foreign enemy, agreement to commit a crime, agreements which interfere with the administration of justice, agreements which interfere with the course of justice, stifling prosecution, maintenance and champerty. ^ This deals with two categories. One is agreements restraining enforcement of rights and the other deals with agreements curtailing the period of limitation. ^ Agreements for sale or transfer of public offices and title or for procurement of a public recognition like Padma Vibhushan or Padma Shri etc. for monetary consideration is unlawful, being opposed to public policy. ^ Agreements which unduly restrict the personal liberty of parties to it are void as contrary to public policy. ^ For instance, some may assert that agreeing to sell a car for a penny may constitute a binding contract – although there are no cited cases of such trivial compensation being recognised by the court as sufficient. ^ As Lord Justice Denning famously stated, "The doctrine of consideration is too firmly fixed to be overthrown by a side-wind." References ^ Currie v Misa (1875) LR 10 Ex 893 ^ Wade v Simeon (1846) 2 CB 548 ^ White v Bluett (1853) 2 WR 75 ^ Bronaugh R. (1976). Agreement, Mistake, and Objectivity in the Bargain Theory of Conflict. William & Mary Law Review. ^ Pinnel's Case (1602) 5 Co Rep 117a ^ Jorden v Money (1854) 5 HLC 185 ^ a b Foakes v Beer UKHL 1, 9 App Cas 605, (1883-84) LR 9 App Cas 605, (1884) 9 App Cas 605 (16 May 1884) ^ Tweddle v Atkinson, (1861) 1 B&S 393 ^ De la Bere v Pearson 1 KB 280 ^ Chappell v Nestlés AC 87 ^ The Atlantic Baron QB 705 (aka North Ocean Shipping v Hyundai Construction) ^ Roscorla v Thomas (1842) 3 QB 234 ^ Re McArdle Ch 669 ^ Lampleigh v Braithwaite (1615) Hob 105 ^ Kennedy v Broun (1863) 13 CB (NS) 677 ^ Re Casey's Patents (aka Stewart v Casey) 1 Ch 104 ^ Pao On v Lau Yiu Long AC 614 (PC) ^ Stilk v Myrick (1809), 2 Camp 317 ^ Hartley v Ponsonby (1857) 7 E&B 872 ^ Glasbrook Bros v Glamorgan CC AC 270 ^ Williams v Roffey 2 WLR 1153 ^ The Indian Contract Act 1872 s.2d ^ "Contract opposed to public policy can be repudiated by the court of law even if that contract is beneficial for all of the parties to the contract. What considerations and objects are lawful and what not – Newar Marble Industries Pvt. Ltd. Vs. Rajasthan State Electricity Board, Jaipur, 1993 Cr. L.J. 1191 at 1197, 1198 " ^ German Civil Code § 311, accessed 15 July 2017 ^ See: Harvey McGregor's Contract Code ^ e.g. P.S. Atiyah, 'Consideration: A Restatement' in Essays on Contract (1986) p.195, Oxford University Press ^ Central London Property Trust Ltd. v. High Trees House Ltd. KB 130 ^ For a detailed and authoritative account of this process, see A. W. B. Simpson, A History of the Common Law of Contract: The Rise of the Action of Assumpsit, (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1975). ^ Austotel v Franklins (1989) 16 NSWLR 582 ^ Waltons Stores (Interstate) Ltd v Maher HCA 7, (1988) 164 CLR 387, High Court (Australia). ^ Thomas v Thomas (1842) ^ Australian Woollen Mills Pty Ltd v The Commonwealth HCA 20, (1954) 92 CLR 424, High Court (Australia). ^ "Supreme Court of Texas (1464-EIGHT, LTD. & MILLIS MANAGEMENT CORP, v. GAIL ANN JOPPICH See section III)". Archived from the original on 2013-06-16. Retrieved 2012-06-15. ^ Andrew Hennessey v Architectus Group Holdings Pty Ltd NSWSC 1390, Supreme Court (NSW, Australia) ^ Stilk v Myrick EWHC J58 (KB), (1809) 170 ER 1168. ^ Wigan v Edwards (1973) 1 ALR 497. ^ Hamer v Sidway |parallelcite=(1891) 124 NY 538 ^ see Roscorla v Thomas EWHC J74, (1842) 114 ER 496. ^ Chappell & Co Ltd v. Nestle Co Ltd 2 All ER 701 in which the wrappers from three chocolate bars was held to be part of the consideration for the sale and purchase of a musical recording – although those referencing this case appear to ignore the significance of the three wrappers in relation to Nestle's marketing strategy. ^ Uniform Principles of International Commercial Contracts, 2016 ^ e.g. P.S. Atiyah, 'Consideration: A Restatement' in Essays on Contract (1986) p.195, Oxford University Press ^ Central London Property Trust Ltd v High Trees House Ltd EWCA Civ 1329, KB 130, Court of Appeal (England and Wales). Authority control databases: National Germany Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Consideration (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consideration_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"consideration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/consideration"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_law"},{"link_name":"common law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law"},{"link_name":"simple contracts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_contract"},{"link_name":"deed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deed"},{"link_name":"Currie v Misa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currie_v_Misa"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"enforceable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enforceable"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"contracts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract"},{"link_name":"gift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gift_(law)"},{"link_name":"common law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law"},{"link_name":"quantum meruit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_meruit"},{"link_name":"quasi-contract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-contract"},{"link_name":"promissory estoppel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoppel#Promissory_estoppel"}],"text":"For other uses, see Consideration (disambiguation).Look up consideration in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.Consideration is a concept of English common law and is a necessity for simple contracts but not for special contracts (contracts by deed). The concept has been adopted by other common law jurisdictions.The court in Currie v Misa[1] declared consideration to be a \"Right, Interest, Profit, Benefit, or Forbearance, Detriment, Loss, Responsibility\". Thus, consideration is a promise of something of value given by a promissor in exchange for something of value given by a promisee; and typically the thing of value is goods, money, or an act. Forbearance to act, such as an adult promising to refrain from smoking, is enforceable only if one is thereby surrendering a legal right.[2][3][4]Consideration may be thought of as the concept of value offered and accepted by people or organisations entering into contracts. Anything of value promised by one party to the other when making a contract can be treated as \"consideration\": for example, if A contracts to buy a car from B for $5,000, A's consideration is the promise of $5,000, and B's consideration is the promise of the car.Additionally, if A signs a contract with B such that A will paint B's house for $500, A's consideration is the service of painting B's house, and B's consideration is $500 paid to A. Further if A signs a contract with B such that A will not repaint his own house in any other colour than white, and B will pay A $500 per year to keep this deal up, there is also a consideration. Although A did not promise to affirmatively do anything, A did promise not to do something that he was allowed to do, and so A did pass consideration. A's consideration to B is the forbearance in painting his own house in a colour other than white, and B's consideration to A is $500 per year. Conversely, if A signs a contract to buy a car from B for $0, B's consideration is still the car, but A is giving no consideration, and so there is no valid contract. However, if B still gives the title to the car to A, then B cannot take the car back, since, while it may not be a valid contract, it is a valid gift.In common law it is a prerequisite that both parties offer consideration before a contract can be thought of as binding. The doctrine of consideration is irrelevant in many jurisdictions, although contemporary commercial litigant relations have held the relationship between a promise and a deed is a reflection of the nature of contractual considerations. If there is no element of consideration found, there is thus no contract formed.However, even if a court decides there is no contract, there might be a possible recovery under the doctrines of quantum meruit (sometimes referred to as a quasi-contract) or promissory estoppel.","title":"Consideration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Foakes-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Indian Contract Act, 1872","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Contract_Act,_1872"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"something in return","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quid_pro_quo"},{"link_name":"not necessarily be equal in value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peppercorn_(legal)"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"public policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_policy_doctrine"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[f]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"There are a number of common issues as to whether consideration exists in a contract. Under English law:Part payment is not good consideration.[5][6][7]\nConsideration must move from the promisee but need not flow to the promisor.[8]\nConsideration must be sufficient but need not be adequate.[9][10][11]\nConsideration cannot be illusory.\nConsideration must not be past. Past consideration is not good consideration.[12][13][14][15][16][17]\nMoral consideration is not sufficient (except for contracts by deed, where \"love and affection\" is often cited as the [unnecessary] consideration).[citation needed]\nPerformance of existing duties is not good consideration.[18][19][20][21]Meanwhile, the Indian Contract Act, 1872 which continues in force in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India (the most populous common law jurisdiction) provides that valid consideration exists \"when at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or abstain from doing something\"[22] or, in other words, when each party receives something in return for entering into a contractual obligation. An agreement must be supported by a lawful consideration on both sides. Under the act, valid consideration must satisfy the following criteria:It must move at the desire of the promisor. An act constituting consideration must have been done at the desire or request of the promisor. If it is done at the instance of a third party or without the desire of the promisor, it will not be good consideration. For example, A saves B's goods from a fire without B asking him to do so; A cannot demand payment for his service.\nConsideration may move from the promisee or any other person. Under Indian law, consideration may be from the promisee of any other person i.e., even a stranger. This means that as long as there is consideration for the promisee, it is immaterial who has furnished it.\nConsideration must be an act, abstinence or forbearance or a returned promise.\nConsideration may be past, present or future. Past consideration is not consideration according to English law. However it is a consideration as per Indian law. Example of past consideration is, A renders some service to B at latter's desire. After a month B promises to compensate A for service rendered to him earlier. When consideration is given simultaneously with promise, it is said to be present consideration. For example, A receives Rs.50/- in return for which he promises to deliver certain goods to B. The money A receives is the present consideration. When consideration to one party to other is to pass subsequently to the maker of the contract, is said to be future consideration. For example. A promises to deliver certain goods to B after a week. B promises to pay the price after a fortnight, such consideration is future.\nConsideration must be real. Consideration must be real, competent and having some value in the eyes of law. For example, A promises to restore life to B's dead wife, if B pays him Rs.1000/—. A's promise is physically impossible to perform, hence there is no real consideration.\nConsideration must be something which the promisor is not already bound to do. A promise to do something what one is already bound to do, either by law, is not a good consideration, since it adds nothing to the previous existing legal consideration.\nConsideration need not be adequate. Consideration need not necessarily be equal in value to something given. So long as consideration exists, the courts are not concerned as to adequacy, provided it is for some value.Additionally, under the Indian Contract Act 1872, any consideration is invalid if it is:Forbidden by law[a]\nIt involves injury to a person or property of another[b]\nCourts regards it as immoral\nIt is of such nature that, if permitted, it would defeat the provisions of any law\nIt is fraudulent, or involves or implies injury to the person or property of another\nIt is contrary to public policy[c]\nThe consideration conveyed by at least one side seeks to restrain legal proceedings[d]\nThe consideration includes public offices or titles[e]\nThe consideration involves involuntary labour or otherwise infringes upon the personal liberty of a party to the contract[f]\nThe consideration includes a marriage or a pecuniary inducement to marry.The most noticeable distinction between the English and Indian criteria for consideration is that English law prohibits past consideration while Indian law does not.","title":"Legal rules regarding consideration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"estoppel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoppel"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"legislation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislation"},{"link_name":"Lord Justice Denning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Denning"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"assumpsit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assumpsit"},{"link_name":"John Stuart Mill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Civil law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)"},{"link_name":"common law systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_law_system"},{"link_name":"culpa in contrahendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culpa_in_contrahendo"},{"link_name":"estoppel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoppel"},{"link_name":"negotiations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negotiation"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waltons_HCA-36"},{"link_name":"equitable doctrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equity_(law)"},{"link_name":"assurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/assurance"},{"link_name":"detriment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detriment_(law)"}],"text":"Systems based on Roman law (including Germany[24] and Scotland) do not require consideration, and some commentators consider it unnecessary and have suggested that the doctrine of consideration should be abandoned,[25] and estoppel used to replace it as a basis for contracts.[26] However, legislation, rather than judicial development, has been touted as the only way to remove this entrenched common law doctrine. Lord Justice Denning famously stated that \"The doctrine of consideration is too firmly fixed to be overthrown by a side-wind\".[27]The reason that both exist in common law jurisdictions is thought by leading scholars to be the result of the combining by 19th-century judges of two distinct threads: first the consideration requirement was at the heart of the action of assumpsit, which had grown up in medieval times and remained the normal action for breach of a simple contract in England and Wales until 1884 when the old forms of action were abolished; secondly, the notion of agreement between two or more parties as being the essential legal and moral foundation of contract in all legal systems, was promoted by the 18th-century French writer Pothier in his Traite des Obligations, much read (especially after translation into English in 1805) by English judges and jurists. The latter chimed well with the fashionable will theories of the time, especially John Stuart Mill's influential ideas on free will, and got grafted on to the traditional common law requirement for consideration to ground an action in assumpsit.[28]Civil law systems take the approach that an exchange of promises, or a concurrence of wills alone, rather than an exchange in valuable rights is the correct basis. So if A promises to give B a book and B accepts the offer without giving anything in return, B would have a legal right to the book and A could not change her mind about giving it to B as a gift. However, in common law systems the concept of culpa in contrahendo, a form of estoppel, is increasingly used to create obligations during pre-contractual negotiations.[29][30] Estoppel is an equitable doctrine that provides for the creation of legal obligations if a party has given another an assurance and the other has relied on the assurance to his detriment.","title":"History and comparative law"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Woollen_Mills_HCA-38"},{"link_name":"peppercorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peppercorn_(legal)"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"Generally, courts do not inquire whether the deal between two parties was monetarily fair—merely that each party passed some legal obligation or duty to the other party.[31][32] The dispositive issue is the presence of consideration, not the adequacy of the consideration. The values between consideration passed by each party to a contract need not be comparable.For instance, if A offers B $200 to buy B's mansion, luxury sports car, and private jet, there is still consideration on both sides. A's consideration is $200, and B's consideration is the mansion, car, and jet. Courts in the United States generally leave parties to their own contracts and do not intervene. The old English rule of consideration questioned whether a party gave the value of a peppercorn to the other party. As a result, contracts in the United States have sometimes have had one party pass nominal amounts of consideration, typically citing $1. Thus, licensing contracts that do not involve any money at all often cite as consideration, \"for the sum of $1 and other good and valuable consideration.\"However, some courts in the United States may take issue with nominal consideration, or consideration with virtually no value. Some courts have since thought this was a sham. Since contract disputes are typically resolved in state court, some state courts have found that merely providing $1 to another is not a sufficiently legal duty, and therefore no legal consideration passes in these kinds of deals, and consequently, no contract is formed. However, this is a minority position.[33]","title":"Monetary value of consideration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Foakes-7"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"settlements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settlement_(litigation)"},{"link_name":"accord and satisfaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accord_and_satisfaction"},{"link_name":"at-will employment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At-will_employment"},{"link_name":"at-will employment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/At-will_employment"}],"text":"A party that already has a legal duty to provide money, an object, a service, or a forbearance, does not provide consideration when promising merely to uphold that duty.[7][34][35][36] That legal duty can arise from law, or obligation under a previous contract.The prime example of this sub-issue is where an uncle gives his thirteen-year-old nephew (a resident of the state of New York) the following offer: \"if you do not smoke cigarettes or drink alcohol until your 18th birthday, then I will pay you $5,000\". On the nephew's 18th birthday, he tells the uncle to pay up, and the uncle does not pay. In the subsequent lawsuit, the uncle wins, because the nephew, by U.S. criminal law, already had a duty to refrain from smoking cigarettes while under 18 and from drinking alcohol while under age 21.The same applies if the consideration is a performance for which the parties had previously contracted. For example, A agrees to paint B's house for $500, but halfway through the job A tells B that he will not finish unless B increases the payment to $750. If B agrees, and A then finishes the job, B still only needs to pay A the $500 originally agreed to, because A was already contractually obligated to paint the house for that amount.An exception to this rule holds for settlements, such as an accord and satisfaction. If a creditor has a credit against a debtor for $10,000, and offers to settle it for $5,000, it is still binding, if accepted, even though the debtor had a legal duty to repay the entire $10,000.Pre-existing duties relating to at-will employment depend largely on state law. Generally, at-will employment allows the employer to terminate the employee for good or even no reason (as long as the reason, if any, is not explicitly illegal), and allows the employee to resign for any reason. There are no duties of continued employment in the future. Therefore, when an employee demands a raise, there is no issue with consideration because the employee has no legal duty to continue working. Similarly, when an employer demands a pay-cut, there is also no contractual issue with consideration, because the employer has no legal duty to continue employing the worker. However, certain states require additional consideration other than the prospect of continued employment, to enforce terms demanded later by the employer, in particular, non-competition clauses.","title":"Pre-existing legal duties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"text":"Contracts where a legally valueless term is bundled with a term that does have legal value are still generally enforceable.Consider the uncle's situation above. If the same uncle had instead told his 13-year-old nephew the following offer: \"if you do not smoke cigarettes, do not drink alcohol, swear or play cards for money (gamble) before your 21st birthday, then I will pay you $5,000\". On the nephew's 21st birthday, he asks the uncle to pay up, and this time, in the subsequent lawsuit, the nephew may win.[37] Although the promise of not drinking alcohol and gambling while under the age of 21 was not valuable consideration (it was already legally prohibited), most states allow smoking by age 18 and swearing is not illegal at any age. Even though smoking is legally restricted until age 18, it is legal for those above 18, and thus the promise to forbear from it entirely has legal value. However, the uncle would still be relieved from the liability if his nephew drank alcohol, even though that consideration is valueless, because it was paired with something of legal value; therefore, adherence to the entire, collective agreement is necessary.","title":"Bundled terms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"text":"Generally, past consideration is not a valid consideration and has no legal value. Past consideration is consideration that has already flowed from the promisee to the promisor. That is, the promisee's act or forbearance predates the promisor's promise. Past consideration therefore cannot be used as a basis when claiming damages.[38]An exception to this rule is where there is a duty owed to a third party. \tAn act done before the giving of a promise to make a payment or to confer some other benefit can sometimes be consideration for the promise. For this to hold, three conditions must be satisfied (Pao On v Lau Yiu Long [1980]):The act must have been done at the promisor's request\nThe parties must have understood the act was to be remunerated either by a payment or the conferment of some other benefit\nPayment/conferment of the benefit must have been legally enforceable had it been promised in advance","title":"Past consideration"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Generally, conditional consideration is valid consideration.Suppose A is a movie script writer and B runs a movie production company. A says to B, \"buy my script.\" B says \"How about this – I will pay you $5,000 so that you do not let anyone else produce your movie until one year from now. If I do produce your movie in that year, then I will give you another $50,000, and no one else can produce it. If I do not produce your movie in that year, then you're free to go.\" If the two subsequently get into a dispute, the issue of whether a contract exists is answered. B had an option contract—he could decide to produce the script, or not. B's consideration passed was the $5,000 down, and the possibility of $50,000. A's consideration passed was the exclusive rights to the movie script for at least one year.","title":"Option contracts and conditional consideration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tort"},{"link_name":"compensatory damages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compensatory_damages"},{"link_name":"punitive damages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punitive_damages"}],"text":"Suppose B commits a tort against A, causing $5,000 in compensatory damages and $3,000 in punitive damages. Since there is no guarantee that A would win against B if it went to court, A may agree to drop the case if B pays the $5,000 compensatory damages. This is sufficient consideration, since B's consideration is a guaranteed recovery, and A's consideration is that B only has to pay $5,000, instead of $8,000.","title":"In settlements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"defences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Defences"},{"link_name":"Ḥiyal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B8%A4iyal"},{"link_name":"technicalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_technicality"},{"link_name":"\"peppercorn\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peppercorn_(legal)"},{"link_name":"[g]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"UNIDROIT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIDROIT"},{"link_name":"Principles of International Commercial Contracts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_International_Commercial_Contracts"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_on_Contracts_for_the_International_Sale_of_Goods"},{"link_name":"Harvey McGregor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_McGregor"},{"link_name":"Contract Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract_Code"},{"link_name":"Law Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_Commission"},{"link_name":"estoppel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoppel"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[h]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"text":"The primary criticism of the doctrine of consideration is that, in its present form, it is purely a formality that merely serves to complicate commerce and create legal uncertainty by opening up otherwise simple contracts to scrutiny as to whether the consideration purportedly tendered satisfies the requirements of the law. While the purpose of the doctrine was ostensibly to protect parties seeking to void oppressive contracts, this is currently accomplished through the use of a sophisticated variety of defences available to the party seeking to void a contract. In practice, the doctrine of consideration has resulted in a phenomenon similar to that of Ḥiyal in Islamic contracts, whereby parties to a contract use technicalities to satisfy requirements while in actual fact circumventing them in practice. Typically, this is often described in the form of \"peppercorn\" consideration, i.e. consideration that is trivial but still satisfies the requirements of law, although texts and commentators making such assertions do have a credible basis for doing so.[g]The doctrine of consideration is expressly rejected by the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts on the grounds that it yields uncertainty and unnecessary litigation, thereby hindering international trade.[40] Similarly, the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods similarly does not require consideration for a contract to be valid, thereby excluding the doctrine with regard to contracts covered by the convention even in common law jurisdictions where it would otherwise apply. Consequently, the continued existence of the doctrine in common law jurisdictions is controversial. Scots lawyer Harvey McGregor's \"Contract Code\", a Law Commission-sponsored proposal to both unite and codify English and Scots Law, proposed the abolition of consideration. Some commentators have suggested that consideration be replaced by estoppel as a basis for contracts.[41] However, any change to the doctrine of consideration in the jurisdictions in which it exists would need to implemented by legislation.[h]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-26"},{"link_name":"maintenance and champerty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champerty_and_maintenance"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-27"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"Padma Vibhushan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padma_Vibhushan"},{"link_name":"Padma Shri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padma_Shri"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-29"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-46"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-50"},{"link_name":"Lord Justice Denning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Denning"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-High_Trees-49"}],"text":"^ If the object or the consideration of an agreement is for doing an act forbidden by law, the agreement is void. for example, A promises B to obtain employment in public service and B promises to pay Rs one lakh to A. The agreement is void as procuring a government job through unlawful means is prohibited.\n\n^ For example, A borrows Rs.100/— from B and executes a bond to work for B without pay for a period of 2 years. In case of default, A owes the principal sum at once and a huge amount of interest. This contract was held void as it involved injury to the person.\n\n^ An agreement which tends to be injurious to the public or against the public good is void. For example, agreements of trading with a foreign enemy, agreement to commit a crime, agreements which interfere with the administration of justice, agreements which interfere with the course of justice, stifling prosecution, maintenance and champerty.[23]\n\n^ This deals with two categories. One is agreements restraining enforcement of rights and the other deals with agreements curtailing the period of limitation.\n\n^ Agreements for sale or transfer of public offices and title or for procurement of a public recognition like Padma Vibhushan or Padma Shri etc. for monetary consideration is unlawful, being opposed to public policy.\n\n^ Agreements which unduly restrict the personal liberty of parties to it are void as contrary to public policy.\n\n^ For instance, some may assert that agreeing to sell a car for a penny may constitute a binding contract – although there are no cited cases of such trivial compensation being recognised by the court as sufficient.[39]\n\n^ As Lord Justice Denning famously stated, \"The doctrine of consideration is too firmly fixed to be overthrown by a side-wind.\"[42]","title":"Notes"}]

[]

[{"title":"Consideration under English law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consideration_under_English_law"},{"title":"Consideration under American law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consideration_under_American_law"},{"title":"Scots contract law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_contract_law"}]

[{"reference":"\"Supreme Court of Texas (1464-EIGHT, LTD. & MILLIS MANAGEMENT CORP, v. GAIL ANN JOPPICH See section III)\". Archived from the original on 2013-06-16. Retrieved 2012-06-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130616231230/http://www.supreme.courts.state.tx.us/historical/2004/dec/030109.htm","url_text":"\"Supreme Court of Texas (1464-EIGHT, LTD. & MILLIS MANAGEMENT CORP, v. GAIL ANN JOPPICH See section III)\""},{"url":"http://www.supreme.courts.state.tx.us/historical/2004/dec/030109.htm","url_text":"the original"}]}]

[{"Link":"http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2434&context=wmlr","external_links_name":"Agreement, Mistake, and Objectivity in the Bargain Theory of Conflict"},{"Link":"https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1884/1.html","external_links_name":"[1884] UKHL 1"},{"Link":"http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_bgb/englisch_bgb.html#p1008","external_links_name":"German Civil Code § 311"},{"Link":"https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1988/7.html","external_links_name":"[1988] HCA 7"},{"Link":"https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1954/20.html","external_links_name":"[1954] HCA 20"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130616231230/http://www.supreme.courts.state.tx.us/historical/2004/dec/030109.htm","external_links_name":"\"Supreme Court of Texas (1464-EIGHT, LTD. & MILLIS MANAGEMENT CORP, v. GAIL ANN JOPPICH See section III)\""},{"Link":"http://www.supreme.courts.state.tx.us/historical/2004/dec/030109.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/nsw/NSWSC/2010/1390.html","external_links_name":"[2010] NSWSC 1390"},{"Link":"https://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/KB/1809/J58.html","external_links_name":"[1809] EWHC J58 (KB)"},{"Link":"https://sourcelawfirm.com/2019/02/09/contract-law-hamer-v-sidway/","external_links_name":"Hamer v Sidway |parallelcite=(1891) 124 NY 538"},{"Link":"https://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/1842/J74.html","external_links_name":"[1842] EWHC J74"},{"Link":"https://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Civ/2007/1329.html","external_links_name":"[2007] EWCA Civ 1329"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4152352-0","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007555414905171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85031281","external_links_name":"United States"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_OmniGo_700LX

HP 200LX

["1 Description","2 Model variants","2.1 HP 100LX","2.2 HP Palmtop FX","2.3 HP 200LX AIA","2.4 HP 1000CX","2.5 HP OmniGo 700LX","3 Related models","3.1 HP 95LX","3.2 HP OmniGo 100","4 Current usage","5 Common problems","6 Exceptions to 100% IBM PC compatibility","7 Other notes","8 Easter eggs","8.1 Hidden gallery","8.2 Self-test poem 1","8.3 Self-test poem 2","8.4 Self-test poem 3","8.5 Hidden development aid in 'More Applications'","8.6 Hidden hex calculator","9 See also","10 References","11 Further reading","12 External links"]

Personal digital assistant manufactured by Hewlett-Packard This article contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (November 2023) Hewlett-Packard 200LXCase openManufacturerHewlett-PackardTypePalmtop PCRelease dateAugust 1994; 29 years ago (August 1994)DiscontinuedDecember 1999Operating systemHewlett-Packard MS-DOS 5.0CPU80186-compatible "Hornet" @ 7.91 MHzMemory1/2/4 MB RAMRemovable storageSRAM, ATA Flash, Compact Flash. Up to 2 GB using third-party driver.GraphicsCGA 640×200 (2 colors)Power2× AA-size removable batteries, 1× CR2032 coin cell backup, optional AC adapterDimensions16 × 8.64 × 2.54 cm (6.3" × 3.4" × 1")PredecessorHP 100LX Case closed The HP 200LX Palmtop PC (F1060A, F1061A, F1216A), also known as project Felix, is a personal digital assistant introduced by Hewlett-Packard in August 1994. It was often called a Palmtop PC, and it was notable that it was, with some minor exceptions, a DOS-compatible computer in a palmtop format, complete with a monochrome graphic display, QWERTY keyboard, serial port, and PCMCIA expansion slot. The abbreviation "LX" stood for "Lotus Expandable". Description This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Size comparison with 2007 Apple iPhone Input is accomplished via a small QWERTY-keyboard with a numeric keypad, enclosed in a clamshell-style case, less than about 25% of the size of a standard notebook computer. The palmtop runs for about 30–40 hours on two size AA alkaline or Ni-Cd rechargeable cells and can charge batteries (both Ni-Cd and NiMH) via a 12 V DC wall adapter. The HP 200LX has an Intel 80186 compatible embedded central processing unit named "Hornet", which runs at ~7.91 megahertz (which can be upgraded or overclocked to up to 15.8 MHz) and 1, 2 or 4 MB of memory, of which 640 KB is RAM and the rest can be used for expanded memory (EMS) or memory-based storage space. After-market updates can bring the memory chips to up to 64 MB, which frees the PCMCIA slot for modem or Ethernet card use. The Silicom, Accton 2212/2216, Netgear FA411, and Sohoware ND5120 network cards were compatible. Being IBM PC/XT compatible and running MS-DOS 5.0 from ROM, the HP 200LX can run virtually any program that would run on a full-size PC compatible computer as long as the code is written for the Intel 8086, 8088 or 80186 CPU and can run using CGA graphics. It can also run programs written for the 80286 CPU, provided they do not require the use of protected mode. It has a 16-bit PCMCIA Type II expansion slot that supports 5 V at 150 mA maximum, a SIR compatible infrared port and a full serial port (but with a proprietary mini connector for space constraint reasons). The built-in software suite runs from ROM and includes the Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.4 spreadsheet, a calendar, a phone book, a terminal, Lotus cc:Mail and a scientific/business calculator (among other applications). With a large CompactFlash storage card and a serial mouse, Microsoft Windows 3.0 can be run on the palmtop. Running Windows was limited by the hardware, and the maximum version that can be run is Windows 3.0 in Real Mode. However, Word 1.x and Excel 2.x for Windows will run (since they can run in Real Mode), allowing for the authoring of MS Office format-compatible files. The 640×200 resolution CGA compatible 4-shade gray-scale LCD screen has no back light. An electroluminescent back light installation is available from a third party since 2004, but keen eyesight is still required to use the small palmtop effectively without resorting to using its 2× and 4× zoom modes. While true CGA displays do not allow for redefinable fonts in text mode and support a hardware code page 437, the HP 95LX supports code page 850 instead. Starting with the HP 100LX, the LX series supports user-switchable text mode ROM fonts for both code page 437 and 850 as well as software-definable RAM fonts (for codepages 437G, 437T, 852, 866 via KEYBEZ). Lotus 1-2-3 internally uses the Lotus International Character Set (LICS), but characters are translated to code page 850 for display and printing purposes. Model variants HP 100LX The HP 100LX Palmtop PC (F1020A for the 1 MB, F1022A for the 2 MB model), also known as project Cougar, is the direct predecessor of the 200LX. It was released in 1993 and available in International English, U.S. English, French, German and Spanish variants with localized keyboard and messages. It is almost the same, including the Hornet CPU and MS-DOS 5.0, but with earlier built-in application versions. HP Palmtop FX The HP Palmtop FX is a variant of the HP 100LX with up to 2 MB flashable memory in 1993. FAT flash disk images could be created and written to drive F: by a special FLASHDSK.EXE utility. According to one source, it was developed for a Korean insurance company. HP 200LX AIA The HP 200LX AIA is a 2 MB double-speed variant of the HP 200LX manufactured for the insurance company American International Assurance (AIA). HP 1000CX The HP 1000CX Palmtop PC (F1203A for the 1 MB in March 1995, F1222A for the 2 MB model in February 1997), also known as project Puma, is an economy version of the 200LX but without any built-in software except the MS-DOS 5.0 operating system in ROM. It was in widespread use among, for example, Coca-Cola warehouse managers, who loaded their own logistics software onto the machine. It has a black clamshell, while the 200LX has a dark green casing. HP OmniGo 700LX The HP OmniGo 700LX Communicator Plus (F1206A), codenamed Columbia, was a project of the HP calculator branch in Singapore. The HP OmniGo 700LX is a 2 MB HP 200LX redesigned to piggyback a Nokia 2110 GSM mobile telephone for wireless mobility. The HP 200LX motherboard was factory-modified to support a second PCMCIA slot for a Nokia Data Card. Owing to the relatively large size of the Nokia telephone, the HP OmniGo 700LX has a large, pebble-shaped casing, making it a handheld with a phone attached. It was announced in late 1995 as part of plans for a collaboration between HP and Nokia, with shipment started in March 1996. The production of the HP OmniGo 700LX ceased after the Nokia 2110 mobile telephone was rendered obsolete by later telephones. The device can be seen as a forerunner to the first smartphone, Nokia's Communicator 9000. Related models HP 95LX Main article: HP 95LX The HP 95LX Palmtop PC (F1000A for the 512 KB, F1010A for the 1 MB model) introduced the basic design in April 1991. It was known internally as project Jaguar. It has a NEC V20 CPU (an enhanced Intel 8088 clone with Intel 80186 instruction set compatibility and an additional Intel 8080 emulation mode) running at 5.37 MHz, but is hampered in running PC applications because of its quarter-CGA resolution LCD screen and MDA-compatible (instead of CGA) graphics chip. The HP 95LX for the most part only displayed graphics in a special LX graphics mode. It runs MS-DOS 3.22 and has Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.2 built in. It also includes a CR2032 battery for memory backup when the AA batteries run out. HP OmniGo 100 HP OmniGo 100 The HP OmniGo 100 Organizer Plus (F1305A/F1310A) was designed as a more sophisticated successor to the LX series, and incorporated the HP-12C calculator functionality. It was GUI based, controlled by pen input or keyboard. However, it lacked the versatility of running unmodified DOS programs. The normal operation mode was with DOS-based PEN/GEOS 2.1 and Graffiti handwriting recognition running on Datalight ROM-DOS 6.22. It was not widely accepted as a calculator replacement, and Palm and Pocket PCs became acceptable as PDAs. Equipped with 1 MB of RAM, it was based on the Vadem VG230/V5H, a highly integrated system controller with 16 MHz NEC V30HL CPU, instruction set compatible with the Intel 80186. Current usage Although this product line was discontinued by HP in order to introduce their Windows CE product line (starting with the HP 300LX), a strong interest in this hardware continued. It was the last palmtop from HP which ran the MS-DOS operating system, for which there is much software from desktop PCs, and it came with a useful bundle of software including 1-2-3 and Quicken. Compared to machines with Windows-based operating systems such as CE, DOS programs are more compact and efficient and, with programs such as Software Carousel, many applications programs could be loaded at once. Third-party upgrades, repairs and renovations are available to maintain and extend the device. Because of its small size, the HP 200LX was very popular in Japan, so much so that its demise prompted an open-source initiative led by a group named Morphy One  to design and market an AMD Élan SC400-based replacement to fill its place in 2001. However, only one prototype was ever built before the company responsible for the project filed for bankruptcy in 2003. Some argue it was a scam as hundreds of people lost deposits they placed on the new palmtop in advance. The project leaders argued that key electronic components were unavailable due to strong demand from the mobile phone manufacturing industry. Common problems A common problem with the HP 200LX case is related to the injected-molded case top. The right hinge to case blend had poor flow in the process, resulting in the formation of a crack which propagates across the hinge under stress, causing failure. This can be reinforced and repaired using super glue, among other methods (industrial super glue advised). One can also use a small thin rectangular piece of metal and epoxy it to the upper right hand corner of the clam shell where the crack occurs. This offers additional support to the area and prevents and/or repairs this problem. Another weakness of the design is the failure of the case opening latch. This problem can easily be repaired by placing a thin slice cut from rubber eraser, left over silicone kit, or 'super sponge' within the latch as a "spring". Only high quality AA rechargeable batteries should be used in the HP 200LX, as battery leaks can destroy the LCD's flat video cable. Aging models may lose pixel columns from the display. This is caused by detachment of one or more pins of one of the SMD (Surface Mounted Device) chips in the display itself. In many cases this may be repaired by reflowing (resoldering) of the pins on the offending chip, either with an SMD reflow tool, or a soldering iron with a very fine (0.2 mm) tip. Under heavy use, the space bar and enter bar can become detached. This requires keyboard replacement. Under heavy use from opening and closing, the long flex strip connector between the screen and the motherboard can become torn as it tends to rub against internal components in the housing. Typically, the only way to fix this once torn is to replace the flex strip. Fixing unresponsive keyboard keys. Inside the HP 200LX, the keyboard connects to the main board via a "ribbon" that has graphite pads which make physical contact to gold pads plated onto the main board. Unresponsive keys occur when this connection grows weak. This can be fixed by applying conductive silver paint (such as from a circuitwriter pen) to each graphite pad on the "ribbon". One can also use copper tape cut out to small circles. This tape adheres nicely to the graphite pad and actually gives a more definitive long lasting connection than silver paint, although both work fine. This is delicate work, and putting the HP 200LX back together after disassembly may be problematic for those who have little experience with electronics repair. However, the conductive silver paint will fully fix the problem if applied with care. An alternate cause can be corrosion of the motherboard pads to which the graphite pad connects. This can be solved by polishing the pads with fine steel wool. Exceptions to 100% IBM PC compatibility The HP 100LX/HP 200LX's digital-to-analog converter cannot play audio tones; instead, it monitors battery life and charging. The device does not provide the BIOS service (INT 13h) for reading from a hard disk. Drivers have been partially written for this purpose (to boot MINIX 2.0). Other notes The HP 200LX was used on board the NASA Discovery OV103 Mission STS-95 (the last mission of Senator John Glenn) in an Electronic Nose (E-Nose) experiment (the device was developed jointly by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and the California Institute of Technology (Caltech)). The experiment, as managed by Dan Karmon of JPL, was successful. The HP 200LX can play video, and sound files using software from Stefan Peichl in relatively low quality. It is also capable of sound recording, though this is, again, in relatively low quality. There is no known compatible PCMCIA sound card for the HP 200LX. However, a Yamaha MU10 MIDI sound generator (a.o.) works through the serial port using Voyetra or GSPlay MIDI programs, and Terrence Vergauwen uses a PCMCIA parallel port card plus an OPL3LPT (Adlib compatible sounds card thru parallel port) for gaming. Software and hardware is available which will allow the HP 200LX to surf the Internet. The serial numbers printed on the HP machines 100LX, 200LX, 1000CX and OmniGo 700LX have the following meaning: XXYWWNNNNN XX = the country of manufacturing (e.g., SG = Singapore etc) Y = the year of manufacturing; last digit (e.g., 6 = 1996) WW = the week of the year of manufacturing NNNNN = the number of the specific unit manufactured in specified week Easter eggs There are many easter eggs built into the HP 200LX. The known ones are listed as follows: Hidden gallery This easter egg is on the HP 200LX in the built in game, "Lair of Squid". During the startup screen of the game, if the user types the word "gallery" ("gallerie" on a French palmtop; "siegergalerie" on a German palmtop; "galeria" on a Spanish palmtop) they are placed in a "part" of the maze that contains photographs of the primary software developers that worked on the HP 200LX. The user may exit from this gallery by exiting through the door at the end of the corridor. The software developers in the photographs are listed starting from left to right, then left to right and so on as follows: Andy Gryc Pat Megowan Everett Kaser Bill Johnson Lynn Winter Susan Wechsler Eric Evett The last panel on the right of the corridor contains a thank you message: Very special thanks to all the people in HP and all the companies that made this palm-top possible. The Felix S/W team The photographs of the developers have been described as "a-maze-ing". Self-test poem 1 This easter egg is in the HP 200LX self test mode. With the palmtop powered off, the user may press ESC+ON to start the self test mode, then cursor down to the display option. On pressing ↵ Enter 14 times, to step through the various screens, the user comes to a screen of example text in the form of a limerick poem. The poem is as follows: There once was this thing from HP That fit in your pocket, you see. A caveman would stare And pull out his hair And wonder, 'What could this thing be?' Self-test poem 2 This easter egg is in the HP 200LX self test mode. With the palmtop powered off, the user may press ESC+ON to start the self test mode, then cursor down to the display option. On pressing CTRL+↵ Enter, then holding down ALT while pressing ↵ Enter 13 times, the user comes to a cryptic poem, relating to business issues faced by the software development team. The poem is as follows: Felis Concolor A funny thing happened on the way to the Forum When I encountered a group in search of a quorum. They came from a city, The Burg On The Wire. If I tried to describe it you'd call me a liar. They wanted to charge me a really quite large fee For the dubious pleasure of sharing their treasure. "I'm a very Good man (Mark my words if you can)," "But, the Dickens, I say, I simply won't pay!" And with poetry, then, I proceeded to bore 'em Then proceeded myself on my way to the Forum. Self-test poem 3 This easter egg is in the HP 200LX self test mode. With the palmtop powered off, the user may press ESC+ON to start the self test mode, then cursor down to the display option. On pressing CTRL+↵ Enter, then holding down ⇧ Shift while pressing ↵ Enter 13 times, the user comes to an allegorical poem about the history and future of the HP LX palmtops. The poem is as follows (note that the project names for the HP 95LX, the HP 100LX and the HP 200LX are 'Jaguar', 'Cougar' and 'Felix' respectively, and that 'Felix' was the first LX to include Quicken): Nine lives has a Cat, and each Cat a name, All of them different, none are the same. Jaguar was first, it made quite a roar. Cougar was next, oh, how it did soar. Felix is third, my heart it does quicken, Who knows what comes next, the clock is a tickin'. Hidden development aid in 'More Applications' This easter egg is in the built in System Manager of the HP 200LX. This 'easter egg' is probably more of a development tool than an easter egg, but, in any case, the user may display the function by first pressing the blue &... key to start 'More Applications'. The user may then hold down ALT while pressing F9 four times, followed by F10 once. As long as the ALT key is held down, the user will observe columns of data about System Manager compliant (.EXM) programs registered with the System Manager, along with other arcane program information. Hidden hex calculator The HP 200LX includes an undocumented calculator application named HEXCALC, written by Andrew Gryc. It provides arithmetical and logical operations in binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal system. The utility can be added to the applications menu by an entry with the following fields: Name: He&x Calc Path: D:\BIN\HEXCALC.EXM See also HP 110 / HP 110 Plus DIP Pocket PC / Atari PC Folio / Atari Portfolio Poqet PC Poqet PC Prime Poqet PC Plus ZEOS Pocket PC Ben NanoNote Sub-notebook (HP OmniBook) Netbook Palmtop PC Ultra-mobile PC References ^ Barr, Christopher (1994-11-08). "HP 200LX Quickens Your Expense Account". PC Magazine. Vol. 13, no. 19. p. 56. ^ Hall, Rich (1994). "NEWS: HP's New 200LX Palmtop PC Replaces the 100LX and Features Intuit's Pocket Quicken". The HP Palmtop Paper. Thaddeus Computing. Archived from the original on 2017-04-30. Retrieved 2017-04-30. ^ "History of the HP 95LX computer". HPNEWS. Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P. 2012. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-25. ^ Lee, Yvonne (1993-05-03). "HP 100LX rolled out as successor to palmtop". InfoWorld. Vol. 15, no. 18. p. 27. Retrieved 2016-11-26. ^ Marshall, Patrick (1993-08-23). "Hewlett-Packard makes a good thing better by packing 100LX with features". InfoWorld. Vol. 15, no. 34. p. 96. Retrieved 2016-11-26. ^ "Questions and Answers about HP Palmtops: Q. What software is built into the 200LX ROM?". The HP Palmtop Paper Online. Archived from the original on 2016-11-27. Retrieved 2016-11-26. ^ HP 95LX User's Guide (PDF) (2 ed.). Corvallis, Oregon, USA: Hewlett-Packard Company, Corvallis Division. June 1991 . pp. E-1–E-3, F-1–F-7. F0001-90003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-11-28. Retrieved 2016-11-27. The HP 95LX character set is equivalent to code page 850, the IBM PC multilingual character set. (Note that your HP 95LX contains MS-DOS 3.22, which does not support code-page switching.) All the HP 95LX applications use this set except 1-2-3, which uses LICS, the Lotus International Character Set. Most LICS characters are included in code page 850; the few that are not will not display If your HP 95LX cannot display or if your printer cannot print a LICS character, the HP 95LX uses a fallback presentation for that character if you use the © symbol and your printer cannot print it, the HP 95LX might display (c) or c as the fallback presentation (depending on the capabilities of your printer). ^ HP 200LX User's Guide (PDF) (1 ed.). Singapore: Hewlett-Packard Singapore (Private) Limited, Asia-Pacific Personal Computer Division. October 1996. pp. 21-6–21-7, 25-9–25-13, 26-14–26-18, C-1–C-4, D-1–D-10. 1216-90001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-11-30. Retrieved 2016-11-29. Your palmtop supports code pages 850 and 437. The built-in applications (except 1-2-3) and System Manager-compliant applications use code page 850. 1-2-3 uses LICS, the Lotus International Character Set. Most LICS characters are included in code page 850; the few that are not included will not display on the palmtop. Any DOS application you load and run will by default use code page 437. If an application requires code page 850, you can select it using the Setup utility. ^ a b Hall, Rich (1993). "HP NEWS--HP News: New 2MB HP 100LX; Upgrade Path Available". The HP Palmtop Paper Online. Thaddeus Computing. Retrieved 2015-08-29. ^ Schmuhl, Edward H.; Sherman, Allan P.; Waisnor, Jon D. (June 1996). "HP PalmVue: A New Healthcare Information Product" (PDF). Hewlett-Packard Journal. 47 (3): 64–69. ^ 200LX 어플 자료실 (in Korean). 2008-11-17. Archived from the original on 2016-12-31. ^ "The Other Models". The Museum of HP Calculators. Archived from the original on 2016-12-31. ^ Auw, Jimmy (2012-06-19). "Restoring Vintage Gear: HP Palmtop 200LX". Jimmy's Junkyard. ^ a b Hall, Rich. "HP's OmniGo 700LX Communicator Plus". HP Palmtop Paper Online. ^ Marshall, Patrick (1991-12-16). Nash, Siobhan; Rupley, Sebastian (eds.). "Computing in the palm of you hand". InfoWorld. Vol. 13, no. 50. pp. 69–81. Retrieved 2016-11-26. ^ Matzkin, Jonathan (July 1991). "Hewlett-Packard Co. HP 95LX Palmtop PC". PC Magazine. Vol. 10, no. 13. pp. 216, 220, 222. Retrieved 2016-11-26. ^ Goldstein, Hal. "User to User: The HP OmniGo 100". HP Palmtop Paper Online. ^ Hermocom.com helps with self-repair advice Archived 2008-09-07 at the Wayback Machine ^ Thaddeus Computing offers professional repair service in USA. ^ Michel Bel can help with repairs in the Netherlands. ^ Tamiya, Maya (2000-05-04). "Beyond free software in Japan". LWN.net. Retrieved 2021-05-16. ^ ユーザーが作るモバイル端末「Morphy One」、量産用試作基板の実装が完了 (in Japanese). Mynavi News. 2001-05-07. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2013-10-11. ^ モルフィーワン計画が中止の危機？ 渦中の開発者に聞く . ASCII.jp (in Japanese). 2002-06-28. Retrieved 2013-10-11. ^ "Minix for the HP200LX". Archived from the original on 2006-08-28. Retrieved 2005-03-12. Further reading Kaser, Everett (November–December 1993). "The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX". The HP Palmtop Paper. Vol. 1993, no. 12. Hewlett-Packard Company: Thaddeus Computing, Inc. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25. Lott, Chris (2020-12-21). "The First Real Palmtop". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25. Lunduke, Bryan (2022-08-01). "The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket". Substack / The Lunduke Journal of Technology. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-24. The HP 200LX: A Review by Rob Tillotson. Sy's HP 200LX review Articles concerning the NASA STS-95 E-Nose experiment "Off-the-Shelf" 200LX used by "Shade Tree Engineer" The Electronic Nose and The Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer Array: Results From The Space Shuttle STS-95 Electronic Nose Experiment HP 200LX Old-Computers.com Museum External links 200LX Software S.U.P.E.R. software mirror, over 1500 programs and 200 databases for the 200LX HP Palmtop Paper Online (Thaddeus Computing; Buy-Sell-Repair) HP Palmtop Ring Homepage Skolob's Hewlett Packard 95LX Palmtop Page (Information and FAQ on HP 95LX) Compatibility of the Sohoware ND5120 network card. vteHewlett-Packard HP Inc. Hewlett Packard Enterprise Founders Bill Hewlett David Packard Directors Marc Andreessen Mohamed M. Atalla Shumeet Banerji Raj Gupta Raymond J. Lane Ann Livermore Gary M. Reiner Patricia F. Russo (Chairwoman) Jim Skinner Executive officers Meg Whitman Todd Bradley Dave Donatelli Martin Fink Henry Gomez John Hinshaw Marty Homlish George Kadifa Tracy Keogh Cathie Lesjak Mike Nefkens Antonio Neri John F. Schultz Bill Veghte Computer hardware productsHPEServers BladeSystem Integrity Superdome ProLiant NonStop Storage HPE Storage HPE XP HPE 3PAR HP Inc.Business laptops ProBook EliteBook ZBook Business desktops ProDesk EliteDesk Z workstations Consumer PCs OmniBook Pavilion Spectre ENVY OMEN Stream HP Chromebox Essential laptops Consumer electronicsand accessories Aruba Networks Calculators Teradici HyperX Plantronics Photography and printing Deskjet LaserJet Scitex Photosmart Other divisions Colorado Memory Systems Indigo Digital Press Scitex Systems Insight Manager HPE Networking Software HyperSpace OS HP-UX HP Data Protector NonStop OS NonStop SQL DiscontinuedproductsCompaq line HP Compaq HP Compaq Elite TC Presario Evo iPAQ AlphaServer Software Domain/OS LightScribe MPE OpenVMS (sold) HP QuickPlay Tru64 UNIX WebOS (sold) Services HP Cloud HP CloudSystem HPE Helion Hardware Jornada OmniGo iPod+HP VoodooPC TouchPad Internet Advisor Vectra Brio Mini Slate TouchSmart Sprout NetServer Kayak Closed divisions VoodooPC ProCurve Sold: Palm Snapfish HP CEOs List of HP executives Co-founders Bill Hewlett and David Packard John A. Young Lewis E. Platt Carly Fiorina Mark Hurd Léo Apotheker Meg Whitman Assets HP Garage HP Labs HP Atalla See also Acquisitions HP spying scandal HP Inc. assets Products Mission: SPACE Steve Wozniak

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hp200lx,_closed.jpg"},{"link_name":"personal digital assistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant"},{"link_name":"Hewlett-Packard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Barr_1994-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall_1994-2"},{"link_name":"Palmtop PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmtop_PC"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"PCMCIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCMCIA_card"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP_2012-3"}],"text":"Case closedThe HP 200LX Palmtop PC (F1060A, F1061A, F1216A), also known as project Felix, is a personal digital assistant introduced by Hewlett-Packard in August 1994.[1][2] It was often called a Palmtop PC, and it was notable that it was, with some minor exceptions, a DOS-compatible computer in a palmtop format, complete with a monochrome graphic display, QWERTY keyboard, serial port, and PCMCIA expansion slot. The abbreviation \"LX\" stood for \"Lotus Expandable\".[3]","title":"HP 200LX"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HP-200LX.jpg"},{"link_name":"QWERTY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QWERTY"},{"link_name":"clamshell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip_(form)"},{"link_name":"notebook computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notebook_Computer"},{"link_name":"size AA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AA_battery"},{"link_name":"Ni-Cd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni-Cd"},{"link_name":"Intel 80186","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80186"},{"link_name":"central processing unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"megahertz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megahertz"},{"link_name":"overclocked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overclocking"},{"link_name":"MB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabyte"},{"link_name":"KB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilobyte"},{"link_name":"RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access_memory"},{"link_name":"expanded memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expanded_memory"},{"link_name":"modem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"},{"link_name":"IBM PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer"},{"link_name":"XT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer_XT"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS 5.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_5.0"},{"link_name":"Intel 8086","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8086"},{"link_name":"8088","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8088"},{"link_name":"80186","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80186"},{"link_name":"PCMCIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_card"},{"link_name":"SIR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Data_Association"},{"link_name":"infrared port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_port"},{"link_name":"serial port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_port"},{"link_name":"Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3_Release_2.4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lee_1993-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Marshall_1993-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HPPP-6"},{"link_name":"Lotus cc:Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_cc:Mail"},{"link_name":"CompactFlash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CompactFlash"},{"link_name":"mouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows 3.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows_3.0"},{"link_name":"CGA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_Graphics_Adapter"},{"link_name":"electroluminescent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroluminescent"},{"link_name":"hardware code page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_code_page"},{"link_name":"437","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_437"},{"link_name":"HP 95LX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#95LX"},{"link_name":"code page 850","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_850"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP_1991_95LXUG-7"},{"link_name":"437G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Code_page_437G&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"437T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Code_page_437T&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"852","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_852"},{"link_name":"866","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_866"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HP_1996_200LXUG-8"},{"link_name":"Lotus International Character Set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_International_Character_Set"}],"text":"Size comparison with 2007 Apple iPhoneInput is accomplished via a small QWERTY-keyboard with a numeric keypad, enclosed in a clamshell-style case, less than about 25% of the size of a standard notebook computer. The palmtop runs for about 30–40 hours on two size AA alkaline or Ni-Cd rechargeable cells and can charge batteries (both Ni-Cd and NiMH) via a 12 V DC wall adapter.The HP 200LX has an Intel 80186 compatible embedded central processing unit named \"Hornet\", which runs at ~7.91 megahertz (which can be upgraded or overclocked to up to 15.8 MHz) and 1, 2 or 4 MB of memory, of which 640 KB is RAM and the rest can be used for expanded memory (EMS) or memory-based storage space. After-market updates can bring the memory chips to up to 64 MB, which frees the PCMCIA slot for modem or Ethernet card use. The Silicom, Accton 2212/2216, Netgear FA411, and Sohoware ND5120 network cards were compatible. Being IBM PC/XT compatible and running MS-DOS 5.0 from ROM, the HP 200LX can run virtually any program that would run on a full-size PC compatible computer as long as the code is written for the Intel 8086, 8088 or 80186 CPU and can run using CGA graphics. It can also run programs written for the 80286 CPU, provided they do not require the use of protected mode. It has a 16-bit PCMCIA Type II expansion slot that supports 5 V at 150 mA maximum, a SIR compatible infrared port and a full serial port (but with a proprietary mini connector for space constraint reasons).The built-in software suite runs from ROM and includes the Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.4 spreadsheet,[4][5][6] a calendar, a phone book, a terminal, Lotus cc:Mail and a scientific/business calculator (among other applications). With a large CompactFlash storage card and a serial mouse, Microsoft Windows 3.0 can be run on the palmtop. Running Windows was limited by the hardware, and the maximum version that can be run is Windows 3.0 in Real Mode. However, Word 1.x and Excel 2.x for Windows will run (since they can run in Real Mode), allowing for the authoring of MS Office format-compatible files. The 640×200 resolution CGA compatible 4-shade gray-scale LCD screen has no back light. An electroluminescent back light installation is available from a third party since 2004, but keen eyesight is still required to use the small palmtop effectively without resorting to using its 2× and 4× zoom modes.While true CGA displays do not allow for redefinable fonts in text mode and support a hardware code page 437, the HP 95LX supports code page 850 instead.[7] Starting with the HP 100LX, the LX series supports user-switchable text mode ROM fonts for both code page 437 and 850 as well as software-definable RAM fonts (for codepages 437G, 437T, 852, 866 via KEYBEZ).[8] Lotus 1-2-3 internally uses the Lotus International Character Set (LICS), but characters are translated to code page 850 for display and printing purposes.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Model variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall_1993-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall_1993-9"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS 5.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_5.0"}],"sub_title":"HP 100LX","text":"The HP 100LX Palmtop PC (F1020A for the 1 MB, F1022A for the 2 MB model),[9] also known as project Cougar, is the direct predecessor of the 200LX. It was released in 1993 and available in International English, U.S. English, French, German and Spanish variants with localized keyboard and messages.[9] It is almost the same, including the Hornet CPU and MS-DOS 5.0, but with earlier built-in application versions.","title":"Model variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schmuhl-Sherman-Waisnor_1996-10"},{"link_name":"FAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAT_filesystem"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oilman_2008-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HPmuseum-12"}],"sub_title":"HP Palmtop FX","text":"The HP Palmtop FX is a variant of the HP 100LX with up to 2 MB flashable memory in 1993.[10] FAT flash disk images could be created and written to drive F: by a special FLASHDSK.EXE utility.[11] According to one source, it was developed for a Korean insurance company.[12]","title":"Model variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American International Assurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_International_Assurance"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Auw_2012-13"}],"sub_title":"HP 200LX AIA","text":"The HP 200LX AIA is a 2 MB double-speed variant of the HP 200LX manufactured for the insurance company American International Assurance (AIA).[13]","title":"Model variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Coca-Cola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca-Cola"}],"sub_title":"HP 1000CX","text":"The HP 1000CX Palmtop PC (F1203A for the 1 MB in March 1995, F1222A for the 2 MB model in February 1997), also known as project Puma, is an economy version of the 200LX but without any built-in software except the MS-DOS 5.0 operating system in ROM. It was in widespread use among, for example, Coca-Cola warehouse managers, who loaded their own logistics software onto the machine. It has a black clamshell, while the 200LX has a dark green casing.","title":"Model variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"piggyback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piggy-back_(transportation)"},{"link_name":"Nokia 2110","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia_2110"},{"link_name":"GSM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM"},{"link_name":"mobile telephone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_telephone"},{"link_name":"Nokia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall_700LX-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall_700LX-14"},{"link_name":"smartphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"Nokia's Communicator 9000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia_9000_Communicator"}],"sub_title":"HP OmniGo 700LX","text":"The HP OmniGo 700LX Communicator Plus (F1206A), codenamed Columbia, was a project of the HP calculator branch in Singapore. The HP OmniGo 700LX is a 2 MB HP 200LX redesigned to piggyback a Nokia 2110 GSM mobile telephone for wireless mobility. The HP 200LX motherboard was factory-modified to support a second PCMCIA slot for a Nokia Data Card. Owing to the relatively large size of the Nokia telephone, the HP OmniGo 700LX has a large, pebble-shaped casing, making it a handheld with a phone attached. It was announced in late 1995 as part of plans for a collaboration between HP and Nokia,[14] with shipment started in March 1996.[14] The production of the HP OmniGo 700LX ceased after the Nokia 2110 mobile telephone was rendered obsolete by later telephones. The device can be seen as a forerunner to the first smartphone, Nokia's Communicator 9000.","title":"Model variants"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Related models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NEC V20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_V20"},{"link_name":"Intel 8088","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8088"},{"link_name":"Intel 80186","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80186"},{"link_name":"Intel 8080","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8080"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS 3.22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_3.22"},{"link_name":"Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3_Release_2.2"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Marshall_1991-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Matzkin_1991-16"}],"sub_title":"HP 95LX","text":"The HP 95LX Palmtop PC (F1000A for the 512 KB, F1010A for the 1 MB model) introduced the basic design in April 1991. It was known internally as project Jaguar. It has a NEC V20 CPU (an enhanced Intel 8088 clone with Intel 80186 instruction set compatibility and an additional Intel 8080 emulation mode) running at 5.37 MHz, but is hampered in running PC applications because of its quarter-CGA resolution LCD screen and MDA-compatible (instead of CGA) graphics chip. The HP 95LX for the most part only displayed graphics in a special LX graphics mode. It runs MS-DOS 3.22 and has Lotus 1-2-3 Release 2.2 built in.[15][16] It also includes a CR2032 battery for memory backup when the AA batteries run out.","title":"Related models"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HP_OmniGo_100_(1).jpg"},{"link_name":"HP-12C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP-12C"},{"link_name":"PEN/GEOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PEN/GEOS"},{"link_name":"Graffiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graffiti_(Palm_OS)"},{"link_name":"Datalight ROM-DOS 6.22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datalight_ROM-DOS_6.22"},{"link_name":"Vadem VG230","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vadem_VG230"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goldstein-17"},{"link_name":"NEC V30HL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_V30"},{"link_name":"Intel 80186","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80186"}],"sub_title":"HP OmniGo 100","text":"HP OmniGo 100The HP OmniGo 100 Organizer Plus (F1305A/F1310A) was designed as a more sophisticated successor to the LX series, and incorporated the HP-12C calculator functionality. It was GUI based, controlled by pen input or keyboard. However, it lacked the versatility of running unmodified DOS programs. The normal operation mode was with DOS-based PEN/GEOS 2.1 and Graffiti handwriting recognition running on Datalight ROM-DOS 6.22. It was not widely accepted as a calculator replacement, and Palm and Pocket PCs became acceptable as PDAs. Equipped with 1 MB of RAM, it was based on the Vadem VG230/V5H,[17] a highly integrated system controller with 16 MHz NEC V30HL CPU, instruction set compatible with the Intel 80186.","title":"Related models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windows CE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_CE"},{"link_name":"HP 300LX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_300LX"},{"link_name":"Quicken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quicken"},{"link_name":"Software Carousel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Software_Carousel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hermocon-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Repair-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bel-20"},{"link_name":"Morphy One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morphy_One&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphy_One"},{"link_name":"AMD Élan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_%C3%89lan"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tamiya_2000-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mynavi_2001-22"},{"link_name":"scam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scam"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ASCII_2002-23"}],"text":"Although this product line was discontinued by HP in order to introduce their Windows CE product line (starting with the HP 300LX), a strong interest in this hardware continued. It was the last palmtop from HP which ran the MS-DOS operating system, for which there is much software from desktop PCs, and it came with a useful bundle of software including 1-2-3 and Quicken. Compared to machines with Windows-based operating systems such as CE, DOS programs are more compact and efficient and, with programs such as Software Carousel, many applications programs could be loaded at once.Third-party upgrades, repairs and renovations are available to maintain and extend the device.[18][19][20]Because of its small size, the HP 200LX was very popular in Japan, so much so that its demise prompted an open-source initiative led by a group named Morphy One [ja] to design and market an AMD Élan SC400-based replacement to fill its place in 2001.[21] However, only one prototype was ever built[22] before the company responsible for the project filed for bankruptcy in 2003. Some argue it was a scam as hundreds of people lost deposits they placed on the new palmtop in advance. The project leaders argued that key electronic components were unavailable due to strong demand from the mobile phone manufacturing industry.[23]","title":"Current usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"super glue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_glue"}],"text":"A common problem with the HP 200LX case is related to the injected-molded case top. The right hinge to case blend had poor flow in the process, resulting in the formation of a crack which propagates across the hinge under stress, causing failure. This can be reinforced and repaired using super glue, among other methods (industrial super glue advised). One can also use a small thin rectangular piece of metal and epoxy it to the upper right hand corner of the clam shell where the crack occurs. This offers additional support to the area and prevents and/or repairs this problem.\nAnother weakness of the design is the failure of the case opening latch. This problem can easily be repaired by placing a thin slice cut from rubber eraser, left over silicone kit, or 'super sponge' within the latch as a \"spring\".\nOnly high quality AA rechargeable batteries should be used in the HP 200LX, as battery leaks can destroy the LCD's flat video cable.\nAging models may lose pixel columns from the display. This is caused by detachment of one or more pins of one of the SMD (Surface Mounted Device) chips in the display itself. In many cases this may be repaired by reflowing (resoldering) of the pins on the offending chip, either with an SMD reflow tool, or a soldering iron with a very fine (0.2 mm) tip.\nUnder heavy use, the space bar and enter bar can become detached. This requires keyboard replacement.\nUnder heavy use from opening and closing, the long flex strip connector between the screen and the motherboard can become torn as it tends to rub against internal components in the housing. Typically, the only way to fix this once torn is to replace the flex strip.\nFixing unresponsive keyboard keys. Inside the HP 200LX, the keyboard connects to the main board via a \"ribbon\" that has graphite pads which make physical contact to gold pads plated onto the main board. Unresponsive keys occur when this connection grows weak. This can be fixed by applying conductive silver paint (such as from a circuitwriter pen) to each graphite pad on the \"ribbon\". One can also use copper tape cut out to small circles. This tape adheres nicely to the graphite pad and actually gives a more definitive long lasting connection than silver paint, although both work fine. This is delicate work, and putting the HP 200LX back together after disassembly may be problematic for those who have little experience with electronics repair. However, the conductive silver paint will fully fix the problem if applied with care. An alternate cause can be corrosion of the motherboard pads to which the graphite pad connects. This can be solved by polishing the pads with fine steel wool.","title":"Common problems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"digital-to-analog converter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital-to-analog_converter"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"INT 13h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INT_13h"},{"link_name":"hard disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk"},{"link_name":"Drivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver"},{"link_name":"MINIX 2.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MINIX_2.0"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Minix-24"}],"text":"The HP 100LX/HP 200LX's digital-to-analog converter cannot play audio tones; instead, it monitors battery life and charging[citation needed].\nThe device does not provide the BIOS service (INT 13h) for reading from a hard disk. Drivers have been partially written for this purpose (to boot MINIX 2.0).[24]","title":"Exceptions to 100% IBM PC compatibility"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"STS-95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STS-95"},{"link_name":"John Glenn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glenn"},{"link_name":"Electronic Nose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_nose"},{"link_name":"JPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPL"},{"link_name":"Caltech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caltech"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"}],"text":"The HP 200LX was used on board the NASA Discovery OV103 Mission STS-95 (the last mission of Senator John Glenn) in an Electronic Nose (E-Nose) experiment (the device was developed jointly by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and the California Institute of Technology (Caltech)). The experiment, as managed by Dan Karmon of JPL, was successful.\nThe HP 200LX can play video, and sound files using software from Stefan Peichl in relatively low quality. It is also capable of sound recording, though this is, again, in relatively low quality. There is no known compatible PCMCIA sound card for the HP 200LX. However, a Yamaha MU10 MIDI sound generator (a.o.) works through the serial port using Voyetra or GSPlay MIDI programs, and Terrence Vergauwen uses a PCMCIA parallel port card plus an OPL3LPT (Adlib compatible sounds card thru parallel port) for gaming.\nSoftware and hardware is available which will allow the HP 200LX to surf the Internet.\nThe serial numbers printed on the HP machines 100LX, 200LX, 1000CX and OmniGo 700LX have the following meaning:XXYWWNNNNNXX = the country of manufacturing (e.g., SG = Singapore etc)\nY = the year of manufacturing; last digit (e.g., 6 = 1996)\nWW = the week of the year of manufacturing\nNNNNN = the number of the specific unit manufactured in specified week","title":"Other notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"easter eggs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_egg_(virtual)"}],"text":"There are many easter eggs built into the HP 200LX. The known ones are listed as follows:","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Hidden gallery","text":"This easter egg is on the HP 200LX in the built in game, \"Lair of Squid\". During the startup screen of the game, if the user types the word \"gallery\" (\"gallerie\" on a French palmtop; \"siegergalerie\" on a German palmtop; \"galeria\" on a Spanish palmtop) they are placed in a \"part\" of the maze that contains photographs of the primary software developers that worked on the HP 200LX. The user may exit from this gallery by exiting through the door at the end of the corridor. The software developers in the photographs are listed starting from left to right, then left to right and so on as follows:Andy Gryc\nPat Megowan\nEverett Kaser\nBill Johnson\nLynn Winter\nSusan Wechsler\nEric EvettThe last panel on the right of the corridor contains a thank you message:Very special thanks to all the people in HP and all the companies that made this palm-top possible. The Felix S/W teamThe photographs of the developers have been described as \"a-maze-ing\".[citation needed]","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"limerick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limerick_(poetry)"}],"sub_title":"Self-test poem 1","text":"This easter egg is in the HP 200LX self test mode. With the palmtop powered off, the user may press ESC+ON to start the self test mode, then cursor down to the display option. On pressing ↵ Enter 14 times, to step through the various screens, the user comes to a screen of example text in the form of a limerick poem. The poem is as follows:There once was this thing from HP\nThat fit in your pocket, you see.\nA caveman would stare\nAnd pull out his hair\n\nAnd wonder, 'What could this thing be?'","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A funny thing happened on the way to the Forum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_funny_thing_happened_on_the_way_to_the_Forum"}],"sub_title":"Self-test poem 2","text":"This easter egg is in the HP 200LX self test mode. With the palmtop powered off, the user may press ESC+ON to start the self test mode, then cursor down to the display option. On pressing CTRL+↵ Enter, then holding down ALT while pressing ↵ Enter 13 times, the user comes to a cryptic poem, relating to business issues faced by the software development team. The poem is as follows:Felis Concolor\nA funny thing happened on the way to the Forum\nWhen I encountered a group in search of a quorum.\nThey came from a city, The Burg On The Wire.\nIf I tried to describe it you'd call me a liar.\nThey wanted to charge me a really quite large fee\nFor the dubious pleasure of sharing their treasure.\n\"I'm a very Good man (Mark my words if you can),\"\n\"But, the Dickens, I say, I simply won't pay!\"\nAnd with poetry, then, I proceeded to bore 'em\n\nThen proceeded myself on my way to the Forum.","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Quicken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quicken"}],"sub_title":"Self-test poem 3","text":"This easter egg is in the HP 200LX self test mode. With the palmtop powered off, the user may press ESC+ON to start the self test mode, then cursor down to the display option. On pressing CTRL+↵ Enter, then holding down ⇧ Shift while pressing ↵ Enter 13 times, the user comes to an allegorical poem about the history and future of the HP LX palmtops. The poem is as follows (note that the project names for the HP 95LX, the HP 100LX and the HP 200LX are 'Jaguar', 'Cougar' and 'Felix' respectively, and that 'Felix' was the first LX to include Quicken):Nine lives has a Cat, and each Cat a name,\nAll of them different, none are the same.\nJaguar was first, it made quite a roar.\nCougar was next, oh, how it did soar.\nFelix is third, my heart it does quicken,\n\nWho knows what comes next, the clock is a tickin'.","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"System Manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Manager_(HP_LX)"}],"sub_title":"Hidden development aid in 'More Applications'","text":"This easter egg is in the built in System Manager of the HP 200LX. This 'easter egg' is probably more of a development tool than an easter egg, but, in any case, the user may display the function by first pressing the blue &... key to start 'More Applications'. The user may then hold down ALT while pressing F9 four times, followed by F10 once. As long as the ALT key is held down, the user will observe columns of data about System Manager compliant (.EXM) programs registered with the System Manager, along with other arcane program information.","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Hidden hex calculator","text":"The HP 200LX includes an undocumented calculator application named HEXCALC, written by Andrew Gryc. It provides arithmetical and logical operations in binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal system. The utility can be added to the applications menu by an entry with the following fields:Name: He&x Calc\nPath: D:\\BIN\\HEXCALC.EXM","title":"Easter eggs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm"},{"link_name":"The HP Palmtop Paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_HP_Palmtop_Paper"},{"link_name":"Thaddeus Computing, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Computing,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231125010529/https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231125005038/http://www.retroisle.com/others/hp95lx/Articles/evolution.php"},{"link_name":"\"The First Real Palmtop\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231125010202/https://hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/"},{"link_name":"\"The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//lunduke.substack.com/p/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231124234241/https://lunduke.substack.com/p/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20231121202746/https://lunduke.locals.com/upost/4897406/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop"},{"link_name":"The HP 200LX: A Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20050609031158/http://www.crypticlife.net/attic/www/hp200lx/lx-rev.htm"},{"link_name":"Sy's HP 200LX review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070927172418/http://jrandomhacker.info/Sy's_hp200lx_review"},{"link_name":"Articles concerning the NASA STS-95 E-Nose experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.palmtoppaper.com/PTPHTML/51/51000019.htm"},{"link_name":"\"Off-the-Shelf\" 200LX used by \"Shade Tree Engineer\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.palmtoppaper.com/PTPHTML/51/5100001a.htm"},{"link_name":"The Electronic Nose and The Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer Array:","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/51/5100001b.htm"},{"link_name":"Results From The Space Shuttle STS-95 Electronic Nose Experiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//enose.jpl.nasa.gov/publications/99-0780.pdf"},{"link_name":"HP 200LX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st=1&c=1088"}],"text":"Kaser, Everett (November–December 1993). \"The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX\". The HP Palmtop Paper. Vol. 1993, no. 12. Hewlett-Packard Company: Thaddeus Computing, Inc. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25. [1]\nLott, Chris (2020-12-21). \"The First Real Palmtop\". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25.\nLunduke, Bryan (2022-08-01). \"The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket\". Substack / The Lunduke Journal of Technology. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-24. [2]\nThe HP 200LX: A Review by Rob Tillotson.\nSy's HP 200LX review\nArticles concerning the NASA STS-95 E-Nose experiment\n\"Off-the-Shelf\" 200LX used by \"Shade Tree Engineer\"\nThe Electronic Nose and The Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer Array:\nResults From The Space Shuttle STS-95 Electronic Nose Experiment\nHP 200LX Old-Computers.com Museum","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Case closed","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Hp200lx%2C_closed.jpg/220px-Hp200lx%2C_closed.jpg"},{"image_text":"Size comparison with 2007 Apple iPhone","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/HP-200LX.jpg/220px-HP-200LX.jpg"},{"image_text":"HP OmniGo 100","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/HP_OmniGo_100_%281%29.jpg/220px-HP_OmniGo_100_%281%29.jpg"}]

[{"title":"HP 110","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_110"},{"title":"HP 110 Plus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_110_Plus"},{"title":"DIP Pocket PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIP_Pocket_PC"},{"title":"Atari PC Folio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_PC_Folio"},{"title":"Atari Portfolio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_Portfolio"},{"title":"Poqet PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poqet_PC"},{"title":"Poqet PC Prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poqet_PC_Prime"},{"title":"Poqet PC Plus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poqet_PC_Plus"},{"title":"ZEOS Pocket PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZEOS_Pocket_PC"},{"title":"Ben NanoNote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_NanoNote"},{"title":"Sub-notebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-notebook"},{"title":"HP OmniBook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_OmniBook"},{"title":"Netbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netbook"},{"title":"Palmtop PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmtop_PC"},{"title":"Ultra-mobile PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-mobile_PC"}]

[{"reference":"Barr, Christopher (1994-11-08). \"HP 200LX Quickens Your Expense Account\". PC Magazine. Vol. 13, no. 19. p. 56.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=r-5Zq-uW-N8C&pg=PA56","url_text":"\"HP 200LX Quickens Your Expense Account\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Magazine","url_text":"PC Magazine"}]},{"reference":"Hall, Rich (1994). \"NEWS: HP's New 200LX Palmtop PC Replaces the 100LX and Features Intuit's Pocket Quicken\". The HP Palmtop Paper. Thaddeus Computing. Archived from the original on 2017-04-30. Retrieved 2017-04-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/PTPHTML/16/pt160007.htm","url_text":"\"NEWS: HP's New 200LX Palmtop PC Replaces the 100LX and Features Intuit's Pocket Quicken\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_HP_Palmtop_Paper","url_text":"The HP Palmtop Paper"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Computing","url_text":"Thaddeus Computing"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170430222012/http://www.palmtoppaper.com/PTPHTML/16/pt160007.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"History of the HP 95LX computer\". HPNEWS. Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P. 2012. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/abouthp/histnfacts/museum/personalsystems/0025/0025history.html","url_text":"\"History of the HP 95LX computer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_Development_Company,_L.P.","url_text":"Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P."},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231124234753/http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/abouthp/histnfacts/museum/personalsystems/0025/0025history.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lee, Yvonne (1993-05-03). \"HP 100LX rolled out as successor to palmtop\". InfoWorld. Vol. 15, no. 18. p. 27. Retrieved 2016-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QjsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA27","url_text":"\"HP 100LX rolled out as successor to palmtop\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld","url_text":"InfoWorld"}]},{"reference":"Marshall, Patrick (1993-08-23). \"Hewlett-Packard makes a good thing better by packing 100LX with features\". InfoWorld. Vol. 15, no. 34. p. 96. Retrieved 2016-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rjsEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA96","url_text":"\"Hewlett-Packard makes a good thing better by packing 100LX with features\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld","url_text":"InfoWorld"}]},{"reference":"\"Questions and Answers about HP Palmtops: Q. What software is built into the 200LX ROM?\". The HP Palmtop Paper Online. Archived from the original on 2016-11-27. Retrieved 2016-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/HP200.asp","url_text":"\"Questions and Answers about HP Palmtops: Q. What software is built into the 200LX ROM?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_HP_Palmtop_Paper_Online","url_text":"The HP Palmtop Paper Online"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161127020428/http://www.palmtoppaper.com/HP200.asp","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"HP 95LX User's Guide (PDF) (2 ed.). Corvallis, Oregon, USA: Hewlett-Packard Company, Corvallis Division. June 1991 [March 1991]. pp. E-1–E-3, F-1–F-7. F0001-90003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-11-28. Retrieved 2016-11-27. The HP 95LX character set is equivalent to code page 850, the IBM PC multilingual character set. (Note that your HP 95LX contains MS-DOS 3.22, which does not support code-page switching.) All the HP 95LX applications use this set except 1-2-3, which uses LICS, the Lotus International Character Set. Most LICS characters are included in code page 850; the few that are not will not display […] If your HP 95LX cannot display […] or if your printer cannot print a LICS character, the HP 95LX uses a fallback presentation for that character […] if you use the © symbol and your printer cannot print it, the HP 95LX might display (c) or c as the fallback presentation (depending on the capabilities of your printer).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.retroisle.com/others/hp95lx/OriginalDocs/95LX_UsersGuide_F1000-90001_826pages_Jun91.pdf","url_text":"HP 95LX User's Guide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_Company","url_text":"Hewlett-Packard Company"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161128202642/http://www.retroisle.com/others/hp95lx/OriginalDocs/95LX_UsersGuide_F1000-90001_826pages_Jun91.pdf","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_95LX","url_text":"HP 95LX"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_850","url_text":"code page 850"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC","url_text":"IBM PC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_3.22","url_text":"MS-DOS 3.22"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-page_switching","url_text":"code-page switching"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3","url_text":"1-2-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LICS_(character_set)","url_text":"LICS"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_International_Character_Set","url_text":"Lotus International Character Set"}]},{"reference":"HP 200LX User's Guide (PDF) (1 ed.). Singapore: Hewlett-Packard Singapore (Private) Limited, Asia-Pacific Personal Computer Division. October 1996. pp. 21-6–21-7, 25-9–25-13, 26-14–26-18, C-1–C-4, D-1–D-10. 1216-90001. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-11-30. Retrieved 2016-11-29. Your palmtop supports code pages 850 and 437. The built-in applications (except 1-2-3) and System Manager-compliant applications […] use code page 850. 1-2-3 uses LICS, the Lotus International Character Set. Most LICS characters are included in code page 850; the few that are not included will not display on the palmtop. […] Any DOS application you load and run will by default use code page 437. If an application requires code page 850, you can select it using the Setup utility.","urls":[{"url":"https://h10032.www1.hp.com/ctg/Manual/bpia5259.pdf","url_text":"HP 200LX User's Guide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard_Singapore_(Private)_Limited","url_text":"Hewlett-Packard Singapore (Private) Limited"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161130124719/http://h10032.www1.hp.com/ctg/Manual/bpia5259.pdf","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_850","url_text":"code pages 850"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_page_437","url_text":"437"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3","url_text":"1-2-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Manager_(HP_LX)","url_text":"System Manager"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LICS_(character_set)","url_text":"LICS"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_International_Character_Set","url_text":"Lotus International Character Set"}]},{"reference":"Hall, Rich (1993). \"HP NEWS--HP News: New 2MB HP 100LX; Upgrade Path Available\". The HP Palmtop Paper Online. Thaddeus Computing. Retrieved 2015-08-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/13/pt13000b.htm","url_text":"\"HP NEWS--HP News: New 2MB HP 100LX; Upgrade Path Available\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_HP_Palmtop_Paper_Online","url_text":"The HP Palmtop Paper Online"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Computing","url_text":"Thaddeus Computing"}]},{"reference":"Schmuhl, Edward H.; Sherman, Allan P.; Waisnor, Jon D. (June 1996). \"HP PalmVue: A New Healthcare Information Product\" (PDF). Hewlett-Packard Journal. 47 (3): 64–69.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hpl.hp.com/hpjournal/pdfs/IssuePDFs/1996-06.pdf","url_text":"\"HP PalmVue: A New Healthcare Information Product\""}]},{"reference":"200LX 어플 자료실 (in Korean). 2008-11-17. Archived from the original on 2016-12-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://oilman.new21.net/zero/zboard.php?id=LXAP&page=3&sn1=&divpage=1&sn=off&ss=on&sc=on&select_arrange=headnum&desc=asc&no=1234","url_text":"200LX 어플 자료실"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161231163628/http://oilman.new21.net/zero/zboard.php?id=LXAP&page=3&sn1=&divpage=1&sn=off&ss=on&sc=on&select_arrange=headnum&desc=asc&no=1234","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Other Models\". The Museum of HP Calculators. Archived from the original on 2016-12-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hpmuseum.org/therest.htm","url_text":"\"The Other Models\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161231163912/http://www.hpmuseum.org/therest.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Auw, Jimmy (2012-06-19). \"Restoring Vintage Gear: HP Palmtop 200LX\". Jimmy's Junkyard.","urls":[{"url":"https://jimmyauw.com/2012/06/19/restoring-vintage-gear-hp-palmtop-200lx/","url_text":"\"Restoring Vintage Gear: HP Palmtop 200LX\""}]},{"reference":"Hall, Rich. \"HP's OmniGo 700LX Communicator Plus\". HP Palmtop Paper Online.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/24/pt240021.htm","url_text":"\"HP's OmniGo 700LX Communicator Plus\""}]},{"reference":"Marshall, Patrick (1991-12-16). Nash, Siobhan; Rupley, Sebastian (eds.). \"Computing in the palm of you hand\". InfoWorld. Vol. 13, no. 50. pp. 69–81. Retrieved 2016-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HD0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA72","url_text":"\"Computing in the palm of you hand\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWorld","url_text":"InfoWorld"}]},{"reference":"Matzkin, Jonathan (July 1991). \"Hewlett-Packard Co. HP 95LX Palmtop PC\". PC Magazine. Vol. 10, no. 13. pp. 216, 220, 222. Retrieved 2016-11-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YfkUKcyI7KIC&pg=PT231","url_text":"\"Hewlett-Packard Co. HP 95LX Palmtop PC\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Magazine","url_text":"PC Magazine"}]},{"reference":"Goldstein, Hal. \"User to User: The HP OmniGo 100\". HP Palmtop Paper Online.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/24/pt24001e.htm","url_text":"\"User to User: The HP OmniGo 100\""}]},{"reference":"Tamiya, Maya (2000-05-04). \"Beyond free software in Japan\". LWN.net. Retrieved 2021-05-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://lwn.net/2000/features/ohpa-ost/","url_text":"\"Beyond free software in Japan\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LWN.net","url_text":"LWN.net"}]},{"reference":"ユーザーが作るモバイル端末「Morphy One」、量産用試作基板の実装が完了 [First prototype of the Morphy One open-source mobile terminal showcased] (in Japanese). Mynavi News. 2001-05-07. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2013-10-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305224210/http://news.mynavi.jp/news/2001/05/07/12.html","url_text":"ユーザーが作るモバイル端末「Morphy One」、量産用試作基板の実装が完了"},{"url":"http://news.mynavi.jp/news/2001/05/07/12.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"モルフィーワン計画が中止の危機？ 渦中の開発者に聞く [Morphy One cancelled? Developers speak out]. ASCII.jp (in Japanese). 2002-06-28. Retrieved 2013-10-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://ascii.jp/elem/000/000/331/331887/","url_text":"モルフィーワン計画が中止の危機？ 渦中の開発者に聞く"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII_(magazine)","url_text":"ASCII.jp"}]},{"reference":"\"Minix for the HP200LX\". Archived from the original on 2006-08-28. Retrieved 2005-03-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060828125731/http://minix.technoir.org/","url_text":"\"Minix for the HP200LX\""},{"url":"http://minix.technoir.org/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kaser, Everett (November–December 1993). \"The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX\". The HP Palmtop Paper. Vol. 1993, no. 12. Hewlett-Packard Company: Thaddeus Computing, Inc. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm","url_text":"\"The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_HP_Palmtop_Paper","url_text":"The HP Palmtop Paper"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaddeus_Computing,_Inc.","url_text":"Thaddeus Computing, Inc."},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231125010529/https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lott, Chris (2020-12-21). \"The First Real Palmtop\". Hackaday. Archived from the original on 2023-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/","url_text":"\"The First Real Palmtop\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231125010202/https://hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lunduke, Bryan (2022-08-01). \"The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket\". Substack / The Lunduke Journal of Technology. Archived from the original on 2023-11-24. Retrieved 2023-11-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://lunduke.substack.com/p/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop","url_text":"\"The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231124234241/https://lunduke.substack.com/p/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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HP 95LX Palmtop PC\""},{"Link":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/24/pt24001e.htm","external_links_name":"\"User to User: The HP OmniGo 100\""},{"Link":"https://hermocom.com/hplx.html","external_links_name":"Hermocom.com helps with self-repair advice"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080907105133/http://www.hermocom.com/en/services/hplx","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/","external_links_name":"Thaddeus Computing offers professional repair service in USA."},{"Link":"https://200lx.net/","external_links_name":"Michel Bel can help with repairs in the Netherlands."},{"Link":"https://lwn.net/2000/features/ohpa-ost/","external_links_name":"\"Beyond free software in Japan\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305224210/http://news.mynavi.jp/news/2001/05/07/12.html","external_links_name":"ユーザーが作るモバイル端末「Morphy One」、量産用試作基板の実装が完了"},{"Link":"http://news.mynavi.jp/news/2001/05/07/12.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://ascii.jp/elem/000/000/331/331887/","external_links_name":"モルフィーワン計画が中止の危機？ 渦中の開発者に聞く"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060828125731/http://minix.technoir.org/","external_links_name":"\"Minix for the HP200LX\""},{"Link":"http://minix.technoir.org/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm","external_links_name":"\"The Evolution of the HP Palmtops - An HP engineer on both design teams describes the development of the HP 95LX and HP 100LX\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231125010529/https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/12/pt120055.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231125005038/http://www.retroisle.com/others/hp95lx/Articles/evolution.php","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/","external_links_name":"\"The First Real Palmtop\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231125010202/https://hackaday.com/2020/12/21/the-first-real-palmtop/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://lunduke.substack.com/p/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop","external_links_name":"\"The story of the 1991 HP DOS Palmtop - Evolving from an enhanced calculator... to a full DOS compatible PC in your pocket\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231124234241/https://lunduke.substack.com/p/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231121202746/https://lunduke.locals.com/upost/4897406/the-story-of-the-1991-hp-dos-palmtop","external_links_name":"[2]"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050609031158/http://www.crypticlife.net/attic/www/hp200lx/lx-rev.htm","external_links_name":"The HP 200LX: A Review"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070927172418/http://jrandomhacker.info/Sy's_hp200lx_review","external_links_name":"Sy's HP 200LX review"},{"Link":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/PTPHTML/51/51000019.htm","external_links_name":"Articles concerning the NASA STS-95 E-Nose experiment"},{"Link":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/PTPHTML/51/5100001a.htm","external_links_name":"\"Off-the-Shelf\" 200LX used by \"Shade Tree Engineer\""},{"Link":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/ptphtml/51/5100001b.htm","external_links_name":"The Electronic Nose and The Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer Array:"},{"Link":"https://enose.jpl.nasa.gov/publications/99-0780.pdf","external_links_name":"Results From The Space Shuttle STS-95 Electronic Nose Experiment"},{"Link":"https://old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st=1&c=1088","external_links_name":"HP 200LX"},{"Link":"http://mizj.com/","external_links_name":"200LX Software S.U.P.E.R. software mirror, over 1500 programs and 200 databases for the 200LX"},{"Link":"https://www.palmtoppaper.com/","external_links_name":"HP Palmtop Paper Online (Thaddeus Computing; Buy-Sell-Repair)"},{"Link":"https://www.lokety.com/hpr_index.html","external_links_name":"HP Palmtop Ring Homepage"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110727221518/http://www.skolob.co.uk/skolob/index.php?op=ViewArticle&articleId=2&blogId=1","external_links_name":"Skolob's Hewlett Packard 95LX Palmtop Page (Information and FAQ on HP 95LX)"},{"Link":"https://www.vintage-computer.com/vcforum/showthread.php?38300-Networking-on-an-HP-palmtop","external_links_name":"Compatibility of the Sohoware ND5120 network card."}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edison_Studios

Edison Studios

["1 History","2 Notable productions","3 Legacy","4 Notable films","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Defunct American film production organization (1894–1918) Edison StudiosEdison Motion Picture Studio, in the Bronx, New York City, c. 1907–1918IndustryMotion picturesFounded1894; 130 years ago (1894)FounderThomas A. EdisonDefunct1918; 106 years ago (1918)HeadquartersUnited StatesNumber of locations West Orange, New Jersey (1894–1901) Manhattan, New York City, New York (1901–1907) Bronx, New York City, New York (1907–1918) Area servedUnited States, EuropeKey people William Gilmore (Vice President and General Manager) William Kennedy Dickson (Producer) William Heise (Producer) James H. White (Producer) William Markgraf (Producer) Alex T. Moore (Producer) Horace G. Plimpton (Producer) Edwin S. Porter (Director) John Hancock Collins (Director) Richard Ridgely (Director) Ben Turbett (Director) J. Searle Dawley (Director) Oscar Apfel (Director) Harold M. Shaw (Director) Charles Brabin (Director) Alan Crosland (Director) Edward H. Griffith (Director) Ned van Buren (Cinematographer) John Arnold (cinematographer) Philip Tannura (Cinematographer) ProductsSilent filmsParentEdison Manufacturing Company (1894–1911)Thomas A. Edison, Inc. (1911–1918) Edison Studios was an American film production organization, owned by companies controlled by inventor and entrepreneur, Thomas Edison. The studio made close to 1,200 films, as part of the Edison Manufacturing Company (1894–1911) and then Thomas A. Edison, Inc. (1911–1918), until the studio's closing in 1918. Of that number, 54 were feature length, and the remainder were shorts. All of the company's films have fallen into the public domain because they were released before 1928. History Several films in production at Edison's Bronx studio, c. 1912. Seated in the foreground, with his legs crossed, is Charles Brabin; seated to the rear, with the card "26" under his arm, is Harold M. Shaw. The first production facility was Edison's Black Maria studio, in West Orange, New Jersey, built in the winter of 1892–93. The second facility, a glass-enclosed rooftop studio built at 41 East 21st Street in Manhattan's entertainment district, opened in 1901. In 1907, Edison had new facilities built, on Decatur Avenue and Oliver Place, in the Bedford Park neighborhood of the Bronx. William Kennedy Dickson, an early motion picture innovator, film production inventor, and assistant of Thomas A. Edison, eventually left to form the Biograph Company. Horace G. Plimpton, an Edison Studios film producer 1909–1915 Thomas Edison himself played no direct part in the making of his studios' films, beyond being the owner and appointing William Gilmore as vice-president and general manager. Edison's assistant William Kennedy Dickson, who supervised the development of Edison's motion picture system, produced the first Edison films intended for public exhibition, 1893–95. After Dickson's departure for the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company in 1895, he was replaced as director of production by cameraman William Heise, then from 1896 to 1903, by James H. White. When White left to supervise Edison's European interests in 1903, he was replaced by William Markgraf (1903–1904), then Alex T. Moore (1904–1909), and Horace G. Plimpton (1909–1915). The first commercially exhibited motion pictures in the United States were from Edison, and premiered at a Kinetoscope parlor in New York City on April 14, 1894. The program consisted of ten short films, each less than a minute long, of athletes, dancers, and other performers. After competitors began exhibiting films on screens, Edison introduced its own, Projecting Kinetoscope, in late 1896. The earliest productions were brief "actualities", showing everything, from acrobats, to parades, to fire calls. But, competition from French and British story films, in the early 1900s, rapidly changed the market. By 1904, 85% of Edison's sales were from story films. In December 1908, Edison led the formation of the Motion Picture Patents Company in an attempt to control the industry and shut out smaller producers. The "Edison Trust", as it was nicknamed, was made up of Edison, Biograph, Essanay Studios, Kalem Company, George Kleine Productions, Lubin Studios, Georges Méliès, Pathé, Selig Studios, and Vitagraph Studios, and dominated distribution through the General Film Company. The Motion Picture Patents Co. and the General Film Co. were found guilty of antitrust violation in October 1915, and were dissolved. The breakup of the Trust by federal courts, under monopoly laws, and the loss of European markets during World War I, hurt Edison financially. Edison sold its film business, including the Bronx studio, on 30 March 1918, to the Lincoln & Parker Film Company, of Massachusetts. Notable productions Edison Studios produced the first motion picture adaptation of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1910). Some of the studio's notable productions include The Kiss (1896); The Great Train Robbery (1903); Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1910); Frankenstein (1910), the first film adaptation of the novel; The Battle of Trafalgar (1911); What Happened to Mary (1912), one of the earliest film serials; and The Land Beyond the Sunset (1912), which was directed by Harold M. Shaw and was later described by film historian William K. Everson as "'the screen's first genuinely lyrical film'". The company also produced a number of short "Kinetophone" sound films in 1913–1914 using a sophisticated acoustical recording system capable of picking up sound from 30 feet away. They released a number of Raoul Barré cartoon films in 1915 and the first film version of the Robert Louis Stevenson historical novel Kidnapped. Legacy Everson, calling Edison Studios "financially successful and artistically unambitious," wrote that other than directors Edwin S. Porter and John Hancock Collins,he Edison studios never turned out a notable director, or even one above average. Nor did the Edison films show the sense of dynamic progress, that one gets, from studying the Biograph films, on a year-by-year basis. On the contrary, there is a sense of stagnation. However, new restorations and screenings of Edison films in recent years contradict Everson's statement; indeed, Everson citing The Land Beyond the Sunset points out creativity at Edison beyond Porter and Collins, as it was directed by Harold M. Shaw (1877–1926), who later went on to a successful career directing in England, South Africa, and Lithuania before returning to the US in 1922. Other important directors who started at Edison included Oscar Apfel, Charles Brabin, Alan Crosland, J. Searle Dawley, and Edward H. Griffith. Notable films Blacksmith Scene (1893) Fred Ott's Sneeze (1894) Annie Oakley shooting glass balls, 1894 Leonard-Cushing fight (1894), the first boxing match on film. The Kiss (1896), the first love scene on film. What Happened on Twenty-third Street in New York Cty (1901) The Great Train Robbery (1903), the first "Western" ever filmed. The Messenger Boys Mistake (1903) Nervy Nat Kisses the Bride (1904) Battle of Chemulpo Bay (1904), a re-enactment of the Battle of Chemulpo Bay. The Night Before Christmas (1905), an early film adaptation of the 1823 poem, "A Visit from St. Nicholas". The climax of Frankenstein (1910), the first film adaptation of the 1818 novel Frankenstein. See also it:Filmografia della Edison Edison Studios Filmography References ^ Conot, Robert (1979). Thomas A. Edison : a streak of luck. New York, N.Y.: Da Capo Press. ISBN 9780306802614. ^ "Motion Picture Patents Company". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved 2007-04-13. ^ U.S. v. Motion Picture Patents Company., 225 F. 800 (E.D. Pa. Oct. 1, 1915). ^ "Company Records Series – Motion Picture Patents Company". The Thomas A. Edison Papers. Retrieved 2007-04-13. ^ Eagan, Daniel (2011). "Five Films About Faith", Smithsonian Magazine (Washington, D.C.), 15 December 2011, online copy of article from the Smithsonian Institution's original printed periodical. Retrieved 8 August 2021. ^ Everson, William K. (1998). American Silent Film. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80876-5. ^ https://dokumen.tips/download/link/the-studios-edison-edisons-assistant-william-kennedy-dickson-who-supervised-the.html External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Edison Studios. List of Edison Company films (1891-1898) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive List of Edison Company films (1899-1902) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive List of Edison Company films (1902-1922) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive EdisonStudios.net (includes a viewable Edison Studios 1910 adaptation of "Frankenstein") Vernon K. Flaherty and R. Brian Flaherty collection (R9144) at Library and Archives Canada. The collection consists of twenty documentary and fiction films by Thomas Edison. vteThomas EdisonDiscoveriesand inventions List of Edison patents Carbon microphone Edison's Phonograph Doll Edison screw Etheric force Kinetoscope Phonograph Phonomotor Quadruplex telegraph Tasimeter Advancements Consolidated Edison Edison–Lalande cell Fluoroscopy Incandescent light bulb Movie camera Nickel–iron battery Thermionic emission Ticker tape Ventures Thomas A. Edison, Inc. Edison and Swan Electric Light Company Edison Gower-Bell Telephone Company of Europe Edison Illuminating Company Edison Machine Works Edison Manufacturing Company Edison Ore-Milling Company Edison Portland Cement Company Edison Records Edison Storage Battery Company Edison Studios General Electric Motion Picture Patents Company Mine Safety Appliances Oriental Telephone Company Monuments Birthplace Black Maria Depot Museum Memorial Tower and Museum National Historical Park State Park Storage Battery Company Building General Electric Research Laboratory Winter Estates Family Charles Edison (son) Theodore Miller Edison (son) Films Young Tom Edison (1940) Edison, the Man (1940) "The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace" (1998) The Current War (2017) Tesla (2020) Literature The Future Eve (1886) Edison's Conquest of Mars (1898) Tales from the Bully Pulpit (2004) Productions The Execution of Mary Stuart (1895) The Kiss (1896) Frankenstein (1910) A Night of Terror (1911) Kidnapped (1917) Terms Edisonade Edisonian approach Related Thomas Edison in popular culture War of the currents Pearl Street Station Edison Museum Thomas Edison House Edison Hotel Telephonoscope Statue of Thomas Edison Thomas Alva Edison silver dollar Authority control databases: Artists Museum of Modern Art

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film"},{"link_name":"production organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Production_company"},{"link_name":"Thomas Edison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Edison"},{"link_name":"studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_studio"},{"link_name":"Edison Manufacturing Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edison_Manufacturing_Company"},{"link_name":"Thomas A. Edison, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_A._Edison,_Inc."},{"link_name":"feature length","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feature_length"},{"link_name":"shorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_film"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Edison Studios was an American film production organization, owned by companies controlled by inventor and entrepreneur, Thomas Edison. The studio made close to 1,200 films, as part of the Edison Manufacturing Company (1894–1911) and then Thomas A. Edison, Inc. (1911–1918), until the studio's closing in 1918. Of that number, 54 were feature length, and the remainder were shorts.[1] All of the company's films have fallen into the public domain because they were released before 1928.","title":"Edison Studios"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edison_Studio_Bronxbis.jpg"},{"link_name":"Charles Brabin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Brabin"},{"link_name":"Harold M. Shaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_M._Shaw"},{"link_name":"Edison's Black Maria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edison%27s_Black_Maria"},{"link_name":"West Orange, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Orange,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Manhattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan"},{"link_name":"Bedford Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedford_Park,_Bronx"},{"link_name":"the Bronx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bronx"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dickson_greeting_cropped.jpg"},{"link_name":"William Kennedy Dickson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Kennedy_Dickson"},{"link_name":"motion picture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_picture"},{"link_name":"inventor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inventor"},{"link_name":"Thomas A. Edison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_A._Edison"},{"link_name":"Biograph Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biograph_Company"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Horace_Plimpton_001.jpg"},{"link_name":"Horace G. Plimpton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace_G._Plimpton&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"William Gilmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Gilmore_(Edison_Studios)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"William Kennedy Dickson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Kennedy_Dickson"},{"link_name":"American Mutoscope and Biograph Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mutoscope_and_Biograph_Company"},{"link_name":"William Heise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Heise"},{"link_name":"James H. White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_H._White"},{"link_name":"William Markgraf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Markgraf&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Alex T. Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alex_T._Moore&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Horace G. Plimpton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Horace_G._Plimpton&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kinetoscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetoscope"},{"link_name":"Projecting Kinetoscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetoscope"},{"link_name":"Motion Picture Patents Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_Picture_Patents_Company"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Essanay Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essanay_Studios"},{"link_name":"Kalem Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalem_Company"},{"link_name":"George Kleine Productions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Kleine"},{"link_name":"Lubin Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubin_Studios"},{"link_name":"Georges Méliès","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_M%C3%A9li%C3%A8s"},{"link_name":"Pathé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Selig Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selig_Polyscope_Company"},{"link_name":"Vitagraph Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitagraph_Studios"},{"link_name":"General Film Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Film_Company"},{"link_name":"antitrust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"monopoly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoly"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Lincoln & Parker Film Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_%26_Parker_Film_Company"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts"}],"text":"Several films in production at Edison's Bronx studio, c. 1912. Seated in the foreground, with his legs crossed, is Charles Brabin; seated to the rear, with the card \"26\" under his arm, is Harold M. Shaw.The first production facility was Edison's Black Maria studio, in West Orange, New Jersey, built in the winter of 1892–93. The second facility, a glass-enclosed rooftop studio built at 41 East 21st Street in Manhattan's entertainment district, opened in 1901. In 1907, Edison had new facilities built, on Decatur Avenue and Oliver Place, in the Bedford Park neighborhood of the Bronx.William Kennedy Dickson, an early motion picture innovator, film production inventor, and assistant of Thomas A. Edison, eventually left to form the Biograph Company.Horace G. Plimpton, an Edison Studios film producer 1909–1915Thomas Edison himself played no direct part in the making of his studios' films, beyond being the owner and appointing William Gilmore as vice-president and general manager. Edison's assistant William Kennedy Dickson, who supervised the development of Edison's motion picture system, produced the first Edison films intended for public exhibition, 1893–95. After Dickson's departure for the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company in 1895, he was replaced as director of production by cameraman William Heise, then from 1896 to 1903, by James H. White. When White left to supervise Edison's European interests in 1903, he was replaced by William Markgraf (1903–1904), then Alex T. Moore (1904–1909), and Horace G. Plimpton (1909–1915).The first commercially exhibited motion pictures in the United States were from Edison, and premiered at a Kinetoscope parlor in New York City on April 14, 1894. The program consisted of ten short films, each less than a minute long, of athletes, dancers, and other performers. After competitors began exhibiting films on screens, Edison introduced its own, Projecting Kinetoscope, in late 1896.The earliest productions were brief \"actualities\", showing everything, from acrobats, to parades, to fire calls. But, competition from French and British story films, in the early 1900s, rapidly changed the market. By 1904, 85% of Edison's sales were from story films.In December 1908, Edison led the formation of the Motion Picture Patents Company in an attempt to control the industry and shut out smaller producers.[2] The \"Edison Trust\", as it was nicknamed, was made up of Edison, Biograph, Essanay Studios, Kalem Company, George Kleine Productions, Lubin Studios, Georges Méliès, Pathé, Selig Studios, and Vitagraph Studios, and dominated distribution through the General Film Company. The Motion Picture Patents Co. and the General Film Co. were found guilty of antitrust violation in October 1915,[3] and were dissolved.[4]The breakup of the Trust by federal courts, under monopoly laws, and the loss of European markets during World War I, hurt Edison financially. Edison sold its film business, including the Bronx studio, on 30 March 1918, to the Lincoln & Parker Film Company, of Massachusetts.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_Ogle_In_Frankenstein_1910.jpg"},{"link_name":"first motion picture adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein_(1910_film)"},{"link_name":"Mary Shelley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Shelley"},{"link_name":"Frankenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein"},{"link_name":"The Kiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kiss_(1896_film)"},{"link_name":"The Great Train Robbery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Train_Robbery_(1903_film)"},{"link_name":"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice%27s_Adventures_in_Wonderland_(1910_film)"},{"link_name":"Frankenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein_(1910_film)"},{"link_name":"The Battle of Trafalgar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Battle_of_Trafalgar_(1911_film)"},{"link_name":"What Happened to Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Happened_to_Mary"},{"link_name":"film serials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_(film)"},{"link_name":"The Land Beyond the Sunset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Land_Beyond_the_Sunset"},{"link_name":"Harold M. Shaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_M._Shaw"},{"link_name":"William K. Everson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_K._Everson"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Kinetophone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetophone"},{"link_name":"Raoul Barré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raoul_Barr%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"cartoon films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartoon"},{"link_name":"film version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapped_(1917_film)"},{"link_name":"Robert Louis Stevenson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson"},{"link_name":"Kidnapped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapped_(novel)"}],"text":"Edison Studios produced the first motion picture adaptation of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1910).Some of the studio's notable productions include The Kiss (1896); The Great Train Robbery (1903); Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1910); Frankenstein (1910), the first film adaptation of the novel; The Battle of Trafalgar (1911); What Happened to Mary (1912), one of the earliest film serials; and The Land Beyond the Sunset (1912), which was directed by Harold M. Shaw and was later described by film historian William K. Everson as \"'the screen's first genuinely lyrical film'\".[5] The company also produced a number of short \"Kinetophone\" sound films in 1913–1914 using a sophisticated acoustical recording system capable of picking up sound from 30 feet away. They released a number of Raoul Barré cartoon films in 1915 and the first film version of the Robert Louis Stevenson historical novel Kidnapped.","title":"Notable productions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Edwin S. Porter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Stanton_Porter"},{"link_name":"John Hancock Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hancock_Collins"},{"link_name":"Biograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mutoscope_and_Biograph_Company"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"The Land Beyond the Sunset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Land_Beyond_the_Sunset"},{"link_name":"Harold M. Shaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_M._Shaw"},{"link_name":"Oscar Apfel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Apfel"},{"link_name":"Charles Brabin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Brabin"},{"link_name":"Alan Crosland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Crosland"},{"link_name":"J. Searle Dawley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Searle_Dawley"},{"link_name":"Edward H. Griffith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_H._Griffith"}],"text":"Everson, calling Edison Studios \"financially successful and artistically unambitious,\" wrote that other than directors Edwin S. Porter and John Hancock Collins,[T]he Edison studios never turned out a notable director, or even one above average. Nor did the Edison films show the sense of dynamic progress, that one gets, from studying the Biograph films, on a year-by-year basis. On the contrary, there is a sense of stagnation.[6]However, new restorations and screenings of Edison films in recent years contradict Everson's statement; indeed, Everson citing The Land Beyond the Sunset points out creativity at Edison beyond Porter and Collins, as it was directed by Harold M. Shaw (1877–1926), who later went on to a successful career directing in England, South Africa, and Lithuania before returning to the US in 1922. Other important directors who started at Edison included Oscar Apfel, Charles Brabin, Alan Crosland, J. Searle Dawley, and Edward H. Griffith.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Blacksmith Scene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blacksmith_Scene"},{"link_name":"boxing match","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing"},{"link_name":"The Kiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kiss_(1896_film)"},{"link_name":"The Great Train Robbery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Train_Robbery_(1903_film)"},{"link_name":"Western","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_(genre)"},{"link_name":"Battle of Chemulpo Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Chemulpo_Bay"},{"link_name":"The Night Before Christmas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Night_Before_Christmas_(1905_film)"},{"link_name":"A Visit from St. Nicholas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Visit_from_St._Nicholas"},{"link_name":"Frankenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein_(1910_film)"},{"link_name":"Frankenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein"}],"text":"Blacksmith Scene (1893)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFred Ott's Sneeze (1894)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAnnie Oakley shooting glass balls, 1894\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLeonard-Cushing fight (1894), the first boxing match on film.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Kiss (1896), the first love scene on film.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tWhat Happened on Twenty-third Street in New York Cty (1901)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Great Train Robbery (1903), the first \"Western\" ever filmed.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Messenger Boys Mistake (1903)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNervy Nat Kisses the Bride (1904)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBattle of Chemulpo Bay (1904), a re-enactment of the Battle of Chemulpo Bay.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Night Before Christmas (1905), an early film adaptation of the 1823 poem, \"A Visit from St. Nicholas\".\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe climax of Frankenstein (1910), the first film adaptation of the 1818 novel Frankenstein.","title":"Notable films"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_density_estimation

Spectral density estimation

["1 Overview","2 Techniques","2.1 Parametric estimation","3 Frequency estimation","3.1 Single tone","3.2 Multiple tones","4 Example calculation","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading"]

Signal processing technique For the statistical method, see Probability density estimation. For broader coverage of this topic, see Spectral density. In statistical signal processing, the goal of spectral density estimation (SDE) or simply spectral estimation is to estimate the spectral density (also known as the power spectral density) of a signal from a sequence of time samples of the signal. Intuitively speaking, the spectral density characterizes the frequency content of the signal. One purpose of estimating the spectral density is to detect any periodicities in the data, by observing peaks at the frequencies corresponding to these periodicities. Some SDE techniques assume that a signal is composed of a limited (usually small) number of generating frequencies plus noise and seek to find the location and intensity of the generated frequencies. Others make no assumption on the number of components and seek to estimate the whole generating spectrum. Overview This article may need to be cleaned up. It has been merged from Frequency domain. Example of voice waveform and its frequency spectrum A periodic waveform (triangle wave) and its frequency spectrum, showing a "fundamental" frequency at 220 Hz followed by multiples (harmonics) of 220 Hz The power spectral density of a segment of music is estimated by two different methods, for comparison Spectrum analysis, also referred to as frequency domain analysis or spectral density estimation, is the technical process of decomposing a complex signal into simpler parts. As described above, many physical processes are best described as a sum of many individual frequency components. Any process that quantifies the various amounts (e.g. amplitudes, powers, intensities) versus frequency (or phase) can be called spectrum analysis. Spectrum analysis can be performed on the entire signal. Alternatively, a signal can be broken into short segments (sometimes called frames), and spectrum analysis may be applied to these individual segments. Periodic functions (such as sin ⁡ ( t ) {\displaystyle \sin(t)} ) are particularly well-suited for this sub-division. General mathematical techniques for analyzing non-periodic functions fall into the category of Fourier analysis. The Fourier transform of a function produces a frequency spectrum which contains all of the information about the original signal, but in a different form. This means that the original function can be completely reconstructed (synthesized) by an inverse Fourier transform. For perfect reconstruction, the spectrum analyzer must preserve both the amplitude and phase of each frequency component. These two pieces of information can be represented as a 2-dimensional vector, as a complex number, or as magnitude (amplitude) and phase in polar coordinates (i.e., as a phasor). A common technique in signal processing is to consider the squared amplitude, or power; in this case the resulting plot is referred to as a power spectrum. Because of reversibility, the Fourier transform is called a representation of the function, in terms of frequency instead of time; thus, it is a frequency domain representation. Linear operations that could be performed in the time domain have counterparts that can often be performed more easily in the frequency domain. Frequency analysis also simplifies the understanding and interpretation of the effects of various time-domain operations, both linear and non-linear. For instance, only non-linear or time-variant operations can create new frequencies in the frequency spectrum. In practice, nearly all software and electronic devices that generate frequency spectra utilize a discrete Fourier transform (DFT), which operates on samples of the signal, and which provides a mathematical approximation to the full integral solution. The DFT is almost invariably implemented by an efficient algorithm called fast Fourier transform (FFT). The array of squared-magnitude components of a DFT is a type of power spectrum called periodogram, which is widely used for examining the frequency characteristics of noise-free functions such as filter impulse responses and window functions. But the periodogram does not provide processing-gain when applied to noiselike signals or even sinusoids at low signal-to-noise ratios. In other words, the variance of its spectral estimate at a given frequency does not decrease as the number of samples used in the computation increases. This can be mitigated by averaging over time (Welch's method)  or over frequency (smoothing). Welch's method is widely used for spectral density estimation (SDE). However, periodogram-based techniques introduce small biases that are unacceptable in some applications. So other alternatives are presented in the next section. Techniques Many other techniques for spectral estimation have been developed to mitigate the disadvantages of the basic periodogram. These techniques can generally be divided into non-parametric, parametric, and more recently semi-parametric (also called sparse) methods. The non-parametric approaches explicitly estimate the covariance or the spectrum of the process without assuming that the process has any particular structure. Some of the most common estimators in use for basic applications (e.g. Welch's method) are non-parametric estimators closely related to the periodogram. By contrast, the parametric approaches assume that the underlying stationary stochastic process has a certain structure that can be described using a small number of parameters (for example, using an auto-regressive or moving-average model). In these approaches, the task is to estimate the parameters of the model that describes the stochastic process. When using the semi-parametric methods, the underlying process is modeled using a non-parametric framework, with the additional assumption that the number of non-zero components of the model is small (i.e., the model is sparse). Similar approaches may also be used for missing data recovery as well as signal reconstruction. Following is a partial list of spectral density estimation techniques: Non-parametric methods for which the signal samples can be unevenly spaced in time (records can be incomplete) Least-squares spectral analysis, based on least squares fitting to known frequencies Lomb–Scargle periodogram, an approximation of the Least-squares spectral analysis Non-uniform discrete Fourier transform Non-parametric methods for which the signal samples must be evenly spaced in time (records must be complete): Periodogram, the modulus squared of the discrete Fourier transform Bartlett's method is the average of the periodograms taken of multiple segments of the signal to reduce variance of the spectral density estimate Welch's method a windowed version of Bartlett's method that uses overlapping segments Multitaper is a periodogram-based method that uses multiple tapers, or windows, to form independent estimates of the spectral density to reduce variance of the spectral density estimate Singular spectrum analysis is a nonparametric method that uses a singular value decomposition of the covariance matrix to estimate the spectral density Short-time Fourier transform Critical filter is a nonparametric method based on information field theory that can deal with noise, incomplete data, and instrumental response functions Parametric techniques (an incomplete list): Autoregressive model (AR) estimation, which assumes that the nth sample is correlated with the previous p samples. Moving-average model (MA) estimation, which assumes that the nth sample is correlated with noise terms in the previous p samples. Autoregressive moving-average (ARMA) estimation, which generalizes the AR and MA models. MUltiple SIgnal Classification (MUSIC) is a popular superresolution method. Estimation of signal parameters via rotational invariance techniques (ESPRIT) is another superresolution method. Maximum entropy spectral estimation is an all-poles method useful for SDE when singular spectral features, such as sharp peaks, are expected. Semi-parametric techniques (an incomplete list): SParse Iterative Covariance-based Estimation (SPICE) estimation, and the more generalized ( r , q ) {\displaystyle (r,q)} -SPICE. Iterative Adaptive Approach (IAA) estimation. Lasso, similar to least-squares spectral analysis but with a sparsity enforcing penalty. Parametric estimation In parametric spectral estimation, one assumes that the signal is modeled by a stationary process which has a spectral density function (SDF) S ( f ; a 1 , … , a p ) {\displaystyle S(f;a_{1},\ldots ,a_{p})} that is a function of the frequency f {\displaystyle f} and p {\displaystyle p} parameters a 1 , … , a p {\displaystyle a_{1},\ldots ,a_{p}} . The estimation problem then becomes one of estimating these parameters. The most common form of parametric SDF estimate uses as a model an autoregressive model AR ( p ) {\displaystyle {\text{AR}}(p)} of order p {\displaystyle p} .: 392  A signal sequence { Y t } {\displaystyle \{Y_{t}\}} obeying a zero mean AR ( p ) {\displaystyle {\text{AR}}(p)} process satisfies the equation Y t = ϕ 1 Y t − 1 + ϕ 2 Y t − 2 + ⋯ + ϕ p Y t − p + ϵ t , {\displaystyle Y_{t}=\phi _{1}Y_{t-1}+\phi _{2}Y_{t-2}+\cdots +\phi _{p}Y_{t-p}+\epsilon _{t},} where the ϕ 1 , … , ϕ p {\displaystyle \phi _{1},\ldots ,\phi _{p}} are fixed coefficients and ϵ t {\displaystyle \epsilon _{t}} is a white noise process with zero mean and innovation variance σ p 2 {\displaystyle \sigma _{p}^{2}} . The SDF for this process is S ( f ; ϕ 1 , … , ϕ p , σ p 2 ) = σ p 2 Δ t | 1 − ∑ k = 1 p ϕ k e − 2 i π f k Δ t | 2 | f | < f N , {\displaystyle S(f;\phi _{1},\ldots ,\phi _{p},\sigma _{p}^{2})={\frac {\sigma _{p}^{2}\Delta t}{\left|1-\sum _{k=1}^{p}\phi _{k}e^{-2i\pi fk\Delta t}\right|^{2}}}\qquad |f|<f_{N},} with Δ t {\displaystyle \Delta t} the sampling time interval and f N {\displaystyle f_{N}} the Nyquist frequency. There are a number of approaches to estimating the parameters ϕ 1 , … , ϕ p , σ p 2 {\displaystyle \phi _{1},\ldots ,\phi _{p},\sigma _{p}^{2}} of the AR ( p ) {\displaystyle {\text{AR}}(p)} process and thus the spectral density:: 452-453  The Yule–Walker estimators are found by recursively solving the Yule–Walker equations for an AR ( p ) {\displaystyle {\text{AR}}(p)} process The Burg estimators are found by treating the Yule–Walker equations as a form of ordinary least squares problem. The Burg estimators are generally considered superior to the Yule–Walker estimators.: 452  Burg associated these with maximum entropy spectral estimation. The forward-backward least-squares estimators treat the AR ( p ) {\displaystyle {\text{AR}}(p)} process as a regression problem and solves that problem using forward-backward method. They are competitive with the Burg estimators. The maximum likelihood estimators estimate the parameters using a maximum likelihood approach. This involves a nonlinear optimization and is more complex than the first three. Alternative parametric methods include fitting to a moving-average model (MA) and to a full autoregressive moving-average model (ARMA). Frequency estimation Frequency estimation is the process of estimating the frequency, amplitude, and phase-shift of a signal in the presence of noise given assumptions about the number of the components. This contrasts with the general methods above, which do not make prior assumptions about the components. Single tone See also: Sinusoidal model If one only wants to estimate the frequency of the single loudest pure-tone signal, one can use a pitch detection algorithm. If the dominant frequency changes over time, then the problem becomes the estimation of the instantaneous frequency as defined in the time–frequency representation. Methods for instantaneous frequency estimation include those based on the Wigner–Ville distribution and higher order ambiguity functions. If one wants to know all the (possibly complex) frequency components of a received signal (including transmitted signal and noise), one uses a multiple-tone approach. Multiple tones A typical model for a signal x ( n ) {\displaystyle x(n)} consists of a sum of p {\displaystyle p} complex exponentials in the presence of white noise, w ( n ) {\displaystyle w(n)} x ( n ) = ∑ i = 1 p A i e j n ω i + w ( n ) {\displaystyle x(n)=\sum _{i=1}^{p}A_{i}e^{jn\omega _{i}}+w(n)} . The power spectral density of x ( n ) {\displaystyle x(n)} is composed of p {\displaystyle p} impulse functions in addition to the spectral density function due to noise. The most common methods for frequency estimation involve identifying the noise subspace to extract these components. These methods are based on eigen decomposition of the autocorrelation matrix into a signal subspace and a noise subspace. After these subspaces are identified, a frequency estimation function is used to find the component frequencies from the noise subspace. The most popular methods of noise subspace based frequency estimation are Pisarenko's method, the multiple signal classification (MUSIC) method, the eigenvector method, and the minimum norm method. Pisarenko's method P ^ PHD ( e j ω ) = 1 | e H v min | 2 {\displaystyle {\hat {P}}_{\text{PHD}}\left(e^{j\omega }\right)={\frac {1}{\left|\mathbf {e} ^{H}\mathbf {v} _{\text{min}}\right|^{2}}}} MUSIC P ^ MU ( e j ω ) = 1 ∑ i = p + 1 M | e H v i | 2 {\displaystyle {\hat {P}}_{\text{MU}}\left(e^{j\omega }\right)={\frac {1}{\sum _{i=p+1}^{M}\left|\mathbf {e} ^{H}\mathbf {v} _{i}\right|^{2}}}} , Eigenvector method P ^ EV ( e j ω ) = 1 ∑ i = p + 1 M 1 λ i | e H v i | 2 {\displaystyle {\hat {P}}_{\text{EV}}\left(e^{j\omega }\right)={\frac {1}{\sum _{i=p+1}^{M}{\frac {1}{\lambda _{i}}}\left|\mathbf {e} ^{H}\mathbf {v} _{i}\right|^{2}}}} Minimum norm method P ^ MN ( e j ω ) = 1 | e H a | 2 ;   a = λ P n u 1 {\displaystyle {\hat {P}}_{\text{MN}}\left(e^{j\omega }\right)={\frac {1}{\left|\mathbf {e} ^{H}\mathbf {a} \right|^{2}}};\ \mathbf {a} =\lambda \mathbf {P} _{n}\mathbf {u} _{1}} Example calculation Suppose x n {\displaystyle x_{n}} , from n = 0 {\displaystyle n=0} to N − 1 {\displaystyle N-1} is a time series (discrete time) with zero mean. Suppose that it is a sum of a finite number of periodic components (all frequencies are positive): x n = ∑ k A k sin ⁡ ( 2 π ν k n + ϕ k ) = ∑ k A k ( sin ⁡ ( ϕ k ) cos ⁡ ( 2 π ν k n ) + cos ⁡ ( ϕ k ) sin ⁡ ( 2 π ν k n ) ) = ∑ k ( a k ⏞ A k sin ⁡ ( ϕ k ) cos ⁡ ( 2 π ν k n ) + b k ⏞ A k cos ⁡ ( ϕ k ) sin ⁡ ( 2 π ν k n ) ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x_{n}&=\sum _{k}A_{k}\sin(2\pi \nu _{k}n+\phi _{k})\\&=\sum _{k}A_{k}\left(\sin(\phi _{k})\cos(2\pi \nu _{k}n)+\cos(\phi _{k})\sin(2\pi \nu _{k}n)\right)\\&=\sum _{k}\left(\overbrace {a_{k}} ^{A_{k}\sin(\phi _{k})}\cos(2\pi \nu _{k}n)+\overbrace {b_{k}} ^{A_{k}\cos(\phi _{k})}\sin(2\pi \nu _{k}n)\right)\end{aligned}}} The variance of x n {\displaystyle x_{n}} is, for a zero-mean function as above, given by 1 N ∑ n = 0 N − 1 x n 2 . {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{N}}\sum _{n=0}^{N-1}x_{n}^{2}.} If these data were samples taken from an electrical signal, this would be its average power (power is energy per unit time, so it is analogous to variance if energy is analogous to the amplitude squared). Now, for simplicity, suppose the signal extends infinitely in time, so we pass to the limit as N → ∞ . {\displaystyle N\to \infty .} If the average power is bounded, which is almost always the case in reality, then the following limit exists and is the variance of the data. lim N → ∞ 1 N ∑ n = 0 N − 1 x n 2 . {\displaystyle \lim _{N\to \infty }{\frac {1}{N}}\sum _{n=0}^{N-1}x_{n}^{2}.} Again, for simplicity, we will pass to continuous time, and assume that the signal extends infinitely in time in both directions. Then these two formulas become x ( t ) = ∑ k A k sin ⁡ ( 2 π ν k t + ϕ k ) {\displaystyle x(t)=\sum _{k}A_{k}\sin(2\pi \nu _{k}t+\phi _{k})} and lim T → ∞ 1 2 T ∫ − T T x ( t ) 2 d t . {\displaystyle \lim _{T\to \infty }{\frac {1}{2T}}\int _{-T}^{T}x(t)^{2}dt.} The root mean square of sin {\displaystyle \sin } is 1 / 2 {\displaystyle 1/{\sqrt {2}}} , so the variance of A k sin ⁡ ( 2 π ν k t + ϕ k ) {\displaystyle A_{k}\sin(2\pi \nu _{k}t+\phi _{k})} is 1 2 A k 2 . {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}A_{k}^{2}.} Hence, the contribution to the average power of x ( t ) {\displaystyle x(t)} coming from the component with frequency ν k {\displaystyle \nu _{k}} is 1 2 A k 2 . {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}A_{k}^{2}.} All these contributions add up to the average power of x ( t ) . {\displaystyle x(t).} Then the power as a function of frequency is 1 2 A k 2 , {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}A_{k}^{2},} and its statistical cumulative distribution function S ( ν ) {\displaystyle S(\nu )} will be S ( ν ) = ∑ k : ν k < ν 1 2 A k 2 . {\displaystyle S(\nu )=\sum _{k:\nu _{k}<\nu }{\frac {1}{2}}A_{k}^{2}.} S {\displaystyle S} is a step function, monotonically non-decreasing. Its jumps occur at the frequencies of the periodic components of x {\displaystyle x} , and the value of each jump is the power or variance of that component. The variance is the covariance of the data with itself. If we now consider the same data but with a lag of τ {\displaystyle \tau } , we can take the covariance of x ( t ) {\displaystyle x(t)} with x ( t + τ ) {\displaystyle x(t+\tau )} , and define this to be the autocorrelation function c {\displaystyle c} of the signal (or data) x {\displaystyle x} : c ( τ ) = lim T → ∞ 1 2 T ∫ − T T x ( t ) x ( t + τ ) d t . {\displaystyle c(\tau )=\lim _{T\to \infty }{\frac {1}{2T}}\int _{-T}^{T}x(t)x(t+\tau )dt.} If it exists, it is an even function of τ . {\displaystyle \tau .} If the average power is bounded, then c {\displaystyle c} exists everywhere, is finite, and is bounded by c ( 0 ) , {\displaystyle c(0),} which is the average power or variance of the data. It can be shown that c {\displaystyle c} can be decomposed into periodic components with the same periods as x {\displaystyle x} : c ( τ ) = ∑ k 1 2 A k 2 cos ⁡ ( 2 π ν k τ ) . {\displaystyle c(\tau )=\sum _{k}{\frac {1}{2}}A_{k}^{2}\cos(2\pi \nu _{k}\tau ).} This is in fact the spectral decomposition of c {\displaystyle c} over the different frequencies, and is related to the distribution of power of x {\displaystyle x} over the frequencies: the amplitude of a frequency component of c {\displaystyle c} is its contribution to the average power of the signal. The power spectrum of this example is not continuous, and therefore does not have a derivative, and therefore this signal does not have a power spectral density function. In general, the power spectrum will usually be the sum of two parts: a line spectrum such as in this example, which is not continuous and does not have a density function, and a residue, which is absolutely continuous and does have a density function. See also Multidimensional spectral estimation Periodogram SigSpec Spectrogram Time–frequency analysis Time–frequency representation Whittle likelihood Spectral power distribution References ^ P Stoica and R Moses, Spectral Analysis of Signals, Prentice Hall, 2005. ^ Welch, P. D. (1967), "The use of Fast Fourier Transform for the estimation of power spectra: A method based on time averaging over short, modified periodograms", IEEE Transactions on Audio and Electroacoustics, AU-15 (2): 70–73, Bibcode:1967ITAE...15...70W, doi:10.1109/TAU.1967.1161901, S2CID 13900622 ^ a b Stoica, Petre; Babu, Prabhu; Li, Jian (January 2011). "New Method of Sparse Parameter Estimation in Separable Models and Its Use for Spectral Analysis of Irregularly Sampled Data". IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing. 59 (1): 35–47. Bibcode:2011ITSP...59...35S. doi:10.1109/TSP.2010.2086452. ISSN 1053-587X. S2CID 15936187. ^ Stoica, Petre; Li, Jian; Ling, Jun; Cheng, Yubo (April 2009). "Missing data recovery via a nonparametric iterative adaptive approach". 2009 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing. IEEE. pp. 3369–3372. doi:10.1109/icassp.2009.4960347. ISBN 978-1-4244-2353-8. ^ Sward, Johan; Adalbjornsson, Stefan Ingi; Jakobsson, Andreas (March 2017). "A generalization of the sparse iterative covariance-based estimator". 2017 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP). IEEE. pp. 3954–3958. doi:10.1109/icassp.2017.7952898. ISBN 978-1-5090-4117-6. S2CID 5640068. ^ Yardibi, Tarik; Li, Jian; Stoica, Petre; Xue, Ming; Baggeroer, Arthur B. (January 2010). "Source Localization and Sensing: A Nonparametric Iterative Adaptive Approach Based on Weighted Least Squares". IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems. 46 (1): 425–443. Bibcode:2010ITAES..46..425Y. doi:10.1109/TAES.2010.5417172. hdl:1721.1/59588. ISSN 0018-9251. S2CID 18834345. ^ Panahi, Ashkan; Viberg, Mats (February 2011). "On the resolution of the LASSO-based DOA estimation method". 2011 International ITG Workshop on Smart Antennas. IEEE. pp. 1–5. doi:10.1109/wsa.2011.5741938. ISBN 978-1-61284-075-8. S2CID 7013162. ^ a b c d Percival, Donald B.; Walden, Andrew T. (1992). Spectral Analysis for Physical Applications. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521435413. ^ Burg, J.P. (1967) "Maximum Entropy Spectral Analysis", Proceedings of the 37th Meeting of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. ^ Hayes, Monson H., Statistical Digital Signal Processing and Modeling, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996. ISBN 0-471-59431-8. ^ Lerga, Jonatan. "Overview of Signal Instantaneous Frequency Estimation Methods" (PDF). University of Rijeka. Retrieved 22 March 2014. Further reading Porat, B. (1994). Digital Processing of Random Signals: Theory & Methods. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-063751-2. Priestley, M.B. (1991). Spectral Analysis and Time Series. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-564922-3. Stoica, P.; Moses, R. (2005). Spectral Analysis of Signals. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-113956-5. Thomson, D. J. (1982). "Spectrum estimation and harmonic analysis". Proceedings of the IEEE. 70 (9): 1055–1096. Bibcode:1982IEEEP..70.1055T. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.471.1278. doi:10.1109/PROC.1982.12433. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Probability density estimation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_density_estimation"},{"link_name":"Spectral density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_density"},{"link_name":"statistical signal processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_signal_processing"},{"link_name":"estimate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estimation_theory"},{"link_name":"spectral density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_density"},{"link_name":"power spectral density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_spectrum"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"periodicities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_function"}],"text":"For the statistical method, see Probability density estimation.For broader coverage of this topic, see Spectral density.In statistical signal processing, the goal of spectral density estimation (SDE) or simply spectral estimation is to estimate the spectral density (also known as the power spectral density) of a signal from a sequence of time samples of the signal.[1] Intuitively speaking, the spectral density characterizes the frequency content of the signal. One purpose of estimating the spectral density is to detect any periodicities in the data, by observing peaks at the frequencies corresponding to these periodicities.Some SDE techniques assume that a signal is composed of a limited (usually small) number of generating frequencies plus noise and seek to find the location and intensity of the generated frequencies. Others make no assumption on the number of components and seek to estimate the whole generating spectrum.","title":"Spectral density estimation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Voice_waveform_and_spectrum.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Triangle-td_and_fd.png"},{"link_name":"triangle wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle_wave"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Comparison_of_periodogram_and_Welch_methods_of_spectral_density_estimation.png"},{"link_name":"frequency domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_domain"},{"link_name":"phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_(waves)"},{"link_name":"Periodic functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_function"},{"link_name":"Fourier analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_analysis"},{"link_name":"Fourier transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform"},{"link_name":"inverse Fourier transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_Fourier_transform"},{"link_name":"amplitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude"},{"link_name":"phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_(waves)"},{"link_name":"complex number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"polar coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_coordinates"},{"link_name":"phasor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phasor"},{"link_name":"power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(physics)"},{"link_name":"power spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_spectrum"},{"link_name":"frequency domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_domain"},{"link_name":"non-linear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinearity"},{"link_name":"time-variant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-variant_system"},{"link_name":"discrete Fourier transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Fourier_transform"},{"link_name":"samples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(signal_processing)"},{"link_name":"fast Fourier transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Fourier_transform"},{"link_name":"periodogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodogram"},{"link_name":"filter impulse responses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_response"},{"link_name":"window functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_function"},{"link_name":"Welch's method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welch%27s_method"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"smoothing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoothing"}],"text":"Example of voice waveform and its frequency spectrumA periodic waveform (triangle wave) and its frequency spectrum, showing a \"fundamental\" frequency at 220 Hz followed by multiples (harmonics) of 220 HzThe power spectral density of a segment of music is estimated by two different methods, for comparisonSpectrum analysis, also referred to as frequency domain analysis or spectral density estimation, is the technical process of decomposing a complex signal into simpler parts. As described above, many physical processes are best described as a sum of many individual frequency components. Any process that quantifies the various amounts (e.g. amplitudes, powers, intensities) versus frequency (or phase) can be called spectrum analysis.Spectrum analysis can be performed on the entire signal. Alternatively, a signal can be broken into short segments (sometimes called frames), and spectrum analysis may be applied to these individual segments. Periodic functions (such as \n \n \n \n sin\n ⁡\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sin(t)}\n \n) are particularly well-suited for this sub-division. General mathematical techniques for analyzing non-periodic functions fall into the category of Fourier analysis.The Fourier transform of a function produces a frequency spectrum which contains all of the information about the original signal, but in a different form. This means that the original function can be completely reconstructed (synthesized) by an inverse Fourier transform. For perfect reconstruction, the spectrum analyzer must preserve both the amplitude and phase of each frequency component. These two pieces of information can be represented as a 2-dimensional vector, as a complex number, or as magnitude (amplitude) and phase in polar coordinates (i.e., as a phasor). A common technique in signal processing is to consider the squared amplitude, or power; in this case the resulting plot is referred to as a power spectrum.Because of reversibility, the Fourier transform is called a representation of the function, in terms of frequency instead of time; thus, it is a frequency domain representation. Linear operations that could be performed in the time domain have counterparts that can often be performed more easily in the frequency domain. Frequency analysis also simplifies the understanding and interpretation of the effects of various time-domain operations, both linear and non-linear. For instance, only non-linear or time-variant operations can create new frequencies in the frequency spectrum.In practice, nearly all software and electronic devices that generate frequency spectra utilize a discrete Fourier transform (DFT), which operates on samples of the signal, and which provides a mathematical approximation to the full integral solution. The DFT is almost invariably implemented by an efficient algorithm called fast Fourier transform (FFT). The array of squared-magnitude components of a DFT is a type of power spectrum called periodogram, which is widely used for examining the frequency characteristics of noise-free functions such as filter impulse responses and window functions. But the periodogram does not provide processing-gain when applied to noiselike signals or even sinusoids at low signal-to-noise ratios. In other words, the variance of its spectral estimate at a given frequency does not decrease as the number of samples used in the computation increases. This can be mitigated by averaging over time (Welch's method[2])  or over frequency (smoothing). Welch's method is widely used for spectral density estimation (SDE). However, periodogram-based techniques introduce small biases that are unacceptable in some applications. So other alternatives are presented in the next section.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"non-parametric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-parametric_statistics"},{"link_name":"parametric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_estimation"},{"link_name":"semi-parametric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiparametric_model"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"covariance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covariance"},{"link_name":"Welch's method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welch%27s_method"},{"link_name":"stationary stochastic process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stationary_process"},{"link_name":"auto-regressive or moving-average model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoregressive_moving-average_model"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"signal reconstruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_sensing"},{"link_name":"unevenly spaced in time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unevenly_spaced_time_series"},{"link_name":"Least-squares spectral analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least-squares_spectral_analysis"},{"link_name":"least squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_squares"},{"link_name":"Lomb–Scargle periodogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lomb%E2%80%93Scargle_periodogram"},{"link_name":"Least-squares spectral analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least-squares_spectral_analysis"},{"link_name":"Non-uniform discrete Fourier transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-uniform_discrete_Fourier_transform"},{"link_name":"Periodogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodogram"},{"link_name":"modulus squared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulus_squared"},{"link_name":"Bartlett's method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartlett%27s_method"},{"link_name":"Welch's method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welch%27s_method"},{"link_name":"Multitaper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multitaper"},{"link_name":"Singular spectrum analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_spectrum_analysis"},{"link_name":"singular value decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singular_value_decomposition"},{"link_name":"covariance matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covariance_matrix"},{"link_name":"Short-time Fourier transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-time_Fourier_transform"},{"link_name":"Critical filter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_field_theory#Critical_filter"},{"link_name":"information field theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_field_theory"},{"link_name":"Autoregressive model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoregressive_model"},{"link_name":"Moving-average model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving-average_model"},{"link_name":"Autoregressive moving-average","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoregressive_moving-average_model"},{"link_name":"MUltiple SIgnal Classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUSIC_(algorithm)"},{"link_name":"superresolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super-resolution_imaging"},{"link_name":"Estimation of signal parameters via rotational invariance techniques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estimation_of_signal_parameters_via_rotational_invariance_techniques"},{"link_name":"Maximum entropy spectral estimation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_entropy_spectral_estimation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Lasso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lasso_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"least-squares spectral analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least-squares_spectral_analysis"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Many other techniques for spectral estimation have been developed to mitigate the disadvantages of the basic periodogram. These techniques can generally be divided into non-parametric, parametric, and more recently semi-parametric (also called sparse) methods.[3] The non-parametric approaches explicitly estimate the covariance or the spectrum of the process without assuming that the process has any particular structure. Some of the most common estimators in use for basic applications (e.g. Welch's method) are non-parametric estimators closely related to the periodogram. By contrast, the parametric approaches assume that the underlying stationary stochastic process has a certain structure that can be described using a small number of parameters (for example, using an auto-regressive or moving-average model). In these approaches, the task is to estimate the parameters of the model that describes the stochastic process. When using the semi-parametric methods, the underlying process is modeled using a non-parametric framework, with the additional assumption that the number of non-zero components of the model is small (i.e., the model is sparse). Similar approaches may also be used for missing data recovery[4] as well as signal reconstruction.Following is a partial list of spectral density estimation techniques:Non-parametric methods for which the signal samples can be unevenly spaced in time (records can be incomplete)\nLeast-squares spectral analysis, based on least squares fitting to known frequencies\nLomb–Scargle periodogram, an approximation of the Least-squares spectral analysis\nNon-uniform discrete Fourier transformNon-parametric methods for which the signal samples must be evenly spaced in time (records must be complete):\nPeriodogram, the modulus squared of the discrete Fourier transform\nBartlett's method is the average of the periodograms taken of multiple segments of the signal to reduce variance of the spectral density estimate\nWelch's method a windowed version of Bartlett's method that uses overlapping segments\nMultitaper is a periodogram-based method that uses multiple tapers, or windows, to form independent estimates of the spectral density to reduce variance of the spectral density estimate\nSingular spectrum analysis is a nonparametric method that uses a singular value decomposition of the covariance matrix to estimate the spectral density\nShort-time Fourier transform\nCritical filter is a nonparametric method based on information field theory that can deal with noise, incomplete data, and instrumental response functions\nParametric techniques (an incomplete list):\nAutoregressive model (AR) estimation, which assumes that the nth sample is correlated with the previous p samples.\nMoving-average model (MA) estimation, which assumes that the nth sample is correlated with noise terms in the previous p samples.\nAutoregressive moving-average (ARMA) estimation, which generalizes the AR and MA models.\nMUltiple SIgnal Classification (MUSIC) is a popular superresolution method.\nEstimation of signal parameters via rotational invariance techniques (ESPRIT) is another superresolution method.\nMaximum entropy spectral estimation is an all-poles method useful for SDE when singular spectral features, such as sharp peaks, are expected.\nSemi-parametric techniques (an incomplete list):\nSParse Iterative Covariance-based Estimation (SPICE) estimation,[3] and the more generalized \n \n \n \n (\n r\n ,\n q\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (r,q)}\n \n-SPICE.[5]\nIterative Adaptive Approach (IAA) estimation.[6]\nLasso, similar to least-squares spectral analysis but with a sparsity enforcing penalty.[7]","title":"Techniques"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"stationary process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stationary_process"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Percival1993-8"},{"link_name":"autoregressive model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoregressive_model"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Percival1993-8"},{"link_name":"Nyquist frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyquist_frequency"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Percival1993-8"},{"link_name":"Yule–Walker estimators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoregressive_model#Yule%E2%80%93Walker_equations"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Percival1993-8"},{"link_name":"maximum entropy spectral estimation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_entropy_spectral_estimation"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burg-9"},{"link_name":"maximum likelihood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_likelihood"},{"link_name":"moving-average model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving-average_model"},{"link_name":"autoregressive moving-average model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoregressive_moving-average_model"}],"sub_title":"Parametric estimation","text":"In parametric spectral estimation, one assumes that the signal is modeled by a stationary process which has a spectral density function (SDF) \n \n \n \n S\n (\n f\n ;\n \n a\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n a\n \n p\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S(f;a_{1},\\ldots ,a_{p})}\n \n that is a function of the frequency \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n and \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n parameters \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n a\n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle a_{1},\\ldots ,a_{p}}\n \n.[8] The estimation problem then becomes one of estimating these parameters.The most common form of parametric SDF estimate uses as a model an autoregressive model \n \n \n \n \n AR\n \n (\n p\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{AR}}(p)}\n \n of order \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n.[8]: 392  A signal sequence \n \n \n \n {\n \n Y\n \n t\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{Y_{t}\\}}\n \n obeying a zero mean \n \n \n \n \n AR\n \n (\n p\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{AR}}(p)}\n \n process satisfies the equationY\n \n t\n \n \n =\n \n ϕ\n \n 1\n \n \n \n Y\n \n t\n −\n 1\n \n \n +\n \n ϕ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n Y\n \n t\n −\n 2\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n +\n \n ϕ\n \n p\n \n \n \n Y\n \n t\n −\n p\n \n \n +\n \n ϵ\n \n t\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y_{t}=\\phi _{1}Y_{t-1}+\\phi _{2}Y_{t-2}+\\cdots +\\phi _{p}Y_{t-p}+\\epsilon _{t},}where the \n \n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n ϕ\n \n p\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{1},\\ldots ,\\phi _{p}}\n \n are fixed coefficients and \n \n \n \n \n ϵ\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\epsilon _{t}}\n \n is a white noise process with zero mean and innovation variance \n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n p\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{p}^{2}}\n \n. The SDF for this process isS\n (\n f\n ;\n \n ϕ\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n ϕ\n \n p\n \n \n ,\n \n σ\n \n p\n \n \n 2\n \n \n )\n =\n \n \n \n \n σ\n \n p\n \n \n 2\n \n \n Δ\n t\n \n \n \n |\n \n 1\n −\n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n k\n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n 2\n i\n π\n f\n k\n Δ\n t\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n f\n \n |\n \n <\n \n f\n \n N\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S(f;\\phi _{1},\\ldots ,\\phi _{p},\\sigma _{p}^{2})={\\frac {\\sigma _{p}^{2}\\Delta t}{\\left|1-\\sum _{k=1}^{p}\\phi _{k}e^{-2i\\pi fk\\Delta t}\\right|^{2}}}\\qquad |f|<f_{N},}with \n \n \n \n Δ\n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta t}\n \n the sampling time interval and \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n N\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{N}}\n \n the Nyquist frequency.There are a number of approaches to estimating the parameters \n \n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n ϕ\n \n p\n \n \n ,\n \n σ\n \n p\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{1},\\ldots ,\\phi _{p},\\sigma _{p}^{2}}\n \n of the \n \n \n \n \n AR\n \n (\n p\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{AR}}(p)}\n \n process and thus the spectral density:[8]: 452-453The Yule–Walker estimators are found by recursively solving the Yule–Walker equations for an \n \n \n \n \n AR\n \n (\n p\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{AR}}(p)}\n \n process\nThe Burg estimators are found by treating the Yule–Walker equations as a form of ordinary least squares problem. The Burg estimators are generally considered superior to the Yule–Walker estimators.[8]: 452  Burg associated these with maximum entropy spectral estimation.[9]\nThe forward-backward least-squares estimators treat the \n \n \n \n \n AR\n \n (\n p\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{AR}}(p)}\n \n process as a regression problem and solves that problem using forward-backward method. They are competitive with the Burg estimators.\nThe maximum likelihood estimators estimate the parameters using a maximum likelihood approach. This involves a nonlinear optimization and is more complex than the first three.Alternative parametric methods include fitting to a moving-average model (MA) and to a full autoregressive moving-average model (ARMA).","title":"Techniques"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"estimating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estimation_theory"},{"link_name":"frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processing"},{"link_name":"noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Frequency estimation is the process of estimating the frequency, amplitude, and phase-shift of a signal in the presence of noise given assumptions about the number of the components.[10] This contrasts with the general methods above, which do not make prior assumptions about the components.","title":"Frequency estimation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sinusoidal model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusoidal_model"},{"link_name":"pure-tone signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_tone"},{"link_name":"pitch detection algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitch_detection_algorithm"},{"link_name":"instantaneous frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instantaneous_frequency"},{"link_name":"time–frequency representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%E2%80%93frequency_representation"},{"link_name":"Wigner–Ville distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigner_quasiprobability_distribution"},{"link_name":"ambiguity functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity_function"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lerga-11"}],"sub_title":"Single tone","text":"See also: Sinusoidal modelIf one only wants to estimate the frequency of the single loudest pure-tone signal, one can use a pitch detection algorithm.If the dominant frequency changes over time, then the problem becomes the estimation of the instantaneous frequency as defined in the time–frequency representation. Methods for instantaneous frequency estimation include those based on the Wigner–Ville distribution and higher order ambiguity functions.[11]If one wants to know all the (possibly complex) frequency components of a received signal (including transmitted signal and noise), one uses a multiple-tone approach.","title":"Frequency estimation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"white noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_noise"},{"link_name":"impulse functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse_function"},{"link_name":"subspace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_subspace"},{"link_name":"eigen decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigendecomposition_of_a_matrix"},{"link_name":"autocorrelation matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocorrelation_matrix"},{"link_name":"Pisarenko's method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisarenko_harmonic_decomposition"},{"link_name":"multiple signal classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_signal_classification"},{"link_name":"Pisarenko's method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisarenko_harmonic_decomposition"},{"link_name":"MUSIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_signal_classification"}],"sub_title":"Multiple tones","text":"A typical model for a signal \n \n \n \n x\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x(n)}\n \n consists of a sum of \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n complex exponentials in the presence of white noise, \n \n \n \n w\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle w(n)}x\n (\n n\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n p\n \n \n \n A\n \n i\n \n \n \n e\n \n j\n n\n \n ω\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n +\n w\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x(n)=\\sum _{i=1}^{p}A_{i}e^{jn\\omega _{i}}+w(n)}\n \n.The power spectral density of \n \n \n \n x\n (\n n\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x(n)}\n \n is composed of \n \n \n \n p\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p}\n \n impulse functions in addition to the spectral density function due to noise.The most common methods for frequency estimation involve identifying the noise subspace to extract these components. These methods are based on eigen decomposition of the autocorrelation matrix into a signal subspace and a noise subspace. After these subspaces are identified, a frequency estimation function is used to find the component frequencies from the noise subspace. The most popular methods of noise subspace based frequency estimation are Pisarenko's method, the multiple signal classification (MUSIC) method, the eigenvector method, and the minimum norm method.Pisarenko's method\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n P\n ^\n \n \n \n \n PHD\n \n \n \n (\n \n e\n \n j\n ω\n \n \n )\n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n H\n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n min\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {P}}_{\\text{PHD}}\\left(e^{j\\omega }\\right)={\\frac {1}{\\left|\\mathbf {e} ^{H}\\mathbf {v} _{\\text{min}}\\right|^{2}}}}\n \n\nMUSIC\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n P\n ^\n \n \n \n \n MU\n \n \n \n (\n \n e\n \n j\n ω\n \n \n )\n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n p\n +\n 1\n \n \n M\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n H\n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {P}}_{\\text{MU}}\\left(e^{j\\omega }\\right)={\\frac {1}{\\sum _{i=p+1}^{M}\\left|\\mathbf {e} ^{H}\\mathbf {v} _{i}\\right|^{2}}}}\n \n,\nEigenvector method\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n P\n ^\n \n \n \n \n EV\n \n \n \n (\n \n e\n \n j\n ω\n \n \n )\n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n p\n +\n 1\n \n \n M\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n λ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n H\n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {P}}_{\\text{EV}}\\left(e^{j\\omega }\\right)={\\frac {1}{\\sum _{i=p+1}^{M}{\\frac {1}{\\lambda _{i}}}\\left|\\mathbf {e} ^{H}\\mathbf {v} _{i}\\right|^{2}}}}\n \n\nMinimum norm method\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n P\n ^\n \n \n \n \n MN\n \n \n \n (\n \n e\n \n j\n ω\n \n \n )\n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n H\n \n \n \n a\n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n ;\n  \n \n a\n \n =\n λ\n \n \n P\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {P}}_{\\text{MN}}\\left(e^{j\\omega }\\right)={\\frac {1}{\\left|\\mathbf {e} ^{H}\\mathbf {a} \\right|^{2}}};\\ \\mathbf {a} =\\lambda \\mathbf {P} _{n}\\mathbf {u} _{1}}","title":"Frequency estimation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cumulative distribution function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_function"},{"link_name":"step function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step_function"},{"link_name":"periodic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periods_(ring)"},{"link_name":"covariance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covariance"},{"link_name":"autocorrelation function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocorrelation_function"}],"text":"Suppose \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{n}}\n \n, from \n \n \n \n n\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n=0}\n \n to \n \n \n \n N\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle N-1}\n \n is a time series (discrete time) with zero mean. Suppose that it is a sum of a finite number of periodic components (all frequencies are positive):x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n \n \n \n A\n \n k\n \n \n sin\n ⁡\n (\n 2\n π\n \n ν\n \n k\n \n \n n\n +\n \n ϕ\n \n k\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n \n \n \n A\n \n k\n \n \n \n (\n \n sin\n ⁡\n (\n \n ϕ\n \n k\n \n \n )\n cos\n ⁡\n (\n 2\n π\n \n ν\n \n k\n \n \n n\n )\n +\n cos\n ⁡\n (\n \n ϕ\n \n k\n \n \n )\n sin\n ⁡\n (\n 2\n π\n \n ν\n \n k\n \n \n n\n )\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n k\n \n \n ⏞\n \n \n \n \n A\n \n k\n \n \n sin\n ⁡\n (\n \n ϕ\n \n k\n \n \n )\n \n \n cos\n ⁡\n (\n 2\n π\n \n ν\n \n k\n \n \n n\n )\n +\n \n \n \n \n b\n \n k\n \n \n ⏞\n \n \n \n \n A\n \n k\n \n \n cos\n ⁡\n (\n \n ϕ\n \n k\n \n \n )\n \n \n sin\n ⁡\n (\n 2\n π\n \n ν\n \n k\n \n \n n\n )\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}x_{n}&=\\sum _{k}A_{k}\\sin(2\\pi \\nu _{k}n+\\phi _{k})\\\\&=\\sum _{k}A_{k}\\left(\\sin(\\phi _{k})\\cos(2\\pi \\nu _{k}n)+\\cos(\\phi _{k})\\sin(2\\pi \\nu _{k}n)\\right)\\\\&=\\sum _{k}\\left(\\overbrace {a_{k}} ^{A_{k}\\sin(\\phi _{k})}\\cos(2\\pi \\nu _{k}n)+\\overbrace {b_{k}} ^{A_{k}\\cos(\\phi _{k})}\\sin(2\\pi \\nu _{k}n)\\right)\\end{aligned}}}The variance of \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{n}}\n \n is, for a zero-mean function as above, given by1\n N\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n n\n =\n 0\n \n \n N\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {1}{N}}\\sum _{n=0}^{N-1}x_{n}^{2}.}If these data were samples taken from an electrical signal, this would be its average power (power is energy per unit time, so it is analogous to variance if energy is analogous to the amplitude squared).Now, for simplicity, suppose the signal extends infinitely in time, so we pass to the limit as \n \n \n \n N\n →\n ∞\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle N\\to \\infty .}\n \n If the average power is bounded, which is almost always the case in reality, then the following limit exists and is the variance of the data.lim\n \n N\n →\n ∞\n \n \n \n \n 1\n N\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n n\n =\n 0\n \n \n N\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lim _{N\\to \\infty }{\\frac {1}{N}}\\sum _{n=0}^{N-1}x_{n}^{2}.}Again, for simplicity, we will pass to continuous time, and assume that the signal extends infinitely in time in both directions. Then these two formulas becomex\n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n \n \n \n A\n \n k\n \n \n sin\n ⁡\n (\n 2\n π\n \n ν\n \n k\n \n \n t\n +\n \n ϕ\n \n k\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x(t)=\\sum _{k}A_{k}\\sin(2\\pi \\nu _{k}t+\\phi _{k})}andlim\n \n T\n →\n ∞\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n T\n \n \n \n \n ∫\n \n −\n T\n \n \n T\n \n \n x\n (\n t\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n d\n t\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lim _{T\\to \\infty }{\\frac {1}{2T}}\\int _{-T}^{T}x(t)^{2}dt.}The root mean square of \n \n \n \n sin\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sin }\n \n is \n \n \n \n 1\n \n /\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1/{\\sqrt {2}}}\n \n, so the variance of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n k\n \n \n sin\n ⁡\n (\n 2\n π\n \n ν\n \n k\n \n \n t\n +\n \n ϕ\n \n k\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A_{k}\\sin(2\\pi \\nu _{k}t+\\phi _{k})}\n \n is \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n A\n \n k\n \n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{2}}A_{k}^{2}.}\n \n Hence, the contribution to the average power of \n \n \n \n x\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x(t)}\n \n coming from the component with frequency \n \n \n \n \n ν\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\nu _{k}}\n \n is \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n A\n \n k\n \n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{2}}A_{k}^{2}.}\n \n All these contributions add up to the average power of \n \n \n \n x\n (\n t\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x(t).}Then the power as a function of frequency is \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n A\n \n k\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{2}}A_{k}^{2},}\n \n and its statistical cumulative distribution function \n \n \n \n S\n (\n ν\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S(\\nu )}\n \n will beS\n (\n ν\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n :\n \n ν\n \n k\n \n \n <\n ν\n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n A\n \n k\n \n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S(\\nu )=\\sum _{k:\\nu _{k}<\\nu }{\\frac {1}{2}}A_{k}^{2}.}S\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S}\n \n is a step function, monotonically non-decreasing. Its jumps occur at the frequencies of the periodic components of \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n, and the value of each jump is the power or variance of that component.The variance is the covariance of the data with itself. If we now consider the same data but with a lag of \n \n \n \n τ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\tau }\n \n, we can take the covariance of \n \n \n \n x\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x(t)}\n \n with \n \n \n \n x\n (\n t\n +\n τ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x(t+\\tau )}\n \n, and define this to be the autocorrelation function \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n of the signal (or data) \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n:c\n (\n τ\n )\n =\n \n lim\n \n T\n →\n ∞\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n T\n \n \n \n \n ∫\n \n −\n T\n \n \n T\n \n \n x\n (\n t\n )\n x\n (\n t\n +\n τ\n )\n d\n t\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c(\\tau )=\\lim _{T\\to \\infty }{\\frac {1}{2T}}\\int _{-T}^{T}x(t)x(t+\\tau )dt.}If it exists, it is an even function of \n \n \n \n τ\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\tau .}\n \n If the average power is bounded, then \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n exists everywhere, is finite, and is bounded by \n \n \n \n c\n (\n 0\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c(0),}\n \n which is the average power or variance of the data.It can be shown that \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n can be decomposed into periodic components with the same periods as \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n:c\n (\n τ\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n A\n \n k\n \n \n 2\n \n \n cos\n ⁡\n (\n 2\n π\n \n ν\n \n k\n \n \n τ\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c(\\tau )=\\sum _{k}{\\frac {1}{2}}A_{k}^{2}\\cos(2\\pi \\nu _{k}\\tau ).}This is in fact the spectral decomposition of \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n over the different frequencies, and is related to the distribution of power of \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n over the frequencies: the amplitude of a frequency component of \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n is its contribution to the average power of the signal.The power spectrum of this example is not continuous, and therefore does not have a derivative, and therefore this signal does not have a power spectral density function. In general, the power spectrum will usually be the sum of two parts: a line spectrum such as in this example, which is not continuous and does not have a density function, and a residue, which is absolutely continuous and does have a density function.","title":"Example calculation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-13-063751-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-063751-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-12-564922-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-564922-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-13-113956-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-113956-5"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1982IEEEP..70.1055T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982IEEEP..70.1055T"},{"link_name":"CiteSeerX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1.1.471.1278","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.471.1278"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/PROC.1982.12433","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FPROC.1982.12433"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"290772","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:290772"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Statistics"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Statistics"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Statistics"},{"link_name":"Statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"},{"link_name":"Outline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_statistics"},{"link_name":"Index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statistics_articles"},{"link_name":"Descriptive statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_statistics"},{"link_name":"Continuous data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_probability_distribution"},{"link_name":"Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_tendency"},{"link_name":"Mean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean"},{"link_name":"Arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean"},{"link_name":"Arithmetic-Geometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic%E2%80%93geometric_mean"},{"link_name":"Cubic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_mean"},{"link_name":"Generalized/power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_mean"},{"link_name":"Geometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_mean"},{"link_name":"Harmonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_mean"},{"link_name":"Heronian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heronian_mean"},{"link_name":"Heinz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_mean"},{"link_name":"Lehmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehmer_mean"},{"link_name":"Median","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median"},{"link_name":"Mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"Dispersion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_dispersion"},{"link_name":"Average absolute deviation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Average_absolute_deviation"},{"link_name":"Coefficient of variation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_variation"},{"link_name":"Interquartile range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interquartile_range"},{"link_name":"Percentile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentile"},{"link_name":"Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"Standard deviation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation"},{"link_name":"Variance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variance#Sample_variance"},{"link_name":"Shape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape_of_the_distribution"},{"link_name":"Central limit 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correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_correlation"},{"link_name":"Pearson product-moment correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_correlation_coefficient"},{"link_name":"Rank correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank_correlation"},{"link_name":"Kendall's τ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kendall_rank_correlation_coefficient"},{"link_name":"Spearman's ρ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient"},{"link_name":"Scatter plot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scatter_plot"},{"link_name":"Graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_graphics"},{"link_name":"Bar chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_chart"},{"link_name":"Biplot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplot"},{"link_name":"Box plot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Box_plot"},{"link_name":"Control 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collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_collection"},{"link_name":"Study design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments"},{"link_name":"Effect size","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_size"},{"link_name":"Missing data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing_data"},{"link_name":"Optimal design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimal_design"},{"link_name":"Population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_population"},{"link_name":"Replication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replication_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"Sample size determination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sample_size_determination"},{"link_name":"Statistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistic"},{"link_name":"Statistical power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_power"},{"link_name":"Survey 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engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methods_engineering"},{"link_name":"Probabilistic design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probabilistic_design"},{"link_name":"Process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_process_control"},{"link_name":"quality control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_control"},{"link_name":"Reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_engineering"},{"link_name":"System identification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_identification"},{"link_name":"Social statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_statistics"},{"link_name":"Actuarial science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuarial_science"},{"link_name":"Census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census"},{"link_name":"Crime statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_statistics"},{"link_name":"Demography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_statistics"},{"link_name":"Econometrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econometrics"},{"link_name":"Jurimetrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurimetrics"},{"link_name":"National accounts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_accounts"},{"link_name":"Official statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_statistics"},{"link_name":"Population statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_statistics"},{"link_name":"Psychometrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychometrics"},{"link_name":"Spatial statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_analysis"},{"link_name":"Cartography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartography"},{"link_name":"Environmental statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_statistics"},{"link_name":"Geographic information system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_system"},{"link_name":"Geostatistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostatistics"},{"link_name":"Kriging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriging"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Statistics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg"},{"link_name":"Mathematics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mathematics"},{"link_name":"Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Statistics"},{"link_name":"WikiProject","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Statistics"}],"text":"Porat, B. (1994). Digital Processing of Random Signals: Theory & Methods. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-063751-2.\nPriestley, M.B. (1991). Spectral Analysis and Time Series. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-564922-3.Stoica, P.; Moses, R. (2005). Spectral Analysis of Signals. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-113956-5.Thomson, D. J. (1982). \"Spectrum estimation and harmonic analysis\". Proceedings of the IEEE. 70 (9): 1055–1096. Bibcode:1982IEEEP..70.1055T. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.471.1278. doi:10.1109/PROC.1982.12433. S2CID 290772.vteStatistics\nOutline\nIndex\nDescriptive statisticsContinuous dataCenter\nMean\nArithmetic\nArithmetic-Geometric\nCubic\nGeneralized/power\nGeometric\nHarmonic\nHeronian\nHeinz\nLehmer\nMedian\nMode\nDispersion\nAverage absolute deviation\nCoefficient of variation\nInterquartile range\nPercentile\nRange\nStandard deviation\nVariance\nShape\nCentral limit theorem\nMoments\nKurtosis\nL-moments\nSkewness\nCount data\nIndex of dispersion\nSummary tables\nContingency table\nFrequency distribution\nGrouped data\nDependence\nPartial correlation\nPearson product-moment correlation\nRank correlation\nKendall's τ\nSpearman's ρ\nScatter plot\nGraphics\nBar chart\nBiplot\nBox plot\nControl chart\nCorrelogram\nFan chart\nForest plot\nHistogram\nPie chart\nQ–Q plot\nRadar chart\nRun chart\nScatter plot\nStem-and-leaf display\nViolin plot\nData collectionStudy design\nEffect size\nMissing data\nOptimal design\nPopulation\nReplication\nSample size determination\nStatistic\nStatistical power\nSurvey methodology\nSampling\nCluster\nStratified\nOpinion poll\nQuestionnaire\nStandard error\nControlled experiments\nBlocking\nFactorial experiment\nInteraction\nRandom assignment\nRandomized controlled trial\nRandomized experiment\nScientific control\nAdaptive designs\nAdaptive clinical trial\nStochastic approximation\nUp-and-down designs\nObservational studies\nCohort study\nCross-sectional study\nNatural experiment\nQuasi-experiment\nStatistical inferenceStatistical theory\nPopulation\nStatistic\nProbability distribution\nSampling distribution\nOrder statistic\nEmpirical distribution\nDensity estimation\nStatistical model\nModel specification\nLp space\nParameter\nlocation\nscale\nshape\nParametric family\nLikelihood (monotone)\nLocation–scale family\nExponential family\nCompleteness\nSufficiency\nStatistical functional\nBootstrap\nU\nV\nOptimal decision\nloss function\nEfficiency\nStatistical distance\ndivergence\nAsymptotics\nRobustness\nFrequentist inferencePoint estimation\nEstimating equations\nMaximum likelihood\nMethod of moments\nM-estimator\nMinimum distance\nUnbiased estimators\nMean-unbiased minimum-variance\nRao–Blackwellization\nLehmann–Scheffé theorem\nMedian unbiased\nPlug-in\nInterval estimation\nConfidence interval\nPivot\nLikelihood interval\nPrediction interval\nTolerance interval\nResampling\nBootstrap\nJackknife\nTesting hypotheses\n1- & 2-tails\nPower\nUniformly most powerful test\nPermutation test\nRandomization test\nMultiple comparisons\nParametric tests\nLikelihood-ratio\nScore/Lagrange multiplier\nWald\nSpecific tests\nZ-test (normal)\nStudent's t-test\nF-test\nGoodness of fit\nChi-squared\nG-test\nKolmogorov–Smirnov\nAnderson–Darling\nLilliefors\nJarque–Bera\nNormality (Shapiro–Wilk)\nLikelihood-ratio test\nModel selection\nCross validation\nAIC\nBIC\nRank statistics\nSign\nSample median\nSigned rank (Wilcoxon)\nHodges–Lehmann estimator\nRank sum (Mann–Whitney)\nNonparametric anova\n1-way (Kruskal–Wallis)\n2-way (Friedman)\nOrdered alternative (Jonckheere–Terpstra)\nVan der Waerden test\nBayesian inference\nBayesian probability\nprior\nposterior\nCredible interval\nBayes factor\nBayesian estimator\nMaximum posterior estimator\nCorrelationRegression analysisCorrelation\nPearson product-moment\nPartial correlation\nConfounding variable\nCoefficient of determination\nRegression analysis\nErrors and residuals\nRegression validation\nMixed effects models\nSimultaneous equations models\nMultivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)\nLinear regression\nSimple linear regression\nOrdinary least squares\nGeneral linear model\nBayesian regression\nNon-standard predictors\nNonlinear regression\nNonparametric\nSemiparametric\nIsotonic\nRobust\nHeteroscedasticity\nHomoscedasticity\nGeneralized linear model\nExponential families\nLogistic (Bernoulli) / Binomial / Poisson regressions\nPartition of variance\nAnalysis of variance (ANOVA, anova)\nAnalysis of covariance\nMultivariate ANOVA\nDegrees of freedom\nCategorical / Multivariate / Time-series / Survival analysisCategorical\nCohen's kappa\nContingency table\nGraphical model\nLog-linear model\nMcNemar's test\nCochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics\nMultivariate\nRegression\nManova\nPrincipal components\nCanonical correlation\nDiscriminant analysis\nCluster analysis\nClassification\nStructural equation model\nFactor analysis\nMultivariate distributions\nElliptical distributions\nNormal\nTime-seriesGeneral\nDecomposition\nTrend\nStationarity\nSeasonal adjustment\nExponential smoothing\nCointegration\nStructural break\nGranger causality\nSpecific tests\nDickey–Fuller\nJohansen\nQ-statistic (Ljung–Box)\nDurbin–Watson\nBreusch–Godfrey\nTime domain\nAutocorrelation (ACF)\npartial (PACF)\nCross-correlation (XCF)\nARMA model\nARIMA model (Box–Jenkins)\nAutoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)\nVector autoregression (VAR)\nFrequency domain\nSpectral density estimation\nFourier analysis\nLeast-squares spectral analysis\nWavelet\nWhittle likelihood\nSurvivalSurvival function\nKaplan–Meier estimator (product limit)\nProportional hazards models\nAccelerated failure time (AFT) model\nFirst hitting time\nHazard function\nNelson–Aalen estimator\nTest\nLog-rank test\nApplicationsBiostatistics\nBioinformatics\nClinical trials / studies\nEpidemiology\nMedical statistics\nEngineering statistics\nChemometrics\nMethods engineering\nProbabilistic design\nProcess / quality control\nReliability\nSystem identification\nSocial statistics\nActuarial science\nCensus\nCrime statistics\nDemography\nEconometrics\nJurimetrics\nNational accounts\nOfficial statistics\nPopulation statistics\nPsychometrics\nSpatial statistics\nCartography\nEnvironmental statistics\nGeographic information system\nGeostatistics\nKriging\n\nCategory\n Mathematics portal\nCommons\n WikiProject","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Example of voice waveform and its frequency spectrum","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Voice_waveform_and_spectrum.png/220px-Voice_waveform_and_spectrum.png"},{"image_text":"A periodic waveform (triangle wave) and its frequency spectrum, showing a \"fundamental\" frequency at 220 Hz followed by multiples (harmonics) of 220 Hz","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Triangle-td_and_fd.png/220px-Triangle-td_and_fd.png"},{"image_text":"The power spectral density of a segment of music is estimated by two different methods, for comparison","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Comparison_of_periodogram_and_Welch_methods_of_spectral_density_estimation.png/220px-Comparison_of_periodogram_and_Welch_methods_of_spectral_density_estimation.png"}]

[{"title":"Multidimensional spectral estimation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multidimensional_spectral_estimation"},{"title":"Periodogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodogram"},{"title":"SigSpec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SigSpec"},{"title":"Spectrogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrogram"},{"title":"Time–frequency analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%E2%80%93frequency_analysis"},{"title":"Time–frequency representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%E2%80%93frequency_representation"},{"title":"Whittle likelihood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whittle_likelihood"},{"title":"Spectral power distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_power_distribution"}]

[{"reference":"Welch, P. D. (1967), \"The use of Fast Fourier Transform for the estimation of power spectra: A method based on time averaging over short, modified periodograms\", IEEE Transactions on Audio and Electroacoustics, AU-15 (2): 70–73, Bibcode:1967ITAE...15...70W, doi:10.1109/TAU.1967.1161901, S2CID 13900622","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967ITAE...15...70W","url_text":"1967ITAE...15...70W"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTAU.1967.1161901","url_text":"10.1109/TAU.1967.1161901"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13900622","url_text":"13900622"}]},{"reference":"Stoica, Petre; Babu, Prabhu; Li, Jian (January 2011). \"New Method of Sparse Parameter Estimation in Separable Models and Its Use for Spectral Analysis of Irregularly Sampled Data\". IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing. 59 (1): 35–47. Bibcode:2011ITSP...59...35S. doi:10.1109/TSP.2010.2086452. ISSN 1053-587X. S2CID 15936187.","urls":[{"url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5599897","url_text":"\"New Method of Sparse Parameter Estimation in Separable Models and Its Use for Spectral Analysis of Irregularly Sampled Data\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011ITSP...59...35S","url_text":"2011ITSP...59...35S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTSP.2010.2086452","url_text":"10.1109/TSP.2010.2086452"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1053-587X","url_text":"1053-587X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15936187","url_text":"15936187"}]},{"reference":"Stoica, Petre; Li, Jian; Ling, Jun; Cheng, Yubo (April 2009). \"Missing data recovery via a nonparametric iterative adaptive approach\". 2009 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing. IEEE. pp. 3369–3372. doi:10.1109/icassp.2009.4960347. ISBN 978-1-4244-2353-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icassp.2009.4960347","url_text":"\"Missing data recovery via a nonparametric iterative adaptive approach\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2Ficassp.2009.4960347","url_text":"10.1109/icassp.2009.4960347"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-2353-8","url_text":"978-1-4244-2353-8"}]},{"reference":"Sward, Johan; Adalbjornsson, Stefan Ingi; Jakobsson, Andreas (March 2017). \"A generalization of the sparse iterative covariance-based estimator\". 2017 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP). IEEE. pp. 3954–3958. doi:10.1109/icassp.2017.7952898. ISBN 978-1-5090-4117-6. S2CID 5640068.","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icassp.2017.7952898","url_text":"\"A generalization of the sparse iterative covariance-based estimator\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2Ficassp.2017.7952898","url_text":"10.1109/icassp.2017.7952898"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5090-4117-6","url_text":"978-1-5090-4117-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5640068","url_text":"5640068"}]},{"reference":"Yardibi, Tarik; Li, Jian; Stoica, Petre; Xue, Ming; Baggeroer, Arthur B. (January 2010). \"Source Localization and Sensing: A Nonparametric Iterative Adaptive Approach Based on Weighted Least Squares\". IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems. 46 (1): 425–443. Bibcode:2010ITAES..46..425Y. doi:10.1109/TAES.2010.5417172. hdl:1721.1/59588. ISSN 0018-9251. S2CID 18834345.","urls":[{"url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5417172","url_text":"\"Source Localization and Sensing: A Nonparametric Iterative Adaptive Approach Based on Weighted Least Squares\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010ITAES..46..425Y","url_text":"2010ITAES..46..425Y"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTAES.2010.5417172","url_text":"10.1109/TAES.2010.5417172"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F59588","url_text":"1721.1/59588"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9251","url_text":"0018-9251"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18834345","url_text":"18834345"}]},{"reference":"Panahi, Ashkan; Viberg, Mats (February 2011). \"On the resolution of the LASSO-based DOA estimation method\". 2011 International ITG Workshop on Smart Antennas. IEEE. pp. 1–5. doi:10.1109/wsa.2011.5741938. ISBN 978-1-61284-075-8. S2CID 7013162.","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1109/wsa.2011.5741938","url_text":"\"On the resolution of the LASSO-based DOA estimation method\""},{"url":"https://research.chalmers.se/en/publication/141363","url_text":"2011 International ITG Workshop on Smart Antennas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2Fwsa.2011.5741938","url_text":"10.1109/wsa.2011.5741938"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61284-075-8","url_text":"978-1-61284-075-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7013162","url_text":"7013162"}]},{"reference":"Percival, Donald B.; Walden, Andrew T. (1992). Spectral Analysis for Physical Applications. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521435413.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521435413","url_text":"9780521435413"}]},{"reference":"Lerga, Jonatan. \"Overview of Signal Instantaneous Frequency Estimation Methods\" (PDF). University of Rijeka. Retrieved 22 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fer.unizg.hr/_download/repository/Jonatan_Lerga_-_kvalifikacijski_rad.pdf","url_text":"\"Overview of Signal Instantaneous Frequency Estimation Methods\""}]},{"reference":"Porat, B. (1994). Digital Processing of Random Signals: Theory & Methods. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-063751-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-063751-2","url_text":"978-0-13-063751-2"}]},{"reference":"Priestley, M.B. (1991). Spectral Analysis and Time Series. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-564922-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-564922-3","url_text":"978-0-12-564922-3"}]},{"reference":"Stoica, P.; Moses, R. (2005). Spectral Analysis of Signals. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-113956-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-113956-5","url_text":"978-0-13-113956-5"}]},{"reference":"Thomson, D. J. (1982). \"Spectrum estimation and harmonic analysis\". Proceedings of the IEEE. 70 (9): 1055–1096. Bibcode:1982IEEEP..70.1055T. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.471.1278. doi:10.1109/PROC.1982.12433. S2CID 290772.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982IEEEP..70.1055T","url_text":"1982IEEEP..70.1055T"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.471.1278","url_text":"10.1.1.471.1278"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FPROC.1982.12433","url_text":"10.1109/PROC.1982.12433"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:290772","url_text":"290772"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advisory_Committee_on_Earthquake_Hazards_Reduction

Advisory Committee on Earthquake Hazards Reduction

["1 References","2 External links"]

This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject. Please help improve the article by providing more context for the reader. (April 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: "Advisory Committee on Earthquake Hazards Reduction" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)Main article: Earthquake engineering The 2004 re-authorization of National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) directed that the Director of the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) establish the Advisory Committee on Earthquake Hazards Reduction (ACEHR) to assess: trends and developments in the science and engineering of earthquake hazards reduction; the effectiveness of NEHRP in performing its statutory activities: improved design and construction methods and practices; land use controls and redevelopment; prediction techniques and early-warning systems; coordinated emergency preparedness plans; and public education and involvement programs; any need to revise NEHRP; and the management, coordination, implementation, and activities of the NEHRP. On June 27, 2006, the official Charter of the Advisory Committee on Earthquake Hazards Reduction was established by the U.S. Department of Commerce, parent agency for NIST. The committee is to be widely representative of the stakeholder community. Federal employees may not serve on the committee. As established by the charter, ACEHR will have 11–15 voting members, in addition to having the Chairperson of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Scientific Earthquake Studies Advisory Committee (SESAC) serve in an ex-officio capacity. References ^ Advisory Committee on Earthquake Hazards Reduction (PDF), U.S. Department of Commerce: National Institute of Standards and Technology Charter of the Advisory Committee on Earthquake Hazards Reduction, archived from the original on 26 Dec 2022{{citation}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) External links Official website USGS Earthquake Hazards Program

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Earthquake_Hazards_Reduction_Program"},{"link_name":"National Institute of Standards and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"construction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_construction"},{"link_name":"land use","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use"},{"link_name":"prediction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_prediction"},{"link_name":"early-warning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_warning_system"},{"link_name":"emergency preparedness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_preparedness"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"U.S. Department of Commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Commerce"},{"link_name":"United States Geological Survey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey"}],"text":"The 2004 re-authorization of National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) directed that the Director of the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) establish the Advisory Committee on Earthquake Hazards Reduction (ACEHR) to assess:trends and developments in the science and engineering of earthquake hazards reduction;\nthe effectiveness of NEHRP in performing its statutory activities:\nimproved design and construction methods and practices;\nland use controls and redevelopment;\nprediction techniques and early-warning systems;\ncoordinated emergency preparedness plans; and\npublic education and involvement programs;\nany need to revise NEHRP; and\nthe management, coordination, implementation, and activities of the NEHRP.On June 27, 2006, the official Charter of the Advisory Committee on Earthquake Hazards Reduction[1] was established by the U.S. Department of Commerce, parent agency for NIST. The committee is to be widely representative of the stakeholder community. Federal employees may not serve on the committee. As established by the charter, ACEHR will have 11–15 voting members, in addition to having the Chairperson of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Scientific Earthquake Studies Advisory Committee (SESAC) serve in an ex-officio capacity.","title":"Advisory Committee on Earthquake Hazards Reduction"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_book

Dutch book

["1 The arguments","1.1 Establishing willingness to bet","1.2 Unitarity","1.3 Other axioms","2 Economics","3 See also","4 Footnotes","5 References","6 External links"]

Gambling term This article is about the term in probability theory. For books written in the Dutch language, see Dutch literature. This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) It has been suggested that this article be merged into Coherence (philosophical gambling strategy). (Discuss) Proposed since March 2024. In gambling, economics, and the philosophy of probability, a Dutch book or lock is a set of odds and bets that ensures a guaranteed profit (regardless of the outcome being bet on). It is generally used as a thought experiment to motivate Von Neumann–Morgenstern axioms or the axioms of probability by showing they are equivalent to philosophical coherence or Pareto efficiency. In economics, the term usually refers to a sequence of trades that would leave one party strictly worse off (effectively "burning money"). Typical assumptions in rational choice theory (namely, the Von Neumann–Morgenstern axioms) rule out Dutch books. These assumptions are weakened by behavioral economics. In philosophy the Dutch book argument is used to explore degrees of certainty in beliefs, showing that rational agents must be Bayesian (i.e. assign probabilities to events). There is no agreement on the etymology of the term. The arguments The standard Dutch book argument shows that rational agents must have subjective probabilities for random events, and that these probabilities must satisfy the standard axioms of probability. In other words, any rational person must be willing to assign a (quantitative) subjective probability to different events. Note that the argument does not imply agents are willing to engage in gambling in the traditional sense. The word "bet" as used here refers to any kind of decision under uncertainty. For example, buying an unfamiliar good at a supermarket is a kind of "bet" (the buyer "bets" that the product is good), as is getting into a car ("betting" that the driver will not be involved in an accident). Establishing willingness to bet The Dutch book argument can be reversed by considering the perspective of the bookmaker. In this case, the Dutch book arguments show that any rational agent must be willing to accept some kinds of risks, i.e. to make uncertain bets, or else they will sometimes refuse "free gifts" or "Czech books"--a series of bets that leaves them better-off with 100% certainty. Unitarity In one example, a bookmaker has offered the following odds and attracted one bet on each horse whose relative sizes make the result irrelevant. The implied probabilities, i.e. probability of each horse winning, add up to a number greater than 1, violating the axiom of unitarity: Horse number Offered odds Implied probability Bet price Bookmaker paysif horse wins 1 Even 1 1 + 1 = 0.5 {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{1+1}}=0.5} $100 $100 stake + $100 2 3 to 1 against 1 3 + 1 = 0.25 {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{3+1}}=0.25} $50 $50 stake + $150 3 4 to 1 against 1 4 + 1 = 0.2 {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{4+1}}=0.2} $40 $40 stake + $160 4 9 to 1 against 1 9 + 1 = 0.1 {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{9+1}}=0.1} $20 $20 stake + $180 Total: 1.05 Total: $210 Always: $200 Whichever horse wins in this example, the bookmaker will pay out $200 (including returning the winning stake)—but the punter has bet $210, hence making a loss of $10 on the race. However, if horse 4 was withdrawn and the bookmaker does not adjust the other odds, the implied probabilities would add up to 0.95. In such a case, a gambler could always reap a profit of $10 by betting $100, $50 and $40 on the remaining three horses, respectively, and not having to stake $20 on the withdrawn horse, which now cannot win. Other axioms Other forms of Dutch books can be used to establish the other axioms of probability, sometimes involving more complex bets like forecasting the order in which horses will finish. In Bayesian probability, Frank P. Ramsey and Bruno de Finetti required personal degrees of belief to be coherent so that a Dutch book could not be made against them, whichever way bets were made. Necessary and sufficient conditions for this are that their degrees of belief satisfy all the axioms of probability. Economics See also: Money pump In economics, the classic example of a situation in which a consumer X can be Dutch-booked is if they have intransitive preferences. Suppose that for this consumer, A is preferred to B, B is preferred to C, and C is preferred to A. Then suppose that someone else in the population, Y, has one of these goods. Without loss of generality, suppose Y has good A. Then Y can first sell A to X for B+ε; then sell B to X for C+ε; then sell C to X for A+ε, where ε is some small amount of the numeraire. After this sequence of trades, X has given 3·ε to Y for nothing in return. This method is a money pump, where Y exploits X using an arbitrage-opportunity by taking advantage of X's intransitive preferences. Economists usually argue that people with preferences like X's will have all their wealth taken from them in the market. If this is the case, we won't observe preferences with intransitivities or other features that allow people to be Dutch-booked. However, if people are somewhat sophisticated about their intransitivities and/or if competition by arbitrageurs drives epsilon to zero, non-"standard" preferences may still be observable. See also Arbitrage Arbitrage betting Bayesian epistemology Coherence (philosophical gambling strategy) Dutching Mathematics of bookmaking Risk aversion Footnotes ^ "Dutch Book Arguments". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2016. ^ Bovens, Luc; Rabinowicz, Wlodek (2012). "Bets on Hats: On Dutch Books Against Groups, Degrees of Belief as Betting Rates, and Group-Reflection". Episteme. 8 (3): 281–300. doi:10.3366/epi.2011.0022. ISSN 1742-3600. S2CID 53515618. ^ Hajek, Alan Dutch Book Arguments, Chapter 7 in The Oxford Handbook of Rational and Social Choice, ed. Paul Anand, Prasanta Pattanaik, and Clemens Puppe, 173-195, Oxford University Press References de Finetti B.; Machi A.; Smith A. (1993). Theory of Probability: A Critical Introductory Treatment. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-521-41850-X. Maher P. (1992). Betting on Theories. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-471-58882-2. de Finetti, B. (1931). "Sul significato soggettivo della probabilità". Fundamenta Mathematicae. 17: 298–329. doi:10.4064/fm-17-1-298-329. External links Dutch Book Arguments in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Probabilities as Betting Odds, report by C. Caves. Notes on the Dutch Book Argument, by D. A. Freedman.

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For books written in the Dutch language, see Dutch literature.In gambling, economics, and the philosophy of probability, a Dutch book or lock is a set of odds and bets that ensures a guaranteed profit (regardless of the outcome being bet on).[1] It is generally used as a thought experiment to motivate Von Neumann–Morgenstern axioms or the axioms of probability by showing they are equivalent to philosophical coherence or Pareto efficiency.In economics, the term usually refers to a sequence of trades that would leave one party strictly worse off (effectively \"burning money\"). Typical assumptions in rational choice theory (namely, the Von Neumann–Morgenstern axioms) rule out Dutch books. These assumptions are weakened by behavioral economics.In philosophy the Dutch book argument is used to explore degrees of certainty in beliefs,[2] showing that rational agents must be Bayesian (i.e. assign probabilities to events).There is no agreement on the etymology of the term.[3]","title":"Dutch book"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"subjective probability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subjective_probabilities"},{"link_name":"gambling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambling"},{"link_name":"uncertainty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty"}],"text":"The standard Dutch book argument shows that rational agents must have subjective probabilities for random events, and that these probabilities must satisfy the standard axioms of probability. In other words, any rational person must be willing to assign a (quantitative) subjective probability to different events.Note that the argument does not imply agents are willing to engage in gambling in the traditional sense. The word \"bet\" as used here refers to any kind of decision under uncertainty. For example, buying an unfamiliar good at a supermarket is a kind of \"bet\" (the buyer \"bets\" that the product is good), as is getting into a car (\"betting\" that the driver will not be involved in an accident).","title":"The arguments"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Establishing willingness to bet","text":"The Dutch book argument can be reversed by considering the perspective of the bookmaker. In this case, the Dutch book arguments show that any rational agent must be willing to accept some kinds of risks, i.e. to make uncertain bets, or else they will sometimes refuse \"free gifts\" or \"Czech books\"--a series of bets that leaves them better-off with 100% certainty.","title":"The arguments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bookmaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookmaker"},{"link_name":"axiom of unitarity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_axioms"}],"sub_title":"Unitarity","text":"In one example, a bookmaker has offered the following odds and attracted one bet on each horse whose relative sizes make the result irrelevant. The implied probabilities, i.e. probability of each horse winning, add up to a number greater than 1, violating the axiom of unitarity:Whichever horse wins in this example, the bookmaker will pay out $200 (including returning the winning stake)—but the punter has bet $210, hence making a loss of $10 on the race.However, if horse 4 was withdrawn and the bookmaker does not adjust the other odds, the implied probabilities would add up to 0.95. In such a case, a gambler could always reap a profit of $10 by betting $100, $50 and $40 on the remaining three horses, respectively, and not having to stake $20 on the withdrawn horse, which now cannot win.","title":"The arguments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"forecasting the order in which horses will finish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifecta"},{"link_name":"Bayesian probability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_probability"},{"link_name":"Frank P. Ramsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey"},{"link_name":"Bruno de Finetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_de_Finetti"},{"link_name":"coherent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherence_(philosophical_gambling_strategy)"},{"link_name":"Necessary and sufficient conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessary_and_sufficient_conditions"},{"link_name":"axioms of probability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axioms_of_probability"}],"sub_title":"Other axioms","text":"Other forms of Dutch books can be used to establish the other axioms of probability, sometimes involving more complex bets like forecasting the order in which horses will finish. In Bayesian probability, Frank P. Ramsey and Bruno de Finetti required personal degrees of belief to be coherent so that a Dutch book could not be made against them, whichever way bets were made. Necessary and sufficient conditions for this are that their degrees of belief satisfy all the axioms of probability.","title":"The arguments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Money pump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_pump"},{"link_name":"intransitive preferences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intransitive_preference"},{"link_name":"Without loss of generality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Without_loss_of_generality"},{"link_name":"numeraire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeraire"}],"text":"See also: Money pumpIn economics, the classic example of a situation in which a consumer X can be Dutch-booked is if they have intransitive preferences. Suppose that for this consumer, A is preferred to B, B is preferred to C, and C is preferred to A. Then suppose that someone else in the population, Y, has one of these goods. Without loss of generality, suppose Y has good A. Then Y can first sell A to X for B+ε; then sell B to X for C+ε; then sell C to X for A+ε, where ε is some small amount of the numeraire. After this sequence of trades, X has given 3·ε to Y for nothing in return. This method is a money pump, where Y exploits X using an arbitrage-opportunity by taking advantage of X's intransitive preferences.Economists usually argue that people with preferences like X's will have all their wealth taken from them in the market. If this is the case, we won't observe preferences with intransitivities or other features that allow people to be Dutch-booked. However, if people are somewhat sophisticated about their intransitivities and/or if competition by arbitrageurs drives epsilon to zero, non-\"standard\" preferences may still be observable.","title":"Economics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Dutch Book Arguments\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//plato.stanford.edu/entries/dutch-book/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"Bets on Hats: On Dutch Books Against Groups, Degrees of Belief as Betting Rates, and Group-Reflection\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1742360000001787/type/journal_article"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.3366/epi.2011.0022","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.3366%2Fepi.2011.0022"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1742-3600","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1742-3600"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"53515618","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53515618"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"}],"text":"^ \"Dutch Book Arguments\". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2016.\n\n^ Bovens, Luc; Rabinowicz, Wlodek (2012). \"Bets on Hats: On Dutch Books Against Groups, Degrees of Belief as Betting Rates, and Group-Reflection\". Episteme. 8 (3): 281–300. doi:10.3366/epi.2011.0022. ISSN 1742-3600. S2CID 53515618.\n\n^ Hajek, Alan Dutch Book Arguments, Chapter 7 in The Oxford Handbook of Rational and Social Choice, ed. Paul Anand, Prasanta Pattanaik, and Clemens Puppe, 173-195, Oxford University Press","title":"Footnotes"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TeacherTube

TeacherTube

["1 History","2 Partnerships","3 See also","4 Citations","5 External links"]

Educational resources sharing website TeacherTubeType of siteEducationalAvailable inEnglishOwnerSalem Web Network, LLCCreated byUser contentFounder(s)Adam SmithJason SmithKey peopleDavid Bingham, VPURLhttp://www.teachertube.comCommercialYesRegistrationoptionalLaunched2007Current statusactive TeacherTube is a video sharing website. It is designed to allow those in the educational industry, particularly teachers, to share educational resources such as video, audio, documents, photos, groups and blogs. The site contains a mixture of classroom teaching resources and others designed for teacher training. A number of students have also uploaded videos that they have made as part of K-12 and college courses. As of July 2008, the website contained over 26,000 videos. In October 2010, TeacherTube had over a million members and over 400,000 educational videos. It has found favor with educators from institutions where YouTube content is blocked by content filtering systems. On September 1, 2017, TeacherTube was acquired by Salem Web Network, a Christian website company owned and operated by Salem Media Group, which targets audiences interested in Christian and family-themed content and conservative values. History TeacherTube was launched on March 6, 2007 by Jason Smith, a Superintendent from Melissa, Texas and younger brother Adam Smith. In 2007, the site garnered 10 million page views per month. The site ran a number of creative educational competitions, in association with companies such as Texas Instruments and Interwrite. Institutions such as South Carolina State Library are using the service to disseminate information. Partnerships In 2009 TeacherTube partnered with NASA's Ares and NASA's Ares TV program. Since the partnership started, the Ares videos have reached students across the world. In 2007, TeacherTube partnered with the American Institute for History Education (AIHE). The AIHE Channel on TeacherTube has now branched off to AIHE TV which broadcasts live reaching the state of New Jersey. Since 2010 TeacherTube has cooperated with an education program, Glogster EDU, which is a web 2.0 platform that enables users to create virtual posters and load them with videos, music, sounds, pictures, text, data attachments, special effects, animations and links. TeacherTube created the Non-Profit Program Channel for Non-Profit organizations. TeacherTube partnered with UNICEF and the TeachUNICEF program, Adopt a Classroom and the North Texas History Center. See also List of educational video websites Citations ^ "TeacherTube Safe, Reliable Resource". American Institute for History Teaching. Retrieved 2008-07-10. ^ "AboutUs". www.teachertube.com. Retrieved 2020-02-06. ^ "Who We Are | Salem Media Group". ^ "Educators get TeacherTube". NY Daily News. December 10, 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-10. ^ "Fayetteville math video contest". Reuters. May 5, 2008. Archived from the original on February 1, 2013. Retrieved 2008-07-10. ^ "Interwrite, TeacherTube Launch School Video Contest". T.H.E. Journal. September 27, 2007. Archived from the original on 2008-07-08. Retrieved 2008-07-10. ^ "Press release". South Carolina State Library. April 21, 2008. Archived from the original on 2011-08-20. Retrieved 2008-07-10. External links TeacherTube Homepage

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In 2007, the site garnered 10 million page views per month.\n[4] The site ran a number of creative educational competitions, in association with companies such as Texas Instruments[5] and Interwrite.[6] Institutions such as South Carolina State Library are using the service to disseminate information.[7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Glogster EDU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glogster_EDU"},{"link_name":"web 2.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0"}],"text":"In 2009 TeacherTube partnered with NASA's Ares and NASA's Ares TV program. Since the partnership started, the Ares videos have reached students across the world.In 2007, TeacherTube partnered with the American Institute for History Education (AIHE). The AIHE Channel on TeacherTube has now branched off to AIHE TV which broadcasts live reaching the state of New Jersey.Since 2010 TeacherTube has cooperated with an education program, Glogster EDU, which is a web 2.0 platform that enables users to create virtual posters and load them with videos, music, sounds, pictures, text, data attachments, special effects, animations and links.TeacherTube created the Non-Profit Program Channel for Non-Profit organizations. TeacherTube partnered with UNICEF and the TeachUNICEF program, Adopt a Classroom and the North Texas History Center.","title":"Partnerships"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"TeacherTube Safe, Reliable Resource\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.americaninstituteforhistory.org/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"AboutUs\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.teachertube.com/about-us"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"Who We Are | Salem Media Group\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//salemmedia.com/about-us/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Educators get TeacherTube\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nydailynews.com/ny_local/education/2007/12/09/2007-12-09_educators_get_teachertube.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"Fayetteville math video contest\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20130201075718/http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS141185+05-May-2008+PRN20080505"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS141185+05-May-2008+PRN20080505"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"Interwrite, TeacherTube Launch School Video Contest\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20080708202447/http://www.thejournal.com/articles/21249"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.thejournal.com/articles/21249"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Press release\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110820034704/http://listserv.scsl.state.sc.us/scripts/wa.exe?A2=ind0804&L=scsl-press&F=P&P=1620"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//listserv.scsl.state.sc.us/scripts/wa.exe?A2=ind0804&L=scsl-press&F=P&P=1620"}],"text":"^ \"TeacherTube Safe, Reliable Resource\". American Institute for History Teaching. Retrieved 2008-07-10.\n\n^ \"AboutUs\". www.teachertube.com. Retrieved 2020-02-06.\n\n^ \"Who We Are | Salem Media Group\".\n\n^ \"Educators get TeacherTube\". NY Daily News. December 10, 2007. Retrieved 2008-07-10.\n\n^ \"Fayetteville math video contest\". Reuters. May 5, 2008. Archived from the original on February 1, 2013. Retrieved 2008-07-10.\n\n^ \"Interwrite, TeacherTube Launch School Video Contest\". T.H.E. Journal. September 27, 2007. Archived from the original on 2008-07-08. Retrieved 2008-07-10.\n\n^ \"Press release\". South Carolina State Library. April 21, 2008. Archived from the original on 2011-08-20. Retrieved 2008-07-10.","title":"Citations"}]

[]

[{"title":"List of educational video websites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_educational_video_websites"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleration

Acceleration

["1 Definition and properties","1.1 Average acceleration","1.2 Instantaneous acceleration","1.3 Units","1.4 Other forms","2 Tangential and centripetal acceleration","3 Special cases","3.1 Uniform acceleration","3.2 Circular motion","4 Coordinate systems","5 Relation to relativity","5.1 Special relativity","5.2 General relativity","6 Conversions","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]

Rate of change of velocity This article is about acceleration in physics. For other uses, see Acceleration (disambiguation). "Accelerate" redirects here. For other uses, see Accelerate (disambiguation). AccelerationIn vacuum (no air resistance), objects attracted by Earth gain speed at a steady rate.Common symbolsaSI unitm/s2, m·s−2, m s−2Derivations fromother quantities a = d v d t = d 2 x d t 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} ={\frac {d\mathbf {v} }{dt}}={\frac {d^{2}\mathbf {x} }{dt^{2}}}} Dimension L T − 2 {\displaystyle {\mathsf {L}}{\mathsf {T}}^{-2}} Part of a series onClassical mechanics F = d d t ( m v ) {\displaystyle {\textbf {F}}={\frac {d}{dt}}(m{\textbf {v}})} Second law of motion History Timeline Textbooks Branches Applied Celestial Continuum Dynamics Kinematics Kinetics Statics Statistical mechanics Fundamentals Acceleration Angular momentum Couple D'Alembert's principle Energy kinetic potential Force Frame of reference Inertial frame of reference Impulse Inertia / Moment of inertia Mass Mechanical power Mechanical work Moment Momentum Space Speed Time Torque Velocity Virtual work Formulations Newton's laws of motion Analytical mechanics Lagrangian mechanicsHamiltonian mechanicsRouthian mechanicsHamilton–Jacobi equationAppell's equation of motionKoopman–von Neumann mechanics Core topics Damping Displacement Equations of motion Euler's laws of motion Fictitious force Friction Harmonic oscillator Inertial / Non-inertial reference frame Mechanics of planar particle motion Motion (linear) Newton's law of universal gravitation Newton's laws of motion Relative velocity Rigid body dynamics Euler's equations Simple harmonic motion Vibration Rotation Circular motion Rotating reference frame Centripetal force Centrifugal force reactive Coriolis force Pendulum Tangential speed Rotational frequency Angular acceleration / displacement / frequency / velocity Scientists Kepler Galileo Huygens Newton Horrocks Halley Maupertuis Daniel Bernoulli Johann Bernoulli Euler d'Alembert Clairaut Lagrange Laplace Poisson Hamilton Jacobi Cauchy Routh Liouville Appell Gibbs Koopman von Neumann Physics portal  Categoryvte Drag racing is a sport in which specially-built vehicles compete to be the fastest to accelerate from a standing start. In mechanics, acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object with respect to time. Acceleration is one of several components of kinematics, the study of motion. Accelerations are vector quantities (in that they have magnitude and direction). The orientation of an object's acceleration is given by the orientation of the net force acting on that object. The magnitude of an object's acceleration, as described by Newton's Second Law, is the combined effect of two causes: the net balance of all external forces acting onto that object — magnitude is directly proportional to this net resulting force; that object's mass, depending on the materials out of which it is made — magnitude is inversely proportional to the object's mass. The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (m⋅s−2, m s 2 {\displaystyle \mathrm {\tfrac {m}{s^{2}}} } ). For example, when a vehicle starts from a standstill (zero velocity, in an inertial frame of reference) and travels in a straight line at increasing speeds, it is accelerating in the direction of travel. If the vehicle turns, an acceleration occurs toward the new direction and changes its motion vector. The acceleration of the vehicle in its current direction of motion is called a linear (or tangential during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers on board experience as a force pushing them back into their seats. When changing direction, the effecting acceleration is called radial (or centripetal during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers experience as a centrifugal force. If the speed of the vehicle decreases, this is an acceleration in the opposite direction of the velocity vector (mathematically a negative, if the movement is unidimensional and the velocity is positive), sometimes called deceleration or retardation, and passengers experience the reaction to deceleration as an inertial force pushing them forward. Such negative accelerations are often achieved by retrorocket burning in spacecraft. Both acceleration and deceleration are treated the same, as they are both changes in velocity. Each of these accelerations (tangential, radial, deceleration) is felt by passengers until their relative (differential) velocity are neutralized in reference to the acceleration due to change in speed. Definition and properties Kinematic quantities of a classical particle: mass m, position r, velocity v, acceleration a. Average acceleration Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. At any point on a trajectory, the magnitude of the acceleration is given by the rate of change of velocity in both magnitude and direction at that point. The true acceleration at time t is found in the limit as time interval Δt → 0 of Δv/Δt. An object's average acceleration over a period of time is its change in velocity, Δ v {\displaystyle \Delta \mathbf {v} } , divided by the duration of the period, Δ t {\displaystyle \Delta t} . Mathematically, a ¯ = Δ v Δ t . {\displaystyle {\bar {\mathbf {a} }}={\frac {\Delta \mathbf {v} }{\Delta t}}.} Instantaneous acceleration From bottom to top: an acceleration function a(t);the integral of the acceleration is the velocity function v(t);and the integral of the velocity is the distance function s(t). Instantaneous acceleration, meanwhile, is the limit of the average acceleration over an infinitesimal interval of time. In the terms of calculus, instantaneous acceleration is the derivative of the velocity vector with respect to time: a = lim Δ t → 0 Δ v Δ t = d v d t . {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} =\lim _{{\Delta t}\to 0}{\frac {\Delta \mathbf {v} }{\Delta t}}={\frac {d\mathbf {v} }{dt}}.} As acceleration is defined as the derivative of velocity, v, with respect to time t and velocity is defined as the derivative of position, x, with respect to time, acceleration can be thought of as the second derivative of x with respect to t: a = d v d t = d 2 x d t 2 . {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} ={\frac {d\mathbf {v} }{dt}}={\frac {d^{2}\mathbf {x} }{dt^{2}}}.} (Here and elsewhere, if motion is in a straight line, vector quantities can be substituted by scalars in the equations.) By the fundamental theorem of calculus, it can be seen that the integral of the acceleration function a(t) is the velocity function v(t); that is, the area under the curve of an acceleration vs. time (a vs. t) graph corresponds to the change of velocity. Δ v = ∫ a d t . {\displaystyle \mathbf {\Delta v} =\int \mathbf {a} \,dt.} Likewise, the integral of the jerk function j(t), the derivative of the acceleration function, can be used to find the change of acceleration at a certain time: Δ a = ∫ j d t . {\displaystyle \mathbf {\Delta a} =\int \mathbf {j} \,dt.} Units Acceleration has the dimensions of velocity (L/T) divided by time, i.e. L T−2. The SI unit of acceleration is the metre per second squared (m s−2); or "metre per second per second", as the velocity in metres per second changes by the acceleration value, every second. Other forms An object moving in a circular motion—such as a satellite orbiting the Earth—is accelerating due to the change of direction of motion, although its speed may be constant. In this case it is said to be undergoing centripetal (directed towards the center) acceleration. Proper acceleration, the acceleration of a body relative to a free-fall condition, is measured by an instrument called an accelerometer. In classical mechanics, for a body with constant mass, the (vector) acceleration of the body's center of mass is proportional to the net force vector (i.e. sum of all forces) acting on it (Newton's second law): F = m a ⟹ a = F m , {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =m\mathbf {a} \quad \implies \quad \mathbf {a} ={\frac {\mathbf {F} }{m}},} where F is the net force acting on the body, m is the mass of the body, and a is the center-of-mass acceleration. As speeds approach the speed of light, relativistic effects become increasingly large. Tangential and centripetal acceleration See also: Centripetal force § Local coordinates, and Tangential velocity An oscillating pendulum, with velocity and acceleration marked. It experiences both tangential and centripetal acceleration. Components of acceleration for a curved motion. The tangential component at is due to the change in speed of traversal, and points along the curve in the direction of the velocity vector (or in the opposite direction). The normal component (also called centripetal component for circular motion) ac is due to the change in direction of the velocity vector and is normal to the trajectory, pointing toward the center of curvature of the path. The velocity of a particle moving on a curved path as a function of time can be written as: v ( t ) = v ( t ) v ( t ) v ( t ) = v ( t ) u t ( t ) , {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} (t)=v(t){\frac {\mathbf {v} (t)}{v(t)}}=v(t)\mathbf {u} _{\mathrm {t} }(t),} with v(t) equal to the speed of travel along the path, and u t = v ( t ) v ( t ) , {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} _{\mathrm {t} }={\frac {\mathbf {v} (t)}{v(t)}}\,,} a unit vector tangent to the path pointing in the direction of motion at the chosen moment in time. Taking into account both the changing speed v(t) and the changing direction of ut, the acceleration of a particle moving on a curved path can be written using the chain rule of differentiation for the product of two functions of time as: a = d v d t = d v d t u t + v ( t ) d u t d t = d v d t u t + v 2 r u n   , {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{3}\mathbf {a} &={\frac {d\mathbf {v} }{dt}}\\&={\frac {dv}{dt}}\mathbf {u} _{\mathrm {t} }+v(t){\frac {d\mathbf {u} _{\mathrm {t} }}{dt}}\\&={\frac {dv}{dt}}\mathbf {u} _{\mathrm {t} }+{\frac {v^{2}}{r}}\mathbf {u} _{\mathrm {n} }\ ,\end{alignedat}}} where un is the unit (inward) normal vector to the particle's trajectory (also called the principal normal), and r is its instantaneous radius of curvature based upon the osculating circle at time t. The components a t = d v d t u t and a c = v 2 r u n {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{\mathrm {t} }={\frac {dv}{dt}}\mathbf {u} _{\mathrm {t} }\quad {\text{and}}\quad \mathbf {a} _{\mathrm {c} }={\frac {v^{2}}{r}}\mathbf {u} _{\mathrm {n} }} are called the tangential acceleration and the normal or radial acceleration (or centripetal acceleration in circular motion, see also circular motion and centripetal force), respectively. Geometrical analysis of three-dimensional space curves, which explains tangent, (principal) normal and binormal, is described by the Frenet–Serret formulas. Special cases Uniform acceleration See also: Torricelli's equation Calculation of the speed difference for a uniform acceleration Uniform or constant acceleration is a type of motion in which the velocity of an object changes by an equal amount in every equal time period. A frequently cited example of uniform acceleration is that of an object in free fall in a uniform gravitational field. The acceleration of a falling body in the absence of resistances to motion is dependent only on the gravitational field strength g (also called acceleration due to gravity). By Newton's Second Law the force F g {\displaystyle \mathbf {F_{g}} } acting on a body is given by: F g = m g . {\displaystyle \mathbf {F_{g}} =m\mathbf {g} .} Because of the simple analytic properties of the case of constant acceleration, there are simple formulas relating the displacement, initial and time-dependent velocities, and acceleration to the time elapsed: s ( t ) = s 0 + v 0 t + 1 2 a t 2 = s 0 + 1 2 ( v 0 + v ( t ) ) t v ( t ) = v 0 + a t v 2 ( t ) = v 0 2 + 2 a ⋅ [ s ( t ) − s 0 ] , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {s} (t)&=\mathbf {s} _{0}+\mathbf {v} _{0}t+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\mathbf {a} t^{2}=\mathbf {s} _{0}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\left(\mathbf {v} _{0}+\mathbf {v} (t)\right)t\\\mathbf {v} (t)&=\mathbf {v} _{0}+\mathbf {a} t\\{v^{2}}(t)&={v_{0}}^{2}+2\mathbf {a\cdot } ,\end{aligned}}} where t {\displaystyle t} is the elapsed time, s 0 {\displaystyle \mathbf {s} _{0}} is the initial displacement from the origin, s ( t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {s} (t)} is the displacement from the origin at time t {\displaystyle t} , v 0 {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} _{0}} is the initial velocity, v ( t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} (t)} is the velocity at time t {\displaystyle t} , and a {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} } is the uniform rate of acceleration. In particular, the motion can be resolved into two orthogonal parts, one of constant velocity and the other according to the above equations. As Galileo showed, the net result is parabolic motion, which describes, e.g., the trajectory of a projectile in vacuum near the surface of Earth. Circular motion Position vector r, always points radially from the origin.Velocity vector v, always tangent to the path of motion.Acceleration vector a, not parallel to the radial motion but offset by the angular and Coriolis accelerations, nor tangent to the path but offset by the centripetal and radial accelerations.Kinematic vectors in plane polar coordinates. Notice the setup is not restricted to 2d space, but may represent the osculating plane plane in a point of an arbitrary curve in any higher dimension. In uniform circular motion, that is moving with constant speed along a circular path, a particle experiences an acceleration resulting from the change of the direction of the velocity vector, while its magnitude remains constant. The derivative of the location of a point on a curve with respect to time, i.e. its velocity, turns out to be always exactly tangential to the curve, respectively orthogonal to the radius in this point. Since in uniform motion the velocity in the tangential direction does not change, the acceleration must be in radial direction, pointing to the center of the circle. This acceleration constantly changes the direction of the velocity to be tangent in the neighboring point, thereby rotating the velocity vector along the circle. For a given speed v {\displaystyle v} , the magnitude of this geometrically caused acceleration (centripetal acceleration) is inversely proportional to the radius r {\displaystyle r} of the circle, and increases as the square of this speed: a c = v 2 r . {\displaystyle a_{c}={\frac {v^{2}}{r}}\,.} For a given angular velocity ω {\displaystyle \omega } , the centripetal acceleration is directly proportional to radius r {\displaystyle r} . This is due to the dependence of velocity v {\displaystyle v} on the radius r {\displaystyle r} . v = ω r . {\displaystyle v=\omega r.} Expressing centripetal acceleration vector in polar components, where r {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} } is a vector from the centre of the circle to the particle with magnitude equal to this distance, and considering the orientation of the acceleration towards the center, yields a c = − v 2 | r | ⋅ r | r | . {\displaystyle \mathbf {a_{c}} =-{\frac {v^{2}}{|\mathbf {r} |}}\cdot {\frac {\mathbf {r} }{|\mathbf {r} |}}\,.} As usual in rotations, the speed v {\displaystyle v} of a particle may be expressed as an angular speed with respect to a point at the distance r {\displaystyle r} as ω = v r . {\displaystyle \omega ={\frac {v}{r}}.} Thus a c = − ω 2 r . {\displaystyle \mathbf {a_{c}} =-\omega ^{2}\mathbf {r} \,.} This acceleration and the mass of the particle determine the necessary centripetal force, directed toward the centre of the circle, as the net force acting on this particle to keep it in this uniform circular motion. The so-called 'centrifugal force', appearing to act outward on the body, is a so-called pseudo force experienced in the frame of reference of the body in circular motion, due to the body's linear momentum, a vector tangent to the circle of motion. In a nonuniform circular motion, i.e., the speed along the curved path is changing, the acceleration has a non-zero component tangential to the curve, and is not confined to the principal normal, which directs to the center of the osculating circle, that determines the radius r {\displaystyle r} for the centripetal acceleration. The tangential component is given by the angular acceleration α {\displaystyle \alpha } , i.e., the rate of change α = ω ˙ {\displaystyle \alpha ={\dot {\omega }}} of the angular speed ω {\displaystyle \omega } times the radius r {\displaystyle r} . That is, a t = r α . {\displaystyle a_{t}=r\alpha .} The sign of the tangential component of the acceleration is determined by the sign of the angular acceleration ( α {\displaystyle \alpha } ), and the tangent is always directed at right angles to the radius vector. Coordinate systems In multi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate systems, acceleration is broken up into components that correspond with each dimensional axis of the coordinate system. In a two-dimensional system, where there is an x-axis and a y-axis, corresponding acceleration components are defined as a x = d v x / d t = d 2 x / d t 2 , {\displaystyle a_{x}=dv_{x}/dt=d^{2}x/dt^{2},} a y = d v y / d t = d 2 y / d t 2 . {\displaystyle a_{y}=dv_{y}/dt=d^{2}y/dt^{2}.} The two-dimensional acceleration vector is then defined as a =< a x , a y > {\displaystyle {\textbf {a}}=<a_{x},a_{y}>} . The magnitude of this vector is found by the distance formula as | a | = a x 2 + a y 2 . {\displaystyle |a|={\sqrt {a_{x}^{2}+a_{y}^{2}}}.} In three-dimensional systems where there is an additional z-axis, the corresponding acceleration component is defined as a z = d v z / d t = d 2 z / d t 2 . {\displaystyle a_{z}=dv_{z}/dt=d^{2}z/dt^{2}.} The three-dimensional acceleration vector is defined as a =< a x , a y , a z > {\displaystyle {\textbf {a}}=<a_{x},a_{y},a_{z}>} with its magnitude being determined by | a | = a x 2 + a y 2 + a z 2 . {\displaystyle |a|={\sqrt {a_{x}^{2}+a_{y}^{2}+a_{z}^{2}}}.} Relation to relativity Special relativity Main articles: Special relativity and Acceleration (special relativity) The special theory of relativity describes the behavior of objects traveling relative to other objects at speeds approaching that of light in vacuum. Newtonian mechanics is exactly revealed to be an approximation to reality, valid to great accuracy at lower speeds. As the relevant speeds increase toward the speed of light, acceleration no longer follows classical equations. As speeds approach that of light, the acceleration produced by a given force decreases, becoming infinitesimally small as light speed is approached; an object with mass can approach this speed asymptotically, but never reach it. General relativity Main article: General relativity Unless the state of motion of an object is known, it is impossible to distinguish whether an observed force is due to gravity or to acceleration—gravity and inertial acceleration have identical effects. Albert Einstein called this the equivalence principle, and said that only observers who feel no force at all—including the force of gravity—are justified in concluding that they are not accelerating. Conversions Conversions between common units of acceleration Base value (Gal, or cm/s2) (ft/s2) (m/s2) (Standard gravity, g0) 1 Gal, or cm/s2 1 0.0328084 0.01 1.01972×10−3 1 ft/s2 30.4800 1 0.304800 0.0310810 1 m/s2 100 3.28084 1 0.101972 1 g0 980.665 32.1740 9.80665 1 See also Acceleration (differential geometry) Four-vector: making the connection between space and time explicit Gravitational acceleration Inertia Orders of magnitude (acceleration) Shock (mechanics) Shock and vibration data loggermeasuring 3-axis acceleration Space travel using constant acceleration Specific force References ^ Bondi, Hermann (1980). Relativity and Common Sense. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 3. ISBN 978-0-486-24021-3. ^ Lehrman, Robert L. (1998). Physics the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. pp. 27. ISBN 978-0-7641-0236-3. ^ Crew, Henry (2008). The Principles of Mechanics. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-559-36871-4. ^ P. Smith; R. C. Smith (1991). Mechanics (2nd, illustrated, reprinted ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-471-92737-2. Extract of page 39 ^ John D. Cutnell; Kenneth W. Johnson (2014). Physics, Volume One: Chapters 1-17, Volume 1 (1st0, illustrated ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-118-83688-0. Extract of page 36 ^ Raymond A. Serway; Chris Vuille; Jerry S. Faughn (2008). College Physics, Volume 10. Cengage. p. 32. ISBN 9780495386933. ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Chain Rule". Wolfram MathWorld. Wolfram Research. Retrieved 2 August 2016. ^ Larry C. Andrews; Ronald L. Phillips (2003). Mathematical Techniques for Engineers and Scientists. SPIE Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-8194-4506-3. ^ Ch V Ramana Murthy; NC Srinivas (2001). Applied Mathematics. New Delhi: S. Chand & Co. p. 337. ISBN 978-81-219-2082-7. ^ Keith Johnson (2001). Physics for you: revised national curriculum edition for GCSE (4th ed.). Nelson Thornes. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-7487-6236-1. ^ David C. Cassidy; Gerald James Holton; F. James Rutherford (2002). Understanding physics. Birkhäuser. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-387-98756-9. ^ "The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 9: Newton's Laws of Dynamics". www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu. Retrieved 2024-01-04. ^ Brian Greene, The Fabric of the Cosmos: Space, Time, and the Texture of Reality, page 67. Vintage ISBN 0-375-72720-5 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Acceleration. Acceleration Calculator Simple acceleration unit converter Acceleration Calculator Acceleration Conversion calculator converts units form meter per second square, kilometre per second square, millimeter per second square & more with metric conversion. vteKinematics ← Integrate … Differentiate → Absement Displacement (Distance) Velocity (Speed) Acceleration Jerk Higher derivatives vteClassical mechanics SI units Linear/translational quantities Angular/rotational quantities Dimensions 1 L L2 Dimensions 1 θ θ2 T time: ts absement: Am s T time: ts 1 distance: d, position: r, s, x, displacementm area: Am2 1 angle: θ, angular displacement: θrad solid angle: Ωrad2, sr T−1 frequency: fs−1, Hz speed: v, velocity: vm s−1 kinematic viscosity: ν,specific angular momentum: hm2 s−1 T−1 frequency: f, rotational speed: n, rotational velocity: ns−1, Hz angular speed: ω, angular velocity: ωrad s−1 T−2 acceleration: am s−2 T−2 rotational accelerations−2 angular acceleration: αrad s−2 T−3 jerk: jm s−3 T−3 angular jerk: ζrad s−3 M mass: mkg weighted position: M ⟨x⟩ = ∑ m x ML2 moment of inertia: Ikg m2 MT−1 Mass flow rate: m ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {m}}} kg s−1 momentum: p, impulse: Jkg m s−1, N s action: 𝒮, actergy: ℵkg m2 s−1, J s ML2T−1 angular momentum: L, angular impulse: ΔLkg m2 s−1 action: 𝒮, actergy: ℵkg m2 s−1, J s MT−2 force: F, weight: Fgkg m s−2, N energy: E, work: W, Lagrangian: Lkg m2 s−2, J ML2T−2 torque: τ, moment: Mkg m2 s−2, N m energy: E, work: W, Lagrangian: Lkg m2 s−2, J MT−3 yank: Ykg m s−3, N s−1 power: Pkg m2 s−3, W ML2T−3 rotatum: Pkg m2 s−3, N m s−1 power: Pkg m2 s−3, W Authority control databases: National Chile 2 France BnF data Germany Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Acceleration (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleration_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Accelerate (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerate_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DonPrudhommeFire1991KennyBernstein.jpg"},{"link_name":"Drag racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_racing"},{"link_name":"mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanics"},{"link_name":"rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity"},{"link_name":"kinematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinematics"},{"link_name":"motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion"},{"link_name":"vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_vector"},{"link_name":"magnitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnitude_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"direction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force"},{"link_name":"Newton's Second Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_Second_Law"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force"},{"link_name":"directly proportional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_proportionality"},{"link_name":"mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass"},{"link_name":"inversely proportional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_proportionality"},{"link_name":"SI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units"},{"link_name":"metre per second squared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre_per_second_squared"},{"link_name":"vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle"},{"link_name":"standstill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/standstill"},{"link_name":"inertial frame of reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference"},{"link_name":"circular motions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_motion"},{"link_name":"reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_(physics)"},{"link_name":"centrifugal force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifugal_force"},{"link_name":"negative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_number"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"inertial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia"},{"link_name":"retrorocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrorocket"},{"link_name":"spacecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_of_reference"}],"text":"This article is about acceleration in physics. For other uses, see Acceleration (disambiguation).\"Accelerate\" redirects here. For other uses, see Accelerate (disambiguation).Drag racing is a sport in which specially-built vehicles compete to be the fastest to accelerate from a standing start.In mechanics, acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object with respect to time. Acceleration is one of several components of kinematics, the study of motion. Accelerations are vector quantities (in that they have magnitude and direction).[1][2] The orientation of an object's acceleration is given by the orientation of the net force acting on that object. The magnitude of an object's acceleration, as described by Newton's Second Law,[3] is the combined effect of two causes:the net balance of all external forces acting onto that object — magnitude is directly proportional to this net resulting force;\nthat object's mass, depending on the materials out of which it is made — magnitude is inversely proportional to the object's mass.The SI unit for acceleration is metre per second squared (m⋅s−2, \n \n \n \n \n \n \n m\n \n s\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {\\tfrac {m}{s^{2}}} }\n \n).For example, when a vehicle starts from a standstill (zero velocity, in an inertial frame of reference) and travels in a straight line at increasing speeds, it is accelerating in the direction of travel. If the vehicle turns, an acceleration occurs toward the new direction and changes its motion vector. The acceleration of the vehicle in its current direction of motion is called a linear (or tangential during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers on board experience as a force pushing them back into their seats. When changing direction, the effecting acceleration is called radial (or centripetal during circular motions) acceleration, the reaction to which the passengers experience as a centrifugal force. If the speed of the vehicle decreases, this is an acceleration in the opposite direction of the velocity vector (mathematically a negative, if the movement is unidimensional and the velocity is positive), sometimes called deceleration[4][5] or retardation, and passengers experience the reaction to deceleration as an inertial force pushing them forward. Such negative accelerations are often achieved by retrorocket burning in spacecraft.[6] Both acceleration and deceleration are treated the same, as they are both changes in velocity. Each of these accelerations (tangential, radial, deceleration) is felt by passengers until their relative (differential) velocity are neutralized in reference to the acceleration due to change in speed.","title":"Acceleration"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kinematics.svg"}],"text":"Kinematic quantities of a classical particle: mass m, position r, velocity v, acceleration a.","title":"Definition and properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Acceleration_as_derivative_of_velocity_along_trajectory.svg"},{"link_name":"time interval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_interval"},{"link_name":"time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_in_physics"},{"link_name":"velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity"}],"sub_title":"Average acceleration","text":"Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. At any point on a trajectory, the magnitude of the acceleration is given by the rate of change of velocity in both magnitude and direction at that point. The true acceleration at time t is found in the limit as time interval Δt → 0 of Δv/Δt.An object's average acceleration over a period of time is its change in velocity, \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n v\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta \\mathbf {v} }\n \n, divided by the duration of the period, \n \n \n \n Δ\n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta t}\n \n. Mathematically,a\n \n ¯\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n Δ\n \n v\n \n \n \n Δ\n t\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\bar {\\mathbf {a} }}={\\frac {\\Delta \\mathbf {v} }{\\Delta t}}.}","title":"Definition and properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1-D_kinematics.svg"},{"link_name":"limit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_of_a_function"},{"link_name":"infinitesimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitesimal"},{"link_name":"calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus"},{"link_name":"derivative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative"},{"link_name":"motion is in a straight line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectilinear_motion"},{"link_name":"vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_vector"},{"link_name":"scalars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(physics)"},{"link_name":"fundamental theorem of calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_of_calculus"},{"link_name":"integral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral"},{"link_name":"Δ\n v\n \n =\n ∫\n \n a\n \n \n d\n t\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Delta v} =\\int \\mathbf {a} \\,dt.}","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:MathWikibase&qid=Q11465"},{"link_name":"jerk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerk_(physics)"}],"sub_title":"Instantaneous acceleration","text":"From bottom to top: an acceleration function a(t);the integral of the acceleration is the velocity function v(t);and the integral of the velocity is the distance function s(t).Instantaneous acceleration, meanwhile, is the limit of the average acceleration over an infinitesimal interval of time. In the terms of calculus, instantaneous acceleration is the derivative of the velocity vector with respect to time:a\n \n =\n \n lim\n \n \n Δ\n t\n \n →\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n v\n \n \n \n Δ\n t\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n \n v\n \n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {a} =\\lim _{{\\Delta t}\\to 0}{\\frac {\\Delta \\mathbf {v} }{\\Delta t}}={\\frac {d\\mathbf {v} }{dt}}.}vtxsecond derivativexta\n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n \n v\n \n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n d\n \n 2\n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n d\n \n t\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {a} ={\\frac {d\\mathbf {v} }{dt}}={\\frac {d^{2}\\mathbf {x} }{dt^{2}}}.}(Here and elsewhere, if motion is in a straight line, vector quantities can be substituted by scalars in the equations.)By the fundamental theorem of calculus, it can be seen that the integral of the acceleration function a(t) is the velocity function v(t); that is, the area under the curve of an acceleration vs. time (a vs. t) graph corresponds to the change of velocity.Δ\n v\n \n =\n ∫\n \n a\n \n \n d\n t\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Delta v} =\\int \\mathbf {a} \\,dt.}Likewise, the integral of the jerk function j(t), the derivative of the acceleration function, can be used to find the change of acceleration at a certain time:Δ\n a\n \n =\n ∫\n \n j\n \n \n d\n t\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\Delta a} =\\int \\mathbf {j} \\,dt.}","title":"Definition and properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dimensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensional_analysis"},{"link_name":"L","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length"},{"link_name":"T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time"},{"link_name":"SI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Units"},{"link_name":"metre per second squared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre_per_second_squared"}],"sub_title":"Units","text":"Acceleration has the dimensions of velocity (L/T) divided by time, i.e. L T−2. The SI unit of acceleration is the metre per second squared (m s−2); or \"metre per second per second\", as the velocity in metres per second changes by the acceleration value, every second.","title":"Definition and properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Proper acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_acceleration"},{"link_name":"accelerometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accelerometer"},{"link_name":"classical mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanics"},{"link_name":"force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force"},{"link_name":"Newton's second law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion#Newton's_second_law"},{"link_name":"F\n \n =\n m\n \n a\n \n \n \n ⟹\n \n \n \n a\n \n =\n \n \n \n F\n \n m\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} =m\\mathbf {a} \\quad \\implies \\quad \\mathbf {a} ={\\frac {\\mathbf {F} }{m}},}","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:MathWikibase&qid=Q2397319"}],"sub_title":"Other forms","text":"An object moving in a circular motion—such as a satellite orbiting the Earth—is accelerating due to the change of direction of motion, although its speed may be constant. In this case it is said to be undergoing centripetal (directed towards the center) acceleration.Proper acceleration, the acceleration of a body relative to a free-fall condition, is measured by an instrument called an accelerometer.In classical mechanics, for a body with constant mass, the (vector) acceleration of the body's center of mass is proportional to the net force vector (i.e. sum of all forces) acting on it (Newton's second law):F\n \n =\n m\n \n a\n \n \n \n ⟹\n \n \n \n a\n \n =\n \n \n \n F\n \n m\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} =m\\mathbf {a} \\quad \\implies \\quad \\mathbf {a} ={\\frac {\\mathbf {F} }{m}},}Fmmassaspeed of lightrelativistic effects","title":"Definition and properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Centripetal force § Local coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centripetal_force#Local_coordinates"},{"link_name":"Tangential velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangential_velocity"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oscillating_pendulum.gif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Acceleration_components.svg"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"normal vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry_of_curves#Normal_or_curvature_vector"},{"link_name":"radius of curvature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvature#Curvature_of_plane_curves"},{"link_name":"osculating circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osculating_circle#Mathematical_description"},{"link_name":"tangential acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangential_acceleration"},{"link_name":"circular motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_motion"},{"link_name":"centripetal force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centripetal_force"},{"link_name":"Frenet–Serret formulas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenet%E2%80%93Serret_formulas"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Andrews-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chand-9"}],"text":"See also: Centripetal force § Local coordinates, and Tangential velocityAn oscillating pendulum, with velocity and acceleration marked. It experiences both tangential and centripetal acceleration.Components of acceleration for a curved motion. The tangential component at is due to the change in speed of traversal, and points along the curve in the direction of the velocity vector (or in the opposite direction). The normal component (also called centripetal component for circular motion) ac is due to the change in direction of the velocity vector and is normal to the trajectory, pointing toward the center of curvature of the path.The velocity of a particle moving on a curved path as a function of time can be written as:v\n \n (\n t\n )\n =\n v\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n v\n \n (\n t\n )\n \n \n v\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n \n =\n v\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n u\n \n \n \n t\n \n \n \n (\n t\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} (t)=v(t){\\frac {\\mathbf {v} (t)}{v(t)}}=v(t)\\mathbf {u} _{\\mathrm {t} }(t),}v(t)u\n \n \n \n t\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n v\n \n (\n t\n )\n \n \n v\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} _{\\mathrm {t} }={\\frac {\\mathbf {v} (t)}{v(t)}}\\,,}unit vector tangentv(t)utchain rule[7]a\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n \n v\n \n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n v\n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n t\n \n \n \n +\n v\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n \n d\n \n \n u\n \n \n \n t\n \n \n \n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n v\n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n t\n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n r\n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n n\n \n \n \n  \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{alignedat}{3}\\mathbf {a} &={\\frac {d\\mathbf {v} }{dt}}\\\\&={\\frac {dv}{dt}}\\mathbf {u} _{\\mathrm {t} }+v(t){\\frac {d\\mathbf {u} _{\\mathrm {t} }}{dt}}\\\\&={\\frac {dv}{dt}}\\mathbf {u} _{\\mathrm {t} }+{\\frac {v^{2}}{r}}\\mathbf {u} _{\\mathrm {n} }\\ ,\\end{alignedat}}}where un is the unit (inward) normal vector to the particle's trajectory (also called the principal normal), and r is its instantaneous radius of curvature based upon the osculating circle at time t. The componentsa\n \n \n \n t\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n v\n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n t\n \n \n \n \n \n and\n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n \n c\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n r\n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {a} _{\\mathrm {t} }={\\frac {dv}{dt}}\\mathbf {u} _{\\mathrm {t} }\\quad {\\text{and}}\\quad \\mathbf {a} _{\\mathrm {c} }={\\frac {v^{2}}{r}}\\mathbf {u} _{\\mathrm {n} }}are called the tangential acceleration and the normal or radial acceleration (or centripetal acceleration in circular motion, see also circular motion and centripetal force), respectively.Geometrical analysis of three-dimensional space curves, which explains tangent, (principal) normal and binormal, is described by the Frenet–Serret formulas.[8][9]","title":"Tangential and centripetal acceleration"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Special cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Torricelli's equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torricelli%27s_equation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Strecke_und_konstante_Beschleunigung.png"},{"link_name":"velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity"},{"link_name":"free fall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_fall"},{"link_name":"gravitational field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_field"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_gravity"},{"link_name":"Newton's Second Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_Second_Law"},{"link_name":"force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force"},{"link_name":"displacement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement_(vector)"},{"link_name":"velocities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity"},{"link_name":"time elapsed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_in_physics"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Galileo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Uniform acceleration","text":"See also: Torricelli's equationCalculation of the speed difference for a uniform accelerationUniform or constant acceleration is a type of motion in which the velocity of an object changes by an equal amount in every equal time period.A frequently cited example of uniform acceleration is that of an object in free fall in a uniform gravitational field. The acceleration of a falling body in the absence of resistances to motion is dependent only on the gravitational field strength g (also called acceleration due to gravity). By Newton's Second Law the force \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n g\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F_{g}} }\n \n acting on a body is given by:F\n \n g\n \n \n \n =\n m\n \n g\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F_{g}} =m\\mathbf {g} .}Because of the simple analytic properties of the case of constant acceleration, there are simple formulas relating the displacement, initial and time-dependent velocities, and acceleration to the time elapsed:[10]s\n \n (\n t\n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n s\n \n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n \n v\n \n \n 0\n \n \n t\n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n t\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n s\n \n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n v\n \n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n v\n \n (\n t\n )\n \n )\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n (\n t\n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n v\n \n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n a\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n \n (\n t\n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n v\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 2\n \n a\n ⋅\n \n [\n \n s\n \n (\n t\n )\n −\n \n \n s\n \n \n 0\n \n \n ]\n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\mathbf {s} (t)&=\\mathbf {s} _{0}+\\mathbf {v} _{0}t+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\mathbf {a} t^{2}=\\mathbf {s} _{0}+{\\tfrac {1}{2}}\\left(\\mathbf {v} _{0}+\\mathbf {v} (t)\\right)t\\\\\\mathbf {v} (t)&=\\mathbf {v} _{0}+\\mathbf {a} t\\\\{v^{2}}(t)&={v_{0}}^{2}+2\\mathbf {a\\cdot } [\\mathbf {s} (t)-\\mathbf {s} _{0}],\\end{aligned}}}wheret\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n is the elapsed time,\n\n \n \n \n \n \n s\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {s} _{0}}\n \n is the initial displacement from the origin,\n\n \n \n \n \n s\n \n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {s} (t)}\n \n is the displacement from the origin at time \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n,\n\n \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} _{0}}\n \n is the initial velocity,\n\n \n \n \n \n v\n \n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} (t)}\n \n is the velocity at time \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n, and\n\n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {a} }\n \n is the uniform rate of acceleration.In particular, the motion can be resolved into two orthogonal parts, one of constant velocity and the other according to the above equations. As Galileo showed, the net result is parabolic motion, which describes, e.g., the trajectory of a projectile in vacuum near the surface of Earth.[11]","title":"Special cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Position_vector_plane_polar_coords.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Velocity_vector_plane_polar_coords.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Acceleration_vector_plane_polar_coords.svg"},{"link_name":"polar coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_coordinates"},{"link_name":"osculating plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osculating_plane"},{"link_name":"circular motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_motion"},{"link_name":"a\n \n c\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n r\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a_{c}={\\frac {v^{2}}{r}}\\,.}","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:MathWikibase&qid=Q2248131"},{"link_name":"angular velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_velocity"},{"link_name":"angular speed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_velocity"},{"link_name":"ω\n =\n \n \n v\n r\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega ={\\frac {v}{r}}.}","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:MathWikibase&qid=Q161635"},{"link_name":"centripetal force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centripetal_force"},{"link_name":"centrifugal force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifugal_force"},{"link_name":"pseudo force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo_force"},{"link_name":"frame of reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_of_reference"},{"link_name":"linear momentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_momentum"},{"link_name":"principal normal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_normal_vector"},{"link_name":"angular acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_acceleration"}],"sub_title":"Circular motion","text":"Position vector r, always points radially from the origin.Velocity vector v, always tangent to the path of motion.Acceleration vector a, not parallel to the radial motion but offset by the angular and Coriolis accelerations, nor tangent to the path but offset by the centripetal and radial accelerations.Kinematic vectors in plane polar coordinates. Notice the setup is not restricted to 2d space, but may represent the osculating plane plane in a point of an arbitrary curve in any higher dimension.In uniform circular motion, that is moving with constant speed along a circular path, a particle experiences an acceleration resulting from the change of the direction of the velocity vector, while its magnitude remains constant. The derivative of the location of a point on a curve with respect to time, i.e. its velocity, turns out to be always exactly tangential to the curve, respectively orthogonal to the radius in this point. Since in uniform motion the velocity in the tangential direction does not change, the acceleration must be in radial direction, pointing to the center of the circle. This acceleration constantly changes the direction of the velocity to be tangent in the neighboring point, thereby rotating the velocity vector along the circle.For a given speed \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v}\n \n, the magnitude of this geometrically caused acceleration (centripetal acceleration) is inversely proportional to the radius \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n of the circle, and increases as the square of this speed: \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n c\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n r\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a_{c}={\\frac {v^{2}}{r}}\\,.}\n \n\nFor a given angular velocity \n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega }\n \n, the centripetal acceleration is directly proportional to radius \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n. This is due to the dependence of velocity \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v}\n \n on the radius \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n. \n \n \n \n v\n =\n ω\n r\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v=\\omega r.}Expressing centripetal acceleration vector in polar components, where \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} }\n \n is a vector from the centre of the circle to the particle with magnitude equal to this distance, and considering the orientation of the acceleration towards the center, yieldsa\n \n c\n \n \n \n =\n −\n \n \n \n v\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n r\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n r\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n r\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {a_{c}} =-{\\frac {v^{2}}{|\\mathbf {r} |}}\\cdot {\\frac {\\mathbf {r} }{|\\mathbf {r} |}}\\,.}As usual in rotations, the speed \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v}\n \n of a particle may be expressed as an angular speed with respect to a point at the distance \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n asω\n =\n \n \n v\n r\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega ={\\frac {v}{r}}.}Thus \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n c\n \n \n \n =\n −\n \n ω\n \n 2\n \n \n \n r\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {a_{c}} =-\\omega ^{2}\\mathbf {r} \\,.}This acceleration and the mass of the particle determine the necessary centripetal force, directed toward the centre of the circle, as the net force acting on this particle to keep it in this uniform circular motion. The so-called 'centrifugal force', appearing to act outward on the body, is a so-called pseudo force experienced in the frame of reference of the body in circular motion, due to the body's linear momentum, a vector tangent to the circle of motion.In a nonuniform circular motion, i.e., the speed along the curved path is changing, the acceleration has a non-zero component tangential to the curve, and is not confined to the principal normal, which directs to the center of the osculating circle, that determines the radius \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n for the centripetal acceleration. The tangential component is given by the angular acceleration \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n, i.e., the rate of change \n \n \n \n α\n =\n \n \n \n ω\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha ={\\dot {\\omega }}}\n \n of the angular speed \n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega }\n \n times the radius \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n. That is,a\n \n t\n \n \n =\n r\n α\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a_{t}=r\\alpha .}The sign of the tangential component of the acceleration is determined by the sign of the angular acceleration (\n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n), and the tangent is always directed at right angles to the radius vector.","title":"Special cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cartesian coordinate systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"In multi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate systems, acceleration is broken up into components that correspond with each dimensional axis of the coordinate system. In a two-dimensional system, where there is an x-axis and a y-axis, corresponding acceleration components are defined as[12]a\n \n x\n \n \n =\n d\n \n v\n \n x\n \n \n \n /\n \n d\n t\n =\n \n d\n \n 2\n \n \n x\n \n /\n \n d\n \n t\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a_{x}=dv_{x}/dt=d^{2}x/dt^{2},}a\n \n y\n \n \n =\n d\n \n v\n \n y\n \n \n \n /\n \n d\n t\n =\n \n d\n \n 2\n \n \n y\n \n /\n \n d\n \n t\n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a_{y}=dv_{y}/dt=d^{2}y/dt^{2}.}a\n \n \n =<\n \n a\n \n x\n \n \n ,\n \n a\n \n y\n \n \n >\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\textbf {a}}=<a_{x},a_{y}>}distance formula|\n \n a\n \n |\n \n =\n \n \n \n a\n \n x\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n a\n \n y\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |a|={\\sqrt {a_{x}^{2}+a_{y}^{2}}}.}a\n \n z\n \n \n =\n d\n \n v\n \n z\n \n \n \n /\n \n d\n t\n =\n \n d\n \n 2\n \n \n z\n \n /\n \n d\n \n t\n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a_{z}=dv_{z}/dt=d^{2}z/dt^{2}.}a\n \n \n =<\n \n a\n \n x\n \n \n ,\n \n a\n \n y\n \n \n ,\n \n a\n \n z\n \n \n >\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\textbf {a}}=<a_{x},a_{y},a_{z}>}|\n \n a\n \n |\n \n =\n \n \n \n a\n \n x\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n a\n \n y\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n a\n \n z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |a|={\\sqrt {a_{x}^{2}+a_{y}^{2}+a_{z}^{2}}}.}","title":"Coordinate systems"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Relation to relativity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Newtonian mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newtonian_mechanics"},{"link_name":"infinitesimally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitesimally"},{"link_name":"asymptotically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotically"}],"sub_title":"Special relativity","text":"The special theory of relativity describes the behavior of objects traveling relative to other objects at speeds approaching that of light in vacuum. Newtonian mechanics is exactly revealed to be an approximation to reality, valid to great accuracy at lower speeds. As the relevant speeds increase toward the speed of light, acceleration no longer follows classical equations.As speeds approach that of light, the acceleration produced by a given force decreases, becoming infinitesimally small as light speed is approached; an object with mass can approach this speed asymptotically, but never reach it.","title":"Relation to relativity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"equivalence principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_principle"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"General relativity","text":"Unless the state of motion of an object is known, it is impossible to distinguish whether an observed force is due to gravity or to acceleration—gravity and inertial acceleration have identical effects. Albert Einstein called this the equivalence principle, and said that only observers who feel no force at all—including the force of gravity—are justified in concluding that they are not accelerating.[13]","title":"Relation to relativity"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Conversions"}]

[{"image_text":"Drag racing is a sport in which specially-built vehicles compete to be the fastest to accelerate from a standing start.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/DonPrudhommeFire1991KennyBernstein.jpg/310px-DonPrudhommeFire1991KennyBernstein.jpg"},{"image_text":"Kinematic quantities of a classical particle: mass m, position r, velocity v, acceleration a.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Kinematics.svg/300px-Kinematics.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. At any point on a trajectory, the magnitude of the acceleration is given by the rate of change of velocity in both magnitude and direction at that point. The true acceleration at time t is found in the limit as time interval Δt → 0 of Δv/Δt.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Acceleration_as_derivative_of_velocity_along_trajectory.svg/220px-Acceleration_as_derivative_of_velocity_along_trajectory.svg.png"},{"image_text":"From bottom to top: an acceleration function a(t);the integral of the acceleration is the velocity function v(t);and the integral of the velocity is the distance function s(t).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/1-D_kinematics.svg/220px-1-D_kinematics.svg.png"},{"image_text":"An oscillating pendulum, with velocity and acceleration marked. It experiences both tangential and centripetal acceleration.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Oscillating_pendulum.gif/220px-Oscillating_pendulum.gif"},{"image_text":"Components of acceleration for a curved motion. The tangential component at is due to the change in speed of traversal, and points along the curve in the direction of the velocity vector (or in the opposite direction). The normal component (also called centripetal component for circular motion) ac is due to the change in direction of the velocity vector and is normal to the trajectory, pointing toward the center of curvature of the path.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Acceleration_components.svg/220px-Acceleration_components.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Calculation of the speed difference for a uniform acceleration","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Strecke_und_konstante_Beschleunigung.png/220px-Strecke_und_konstante_Beschleunigung.png"}]

[{"title":"Acceleration (differential geometry)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleration_(differential_geometry)"},{"title":"Four-vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-vector"},{"title":"Gravitational acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_acceleration"},{"title":"Inertia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertia"},{"title":"Orders of magnitude (acceleration)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(acceleration)"},{"title":"Shock (mechanics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_(mechanics)"},{"title":"Shock and vibration data logger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_and_vibration_data_logger"},{"title":"Space travel using constant acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_travel_using_constant_acceleration"},{"title":"Specific force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_force"}]

[{"reference":"Bondi, Hermann (1980). Relativity and Common Sense. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 3. ISBN 978-0-486-24021-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/relativitycommon0000bond/page/3","url_text":"Relativity and Common Sense"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/relativitycommon0000bond/page/3","url_text":"3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-24021-3","url_text":"978-0-486-24021-3"}]},{"reference":"Lehrman, Robert L. (1998). Physics the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. pp. 27. ISBN 978-0-7641-0236-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/physicseasyway00lehr_0/page/27","url_text":"Physics the Easy Way"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/physicseasyway00lehr_0/page/27","url_text":"27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7641-0236-3","url_text":"978-0-7641-0236-3"}]},{"reference":"Crew, Henry (2008). The Principles of Mechanics. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-559-36871-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-559-36871-4","url_text":"978-0-559-36871-4"}]},{"reference":"P. Smith; R. C. Smith (1991). Mechanics (2nd, illustrated, reprinted ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-471-92737-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Zzh_unG7OAsC","url_text":"Mechanics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-92737-2","url_text":"978-0-471-92737-2"}]},{"reference":"John D. Cutnell; Kenneth W. Johnson (2014). Physics, Volume One: Chapters 1-17, Volume 1 (1st0, illustrated ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-118-83688-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PJWDBgAAQBAJ","url_text":"Physics, Volume One: Chapters 1-17, Volume 1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-83688-0","url_text":"978-1-118-83688-0"}]},{"reference":"Raymond A. Serway; Chris Vuille; Jerry S. Faughn (2008). College Physics, Volume 10. Cengage. p. 32. ISBN 9780495386933.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CX0u0mIOZ44C&pg=PA32","url_text":"College Physics, Volume 10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780495386933","url_text":"9780495386933"}]},{"reference":"Weisstein, Eric W. \"Chain Rule\". Wolfram MathWorld. Wolfram Research. Retrieved 2 August 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ChainRule.html","url_text":"\"Chain Rule\""}]},{"reference":"Larry C. Andrews; Ronald L. Phillips (2003). Mathematical Techniques for Engineers and Scientists. SPIE Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-8194-4506-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MwrDfvrQyWYC&q=particle+%22planar+motion%22&pg=PA164","url_text":"Mathematical Techniques for Engineers and Scientists"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8194-4506-3","url_text":"978-0-8194-4506-3"}]},{"reference":"Ch V Ramana Murthy; NC Srinivas (2001). Applied Mathematics. New Delhi: S. Chand & Co. p. 337. ISBN 978-81-219-2082-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Q0Pvv4vWOlQC&pg=PA337","url_text":"Applied Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-219-2082-7","url_text":"978-81-219-2082-7"}]},{"reference":"Keith Johnson (2001). Physics for you: revised national curriculum edition for GCSE (4th ed.). Nelson Thornes. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-7487-6236-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=D4nrQDzq1jkC&q=suvat&pg=PA135","url_text":"Physics for you: revised national curriculum edition for GCSE"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7487-6236-1","url_text":"978-0-7487-6236-1"}]},{"reference":"David C. Cassidy; Gerald James Holton; F. James Rutherford (2002). Understanding physics. Birkhäuser. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-387-98756-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=iPsKvL_ATygC&q=parabolic+arc+uniform-acceleration+galileo&pg=PA146","url_text":"Understanding physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-98756-9","url_text":"978-0-387-98756-9"}]},{"reference":"\"The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 9: Newton's Laws of Dynamics\". www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu. Retrieved 2024-01-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu/I_09.html","url_text":"\"The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. I Ch. 9: Newton's Laws of Dynamics\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_Protected_Mode_Interface

DOS Protected Mode Interface

["1 Overview","2 History","2.1 Compatibility","2.2 DPMI Committee","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]

DOS specification DOS Protected Mode InterfaceAbbreviationDPMIStatusPublishedYear started1989; 35 years ago (1989)OrganizationDPMI CommitteeDomainApplication programming interfaces In computing, the DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) is a specification introduced in 1989 which allows a DOS program to run in protected mode, giving access to many features of the new PC processors of the time not available in real mode. It was initially developed by Microsoft for Windows 3.0, although Microsoft later turned control of the specification over to an industry committee with open membership. Almost all modern DOS extenders are based on DPMI and allow DOS programs to address all memory available in the PC and to run in protected mode (mostly in ring 3, least privileged). Overview DPMI stands for DOS Protected Mode Interface. It is an API that allows a program to run in protected mode on 80286 series and later processors, and do the calls to real mode without having to set up these CPU modes manually. DPMI also provides the functions for managing various resources, notably memory. This allows the DPMI-enabled programs to work in multi-tasking OSes, allowing an OS kernel to distribute such resources between multiple applications. DPMI provides only the functionality that needs to be implemented in supervisor mode. It can be thought of as a single-tasking microkernel. The rest of the functionality is available to DPMI-enabled programs via the calls to real-mode DOS and BIOS services, allowing the DPMI API itself to remain mostly independent of DOS. Things that make DPMI API DOS-specific, are just 3 functions for managing DOS memory, and the letter "D" in the "DPMI" acronym. A DPMI service can be 16-bit, 32-bit, or "universal" and is called the DPMI kernel, DPMI host, or DPMI server. It is provided either by the host operating system (virtual DPMI host) or by a DOS extender (real DPMI host). The DPMI kernel can be a part of a DOS extender such as in DOS/4GW or DOS/32A, or separate, like CWSDPMI or HDPMI. The primary use of DPMI API is to allow DOS extenders to provide the host-OS-agnostic environment. DOS extender checks the presence of a DPMI kernel, and installs its own only if the one was not installed already. This allows DOS-extended programs to run either in a multitasking OS that provides its own DPMI kernel, or directly under bare-metal DOS, in which case DOS extender uses its own DPMI kernel. Windows 3.x and 9x's user-mode kernels are built with a DOS extender, so they fully rely on a DPMI API that is provided by Windows's ring-0 kernel. History The first DPMI specification drafts were published in 1989 by Microsoft's Ralph Lipe. While based on a prototypical version of DPMI for Windows 3.0 in 386 enhanced mode, several features of this implementation were removed from the official specification, including a feature named MS-DOS Extensions or DOS API translation that had been proposed by Ralph Lipe in the original drafts. Most of it was implementing DOS and BIOS interfaces (due to this history some INT 21h APIs like 4Ch have to be implemented by all DPMI implementations). DPMI version 0.9 was published in 1990 by the newly formed DPMI Committee. The version number 0.9 of the resulting specification was chosen to reflect the stripped-down nature and incomplete status of the standard the members of the DPMI Committee could agree upon. While Windows reports DPMI version 0.9 for compatibility, it actually implements the other parts as well, since they present a vital part of the system. This undocumented full nature of DPMI has become known as "true DPMI" in the industry. The DPMI standard was not the only effort to overcome the shortcomings of the VCPI specification. At the same time that Microsoft developed DPMI for Windows 3.0, another industry alliance including Intel's Software Focus Group, Lotus, Digital Research, Interactive Systems and others developed a specification named Extended VCPI (XVCPI) to make the memory management and multitasking capabilities of the 386 available for extended DOS applications. When it turned out that Microsoft's DPMI proposal addressed a number of similar issues and was supported by Windows, these efforts led to the creation of the DPMI Committee in February 1990 during a meeting at Intel in Santa Clara. In 1991, the DPMI Committee revised DPMI to version 1.0 in order to incorporate a number of clarifications and extensions, but it still did not include the missing "true DPMI" bits implemented in Windows. In fact, "true DPMI" never became part of the official DPMI specification, and Windows likewise never implemented the DPMI 1.0 extensions (and not many DPMI hosts did). While DPMI is tailored to run extended DOS application software in protected mode and extended memory, it is not particularly well suited for resident system extensions. Another specification named DPMS, developed by Digital Research / Novell around 1992, specifically addresses requirements to easily relocate modified DOS driver software into extended memory and run them in protected mode, thereby reducing their conventional memory footprint down to small stubs. This is also supported by Helix Cloaking. The DPMI "method" is specific to DOS and the IBM PC. Other computer types were upgraded from 16-bit to 32-bit, and the advanced program support was provided by upgrading the operating system with a new 32-bit API and new memory management/addressing capabilities. For example, the OS/2 core system supports 32-bit programs, and can be run without the GUI. The DPMI solution appears to be mainly needed to address third party need to get DOS protected mode programs running stably on Windows 3.x before the dominant operating system vendor, Microsoft, could or would address the future of 32-bit Windows. In addition, Microsoft didn't see the answer to the 32-bit transition as a 32-bit DOS, but rather a 32-bit Windows with a completely different (and incompatible) API. Compatibility While Windows 3.0 implements "true DPMI" and reports support for DPMI 0.9, DPMI version 1.0 was never implemented in Microsoft Windows, so most programs and DOS extenders were mostly only written for version 0.9. Few extenders, however, implement "true DPMI". Beta versions of Qualitas 386MAX implemented "true DPMI" and could run Windows' KRNL386.EXE from the command line, but it was claimed that was disabled in the released product in an internal email. However, DPMIONE (by Bob Smith based on the 386MAX code) can do it. Currently DPMIONE and 386MAX is also the only DPMI host which supports DPMI 1.0 completely (e.g. uncommitted memory) and they are the main supporter of DPMI 1.0. The KRNL386.SYS (aka "MultiMAX") of DR DOS "Panther" and "StarTrek", which has been under development since 1991, and the EMM386.EXE memory managers of Novell DOS 7, Caldera OpenDOS and DR-DOS 7.02 and higher have built-in support for DPMI when loaded with the /DPMI option. KRNL386.SYS even had a command line option /VER=0.9|1.0 to provide support for either DPMI 1.0 or 0.9. DOS API translation was referred to as "called interrupt 21 from protected mode". Multiuser DOS, System Manager and REAL/32 support DPMI as well. The most famous separate DPMI kernel is probably CWSDPMI; it supports DPMI 0.9, but no undocumented "DOS API translation". Another variant called PMODE by "TRAN" aka Thomas Pytel was popular with 32-bit programmers during the demo scene of the 1990s. Many games used DOS/4GW, which was developed by Rational Systems as a subset of DOS/4G and was distributed with the Watcom C compiler. HDPMI (part of HX DOS Extender) provides "DOS API translation" and almost complete DPMI 1.0 implementation. DPMI Committee The DPMI 1.0 Committee met between 1990 through 1991 and consisted of 12 groups: Borland International (Borland C, Turbo Pascal) IBM Corporation (PC DOS, OS/2) AI Architects/Ergo Computer Solutions/Eclipse Computer Solutions/Ergo Computing (OS/286, OS/386 DOS extenders) Intelligent Graphics Corporation (VM/386 multi-user DOS) Intel Corporation (286, 386, 486 microprocessors) Locus Computing Corporation (Merge) Lotus Development Corporation (Lotus 1-2-3) Microsoft Corporation (MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows) Phar Lap Software (DOS|286, DOS|386, TNT) Phoenix Technologies (Phoenix BIOS, PMate, PForCe, Plink-86) Quarterdeck Office Systems (QEMM, DESQview, DESQview/X) Rational Systems/Tenberry Software (DOS/16M, DOS/4G, DOS/4GW DOS extenders) See also Virtual Control Program Interface (VCPI) DOS Protected Mode Services (DPMS) Helix Cloaking NetWare I/O Subsystem (NIOS) Multiuser DOS Federation Notes ^ KRNL386.SYS of DR DOS "Panther" has copyright strings "1991,1992". References ^ a b c d e f g Duncan, Ray (1991-02-12). "Power Programming – An Introduction to the DOS Protected Mode Interface". PC Magazine. 10 (3). Ziff-Davis Publishing Co.: 367–371. ISSN 0888-8507. Retrieved 2016-05-21. The creators of the VCPI were well aware of its limitations and were already hard at work on a second generation specification called Extended VCPI (XVCPI), when Microsoft barged onto the scene with the beta-test versions of Windows 3.0 and its DPMI. For a few months it appeared that the fledgling DOS extender market would fragment into two mutually exclusive directions Microsoft turned control of the DPMI specification over to an industry committee with open membership, and the backers of the XVCPI effort decided to join forces behind the DPMI. Microsoft agreed to delete the portions of the DPMI that crossed into DOS extender territory - specifically, direct support of the DOS and ROM BIOS interrupts in protected mode. Consequently, DPMI, Version 0.9, the first public version, released by the DPMI Committee in May 1990, defines only the low-level or building-block functions Naturally, the higher level or DOS extender interface of Windows 3.0 still exists, but it has receded into the twilight zone of undocumented functionality. Undocumented, but hardly unusable ^ Duncan, Ray; Petzold, Charles; Schulman, Andrew; Baker, M. Steven; Nelson, Ross P.; Davis, Stephen R.; Moote, Robert (1992). Extending DOS: A Programmer's Guide to Protected-Mode DOS. 2 (2 ed.). Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 433–436. ISBN 0-201-56798-9. ^ Schmit, Michael L. (1995). Pentium Processor Optimization Tools (1 ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Academic Press, Inc. (AP Professional). ISBN 0-12-627230-1. ^ Microsoft (Fall 1989), DOS Protected Mode Interface Specification, Revision Prerelease 0.04 (Prerelease ed.) ^ a b c d Cole, Dave (1992-05-04). Neiminen, Bruce (ed.). "Re: MS-DOS DPMI extensions" (PDF) (Court document). Microsoft. pp. 123–124. MSC 00779372/00779373, MX3232616/3232617, Cole Exhibit 10, 2001-06-21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-09-18. Retrieved 2018-09-17 – via Comes v. Microsoft - Plaintiff's exhibit 1306. I think, they're checked into Win386 project. In the root MSDOS.DOC (look at all the .DOC files in the root) NO! This is an extremely sensitive matter since it basically tells ISVs (AKA DR-DOS and IBM) how to run standard mode Windows. You need to clear it with BradSi before distributing it. SoftNet makes a limulator. They read in the C7 manual that you can run C7 dos-extended if your limulator supports the MS-DOS extensions to the DPMI specification. So they called us to get a spec on exactly what those extensions are. Apparently they are not documented. They are not that complicated, mostly just what MS-DOS and BIOS calls we map for the application, and Qualitas had no trouble reverse engineering them. (The new 386MAX was, in beta, able to run KRNL386 from the command line, but I believe they disabled that feature in their final product to avoid stepping on our feet. 386MAX does, of course, support C7.) Ralph, was the spec distributed to the members of the DPMI committee? We should absolutely NOT document this. ^ Microsoft (1990-10-31). Sokolov, Michael (ed.). "MS-DOS API EXTENSIONS FOR DPMI HOSTS Version Pre-Release 0.02" (Annotated retyped preliminary ed.) (published 1999-04-08). Retrieved 2016-05-23. ^ Microsoft (1989). Sokolov, Michael (ed.). "DOS PROTECTED MODE INTERFACE (DPMI) – SPECIFICATION Protected Mode API For DOS Extended Applications" (Annotated incompletely reconstructed ed.) (published 1999-04-08). Retrieved 2016-05-23. ^ a b c d Wurthmann, Gerold; Wopperer, Bernhard; Wiesböck, Johann (1991). "Die DPMI-Spezifikation – Eine Einführung" . Vorträge und Begleittexte zum 2. Entwicklerforum der Design & Elektronik zum Thema: PC-Architektur, 17. September 1991, München (book) (in German) (1 ed.). Munich, Germany: Markt & Technik Verlag Aktiengesellschaft. p. 223. (NB. The forum was organized by the German magazine Design & Elektronik and Intel.) ^ The DPMI Committee (1991-03-12). DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Version 1.0 – Application Program Interface (API) for Protected Mode DOS Applications (PDF). 1.0. Intel. pp. 4–5. Intel order code 240977-001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-31. Retrieved 2013-05-24. The initial DPMI prototype was developed by Microsoft for Windows version 3.0, with input from Lotus Corporation and Rational Systems, as part of a general effort to enhance Windows' performance by allowing the Windows kernel to run in extended memory. In parallel, Intel was working with manufacturers of multitasking environments, EMS emulators, and DOS extenders to ensure that an extended VCPI specification could fully utilize the 80386's virtualization and protection features. In February 1990, the parties involved in the above activities agreed to form the DPMI Committee and formulate an industry-wide standard for protected-mode DOS applications. The Committee released the first public DPMI Specification, Version 0.9 in May 1990. ^ a b c Schneider, Stefanie (1994-06-17). "Das Ende von DOS ist nur noch eine Frage der Zeit" . Computerwoche (in German). Munich, Germany: IDG Business Media GmbH. Archived from the original on 2022-01-02. Retrieved 2022-01-02. ^ "FILE: Windows Int 21h and NetBIOS Support for DPMI". Knowledge Base. Microsoft. 2004-08-04 . KB65128. Q65128. Archived from the original on 2020-02-20. Retrieved 2016-05-21. ^ Sokolov, Michael (1998-05-06). "lA correction to a previous posting". lynx-dev. Archived from the original on 2020-02-20. Retrieved 2020-02-20. ^ Schulman, Andrew; Brown, Ralf D.; Maxey, David; Michels, Raymond J.; Kyle, Jim (1994) . Undocumented DOS: A programmer's guide to reserved MS-DOS functions and data structures - expanded to include MS-DOS 6, Novell DOS and Windows 3.1 (2 ed.). Reading, Massachusetts, USA: Addison Wesley. p. 194. ISBN 0-201-63287-X. (xviii+856+vi pages, 3.5"-floppy) Errata: Further reading An Introduction To The DOS Protected Mode Interface – White Paper. Intel. 1993. Intel order code 240787-003. (22 pages) DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Protected Mode API For DOS Extended Applications – Version 0.9. Intel. 1990-07-26. Archived from the original on 2012-04-25. (112 pages) The DPMI Committee (1991-03-12). DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Version 1.0 – Application Program Interface (API) for Protected Mode DOS Applications (PDF). Intel. Intel order code 240977-001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-31. Retrieved 2013-05-31. (160 pages) Sokolov, Michael (1998-04-26). "Some history on DPMI". Archived from the original on 2016-05-22. Chui, Paul (1992-02-01). "Undocumented DOS From Protected-Mode Windows 3". Dr. Dobb's Journal. Archived from the original on 2018-09-20. Retrieved 2018-09-20. "MS-DOS 5.0 DPMI" (in English and Japanese). 2016-07-24 . Archived from the original on 2018-09-17. Retrieved 2018-09-17. (MSDPMI on Japanese MS-DOS 5.00A for PC-98 platform.) External links "DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Protected Mode API For DOS Extended Applications – Version 0.9" (HTML converted ed.). Tenberry Software, Inc. 1998 . Archived from the original on 2016-05-21. Retrieved 2006-12-19. "DPMI 1.0 Programming API Specification" (HTML converted ed.). DJ Delorie. April 1996 . Archived from the original on 2016-05-21. Retrieved 2019-07-28. Microsoft (1990-10-31). "MS-DOS API EXTENSIONS FOR DPMI HOSTS Version Pre-Release 0.02". Microsoft (1991-03-11). "MS-DOS API EXTENSIONS FOR DPMI HOSTS Version Pre-Release 0.04" (PDF). Sandmann, Charles W. "CWSDPMI". Archived from the original on 2015-11-16. Japheth. "HX DOS Extender". Archived from the original on 2014-10-13. Smith, Bob. "DPMIONE Documentation File Version 0.91". Archived from the original on 2016-05-21. Retrieved 2019-07-28. vteDisk operating systems (DOS)MS-DOS, IBM PC DOS,compatible systems API Timeline Comparison Commands Games MS-DOS Multitasking MS-DOS 4.0/4.1 MS-DOS 7 IBM PC DOS DOS/V DR-DOS H-DOS Novell DOS ROM-DOS SISNE plus PTS-DOS FreeDOSOther x86 4680 OS 4690 OS 86-DOS ADOS Concurrent CP/M-86 Concurrent DOS CP/M-86 CP/K Datapac System Manager DOS Plus K8918-OS FlexOS MP/M-86 Multiuser DOS NetWare PalmDOS Novell DOS OpenDOS PC-MOS/386 REAL/32 SB-86 SCP1700 Towns OS TurboDOS Other platforms AmigaDOS AMSDOS ANDOS Apple DOS Apple ProDOS Apple SOS Atari DOS Atari TOS BW-DOS Commodore DOS Concurrent DOS 68K Concurrent DOS V60 CP/M Cromemco DOS CSI-DOS DEC BATCH-11/DOS-11 DIP DOS DOS/360 DOS XL Edos EOS FLEX GEMDOS IDEDOS IMDOS iS-DOS ISIS MDOS MicroDOS MP/M MSX-DOS MyDOS NewDos/80 OS/M PTDOS RealDOS SB-80 SCP Sinclair QDOS RDOS SmartDOS SpartaDOS SpartaDOS X Technical Support SuperDOS Top-DOS TR-DOS TRSDOS TurboDOS UDOS Z-DOS Z80-RIO  Category  List

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It was initially developed by Microsoft for Windows 3.0, although Microsoft later turned control of the specification over to an industry committee with open membership.[1][2] Almost all modern DOS extenders are based on DPMI and allow DOS programs to address all memory available in the PC and to run in protected mode (mostly in ring 3, least privileged).[3]","title":"DOS Protected Mode Interface"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"API","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/API"},{"link_name":"protected mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode"},{"link_name":"real mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode"},{"link_name":"memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Memory"},{"link_name":"multi-tasking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_multitasking"},{"link_name":"supervisor mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protection_ring#SUPERVISOR-MODE"},{"link_name":"microkernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microkernel"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"DOS extender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_extender"},{"link_name":"DOS/4GW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS/4GW"},{"link_name":"DOS/32A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS/32A"},{"link_name":"CWSDPMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CWSDPMI"},{"link_name":"HDPMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDPMI"},{"link_name":"DOS extenders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_extender"},{"link_name":"bare-metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bare-metal"},{"link_name":"user-mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User-mode"}],"text":"DPMI stands for DOS Protected Mode Interface.\nIt is an API that allows a program to run in protected mode on 80286 series and later processors, and do the\ncalls to real mode without having to set up these CPU modes manually. DPMI also provides the functions for managing\nvarious resources, notably memory. This allows the DPMI-enabled programs to work in\nmulti-tasking OSes,\nallowing an OS kernel to distribute such resources between multiple applications. DPMI provides only the functionality that\nneeds to be implemented in supervisor mode. It can be\nthought of as a single-tasking microkernel. The rest of the functionality is available to DPMI-enabled programs\nvia the calls to real-mode DOS and BIOS services, allowing the DPMI API itself to remain mostly independent of DOS.\nThings that make DPMI API DOS-specific, are just 3 functions for managing DOS memory, and the letter \"D\" in the \"DPMI\" acronym.A DPMI service can be 16-bit, 32-bit, or \"universal\" and is called the DPMI kernel, DPMI host, or DPMI server. It is provided either by the host operating system (virtual DPMI host) or by a DOS extender (real DPMI host). The DPMI kernel can be a part of a DOS extender such as in DOS/4GW or DOS/32A, or separate, like CWSDPMI or HDPMI.The primary use of DPMI API is to allow DOS extenders to provide the host-OS-agnostic environment.\nDOS extender checks the presence of a DPMI kernel, and installs its own only if the one was not installed already. This allows\nDOS-extended programs to run either in a multitasking OS that provides its own DPMI kernel, or directly\nunder bare-metal DOS, in which case DOS extender uses its own DPMI kernel. Windows 3.x and 9x's user-mode\nkernels are built with a DOS extender, so they fully rely on a DPMI API that is provided by Windows's ring-0 kernel.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ralph Lipe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ralph_Lipe&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DPMI-0.04-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duncan_1991-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lipe_1992_MSDOSEXT-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DOS-API-0.02-6"},{"link_name":"DPMI Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DPMI_Committee"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duncan_1991-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lipe_1992_MSDOSEXT-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duncan_1991-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DPMI-True-7"},{"link_name":"VCPI specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Control_Program_Interface"},{"link_name":"Intel's Software Focus Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Software_Focus_Group"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DesignElektronik_1991_PC-Architektur-8"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duncan_1991-1"},{"link_name":"Lotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Development_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DesignElektronik_1991_PC-Architektur-8"},{"link_name":"Digital Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Research"},{"link_name":"Interactive Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactive_Systems"},{"link_name":"Extended VCPI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_VCPI"},{"link_name":"XVCPI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XVCPI"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DesignElektronik_1991_PC-Architektur-8"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duncan_1991-1"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DPMI_1991_1.0-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DesignElektronik_1991_PC-Architektur-8"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Duncan_1991-1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schneider_1994-10"},{"link_name":"DPMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_Protected_Mode_Services"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schneider_1994-10"},{"link_name":"Digital Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Research"},{"link_name":"Novell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novell"},{"link_name":"memory footprint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_footprint"},{"link_name":"stubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_memory_stub"},{"link_name":"Helix Cloaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helix_Cloaking"},{"link_name":"API","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/API"},{"link_name":"OS/2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/2"}],"text":"The first DPMI specification drafts were published in 1989 by Microsoft's Ralph Lipe.[4][1] While based on a prototypical version of DPMI for Windows 3.0 in 386 enhanced mode, several features of this implementation were removed from the official specification, including a feature named MS-DOS Extensions[5] or DOS API translation that had been proposed by Ralph Lipe in the original drafts.[6] Most of it was implementing DOS and BIOS interfaces (due to this history some INT 21h APIs like 4Ch have to be implemented by all DPMI implementations). DPMI version 0.9 was published in 1990 by the newly formed DPMI Committee. The version number 0.9 of the resulting specification was chosen to reflect the stripped-down nature and incomplete status of the standard the members of the DPMI Committee could agree upon.[1] While Windows reports DPMI version 0.9 for compatibility, it actually implements the other parts as well, since they present a vital part of the system.[5][1] This undocumented full nature of DPMI has become known as \"true DPMI\" in the industry.[7] The DPMI standard was not the only effort to overcome the shortcomings of the VCPI specification. At the same time that Microsoft developed DPMI for Windows 3.0, another industry alliance including Intel's Software Focus Group,[8][1] Lotus,[8] Digital Research, Interactive Systems and others developed a specification named Extended VCPI (XVCPI) to make the memory management and multitasking capabilities of the 386 available for extended DOS applications.[8][1][9]\nWhen it turned out that Microsoft's DPMI proposal addressed a number of similar issues and was supported by Windows, these efforts led to the creation of the DPMI Committee in February 1990 during a meeting at Intel in Santa Clara.[8][1]In 1991, the DPMI Committee revised DPMI to version 1.0 in order to incorporate a number of clarifications and extensions, but it still did not include the missing \"true DPMI\" bits implemented in Windows. In fact, \"true DPMI\" never became part of the official DPMI specification, and Windows likewise never implemented the DPMI 1.0 extensions (and not many DPMI hosts did).While DPMI is tailored to run extended DOS application software in protected mode and extended memory,[10] it is not particularly well suited for resident system extensions. Another specification named DPMS,[10] developed by Digital Research / Novell around 1992, specifically addresses requirements to easily relocate modified DOS driver software into extended memory and run them in protected mode, thereby reducing their conventional memory footprint down to small stubs. This is also supported by Helix Cloaking.The DPMI \"method\" is specific to DOS and the IBM PC. Other computer types were upgraded from 16-bit to 32-bit, and the advanced program support was provided by upgrading the operating system with a new 32-bit API and new memory management/addressing capabilities. For example, the OS/2 core system supports 32-bit programs, and can be run without the GUI. The DPMI solution appears to be mainly needed to address third party need to get DOS protected mode programs running stably on Windows 3.x before the dominant operating system vendor, Microsoft, could or would address the future of 32-bit Windows. In addition, Microsoft didn't see the answer to the 32-bit transition as a 32-bit DOS, but rather a 32-bit Windows with a completely different (and incompatible) API.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lipe_1992_MSDOSEXT-5"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NetBIOS_2004-11"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"Qualitas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qualitas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"386MAX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/386MAX"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lipe_1992_MSDOSEXT-5"},{"link_name":"DPMIONE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DPMIONE&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"386MAX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/386MAX"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sokolov_1998_DPMI10-12"},{"link_name":"DR DOS \"Panther\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR_DOS_%22Panther%22"},{"link_name":"\"StarTrek\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR_DOS_%22StarTrek%22"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_Panther-13"},{"link_name":"EMM386.EXE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMM386.EXE"},{"link_name":"Novell DOS 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novell_DOS_7"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schneider_1994-10"},{"link_name":"Caldera OpenDOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldera_OpenDOS"},{"link_name":"DR-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR-DOS"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulman_1994_Undocumented-DOS-14"},{"link_name":"Multiuser DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiuser_DOS"},{"link_name":"System Manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datapac_System_Manager"},{"link_name":"REAL/32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REAL/32"},{"link_name":"CWSDPMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CWSDPMI"},{"link_name":"Thomas Pytel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Pytel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"demo scene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demo_scene"},{"link_name":"Rational Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_Systems"},{"link_name":"DOS/4G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS/4G"},{"link_name":"Watcom C compiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watcom_C_compiler"},{"link_name":"HX DOS Extender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HX_DOS_Extender"}],"sub_title":"Compatibility","text":"While Windows 3.0 implements \"true DPMI\"[5] and reports support for DPMI 0.9,[11] DPMI version 1.0 was never implemented in Microsoft Windows, so most programs and DOS extenders were mostly only written for version 0.9. Few extenders, however, implement \"true DPMI\".Beta versions of Qualitas 386MAX implemented \"true DPMI\" and could run Windows' KRNL386.EXE from the command line, but it was claimed that was disabled in the released product in an internal email.[5] However, DPMIONE (by Bob Smith based on the 386MAX code) can do it. Currently DPMIONE and 386MAX is also the only DPMI host which supports DPMI 1.0 completely (e.g. uncommitted memory) and they are the main supporter of DPMI 1.0.[12]The KRNL386.SYS (aka \"MultiMAX\") of DR DOS \"Panther\" and \"StarTrek\", which has been under development since 1991,[nb 1] and the EMM386.EXE memory managers of Novell DOS 7,[10] Caldera OpenDOS and DR-DOS 7.02 and higher have built-in support for DPMI when loaded with the /DPMI[=ON] option. KRNL386.SYS even had a command line option /VER=0.9|1.0 to provide support for either DPMI 1.0 or 0.9.[13] DOS API translation was referred to as \"called interrupt 21 from protected mode\". Multiuser DOS, System Manager and REAL/32 support DPMI as well.The most famous separate DPMI kernel is probably CWSDPMI; it supports DPMI 0.9, but no undocumented \"DOS API translation\".\nAnother variant called PMODE by \"TRAN\" aka Thomas Pytel was popular with 32-bit programmers during the demo scene of the 1990s.\nMany games used DOS/4GW, which was developed by Rational Systems as a subset of DOS/4G and was distributed with the Watcom C compiler.HDPMI (part of HX DOS Extender) provides \"DOS API translation\" and almost complete DPMI 1.0 implementation.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Borland International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borland_International"},{"link_name":"Borland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borland"},{"link_name":"Turbo Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_Pascal"},{"link_name":"IBM Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Corporation"},{"link_name":"PC DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_DOS"},{"link_name":"OS/2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/2"},{"link_name":"AI Architects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AI_Architects&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ergo Computer Solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ergo_Computer_Solutions&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Eclipse Computer Solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eclipse_Computer_Solutions&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ergo Computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ergo_Computing&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"OS/286","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OS/286&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"OS/386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=OS/386&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Intelligent Graphics Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_Graphics_Corporation"},{"link_name":"VM/386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VM/386"},{"link_name":"Intel Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Corporation"},{"link_name":"286","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80286"},{"link_name":"386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80386"},{"link_name":"486","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80486"},{"link_name":"Locus Computing Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_Computing_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Merge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merge_(software)"},{"link_name":"Lotus Development Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Development_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Lotus 1-2-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_1-2-3"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Corporation"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"Phar Lap Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phar_Lap_Software"},{"link_name":"DOS|286","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=286/DOS&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"DOS|386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=386/DOS&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"TNT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TNT_(DOS_extender)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Phoenix Technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Technologies"},{"link_name":"Phoenix BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_BIOS"},{"link_name":"PMate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PMate&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"PForCe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=PForCe&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Plink-86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plink-86&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Quarterdeck Office Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarterdeck_Office_Systems"},{"link_name":"QEMM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QEMM"},{"link_name":"DESQview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DESQview"},{"link_name":"DESQview/X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DESQview/X"},{"link_name":"Rational Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_Systems"},{"link_name":"Tenberry Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenberry_Software"},{"link_name":"DOS/16M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DOS/16M&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"DOS/4G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS/4G"},{"link_name":"DOS/4GW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS/4GW"}],"sub_title":"DPMI Committee","text":"The DPMI 1.0 Committee met between 1990 through 1991 and consisted of 12 groups:Borland International (Borland C, Turbo Pascal)\nIBM Corporation (PC DOS, OS/2)\nAI Architects/Ergo Computer Solutions/Eclipse Computer Solutions/Ergo Computing (OS/286, OS/386 DOS extenders)\nIntelligent Graphics Corporation (VM/386 multi-user DOS)\nIntel Corporation (286, 386, 486 microprocessors)\nLocus Computing Corporation (Merge)\nLotus Development Corporation (Lotus 1-2-3)\nMicrosoft Corporation (MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows)\nPhar Lap Software (DOS|286, DOS|386, TNT)\nPhoenix Technologies (Phoenix BIOS, PMate, PForCe, Plink-86)\nQuarterdeck Office Systems (QEMM, DESQview, DESQview/X)\nRational Systems/Tenberry Software (DOS/16M, DOS/4G, DOS/4GW DOS extenders)","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_Panther_13-0"},{"link_name":"DR DOS \"Panther\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR_DOS_%22Panther%22"}],"text":"^ KRNL386.SYS of DR DOS \"Panther\" has copyright strings \"1991,1992\".","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Protected Mode API For DOS Extended Applications – Version 0.9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20120425162013/http://homer.rice.edu/~sandmann/cwsdpmi/dpmispec.txt"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//homer.rice.edu/~sandmann/cwsdpmi/dpmispec.txt"},{"link_name":"DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Version 1.0 – Application Program Interface (API) for Protected Mode DOS Applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20130531075902/http://homer.rice.edu/~sandmann/cwsdpmi/dpmispec1.pdf"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//homer.rice.edu/~sandmann/cwsdpmi/dpmispec1.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Some history on DPMI\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//virtuallyfun.superglobalmegacorp.com/?p=1188"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160522001328/http://virtuallyfun.superglobalmegacorp.com/2011/08/02/some-history-on-dpmi/"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//lists.gnu.org/archive/html/lynx-dev/1998-04/msg00773.html"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160522001643/https://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/lynx-dev/1998-04/msg00773.html"},{"link_name":"\"Undocumented DOS From Protected-Mode Windows 3\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.drdobbs.com/windows/undocumented-dos-from-protected-mode-win/184408714"},{"link_name":"Dr. Dobb's Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Dobb%27s_Journal"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20180920192515/http://www.drdobbs.com/windows/undocumented-dos-from-protected-mode-win/184408714"},{"link_name":"\"MS-DOS 5.0 DPMI\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//virtuallyfun.com/wordpress/2016/06/21/ms-dos-5-0-dpmi/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20180917215320/https://virtuallyfun.com/wordpress/2016/06/21/ms-dos-5-0-dpmi/"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS 5.00A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS_5.00A"},{"link_name":"PC-98","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC-98"}],"text":"An Introduction To The DOS Protected Mode Interface – White Paper. Intel. 1993. Intel order code 240787-003. (22 pages)\nDOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Protected Mode API For DOS Extended Applications – Version 0.9. Intel. 1990-07-26. Archived from the original on 2012-04-25. (112 pages)\nThe DPMI Committee (1991-03-12). DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Version 1.0 – Application Program Interface (API) for Protected Mode DOS Applications (PDF). Intel. Intel order code 240977-001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-31. Retrieved 2013-05-31. (160 pages)\nSokolov, Michael (1998-04-26). \"Some history on DPMI\". Archived from the original on 2016-05-22. [3] [4]\nChui, Paul (1992-02-01). \"Undocumented DOS From Protected-Mode Windows 3\". Dr. Dobb's Journal. Archived from the original on 2018-09-20. Retrieved 2018-09-20.\n\"MS-DOS 5.0 DPMI\" (in English and Japanese). 2016-07-24 [2016-06-22]. Archived from the original on 2018-09-17. Retrieved 2018-09-17. (MSDPMI on Japanese MS-DOS 5.00A for PC-98 platform.)","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"title":"Virtual Control Program Interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Control_Program_Interface"},{"title":"DOS Protected Mode Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_Protected_Mode_Services"},{"title":"Helix Cloaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helix_Cloaking"},{"title":"NetWare I/O Subsystem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetWare_I/O_Subsystem"},{"title":"Multiuser DOS Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiuser_DOS_Federation"}]

[{"reference":"Duncan, Ray (1991-02-12). \"Power Programming – An Introduction to the DOS Protected Mode Interface\". PC Magazine. 10 (3). Ziff-Davis Publishing Co.: 367–371. ISSN 0888-8507. Retrieved 2016-05-21. […] The creators of the VCPI were well aware of its limitations and were already hard at work on a second generation specification called Extended VCPI (XVCPI), when Microsoft barged onto the scene with the beta-test versions of Windows 3.0 and its DPMI. For a few months it appeared that the fledgling DOS extender market would fragment into two mutually exclusive directions […] Microsoft turned control of the DPMI specification over to an industry committee with open membership, and the backers of the XVCPI effort decided to join forces behind the DPMI. […] Microsoft agreed to delete the portions of the DPMI that crossed into DOS extender territory - specifically, direct support of the DOS and ROM BIOS interrupts in protected mode. Consequently, DPMI, Version 0.9, the first public version, released by the DPMI Committee in May 1990, defines only the low-level or building-block functions […] Naturally, the higher level or DOS extender interface of Windows 3.0 still exists, but it has receded into the twilight zone of undocumented functionality. Undocumented, but hardly unusable […]","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YxFTezF9-sMC&pg=PT376","url_text":"\"Power Programming – An Introduction to the DOS Protected Mode Interface\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Magazine","url_text":"PC Magazine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziff-Davis_Publishing_Co.","url_text":"Ziff-Davis Publishing Co."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0888-8507","url_text":"0888-8507"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Control_Program_Interface","url_text":"VCPI"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_VCPI","url_text":"Extended VCPI"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XVCPI","url_text":"XVCPI"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.0","url_text":"Windows 3.0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS_extender","url_text":"DOS extender"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROM_BIOS","url_text":"ROM BIOS"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_mode","url_text":"protected mode"}]},{"reference":"Duncan, Ray; Petzold, Charles; Schulman, Andrew; Baker, M. Steven; Nelson, Ross P.; Davis, Stephen R.; Moote, Robert (1992). Extending DOS: A Programmer's Guide to Protected-Mode DOS. 2 (2 ed.). Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 433–436. ISBN 0-201-56798-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Petzold","url_text":"Petzold, Charles"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Moote","url_text":"Moote, Robert"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison-Wesley_Publishing_Company,_Inc.","url_text":"Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-56798-9","url_text":"0-201-56798-9"}]},{"reference":"Schmit, Michael L. (1995). Pentium Processor Optimization Tools (1 ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Academic Press, Inc. (AP Professional). ISBN 0-12-627230-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Press,_Inc.","url_text":"Academic Press, Inc."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AP_Professional","url_text":"AP Professional"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-627230-1","url_text":"0-12-627230-1"}]},{"reference":"Microsoft (Fall 1989), DOS Protected Mode Interface Specification, Revision Prerelease 0.04 (Prerelease ed.)","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"}]},{"reference":"Cole, Dave (1992-05-04). Neiminen, Bruce (ed.). \"Re: MS-DOS DPMI extensions\" (PDF) (Court document). Microsoft. pp. 123–124. MSC 00779372/00779373, MX3232616/3232617, Cole Exhibit 10, 2001-06-21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-09-18. Retrieved 2018-09-17 – via Comes v. Microsoft - Plaintiff's exhibit 1306. […] [Ralph Lipe:] I think, they're checked into Win386 project. In the root MSDOS.DOC (look at all the .DOC files in the root) […] NO! This is an extremely sensitive matter since it basically tells […] ISVs (AKA DR-DOS and IBM) how to run standard mode Windows. You need to clear it with BradSi[lverberg] before distributing it. [Greg Lowney:] SoftNet makes a limulator. They read in the C7 manual that you can run C7 dos-extended if your limulator supports the MS-DOS extensions to the DPMI specification. So […] they called us to get a spec on exactly what those extensions are. Apparently they are not documented. […] They are not that complicated, mostly just what MS-DOS and BIOS calls we map for the application, and Qualitas had no trouble reverse engineering them. (The new 386MAX was, in beta, able to run KRNL386 from the command line, but I believe they disabled that feature in their final product to avoid stepping on our feet. 386MAX does, of course, support C7.) […] Ralph, was the spec distributed to the members of the DPMI committee? […] [Dave Cole:] We should absolutely NOT document this. […]","urls":[{"url":"http://antitrust.slated.org/www.iowaconsumercase.org/011607/1000/PX01306.pdf","url_text":"\"Re: MS-DOS DPMI extensions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180918054241/http://antitrust.slated.org/www.iowaconsumercase.org/011607/1000/PX01306.pdf","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comes_v._Microsoft","url_text":"Comes v. Microsoft"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows/386","url_text":"Win386"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_software_vendor","url_text":"ISVs"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR-DOS","url_text":"DR-DOS"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM","url_text":"IBM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows","url_text":"Windows"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Silverberg","url_text":"BradSi[lverberg]"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SoftNet&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"SoftNet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limulator","url_text":"limulator"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_C_compiler#MSC7","url_text":"C7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qualitas&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Qualitas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/386MAX","url_text":"386MAX"}]},{"reference":"Microsoft (1990-10-31). Sokolov, Michael (ed.). \"MS-DOS API EXTENSIONS FOR DPMI HOSTS Version Pre-Release 0.02\" (Annotated retyped preliminary ed.) (published 1999-04-08). Retrieved 2016-05-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgftp//ftp.freecalypso.org/micro/msdos/above640k/TrueDPMI/dpmiext.txt","url_text":"\"MS-DOS API EXTENSIONS FOR DPMI HOSTS Version Pre-Release 0.02\""}]},{"reference":"Microsoft (1989). Sokolov, Michael (ed.). \"DOS PROTECTED MODE INTERFACE (DPMI) – SPECIFICATION Protected Mode API For DOS Extended Applications\" (Annotated incompletely reconstructed ed.) (published 1999-04-08). Retrieved 2016-05-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgftp//ftp.freecalypso.org/micro/msdos/above640k/TrueDPMI/dpmitrue.txt","url_text":"\"DOS PROTECTED MODE INTERFACE (DPMI) – SPECIFICATION Protected Mode API For DOS Extended Applications\""}]},{"reference":"Wurthmann, Gerold; Wopperer, Bernhard; Wiesböck, Johann (1991). \"Die DPMI-Spezifikation – Eine Einführung\" [An introduction to the DPMI specification]. Vorträge und Begleittexte zum 2. Entwicklerforum der Design & Elektronik zum Thema: PC-Architektur, 17. September 1991, München [Presentations and supplemental material for the second developer forum on PC architecture on 17 September 1991, Munich] (book) (in German) (1 ed.). Munich, Germany: Markt & Technik Verlag Aktiengesellschaft. p. 223.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markt_%26_Technik_Verlag_Aktiengesellschaft","url_text":"Markt & Technik Verlag Aktiengesellschaft"}]},{"reference":"The DPMI Committee (1991-03-12). DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Version 1.0 – Application Program Interface (API) for Protected Mode DOS Applications (PDF). 1.0. Intel. pp. 4–5. Intel order code 240977-001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-31. Retrieved 2013-05-24. The initial DPMI prototype was developed by Microsoft for Windows version 3.0, with input from Lotus Corporation and Rational Systems, as part of a general effort to enhance Windows' performance by allowing the Windows kernel to run in extended memory. In parallel, Intel was working with manufacturers of multitasking environments, EMS emulators, and DOS extenders to ensure that an extended VCPI specification could fully utilize the 80386's virtualization and protection features. In February 1990, the parties involved in the above activities agreed to form the DPMI Committee and formulate an industry-wide standard for protected-mode DOS applications. The Committee released the first public DPMI Specification, Version 0.9 in May 1990.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130531075902/http://homer.rice.edu/~sandmann/cwsdpmi/dpmispec1.pdf","url_text":"DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Version 1.0 – Application Program Interface (API) for Protected Mode DOS Applications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel","url_text":"Intel"},{"url":"http://homer.rice.edu/~sandmann/cwsdpmi/dpmispec1.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Schneider, Stefanie (1994-06-17). \"Das Ende von DOS ist nur noch eine Frage der Zeit\" [The end of DOS is only a question of time]. Computerwoche (in German). Munich, Germany: IDG Business Media GmbH. Archived from the original on 2022-01-02. Retrieved 2022-01-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerwoche.de/a/das-ende-von-dos-ist-nur-noch-eine-frage-der-zeit,1121952","url_text":"\"Das Ende von DOS ist nur noch eine Frage der Zeit\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerwoche","url_text":"Computerwoche"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDG_Business_Media_GmbH","url_text":"IDG Business Media GmbH"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220102151737/https://www.computerwoche.de/a/das-ende-von-dos-ist-nur-noch-eine-frage-der-zeit,1121952","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"FILE: Windows Int 21h and NetBIOS Support for DPMI\". Knowledge Base. Microsoft. 2004-08-04 [1999-12-04]. KB65128. Q65128. Archived from the original on 2020-02-20. Retrieved 2016-05-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://jeffpar.github.io/kbarchive/kb/065/Q65128/","url_text":"\"FILE: Windows Int 21h and NetBIOS Support for DPMI\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200220115408/https://jeffpar.github.io/kbarchive/kb/065/Q65128/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sokolov, Michael (1998-05-06). \"lA correction to a previous posting\". lynx-dev. Archived from the original on 2020-02-20. Retrieved 2020-02-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/lynx-dev/1998-05/msg00157.html","url_text":"\"lA correction to a previous posting\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200220111838/https://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/lynx-dev/1998-05/msg00157.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Schulman, Andrew; Brown, Ralf D.; Maxey, David; Michels, Raymond J.; Kyle, Jim (1994) [November 1993]. Undocumented DOS: A programmer's guide to reserved MS-DOS functions and data structures - expanded to include MS-DOS 6, Novell DOS and Windows 3.1 (2 ed.). Reading, Massachusetts, USA: Addison Wesley. p. 194. ISBN 0-201-63287-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralf_D._Brown","url_text":"Brown, Ralf D."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/undocumenteddosp00andr_0","url_text":"Undocumented DOS: A programmer's guide to reserved MS-DOS functions and data structures - expanded to include MS-DOS 6, Novell DOS and Windows 3.1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison_Wesley","url_text":"Addison Wesley"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/undocumenteddosp00andr_0/page/194","url_text":"194"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-63287-X","url_text":"0-201-63287-X"}]},{"reference":"An Introduction To The DOS Protected Mode Interface – White Paper. Intel. 1993. Intel order code 240787-003.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel","url_text":"Intel"}]},{"reference":"DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Protected Mode API For DOS Extended Applications – Version 0.9. Intel. 1990-07-26. Archived from the original on 2012-04-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120425162013/http://homer.rice.edu/~sandmann/cwsdpmi/dpmispec.txt","url_text":"DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Protected Mode API For DOS Extended Applications – Version 0.9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel","url_text":"Intel"},{"url":"http://homer.rice.edu/~sandmann/cwsdpmi/dpmispec.txt","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"The DPMI Committee (1991-03-12). DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Version 1.0 – Application Program Interface (API) for Protected Mode DOS Applications (PDF). Intel. Intel order code 240977-001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-31. Retrieved 2013-05-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130531075902/http://homer.rice.edu/~sandmann/cwsdpmi/dpmispec1.pdf","url_text":"DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Version 1.0 – Application Program Interface (API) for Protected Mode DOS Applications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel","url_text":"Intel"},{"url":"http://homer.rice.edu/~sandmann/cwsdpmi/dpmispec1.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Sokolov, Michael (1998-04-26). \"Some history on DPMI\". Archived from the original on 2016-05-22.","urls":[{"url":"http://virtuallyfun.superglobalmegacorp.com/?p=1188","url_text":"\"Some history on DPMI\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160522001328/http://virtuallyfun.superglobalmegacorp.com/2011/08/02/some-history-on-dpmi/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Chui, Paul (1992-02-01). \"Undocumented DOS From Protected-Mode Windows 3\". Dr. Dobb's Journal. Archived from the original on 2018-09-20. Retrieved 2018-09-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.drdobbs.com/windows/undocumented-dos-from-protected-mode-win/184408714","url_text":"\"Undocumented DOS From Protected-Mode Windows 3\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Dobb%27s_Journal","url_text":"Dr. Dobb's Journal"},{"url":"https://archive.today/20180920192515/http://www.drdobbs.com/windows/undocumented-dos-from-protected-mode-win/184408714","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"MS-DOS 5.0 DPMI\" (in English and Japanese). 2016-07-24 [2016-06-22]. Archived from the original on 2018-09-17. Retrieved 2018-09-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://virtuallyfun.com/wordpress/2016/06/21/ms-dos-5-0-dpmi/","url_text":"\"MS-DOS 5.0 DPMI\""},{"url":"https://archive.today/20180917215320/https://virtuallyfun.com/wordpress/2016/06/21/ms-dos-5-0-dpmi/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Protected Mode API For DOS Extended Applications – Version 0.9\" (HTML converted ed.). Tenberry Software, Inc. 1998 [1990-07-26]. Archived from the original on 2016-05-21. Retrieved 2006-12-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160521221856/http://www.tenberry.com/dpmi/index.html","url_text":"\"DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI) Specification – Protected Mode API For DOS Extended Applications – Version 0.9\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenberry_Software,_Inc.","url_text":"Tenberry Software, Inc."},{"url":"http://www.tenberry.com/dpmi/index.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"DPMI 1.0 Programming API Specification\" (HTML converted ed.). DJ Delorie. April 1996 [1991]. Archived from the original on 2016-05-21. Retrieved 2019-07-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.delorie.com/djgpp/doc/dpmi/","url_text":"\"DPMI 1.0 Programming API Specification\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ_Delorie","url_text":"DJ Delorie"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160521221929/http://www.delorie.com/djgpp/doc/dpmi/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Microsoft (1990-10-31). \"MS-DOS API EXTENSIONS FOR DPMI HOSTS Version Pre-Release 0.02\".","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgftp//ftp.freecalypso.org/micro/msdos/above640k/TrueDPMI/dpmiext.txt","url_text":"\"MS-DOS API EXTENSIONS FOR DPMI HOSTS Version Pre-Release 0.02\""}]},{"reference":"Microsoft (1991-03-11). \"MS-DOS API EXTENSIONS FOR DPMI HOSTS Version Pre-Release 0.04\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"},{"url":"https://docs.pcjs.org/specs/dpmi/1991_03_11-MSDOS_DPMI_EXTENSIONS.pdf","url_text":"\"MS-DOS API EXTENSIONS FOR DPMI HOSTS Version Pre-Release 0.04\""}]},{"reference":"Sandmann, Charles W. \"CWSDPMI\". Archived from the original on 2015-11-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151116010530/http://homer.rice.edu/~sandmann/cwsdpmi/index.html","url_text":"\"CWSDPMI\""},{"url":"http://homer.rice.edu/~sandmann/cwsdpmi/index.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Japheth. \"HX DOS Extender\". Archived from the original on 2014-10-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141013114801/http://www.japheth.de/HX.html","url_text":"\"HX DOS Extender\""},{"url":"http://www.japheth.de/HX.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Bob. \"DPMIONE Documentation File Version 0.91\". Archived from the original on 2016-05-21. Retrieved 2019-07-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sudleyplace.com/dpmione/","url_text":"\"DPMIONE Documentation File Version 0.91\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160521222133/http://www.sudleyplace.com/dpmione/","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrochronological

Dendrochronology

["1 History","2 Methods","2.1 Growth rings","2.2 Dendrochronological equation","2.3 Sampling and dating","2.4 Reference sequences","2.5 Miyake events","2.6 Frost rings","3 Applications","3.1 Radiocarbon dating calibration","3.2 Climatology","3.3 Art history","3.4 Archaeology","4 Measurement platforms, software, and data formats","5 Continuous sequence","6 Related chronologies","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]

Method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings The growth rings of a tree at Bristol Zoo, England. Each ring represents one year; the outside rings, near the bark, are the youngest A "tree cookie" cross-section of a Coast Douglas-fir tree displayed in the Royal Ontario Museum. The tree was over 500 years old when it was cut down in British Columbia in the 1890s. The markings indicating historical events were added in the 1920s. Dendrochronology (or tree-ring dating) is the scientific method of dating tree rings (also called growth rings) to the exact year they were formed in a tree. As well as dating them, this can give data for dendroclimatology, the study of climate and atmospheric conditions during different periods in history from the wood of old trees. Dendrochronology derives from the Ancient Greek dendron (δένδρον), meaning "tree", khronos (χρόνος), meaning "time", and -logia (-λογία), "the study of". Dendrochronology is useful for determining the precise age of samples, especially those that are too recent for radiocarbon dating, which always produces a range rather than an exact date. However, for a precise date of the death of the tree a full sample to the edge is needed, which most trimmed timber will not provide. It also gives data on the timing of events and rates of change in the environment (most prominently climate) and also in wood found in archaeology or works of art and architecture, such as old panel paintings. It is also used as a check in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages. New growth in trees occurs in a layer of cells near the bark. A tree's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes, resulting in visible growth rings. Each ring marks a complete cycle of seasons, or one year, in the tree's life. As of 2020, securely dated tree-ring data for some regions in the Northern Hemisphere are available going back 13,910 years. A new method is based on measuring variations in oxygen isotopes in each ring, and this 'isotope dendrochronology' can yield results on samples which are not suitable for traditional dendrochronology due to too few or too similar rings. Some regions have "floating sequences", with gaps which mean that earlier periods can only be approximately dated. As of 2024, only three areas have continuous sequences going back to prehistoric times, the foothills of the Northern Alps, the southwestern United States and the British Isles. Miyake events, which are major spikes in cosmic rays at known dates, are visible in trees rings and can fix the dating of a floating sequence. History The Greek botanist Theophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287 BC) first mentioned that the wood of trees has rings. In his Trattato della Pittura (Treatise on Painting), Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was the first person to mention that trees form rings annually and that their thickness is determined by the conditions under which they grew. In 1737, French investigators Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau and Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon examined the effect of growing conditions on the shape of tree rings. They found that in 1709, a severe winter produced a distinctly dark tree ring, which served as a reference for subsequent European naturalists. In the U.S., Alexander Catlin Twining (1801–1884) suggested in 1833 that patterns among tree rings could be used to synchronize the dendrochronology of various trees and thereby to reconstruct past climates across entire regions. The English polymath Charles Babbage proposed using dendrochronology to date the remains of trees in peat bogs or even in geological strata (1835, 1838). During the latter half of the nineteenth century, the scientific study of tree rings and the application of dendrochronology began. In 1859, the German-American Jacob Kuechler (1823–1893) used crossdating to examine oaks (Quercus stellata) in order to study the record of climate in western Texas. In 1866, the German botanist, entomologist, and forester Julius Theodor Christian Ratzeburg (1801–1871) observed the effects on tree rings of defoliation caused by insect infestations. By 1882, this observation was already appearing in forestry textbooks. In the 1870s, the Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn (1851–1922) was using crossdating to reconstruct the climates of the Netherlands and Germany. In 1881, the Swiss-Austrian forester Arthur von Seckendorff-Gudent (1845–1886) was using crossdating. From 1869 to 1901, Robert Hartig (1839–1901), a German professor of forest pathology, wrote a series of papers on the anatomy and ecology of tree rings. In 1892, the Russian physicist Fedor Nikiforovich Shvedov (Фёдор Никифорович Шведов; 1841–1905) wrote that he had used patterns found in tree rings to predict droughts in 1882 and 1891. During the first half of the twentieth century, the astronomer A. E. Douglass founded the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research at the University of Arizona. Douglass sought to better understand cycles of sunspot activity and reasoned that changes in solar activity would affect climate patterns on earth, which would subsequently be recorded by tree-ring growth patterns (i.e., sunspots → climate → tree rings). Methods Drill for dendrochronology sampling and growth ring counting Growth rings "Tree ring" redirects here. Not to be confused with Tree ring (landscape feature). Further information: Wood Diagram of secondary growth in a tree showing idealised vertical and horizontal sections. A new layer of wood is added in each growing season, thickening the stem, existing branches and roots, to form a growth ring. Horizontal cross sections cut through the trunk of a tree can reveal growth rings, also referred to as tree rings or annual rings. Growth rings result from new growth in the vascular cambium, a layer of cells near the bark that botanists classify as a lateral meristem; this growth in diameter is known as secondary growth. Visible rings result from the change in growth speed through the seasons of the year; thus, critical for the title method, one ring generally marks the passage of one year in the life of the tree. Removal of the bark of the tree in a particular area may cause deformation of the rings as the plant overgrows the scar. The rings are more visible in trees which have grown in temperate zones, where the seasons differ more markedly. The inner portion of a growth ring forms early in the growing season, when growth is comparatively rapid (hence the wood is less dense) and is known as "early wood" (or "spring wood", or "late-spring wood"); the outer portion is the "late wood" (sometimes termed "summer wood", often being produced in the summer, though sometimes in the autumn) and is denser. Silver lime cross section showing annual rings. Many trees in temperate zones produce one growth-ring each year, with the newest adjacent to the bark. Hence, for the entire period of a tree's life, a year-by-year record or ring pattern builds up that reflects the age of the tree and the climatic conditions in which the tree grew. Adequate moisture and a long growing season result in a wide ring, while a drought year may result in a very narrow one. Direct reading of tree ring chronologies is a complex science, for several reasons. First, contrary to the single-ring-per-year paradigm, alternating poor and favorable conditions, such as mid-summer droughts, can result in several rings forming in a given year. In addition, particular tree species may present "missing rings", and this influences the selection of trees for study of long time-spans. For instance, missing rings are rare in oak and elm trees. Critical to the science, trees from the same region tend to develop the same patterns of ring widths for a given period of chronological study. Researchers can compare and match these patterns ring-for-ring with patterns from trees which have grown at the same time in the same geographical zone (and therefore under similar climatic conditions). When one can match these tree-ring patterns across successive trees in the same locale, in overlapping fashion, chronologies can be built up—both for entire geographical regions and for sub-regions. Moreover, wood from ancient structures with known chronologies can be matched to the tree-ring data (a technique called cross-dating), and the age of the wood can thereby be determined precisely. Dendrochronologists originally carried out cross-dating by visual inspection; more recently, they have harnessed computers to do the task, applying statistical techniques to assess the matching. To eliminate individual variations in tree-ring growth, dendrochronologists take the smoothed average of the tree-ring widths of multiple tree-samples to build up a ring history, a process termed replication. A tree-ring history whose beginning- and end-dates are not known is called a floating chronology. It can be anchored by cross-matching a section against another chronology (tree-ring history) whose dates are known. A fully anchored and cross-matched chronology for oak and pine in central Europe extends back 12,460 years, and an oak chronology goes back 7,429 years in Ireland and 6,939 years in England. Comparison of radiocarbon and dendrochronological ages supports the consistency of these two independent dendrochronological sequences. Another fully anchored chronology that extends back 8,500 years exists for the bristlecone pine in the Southwest US (White Mountains of California). Dendrochronological equation A typical form of the function of the wood ring width in accordance with the dendrochronological equation A typical form of the function of the wood ring (in accordance with the dendrochronological equation) with an increase in the width of wood ring at initial stage The dendrochronological equation defines the law of growth of tree rings. The equation was proposed by Russian biophysicist Alexandr N. Tetearing in his work "Theory of populations" in the form: Δ L ( t ) = 1 k v ρ 1 3 d ( M 1 3 ( t ) ) d t , {\displaystyle \Delta L(t)={\frac {1}{k_{v}\,\rho ^{\frac {1}{3}}}}\,{\frac {d\left(M^{\frac {1}{3}}(t)\right)}{dt}},} where ΔL is width of annual ring, t is time (in years), ρ is density of wood, kv is some coefficient, M(t) is function of mass growth of the tree. Ignoring the natural sinusoidal oscillations in tree mass, the formula for the changes in the annual ring width is: Δ L ( t ) = − c 1 e − a 1 t + c 2 e − a 2 t 3 k v ρ 1 3 ( c 4 + c 1 e − a 1 t + c 2 e − a 2 t ) 2 3 {\displaystyle \Delta L(t)=-{\frac {c_{1}e^{-a_{1}t}+c_{2}e^{-a_{2}t}}{3k_{v}\rho ^{\frac {1}{3}}\left(c_{4}+c_{1}e^{-a_{1}t}+c_{2}e^{-a_{2}t}\right)^{\frac {2}{3}}}}} where c1, c2, and c4 are some coefficients, a1 and a2 are positive constants. The formula is useful for correct approximation of samples data before data normalization procedure. The typical forms of the function ΔL(t) of annual growth of wood ring are shown in the figures. Sampling and dating Dendrochronology allows specimens of once-living material to be accurately dated to a specific year. Dates are often represented as estimated calendar years B.P., for before present, where "present" refers to 1 January 1950. Timber core samples are sampled and used to measure the width of annual growth rings; by taking samples from different sites within a particular region, researchers can build a comprehensive historical sequence. The techniques of dendrochronology are more consistent in areas where trees grew in marginal conditions such as aridity or semi-aridity where the ring growth is more sensitive to the environment, rather than in humid areas where tree-ring growth is more uniform (complacent). In addition, some genera of trees are more suitable than others for this type of analysis. For instance, the bristlecone pine is exceptionally long-lived and slow growing, and has been used extensively for chronologies; still-living and dead specimens of this species provide tree-ring patterns going back thousands of years, in some regions more than 10,000 years. Currently, the maximum span for fully anchored chronology is a little over 11,000 years B.P. IntCal20 is the 2020 "Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve", which provides a calibrated carbon 14 dated sequence going back 55,000 years. The most recent part, going back 13,900 years, is based on tree rings. Reference sequences European chronologies derived from wooden structures initially found it difficult to bridge the gap in the fourteenth century when there was a building hiatus, which coincided with the Black Death,. However, there do exist unbroken chronologies dating back to prehistoric times, for example the Danish chronology dating back to 352 BC. Given a sample of wood, the variation of the tree-ring growths not only provides a match by year, but can also match location because climate varies from place to place. This makes it possible to determine the source of ships as well as smaller artifacts made from wood, but which were transported long distances, such as panels for paintings and ship timbers. Miyake events Miyake events, such as the ones in 774-775 and 993-994, can provide fixed reference points in an unknown time sequence as they are due to cosmic radiation. As they appear as spikes in carbon 14 in tree rings for that year all round the world, they can be used to date historical events to the year. For example, wooden houses in the Viking site at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland were dated by finding the layer with the 993 spike, which showed that the wood is from a tree felled in 1021. Researchers at the University of Bern have provided exact dating of a floating sequence in a Neolithic settlement in northern Greece by tying it to a spike in cosmogenic radiocarbon in 5259 BC. Frost rings Frost ring is a term used to designate a layer of deformed, collapsed tracheids and traumatic parenchyma cells in tree ring analysis. They are formed when air temperature falls below freezing during a period of cambial activity. They can be used in dendrochronology to indicate years that are colder than usual. Applications Radiocarbon dating calibration Dates from dendrochronology can be used as a calibration and check of radiocarbon dating. This can be done by checking radiocarbon dates against long master sequences, with Californian bristle-cone pines in Arizona being used to develop this method of calibration as the longevity of the trees (up to c.4900 years) in addition to the use of dead samples meant a long, unbroken tree ring sequence could be developed (dating back to c. 6700 BC). Additional studies of European oak trees, such as the master sequence in Germany that dates back to c. 8500 BC, can also be used to back up and further calibrate radiocarbon dates. Climatology Main article: dendroclimatology Dendroclimatology is the science of determining past climates from trees primarily from the properties of the annual tree rings. Other properties of the annual rings, such as maximum latewood density (MXD) have been shown to be better proxies than simple ring width. Using tree rings, scientists have estimated many local climates for hundreds to thousands of years previous. Art history Dendrochronology has become important to art historians in the dating of panel paintings. However, unlike analysis of samples from buildings, which are typically sent to a laboratory, wooden supports for paintings usually have to be measured in a museum conservation department, which places limitations on the techniques that can be used. In addition to dating, dendrochronology can also provide information as to the source of the panel. Many Early Netherlandish paintings have turned out to be painted on panels of "Baltic oak" shipped from the Vistula region via ports of the Hanseatic League. Oak panels were used in a number of northern countries such as England, France and Germany. Wooden supports other than oak were rarely used by Netherlandish painters. A portrait of Mary Queen of Scots, determined to date from the sixteenth century by dendrochronology Since panels of seasoned wood were used, an uncertain number of years has to be allowed for seasoning when estimating dates. Panels were trimmed of the outer rings, and often each panel only uses a small part of the radius of the trunk. Consequently, dating studies usually result in a "terminus post quem" (earliest possible) date, and a tentative date for the arrival of a seasoned raw panel using assumptions as to these factors. As a result of establishing numerous sequences, it was possible to date 85–90% of the 250 paintings from the fourteenth to seventeenth century analysed between 1971 and 1982; by now a much greater number have been analysed. A portrait of Mary, Queen of Scots in the National Portrait Gallery, London was believed to be an eighteenth-century copy. However, dendrochronology revealed that the wood dated from the second half of the sixteenth century. It is now regarded as an original sixteenth-century painting by an unknown artist. On the other hand, dendrochronology was applied to four paintings depicting the same subject, that of Christ expelling the money-lenders from the Temple. The results showed that the age of the wood was too late for any of them to have been painted by Hieronymus Bosch. While dendrochronology has become an important tool for dating oak panels, it is not effective in dating the poplar panels often used by Italian painters because of the erratic growth rings in poplar. The sixteenth century saw a gradual replacement of wooden panels by canvas as the support for paintings, which means the technique is less often applicable to later paintings. In addition, many panel paintings were transferred onto canvas or other supports during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Archaeology Main article: Dendroarchaeology The dating of buildings with wooden structures and components is also done by dendrochronology; dendroarchaeology is the term for the application of dendrochronology in archaeology. While archaeologists can date wood and when it was felled, it may be difficult to definitively determine the age of a building or structure in which the wood was used; the wood could have been reused from an older structure, may have been felled and left for many years before use, or could have been used to replace a damaged piece of wood. The dating of building via dendrochronology thus requires knowledge of the history of building technology. Many prehistoric forms of buildings used "posts" that were whole young tree trunks; where the bottom of the post has survived in the ground these can be especially useful for dating. Examples: The Post Track and Sweet Track, ancient timber trackways in the Somerset levels, England, have been dated to 3838 BC and 3807 BC. Navan Fort where in Prehistoric Ireland a large structure was built with more than two hundred posts. The central oak post was felled in 95 BC. The Fairbanks House in Dedham, Massachusetts. While the house had long been claimed to have been built c. 1640 (and being the oldest wood-framed house in North America), core samples of wood taken from a summer beam confirmed the wood was from an oak tree felled in 1637–8, as wood was not seasoned before use in building at that time in New England. An additional sample from another beam yielded a date of 1641, thus confirming the house had been constructed starting in 1638 and finished sometime after 1641 . The burial chamber of Gorm the Old, who died c. 958, was constructed from wood of timbers felled in 958. Veliky Novgorod, where, between the tenth and the fifteenth century, numerous consecutive layers of wooden log pavement have been placed over the accumulating dirt. Measurement platforms, software, and data formats There are many different file formats used to store tree ring width data. Effort for standardisation was made with the development of TRiDaS. Further development led to the database software Tellervo, which is based on the new standard format whilst being able to import lots of different data formats. The desktop application can be attached to measurement devices and works with the database server that is installed separately. Continuous sequence Bard et al write in 2023: "The oldest tree-ring series are known as floating since, while their constituent rings can be counted to create a relative internal chronology, they cannot be dendro-matched with the main Holocene absolute chronology. However, 14C analyses performed at high resolution on overlapped absolute and floating tree-rings series enable one to link them almost absolutely and hence to extend the calibration on annual tree rings until ≈13 900 cal yr BP." Related chronologies This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Herbchronology is the analysis of annual growth rings (or simply annual rings) in the secondary root xylem of perennial herbaceous plants. Similar seasonal patterns also occur in ice cores and in varves (layers of sediment deposition in a lake, river, or sea bed). The deposition pattern in the core will vary for a frozen-over lake versus an ice-free lake, and with the fineness of the sediment. Sclerochronology is the study of algae deposits. Some columnar cacti also exhibit similar seasonal patterns in the isotopes of carbon and oxygen in their spines (acanthochronology). These are used for dating in a manner similar to dendrochronology, and such techniques are used in combination with dendrochronology, to plug gaps and to extend the range of the seasonal data available to archaeologists and paleoclimatologists. A similar technique is used to estimate the age of fish stocks through the analysis of growth rings in the otolith bones. See also Trees portal Dendrology International Tree-Ring Data Bank Post excavation Timeline of dendrochronology timestamp events References ^ The term "dendrochronology" was coined in 1928 by the American astronomer Andrew Ellicott Douglass (1867–1962). Douglass, A.E. (1928). Climatic Cycles and Tree Growth. Vol. II. A Study of the Annual Rings of Trees in relation to Climate and Solar Activity. Washington, D.C., USA: Carnegie Institute of Washington. p. 5. From p. 5: "One can see that in all this we are measuring the lapse of time by means of a slow-geared clock within trees. For this study the name "dendro-chronology" has been suggested, or "tree-time." " ^ a b Grissino-Mayer, Henri D. (n.d.), The Science of Tree Rings: Principles of Dendrochronology, Department of Geography, The University of Tennessee, archived from the original on November 4, 2016, retrieved October 23, 2016 ^ Van der Plecht, J; Bronck Ramsey, C; Heaton, T. J.; Scott, E. M.; Talamo, S (August 2020). "Recent Developments in Calibration for Archaeological and Environmental Samples". Radiocarbon. 62 (4): 1095–1117. Bibcode:2020Radcb..62.1095V. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.22. hdl:11585/770537. ^ Loader, Neil J.; Mccarroll, Danny; Miles, Daniel; Young, Giles H. F.; Davies, Darren; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk (August 2019). "Tree ring dating using oxygen isotopes: a master chronology for central England" (PDF). Journal of Quaternary Science. 34 (6): 475–490. Bibcode:2019JQS....34..475L. doi:10.1002/jqs.3115. ^ a b University of Bern (21 May 2024). "Researchers succeed for first time in accurately dating a 7,000-year-old prehistoric settlement using cosmic rays". ^ Theophrastus with Arthur Hort, trans., Enquiry into Plants, volume 1 (London, England: William Heinemann, 1916), Book V, p. 423. From p. 423: "Moreover, the wood of the silver-fir has many layers, like an onion; there is always another beneath that which is visible, and the wood is composed of such layers throughout." Although many sources claim that Theophrastus recognized that trees form growth rings annually, this is not true. ^ For the history of dendrochronology, see: Studhalter, R. A. (April 1956). "Early History of Crossdating". Tree-Ring Bulletin. 21: 31–35. hdl:10150/259045. (Condensed from: Studhalter, R. A. (1955). "Tree Growth I. Some Historical Chapters". Botanical Review. 21 (1/3): 1–72. doi:10.1007/BF02872376. JSTOR 4353530. S2CID 37646970. Studhalter, R. A.; Glock, Waldo S.; Agerter, Sharlene R. (1963). "Tree Growth: Some Historical Chapters in the Study of Diameter Growth". Botanical Review. 29 (3): 245–365. doi:10.1007/BF02860823. JSTOR 4353671. S2CID 44817056. James H. Speer, Fundamentals of Tree-ring Research (Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press, 2010), Chapter 3: History of Dendrochronology, pp. 28–42. ^ See: Leonardo da Vinci, Trattato della Pittura ... (Rome, (Italy): 1817), p. 396. From p. 396: "Li circuli delli rami degli alberi segati mostrano il numero delli suoi anni, e quali furono più umidi o più secchi la maggiore o minore loro grossezza." (The rings around the branches of trees that have been sawed show the number of its years and which were the wetter or drier the more or less their thickness.) Sarton, George (1954) "Queries and Answers: Query 145. — When was tree-ring analysis discovered?", Isis, 45 (4): 383–384. Sarton also cites a diary of the French writer Michel de Montaigne, who in 1581 was touring Italy, where he encountered a carpenter who explained that trees form a new ring each year. ^ du Hamel & de Buffon (27 February 1737) "De la cause de l'excentricité des couches ligneuses qu'on apperçoit quand on coupe horisontalement le tronc d'un arbre ; de l'inégalité d'épaisseur, & de different nombre de ces couches, tant dans le bois formé que dans l'aubier" Archived 2015-05-09 at the Wayback Machine (On the cause of the eccentricity of the woody layers that one sees when one horizontally cuts the trunk of a tree ; on the unequal thickness, and on the different number of layers in the mature wood as well as in the sapwood), Mémoires de l'Académie royale des science, in: Histoire de l'Académie royale des sciences ..., pp. 121–134. ^ du Hamel & de Buffon (4 May 1737) "Observations des différents effets que produisent sur les végétaux les grandes gelées d'hiver et les petites gelées du printemps" Archived 2015-05-09 at the Wayback Machine (Observations on the different effects that the severe frosts of winter and the minor frosts of spring produce on plants), Mémoires de l'Académie royale des science, in: Histoire de l'Académie royale des sciences ..., pp. 273–298. Studhalter (1956), p. 33, stated that Carl Linnaeus (1745, 1751) in Sweden, Friedrich August Ludwig von Burgsdorf (1783) in Germany, and Alphonse de Candolle (1839–1840) in France subsequently observed the same tree ring in their samples. ^ Alexander C. Twining (1833) "On the growth of timber — Extract of a letter from Mr. Alexander C. Twining, to the Editor, dated Albany, April 9, 1833" Archived May 14, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, The American Journal of Science, 24 : 391–393. ^ See: (Anon.) (1835) "Evening meeting at the Rotunda" Archived 2015-05-14 at the Wayback Machine, Proceedings of the Fifth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science held in Dublin during the week from the 10th to the 15th of August, 1835, inclusive, pp. 116–117. Charles Babbage (1838) "On the age of strata, as inferred from rings of trees embedded in them" Archived 2015-05-15 at the Wayback Machine, The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise: A Fragment, (London, England: John Murray, 1837), pp. 226-234. ^ See: Jacob Kuechler ( August 6, 1859) "Das Klima von Texas" (The climate of Texas), Texas Staats-Zeitung (San Antonio, Texas), p. 2. "The droughts of western Texas", The Texas Almanac for 1861, pp. 136–137 ; see especially p. 137. Archived 2015-11-02 at the Wayback Machine ^ J. T. C. Ratzeburg, Die Waldverderbniss oder dauernder Schade, welcher durch Insektenfrass, Schälen, Schlagen und Verbeissen an lebenenden Waldbäumen entsteht. , vol. 1, (Berlin, (Germany): Nicolaische Verlag, 1866), p. 10. Archived 2015-10-01 at the Wayback Machine From p. 10: "Die beiden, auf Taf. 42, Fig. 6 (mit dem Durchschnitt Fig. 7) und Fig. 1 (mit dem Durchschnitt Fig. 2) dargestellten Zweige hatten in dem Frassjahre 1862 einen doppelt so starken Jahrring als in dem vorhergehenden angelegt, und auch der (hier nicht abgebildete) Ring des jährigen Triebes war bei den gefressenen stärker as der eines nicht gefressenen." (Both branches that are presented in plate 42, fig. 6 (with the cross-section in fig. 7) and fig. 1 (with the cross-section in fig. 2) had produced, in the defoliation year of 1862, a growth ring that was twice as strong as in the preceding one, and so was the ring of the year-old shoot (not illustrated here) stronger in the case of the defoliated tree than one that was not defoliated.) ^ Franklin B. Hough, The Elements of Forestry (Cincinnati, Ohio: Robert Clarke and Co., 1882), pp. 69–70. Archived 2015-10-01 at the Wayback Machine ^ Kapteyn, J. C. (1914) "Tree-growth and meteorological factors", Recueil des Travaux Botaniques Néerlandais, 11 : 70–93. ^ See: Seckendorff, Arthur von (1881) "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Schwarzföhre Pinus austriaca Höss" , Mitteilung aus dem forstlichen Versuchswesen Oesterreichs (Vienna, Austria: Carl Gerold Verlag, 1881), 66 pages. Speer (2010), p. 36. ^ Speer (2010), p. 36–37. ^ See: Шведов, Ф. (Shvedov, F.) (1892) "Дерево, как летопись засух" (The tree as a record of drought), Метеорологический Вестник (Meteorological Herald), (5) : 163–178. Speer (2010), p. 37. ^ "Early wood" is used in preference to "spring wood", as the latter term may not correspond to that time of year in climates where early wood is formed in the early summer (e.g. Canada) or in autumn, as in some Mediterranean species. ^ Capon, Brian (2005). Botany for Gardeners (2nd ed.). Portland, OR: Timber Publishing. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-0-88192-655-2. ^ The only recorded instance of a missing ring in oak trees occurred in the year 1816, also known as the "Year Without a Summer".Lori Martinez (1996). "Useful Tree Species for Tree-Ring Dating". Archived from the original on 2008-11-08. Retrieved 2008-11-08. ^ Friedrich, Michael; Remmele, Sabine; Kromer, Bernd; Hofmann, Jutta; Spurk, Marco; Felix Kaiser, Klaus; Orcel, Christian; Küppers, Manfred (2004). "The 12,460-Year Hohenheim Oak and Pine Tree-Ring Chronology from Central Europe—A Unique Annual Record for Radiocarbon Calibration and Paleoenvironment Reconstructions" (PDF). Radiocarbon. 46 (3): 1111–1122. Bibcode:2004Radcb..46.1111F. doi:10.1017/S003382220003304X. S2CID 53343999. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. ^ Walker, Mike (2013). "5.2.3 Dendrochronological Series". Quaternary Dating Methods. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 9781118700099. Archived from the original on 2016-11-28. ^ Stuiver, Minze; Kromer, Bernd; Becker, Bernd; Ferguson, C W (1986). "Radiocarbon Age Calibration back to 13,300 Years BP and the 14C Age Matching of the German Oak and US Bristlecone Pine Chronologies". Radiocarbon. 28 (2B): 969–979. Bibcode:1986Radcb..28..969S. doi:10.1017/S0033822200060252. hdl:10150/652767. ^ Ferguson, C. W.; Graybill, D. A. (1983). "Dendrochronology of Bristlecone Pine: A Progress Report". Radiocarbon. 25 (2): 287–288. Bibcode:1983Radcb..25..287F. doi:10.1017/S0033822200005592. hdl:10150/652656. ^ Alexandr N. Tetearing (2012). Theory of populations. Moscow: SSO Foundation. p. 583. ISBN 978-1-365-56080-4. ^ a b c Renfrew Colin; Bahn Paul (2004). Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice (4th ed.). London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 144–5. ISBN 978-0-500-28441-4. ^ "Bibliography of Dendrochronology". Switzerland: ETH Forest Snow and Landscape Research. Archived from the original on 2010-08-04. Retrieved 2010-08-08. ^ Reimer, Paula; et al. (12 August 2020). "The IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0–55 cal kBP)". Radiocarbon. 62 (4): 725–757. Bibcode:2020Radcb..62..725R. doi:10.1017/RDC.2020.41. hdl:11585/770531. S2CID 216215614. ^ Baillie Mike (1997). A Slice Through Time. London: Batsford. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-7134-7654-5. ^ "WM Trædatering" . skalk.dk (in Danish). Archived from the original on 21 December 2014. Retrieved 15 May 2015. ^ a b Andrej Maczkowski et al, "Absolute dating of the European Neolithic using the 5259 BC rapid 14C excursion", Nature Communications, 2024 doi:10.1038/s41467-024-48402-1 ^ Price, Michael (13 April 2023). "Marking time: Radiocarbon timestamps left in ancient tree rings by cosmic ray bombardments can date historical events with unprecedented precision". Science. A previous version "Marking time: Cosmic ray storms can pin precise dates on history from ancient Egypt to the Vikings" appeared in Science, Vol 380, Issue 6641. ^ Kuitems, Margot; et al. (20 October 2021). "Evidence for European presence in the Americas in AD 1021" (PDF). Nature. 601 (7893): 388–391. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03972-8. PMC 8770119. PMID 34671168. S2CID 239051036. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. ^ David Montwé; et al. (Apr 23, 2018). "Cold adaptation recorded in tree rings highlights risks associated with climate change and assisted migration". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 1574. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.1574M. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-04039-5. PMC 5913219. PMID 29686289. ^ Renfrew, Colin; Bahn, Paul (2016). Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice (7th ed.). London, WCIV 7QX: Thames & Hudson. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-500-29210-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) ^ Sheppard, Paul R. (May 2010). "Dendroclimatology: extracting climate from trees: Dendroclimatology". Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change. 1 (3): 343–352. doi:10.1002/wcc.42. S2CID 129124697. ^ English Heritage Guide to Dendrochronology Archived 2013-10-23 at the Wayback Machine ^ Spronk, Ron (1996). "More than Meets the Eye: An Introduction to Technical Examination of Early Netherlandish Paintings at the Fogg Art Museum". Harvard University Art Museums Bulletin. 5 (1): 1–64. JSTOR 4301542. ^ Peter Ian Kuniholm, Dendrochronology (Tree-Ring Dating) of Panel Paintings Archived 2013-10-17 at the Wayback Machine Cornell University ^ Taft, W. Stanley; Mayer, James W.; Newman, Richard; Kuniholm, Peter Ian; Stulik, Dusan (2000). "Dendrochronology (Tree-Ring Dating) of Panel Paintings". The Science of Paintings. Springer. pp. 206–215. ISBN 978-0-387-98722-4. Archived from the original on 2017-04-22. ^ Fletcher, John (1982). "Panel Examination and Dendrochronology". The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal. 10: 39–44. JSTOR 4166459. ^ "Mary, Queen of Scots". National Portrait Gallery. Dendrochronology. Archived from the original on 2013-10-17. ^ Läänelaid, Alar (June 19, 2013). "Tree Rings, the Barcodes of Nature, Illuminate Art History". Atomium Culture. Il Sole 24 Ore. Archived from the original on 2013-10-18. ^ "Dendrochronology". The National Gallery. Archived from the original on 2013-10-17. ^ "Panel Paintings Initiative". Getty. Archived from the original on 2013-11-23. ^ a b Sawyer, Peter; Sawyer, Birgit (1993). Medieval Scandinavia: from conversion to Reformation, circa 800–1500. The Nordic Series. Vol. 17. University of Minnesota Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8166-1739-5. OCLC 489584487. Archived from the original on 2015-05-18. ^ Brunning, Richard (February 2001). "The Somerset Levels". Current Archaeology. XV (4) (172 (Special issue on Wetlands)): 139–143. ^ Lynn, Chris (2003). Navan Fort: Archaeology and Myth. Spain: Wordwell Books. ISBN 978-1-869857-67-7. ^ "A Grand House in 17th-Century New England". Fairbanks House Historical Site. Archived from the original on March 16, 2012. Retrieved May 27, 2012. ^ "The Royal Lineage – The Danish Monarchy". kongehuset.dk. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2015. ^ "Я послал тебе бересту (Янин В.Л.)". ^ TRiDaS website ^ Jansma, Esther (30 November 2009). "TRiDaS 1.1: The tree-ring data standard" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-04-28. Retrieved 9 February 2021. ^ Tellervo website ^ Brewer, Peter W. (2014). "Data Management in Dendroarchaeology Using Tellervo". Radiocarbon. 56 (4): S79–S83. Bibcode:2014Radcb..56S..79B. doi:10.2458/azu_rc.56.18320. hdl:10150/630521. ^ Bard, Edouard; et al. (9 October 2023). "A radiocarbon spike at 14 300 cal yr BP in subfossil trees provides the impulse response function of the global carbon cycle during the Late Glacial". Philosophical Transactions A. 381 (2261). Bibcode:2023RSPTA.38120206B. doi:10.1098/rsta.2022.0206. PMC 10586540. PMID 37807686. External links The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Dendrochronology Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dendrochronology. Scholia has a profile for dendrochronology (Q80205). Nottingham Tree-Ring Dating Laboratory Oxford Tree-Ring Laboratory Dendrochronology and Art History of Painted Ceilings (Historic Environment Scotland, 2017). Video & commentary on medullary rays, heart wood, and tree rings. Video & commentary on Tree Rings – Formation and Purpose Bibliography of Dendrochronology Multilingual Glossary of Dendrochronology Digital Collaboratory for Cultural Dendrochronology (DCCD) International Tree-Ring Data Bank Ultimate Tree-Ring Web Pages Archived 2013-08-07 at the Wayback Machine Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research University of Arizona "Tree Ring Science", the academic site of Prof. Henri D. Grissino-Mayer, Department of Geography, The University of Tennessee, and the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Science Briand, Christopher H.; Brazer, Susan E.; Harter-Dennis, Jeannine M. (December 2006). "Tree Rings and the Aging of Trees: A Controversy in 19th Century America". Tree-Ring Research. 62 (2): 51–65. doi:10.3959/1536-1098-62.2.51. hdl:10150/262645. S2CID 162884050. vteForestry Index Forest areas Ministries Research institutes Colleges Journals Arbor Day Types Agroforestry dehesa Analog forestry Bamboo forestry Close to nature forestry Community forestry Ecoforestry Energy forestry Mycoforestry Permaforestry Plantation forestry Social forestry Sustainable forestry Urban forestry Ecology andmanagement Arboriculture Controlled burn Debris coarse driftwood large log jam slash Dendrology Ecological thinning Even-aged management Fire ecology Forest dynamics informatics IPM inventory governance law old-growth pathology protection restoration secondary stand transition Forest certification ATFS CFS FSC PEFC SFI SmartWood Woodland Carbon Code Forestation afforestation reforestation Formally designated Growth and yield modelling Horticulture GM trees i-Tree urban Silviculture Sustainable management Tree allometry breeding Tree measurement crown girth height volume Environmentaltopics Acid rain Carbon sequestration Clearcutting Deforestation Ecosystem services Forest degradation Forest dieback Forest fragmentation Ghost forest High grading Illegal logging timber mafia Invasive species wilding REDD Shifting cultivation chitemene slash-and-burn slash-and-char svedjebruk Timber recycling Tree hugging Wildfire Industries Coppicing Forest farming Forest gardening Logging Manufacturing lumber plywood pulp and paper sawmilling Products biochar biomass charcoal non-timber palm oil rayon rubber tanbark Rail transport Tree farm Christmas trees Wood engineered fuel mahogany spruce-pine-fir teak Woodworking Occupations Forester Arborist Bucker Choker setter Ecologist Feller Firefighter handcrew hotshot lookout smokejumper River driver Truck driver Log scaler Lumberjack Ranger Resin tapper Rubber tapper Shingle weaver Timber cruiser Tree planter Wood process engineer WikiProject Plants portal Trees portal Category Outline vteChronologyKey topics Archaeology Astronomy Geology History Big History Paleontology Time PeriodsErasEpochsCalendar eras Human Era Ab urbe condita Anno Domini / Common Era Anno Mundi Bosporan era Bostran era Byzantine era Seleucid era Era of Caesar (Iberia) Before present Hijri Egyptian Sothic cycle Hindu units of time (Yuga) Mesoamerican Long Count Short Count Tzolk'in Haab' Regnal year Anka year Canon of Kings English and British regnal year Lists of kings Limmu Era names Chinese Japanese Korean Vietnamese CalendarsPre-Julian / Julian Pre-Julian Roman Original Julian Proleptic Julian Revised Julian Gregorian Gregorian Proleptic Gregorian Old Style and New Style dates Adoption of the Gregorian calendar Dual dating Astronomical Lunisolar (Hebrew, Hindu) Solar Lunar (Islamic) Astronomical year numbering Others Chinese sexagenary cycle Geologic Calendar Iranian ISO week date Mesoamerican Maya Aztec Winter count New Earth Time Astronomic time Cosmic Calendar Ephemeris Galactic year Metonic cycle Milankovitch cycles Geologic timeConcepts Deep time Geological history of Earth Geological time units Standards Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA) Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) Methods Chronostratigraphy Geochronology Isotope geochemistry Law of superposition Luminescence dating Samarium–neodymium dating ChronologicaldatingAbsolute dating Amino acid racemisation Archaeomagnetic dating Dendrochronology Ice core Incremental dating Lichenometry Paleomagnetism Radiometric dating Lead–lead Potassium–argon Radiocarbon Uranium–lead Tephrochronology Luminescence dating Thermoluminescence dating Relative dating Fluorine absorption Nitrogen dating Obsidian hydration Seriation Stratigraphy Genetic methods Molecular clock Linguistic methods Glottochronology Related topics Chronicle New Chronology Synchronoptic view Timeline Year zero Floruit Terminus post quem ASPRO chronology Authority control databases National France BnF data Israel United States Czech Republic Other Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tree.ring.arp.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bristol Zoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Zoo"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tree_cookie_in_Royal_Ontario_Museum_2023a.jpg"},{"link_name":"Coast Douglas-fir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudotsuga_menziesii_var._menziesii"},{"link_name":"Royal Ontario Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Ontario_Museum"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"scientific method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method"},{"link_name":"dating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronological_dating"},{"link_name":"dendroclimatology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendroclimatology"},{"link_name":"δένδρον","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B4%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD"},{"link_name":"χρόνος","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%87%CF%81%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82"},{"link_name":"-logia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-logia"},{"link_name":"-λογία","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"radiocarbon dating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating"},{"link_name":"archaeology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology"},{"link_name":"panel paintings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_painting"},{"link_name":"calibrate radiocarbon ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calibration_of_radiocarbon_dates"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grissino-2"},{"link_name":"trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree"},{"link_name":"seasons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Grissino-2"},{"link_name":"Northern Hemisphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Northern Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Limestone_Alps"},{"link_name":"Miyake events","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miyake_event"},{"link_name":"cosmic rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_rays"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bern-5"}],"text":"The growth rings of a tree at Bristol Zoo, England. Each ring represents one year; the outside rings, near the bark, are the youngestA \"tree cookie\" cross-section of a Coast Douglas-fir tree displayed in the Royal Ontario Museum. The tree was over 500 years old when it was cut down in British Columbia in the 1890s. The markings indicating historical events were added in the 1920s.Dendrochronology (or tree-ring dating) is the scientific method of dating tree rings (also called growth rings) to the exact year they were formed in a tree. As well as dating them, this can give data for dendroclimatology, the study of climate and atmospheric conditions during different periods in history from the wood of old trees. Dendrochronology derives from the Ancient Greek dendron (δένδρον), meaning \"tree\", khronos (χρόνος), meaning \"time\", and -logia (-λογία), \"the study of\".[1]Dendrochronology is useful for determining the precise age of samples, especially those that are too recent for radiocarbon dating, which always produces a range rather than an exact date. However, for a precise date of the death of the tree a full sample to the edge is needed, which most trimmed timber will not provide. It also gives data on the timing of events and rates of change in the environment (most prominently climate) and also in wood found in archaeology or works of art and architecture, such as old panel paintings. It is also used as a check in radiocarbon dating to calibrate radiocarbon ages.[2]New growth in trees occurs in a layer of cells near the bark. A tree's growth rate changes in a predictable pattern throughout the year in response to seasonal climate changes, resulting in visible growth rings. Each ring marks a complete cycle of seasons, or one year, in the tree's life.[2] As of 2020, securely dated tree-ring data for some regions in the Northern Hemisphere are available going back 13,910 years.[3] A new method is based on measuring variations in oxygen isotopes in each ring, and this 'isotope dendrochronology' can yield results on samples which are not suitable for traditional dendrochronology due to too few or too similar rings.[4] Some regions have \"floating sequences\", with gaps which mean that earlier periods can only be approximately dated. As of 2024, only three areas have continuous sequences going back to prehistoric times, the foothills of the Northern Alps, the southwestern United States and the British Isles. Miyake events, which are major spikes in cosmic rays at known dates, are visible in trees rings and can fix the dating of a floating sequence.[5]","title":"Dendrochronology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Theophrastus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastus"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Trattato della Pittura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trattato_della_Pittura"},{"link_name":"Leonardo da Vinci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri-Louis_Duhamel_du_Monceau"},{"link_name":"Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc_de_Buffon"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"1709, a severe winter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Frost_of_1709"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Alexander Catlin Twining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Catlin_Twining"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Charles Babbage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Jacob Kuechler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Kuechler"},{"link_name":"oaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak"},{"link_name":"Quercus stellata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quercus_stellata"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Julius Theodor Christian Ratzeburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Theodor_Christian_Ratzeburg"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"forestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestry"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Jacobus Kapteyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobus_Kapteyn"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"von Seckendorff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Seckendorff"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Robert Hartig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hartig"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Fedor Nikiforovich Shvedov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D0%A8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2,_%D0%A4%D1%91%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"A. E. Douglass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._E._Douglass"},{"link_name":"Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_of_Tree-Ring_Research"},{"link_name":"University of Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Arizona"},{"link_name":"cycles of sunspot activity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycles_of_sunspot_activity"},{"link_name":"solar activity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_activity"}],"text":"The Greek botanist Theophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287 BC) first mentioned that the wood of trees has rings.[6][7] In his Trattato della Pittura (Treatise on Painting), Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was the first person to mention that trees form rings annually and that their thickness is determined by the conditions under which they grew.[8] In 1737, French investigators Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau and Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon examined the effect of growing conditions on the shape of tree rings.[9] They found that in 1709, a severe winter produced a distinctly dark tree ring, which served as a reference for subsequent European naturalists.[10] In the U.S., Alexander Catlin Twining (1801–1884) suggested in 1833 that patterns among tree rings could be used to synchronize the dendrochronology of various trees and thereby to reconstruct past climates across entire regions.[11] The English polymath Charles Babbage proposed using dendrochronology to date the remains of trees in peat bogs or even in geological strata (1835, 1838).[12]During the latter half of the nineteenth century, the scientific study of tree rings and the application of dendrochronology began. In 1859, the German-American Jacob Kuechler (1823–1893) used crossdating to examine oaks (Quercus stellata) in order to study the record of climate in western Texas.[13] In 1866, the German botanist, entomologist, and forester Julius Theodor Christian Ratzeburg (1801–1871) observed the effects on tree rings of defoliation caused by insect infestations.[14] By 1882, this observation was already appearing in forestry textbooks.[15] In the 1870s, the Dutch astronomer Jacobus Kapteyn (1851–1922) was using crossdating to reconstruct the climates of the Netherlands and Germany.[16] In 1881, the Swiss-Austrian forester Arthur von Seckendorff-Gudent (1845–1886) was using crossdating.[17] From 1869 to 1901, Robert Hartig (1839–1901), a German professor of forest pathology, wrote a series of papers on the anatomy and ecology of tree rings.[18] In 1892, the Russian physicist Fedor Nikiforovich Shvedov (Фёдор Никифорович Шведов; 1841–1905) wrote that he had used patterns found in tree rings to predict droughts in 1882 and 1891.[19]During the first half of the twentieth century, the astronomer A. E. Douglass founded the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research at the University of Arizona. Douglass sought to better understand cycles of sunspot activity and reasoned that changes in solar activity would affect climate patterns on earth, which would subsequently be recorded by tree-ring growth patterns (i.e., sunspots → climate → tree rings).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dendrochronological_drill_hg.jpg"}],"text":"Drill for dendrochronology sampling and growth ring counting","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tree ring (landscape feature)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_ring_(landscape_feature)"},{"link_name":"Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tree_secondary_growth_diagram.svg"},{"link_name":"secondary growth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_growth"},{"link_name":"tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree"},{"link_name":"wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood"},{"link_name":"cross sections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"trunk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trunk_(botany)"},{"link_name":"tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree"},{"link_name":"vascular cambium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_cambium"},{"link_name":"bark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bark_(botany)"},{"link_name":"lateral meristem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_meristem"},{"link_name":"secondary growth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_growth"},{"link_name":"seasons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season"},{"link_name":"temperate zones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_zone"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tilia_tomentosa_coupe_MHNT.jpg"},{"link_name":"Silver lime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_lime"},{"link_name":"oak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak"},{"link_name":"elm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elm"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Southwest US","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwestern_United_States"},{"link_name":"White Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Mountains_(California)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Growth rings","text":"\"Tree ring\" redirects here. Not to be confused with Tree ring (landscape feature).Further information: WoodDiagram of secondary growth in a tree showing idealised vertical and horizontal sections. A new layer of wood is added in each growing season, thickening the stem, existing branches and roots, to form a growth ring.Horizontal cross sections cut through the trunk of a tree can reveal growth rings, also referred to as tree rings or annual rings. Growth rings result from new growth in the vascular cambium, a layer of cells near the bark that botanists classify as a lateral meristem; this growth in diameter is known as secondary growth. Visible rings result from the change in growth speed through the seasons of the year; thus, critical for the title method, one ring generally marks the passage of one year in the life of the tree. Removal of the bark of the tree in a particular area may cause deformation of the rings as the plant overgrows the scar.The rings are more visible in trees which have grown in temperate zones, where the seasons differ more markedly. The inner portion of a growth ring forms early in the growing season, when growth is comparatively rapid (hence the wood is less dense) and is known as \"early wood\" (or \"spring wood\", or \"late-spring wood\"[20]); the outer portion is the \"late wood\" (sometimes termed \"summer wood\", often being produced in the summer, though sometimes in the autumn) and is denser.[21][better source needed]Silver lime cross section showing annual rings.Many trees in temperate zones produce one growth-ring each year, with the newest adjacent to the bark. Hence, for the entire period of a tree's life, a year-by-year record or ring pattern builds up that reflects the age of the tree and the climatic conditions in which the tree grew. Adequate moisture and a long growing season result in a wide ring, while a drought year may result in a very narrow one.Direct reading of tree ring chronologies is a complex science, for several reasons. First, contrary to the single-ring-per-year paradigm, alternating poor and favorable conditions, such as mid-summer droughts, can result in several rings forming in a given year. In addition, particular tree species may present \"missing rings\", and this influences the selection of trees for study of long time-spans. For instance, missing rings are rare in oak and elm trees.[22]Critical to the science, trees from the same region tend to develop the same patterns of ring widths for a given period of chronological study. Researchers can compare and match these patterns ring-for-ring with patterns from trees which have grown at the same time in the same geographical zone (and therefore under similar climatic conditions). When one can match these tree-ring patterns across successive trees in the same locale, in overlapping fashion, chronologies can be built up—both for entire geographical regions and for sub-regions. Moreover, wood from ancient structures with known chronologies can be matched to the tree-ring data (a technique called cross-dating), and the age of the wood can thereby be determined precisely. Dendrochronologists originally carried out cross-dating by visual inspection; more recently, they have harnessed computers to do the task, applying statistical techniques to assess the matching. To eliminate individual variations in tree-ring growth, dendrochronologists take the smoothed average of the tree-ring widths of multiple tree-samples to build up a ring history, a process termed replication. A tree-ring history whose beginning- and end-dates are not known is called a floating chronology. It can be anchored by cross-matching a section against another chronology (tree-ring history) whose dates are known.A fully anchored and cross-matched chronology for oak and pine in central Europe extends back 12,460 years,[23] and an oak chronology goes back 7,429 years in Ireland and 6,939 years in England.[24] Comparison of radiocarbon and dendrochronological ages supports the consistency of these two independent dendrochronological sequences.[25] Another fully anchored chronology that extends back 8,500 years exists for the bristlecone pine in the Southwest US (White Mountains of California).[26]","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Annual_growth_of_the_wood.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Annual_growth_of_the_wood_(second_typical_form_of_the_growth_function).jpg"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tetearing2012-27"},{"link_name":"data normalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_normalization"}],"sub_title":"Dendrochronological equation","text":"A typical form of the function of the wood ring width in accordance with the dendrochronological equationA typical form of the function of the wood ring (in accordance with the dendrochronological equation) with an increase in the width of wood ring at initial stageThe dendrochronological equation defines the law of growth of tree rings. The equation was proposed by Russian biophysicist Alexandr N. Tetearing in his work \"Theory of populations\"[27] in the form:Δ\n L\n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n \n 1\n \n \n k\n \n v\n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n \n 1\n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n (\n \n \n M\n \n \n 1\n 3\n \n \n \n (\n t\n )\n \n )\n \n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta L(t)={\\frac {1}{k_{v}\\,\\rho ^{\\frac {1}{3}}}}\\,{\\frac {d\\left(M^{\\frac {1}{3}}(t)\\right)}{dt}},}where ΔL is width of annual ring, t is time (in years), ρ is density of wood, kv is some coefficient, M(t) is function of mass growth of the tree.Ignoring the natural sinusoidal oscillations in tree mass, the formula for the changes in the annual ring width is:Δ\n L\n (\n t\n )\n =\n −\n \n \n \n \n c\n \n 1\n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n \n a\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n \n \n +\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n k\n \n v\n \n \n \n ρ\n \n \n 1\n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n c\n \n 4\n \n \n +\n \n c\n \n 1\n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n \n a\n \n 1\n \n \n t\n \n \n +\n \n c\n \n 2\n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n \n a\n \n 2\n \n \n t\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n 2\n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Delta L(t)=-{\\frac {c_{1}e^{-a_{1}t}+c_{2}e^{-a_{2}t}}{3k_{v}\\rho ^{\\frac {1}{3}}\\left(c_{4}+c_{1}e^{-a_{1}t}+c_{2}e^{-a_{2}t}\\right)^{\\frac {2}{3}}}}}where c1, c2, and c4 are some coefficients, a1 and a2 are positive constants.The formula is useful for correct approximation of samples data before data normalization procedure. The typical forms of the function ΔL(t) of annual growth of wood ring are shown in the figures.","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RenfrewBahn2004-28"},{"link_name":"B.P.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_present"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RenfrewBahn2004-28"},{"link_name":"bristlecone pine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristlecone_pine"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"carbon 14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_14"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Sampling and dating","text":"Dendrochronology allows specimens of once-living material to be accurately dated to a specific year.[28] Dates are often represented as estimated calendar years B.P., for before present, where \"present\" refers to 1 January 1950.[28]Timber core samples are sampled and used to measure the width of annual growth rings; by taking samples from different sites within a particular region, researchers can build a comprehensive historical sequence. The techniques of dendrochronology are more consistent in areas where trees grew in marginal conditions such as aridity or semi-aridity where the ring growth is more sensitive to the environment, rather than in humid areas where tree-ring growth is more uniform (complacent). In addition, some genera of trees are more suitable than others for this type of analysis. For instance, the bristlecone pine is exceptionally long-lived and slow growing, and has been used extensively for chronologies; still-living and dead specimens of this species provide tree-ring patterns going back thousands of years, in some regions more than 10,000 years.[29] Currently, the maximum span for fully anchored chronology is a little over 11,000 years B.P.IntCal20 is the 2020 \"Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve\", which provides a calibrated carbon 14 dated sequence going back 55,000 years. The most recent part, going back 13,900 years, is based on tree rings.[30]","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Black Death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Reference sequences","text":"European chronologies derived from wooden structures initially found it difficult to bridge the gap in the fourteenth century when there was a building hiatus, which coincided with the Black Death,.[31] However, there do exist unbroken chronologies dating back to prehistoric times, for example the Danish chronology dating back to 352 BC.[32]Given a sample of wood, the variation of the tree-ring growths not only provides a match by year, but can also match location because climate varies from place to place. This makes it possible to determine the source of ships as well as smaller artifacts made from wood, but which were transported long distances, such as panels for paintings and ship timbers.[citation needed]","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Miyake events","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miyake_event"},{"link_name":"774-775","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/774%E2%80%93775_carbon-14_spike"},{"link_name":"993-994","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/993%E2%80%93994_carbon-14_spike"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maczkowski-33"},{"link_name":"carbon 14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_14"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Viking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viking"},{"link_name":"L'Anse aux Meadows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Neolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bern-5"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maczkowski-33"}],"sub_title":"Miyake events","text":"Miyake events, such as the ones in 774-775 and 993-994, can provide fixed reference points in an unknown time sequence as they are due to cosmic radiation.[33] As they appear as spikes in carbon 14 in tree rings for that year all round the world, they can be used to date historical events to the year.[34] For example, wooden houses in the Viking site at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland were dated by finding the layer with the 993 spike, which showed that the wood is from a tree felled in 1021.[35] Researchers at the University of Bern have provided exact dating of a floating sequence in a Neolithic settlement in northern Greece by tying it to a spike in cosmogenic radiocarbon in 5259 BC.[5][33]","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tracheids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracheid"},{"link_name":"parenchyma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenchyma"},{"link_name":"cambial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambial"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Frost rings","text":"Frost ring is a term used to designate a layer of deformed, collapsed tracheids and traumatic parenchyma cells in tree ring analysis. They are formed when air temperature falls below freezing during a period of cambial activity. They can be used in dendrochronology to indicate years that are colder than usual.[36]","title":"Methods"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"calibration and check","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calibration_of_radiocarbon_dates"},{"link_name":"radiocarbon dating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RenfrewBahn2004-28"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Radiocarbon dating calibration","text":"Dates from dendrochronology can be used as a calibration and check of radiocarbon dating.[28] This can be done by checking radiocarbon dates against long master sequences, with Californian bristle-cone pines in Arizona being used to develop this method of calibration as the longevity of the trees (up to c.4900 years) in addition to the use of dead samples meant a long, unbroken tree ring sequence could be developed (dating back to c. 6700 BC). Additional studies of European oak trees, such as the master sequence in Germany that dates back to c. 8500 BC, can also be used to back up and further calibrate radiocarbon dates.[37]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dendroclimatology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendroclimatology"},{"link_name":"climates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate"},{"link_name":"trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"latewood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latewood"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Climatology","text":"Dendroclimatology is the science of determining past climates from trees primarily from the properties of the annual tree rings.[38] Other properties of the annual rings, such as maximum latewood density (MXD) have been shown to be better proxies than simple ring width. Using tree rings, scientists have estimated many local climates for hundreds to thousands of years previous.[citation needed]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"panel paintings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panel_painting"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Early Netherlandish paintings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting"},{"link_name":"Vistula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistula"},{"link_name":"Hanseatic League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanseatic_League"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mary_Queen_of_Scots_portrait.jpg"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"radius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radius"},{"link_name":"terminus post quem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminus_post_quem"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Mary, Queen of Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots"},{"link_name":"National Portrait Gallery, London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery,_London"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Christ expelling the money-lenders from the Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleansing_of_the_Temple"},{"link_name":"Hieronymus Bosch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"transferred onto canvas or other supports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_of_panel_paintings"}],"sub_title":"Art history","text":"Dendrochronology has become important to art historians in the dating of panel paintings. However, unlike analysis of samples from buildings, which are typically sent to a laboratory, wooden supports for paintings usually have to be measured in a museum conservation department, which places limitations on the techniques that can be used.[39]In addition to dating, dendrochronology can also provide information as to the source of the panel. Many Early Netherlandish paintings have turned out to be painted on panels of \"Baltic oak\" shipped from the Vistula region via ports of the Hanseatic League. Oak panels were used in a number of northern countries such as England, France and Germany. Wooden supports other than oak were rarely used by Netherlandish painters.[40]A portrait of Mary Queen of Scots, determined to date from the sixteenth century by dendrochronologySince panels of seasoned wood were used, an uncertain number of years has to be allowed for seasoning when estimating dates.[41] Panels were trimmed of the outer rings, and often each panel only uses a small part of the radius of the trunk. Consequently, dating studies usually result in a \"terminus post quem\" (earliest possible) date, and a tentative date for the arrival of a seasoned raw panel using assumptions as to these factors.[42] As a result of establishing numerous sequences, it was possible to date 85–90% of the 250 paintings from the fourteenth to seventeenth century analysed between 1971 and 1982;[43] by now a much greater number have been analysed.A portrait of Mary, Queen of Scots in the National Portrait Gallery, London was believed to be an eighteenth-century copy. However, dendrochronology revealed that the wood dated from the second half of the sixteenth century. It is now regarded as an original sixteenth-century painting by an unknown artist.[44]On the other hand, dendrochronology was applied to four paintings depicting the same subject, that of Christ expelling the money-lenders from the Temple. The results showed that the age of the wood was too late for any of them to have been painted by Hieronymus Bosch.[45]While dendrochronology has become an important tool for dating oak panels, it is not effective in dating the poplar panels often used by Italian painters because of the erratic growth rings in poplar.[46]The sixteenth century saw a gradual replacement of wooden panels by canvas as the support for paintings, which means the technique is less often applicable to later paintings.[47] In addition, many panel paintings were transferred onto canvas or other supports during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dendroarchaeology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendroarchaeology"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sawyer1993-48"},{"link_name":"Post Track","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_Track"},{"link_name":"Sweet Track","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet_Track"},{"link_name":"timber trackways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boardwalk"},{"link_name":"Somerset levels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_levels"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Current_Archaeology_somerset-levels-49"},{"link_name":"Navan Fort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navan_Fort"},{"link_name":"Prehistoric Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_Ireland"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-navan-50"},{"link_name":"Fairbanks House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairbanks_House_(Dedham,_Massachusetts)"},{"link_name":"New England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Gorm the Old","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorm_the_Old"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sawyer1993-48"},{"link_name":"Veliky Novgorod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veliky_Novgorod"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"}],"sub_title":"Archaeology","text":"The dating of buildings with wooden structures and components is also done by dendrochronology; dendroarchaeology is the term for the application of dendrochronology in archaeology. While archaeologists can date wood and when it was felled, it may be difficult to definitively determine the age of a building or structure in which the wood was used; the wood could have been reused from an older structure, may have been felled and left for many years before use, or could have been used to replace a damaged piece of wood. The dating of building via dendrochronology thus requires knowledge of the history of building technology.[48] Many prehistoric forms of buildings used \"posts\" that were whole young tree trunks; where the bottom of the post has survived in the ground these can be especially useful for dating.Examples:The Post Track and Sweet Track, ancient timber trackways in the Somerset levels, England, have been dated to 3838 BC and 3807 BC.[49]\nNavan Fort where in Prehistoric Ireland a large structure was built with more than two hundred posts. The central oak post was felled in 95 BC.[50]\nThe Fairbanks House in Dedham, Massachusetts. While the house had long been claimed to have been built c. 1640 (and being the oldest wood-framed house in North America), core samples of wood taken from a summer beam confirmed the wood was from an oak tree felled in 1637–8, as wood was not seasoned before use in building at that time in New England. An additional sample from another beam yielded a date of 1641, thus confirming the house had been constructed starting in 1638 and finished sometime after 1641 .[51]\nThe burial chamber of Gorm the Old, who died c. 958,[52] was constructed from wood of timbers felled in 958.[48]\nVeliky Novgorod, where, between the tenth and the fifteenth century, numerous consecutive layers of wooden log pavement have been placed over the accumulating dirt.[53]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"}],"text":"There are many different file formats used to store tree ring width data. Effort for standardisation was made with the development of TRiDaS.[54][55] Further development led to the database software Tellervo,[56] which is based on the new standard format whilst being able to import lots of different data formats. The desktop application can be attached to measurement devices and works with the database server that is installed separately.[57]","title":"Measurement platforms, software, and data formats"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"}],"text":"Bard et al write in 2023: \"The oldest tree-ring series are known as floating since, while their constituent rings can be counted to create a relative internal chronology, they cannot be dendro-matched with the main Holocene absolute chronology. However, 14C analyses performed at high resolution on overlapped absolute and floating tree-rings series enable one to link them almost absolutely and hence to extend the calibration on annual tree rings until ≈13 900 cal yr BP.\"[58]","title":"Continuous sequence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Herbchronology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbchronology"},{"link_name":"growth rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_rings"},{"link_name":"xylem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylem"},{"link_name":"perennial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perennial"},{"link_name":"herbaceous plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbaceous_plants"},{"link_name":"ice cores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_core"},{"link_name":"varves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varve"},{"link_name":"sediment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sediment"},{"link_name":"Sclerochronology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclerochronology"},{"link_name":"algae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae"},{"link_name":"cacti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cactus"},{"link_name":"acanthochronology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthochronology"},{"link_name":"paleoclimatologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatologist"},{"link_name":"estimate the age of fish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estimating_the_age_of_fish"},{"link_name":"otolith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otolith"}],"text":"Herbchronology is the analysis of annual growth rings (or simply annual rings) in the secondary root xylem of perennial herbaceous plants. Similar seasonal patterns also occur in ice cores and in varves (layers of sediment deposition in a lake, river, or sea bed). The deposition pattern in the core will vary for a frozen-over lake versus an ice-free lake, and with the fineness of the sediment. Sclerochronology is the study of algae deposits.Some columnar cacti also exhibit similar seasonal patterns in the isotopes of carbon and oxygen in their spines (acanthochronology). These are used for dating in a manner similar to dendrochronology, and such techniques are used in combination with dendrochronology, to plug gaps and to extend the range of the seasonal data available to archaeologists and paleoclimatologists.A similar technique is used to estimate the age of fish stocks through the analysis of growth rings in the otolith bones.","title":"Related chronologies"}]

[{"image_text":"The growth rings of a tree at Bristol Zoo, England. Each ring represents one year; the outside rings, near the bark, are the youngest","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Tree.ring.arp.jpg/220px-Tree.ring.arp.jpg"},{"image_text":"A \"tree cookie\" cross-section of a Coast Douglas-fir tree displayed in the Royal Ontario Museum. The tree was over 500 years old when it was cut down in British Columbia in the 1890s. The markings indicating historical events were added in the 1920s.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Tree_cookie_in_Royal_Ontario_Museum_2023a.jpg/220px-Tree_cookie_in_Royal_Ontario_Museum_2023a.jpg"},{"image_text":"Drill for dendrochronology sampling and growth ring counting","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Dendrochronological_drill_hg.jpg/240px-Dendrochronological_drill_hg.jpg"},{"image_text":"Diagram of secondary growth in a tree showing idealised vertical and horizontal sections. A new layer of wood is added in each growing season, thickening the stem, existing branches and roots, to form a growth ring.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Tree_secondary_growth_diagram.svg/220px-Tree_secondary_growth_diagram.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Silver lime cross section showing annual rings.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Tilia_tomentosa_coupe_MHNT.jpg/220px-Tilia_tomentosa_coupe_MHNT.jpg"},{"image_text":"A typical form of the function of the wood ring width in accordance with the dendrochronological equation","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Annual_growth_of_the_wood.jpg/220px-Annual_growth_of_the_wood.jpg"},{"image_text":"A typical form of the function of the wood ring (in accordance with the dendrochronological equation) with an increase in the width of wood ring at initial stage","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Annual_growth_of_the_wood_%28second_typical_form_of_the_growth_function%29.jpg/220px-Annual_growth_of_the_wood_%28second_typical_form_of_the_growth_function%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"A portrait of Mary Queen of Scots, determined to date from the sixteenth century by dendrochronology","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Mary_Queen_of_Scots_portrait.jpg/220px-Mary_Queen_of_Scots_portrait.jpg"}]

[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tree_template.svg"},{"title":"Trees portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Trees"},{"title":"Dendrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrology"},{"title":"International Tree-Ring Data Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Tree-Ring_Data_Bank"},{"title":"Post excavation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_excavation"},{"title":"Timeline of dendrochronology timestamp events","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_dendrochronology_timestamp_events"}]

[{"reference":"Douglass, A.E. (1928). Climatic Cycles and Tree Growth. Vol. II. A Study of the Annual Rings of Trees in relation to Climate and Solar Activity. Washington, D.C., USA: Carnegie Institute of Washington. p. 5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/climaticcyclestr02douguoft","url_text":"Climatic Cycles and Tree Growth"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/climaticcyclestr02douguoft/page/5","url_text":"5"}]},{"reference":"Grissino-Mayer, Henri D. (n.d.), The Science of Tree Rings: Principles of Dendrochronology, Department of Geography, The University of Tennessee, archived from the original on November 4, 2016, retrieved October 23, 2016","urls":[{"url":"http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/principles.htm","url_text":"The Science of Tree Rings: Principles of Dendrochronology"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161104042215/http://web.utk.edu/~grissino/principles.htm","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"Van der Plecht, J; Bronck Ramsey, C; Heaton, T. J.; Scott, E. 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data"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007547999105171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85036709","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph119380&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=21602","external_links_name":"Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fare

Fare

["1 Uses","2 Types of fare structure","2.1 Flat fare","2.2 Zone-based fare","2.3 Transfer fare","2.4 Distance-based fare","2.5 Subscription fare","2.6 Variable fares","3 Farebox","4 See also","5 References"]

Fee payable to use a public transport service "Fare box" and "Fares" redirect here. For the newsletter Fare Box, see American Vecturist Association. For other uses, see fares (disambiguation) and fare (disambiguation). A fare is the fee paid by a passenger for use of a public transport system: rail, bus, taxi, etc. In the case of air transport, the term airfare is often used. Fare structure is the system set up to determine how much is to be paid by various passengers using a transit vehicle at any given time. A linked trip is a trip from the origin to the destination on the transit system. Even if a passenger must make several transfers during a journey, the trip is counted as one linked trip on the system. Uses The fare paid is a contribution to the operational costs of the transport system involved, either partial (as is frequently the case with publicly supported systems) or total. The portion of operating costs covered by fares - the farebox recovery ratio - typically varies from 30%-60% in North America and Europe, with some rail systems in Asia over 100%. The rules regarding how and when fares are to be paid and for how long they remain valid are many and varied. Where the fare can generally be predicted (such as fixed fare systems) fare is usually collected in advance; this is the usual practice of rail and bus systems, who usually require the payment of fares on or before boarding. In the case of taxis and other vehicles for hire, (where the total fare will not be known until the trip is completed) payment is normally made at the end of the ride. Some systems use a hybrid of both, such as a rail system which requires prepayment of the minimum fare, and collecting amounts above the minimum (if the net cost of the trip exceeds the minimum fare) at the end of the trip. Some systems allow free transfers: that is to say that a single payment permits travel within a particular geographical zone or time period. Such an arrangement is helpful for people who need to transfer from one route to another in order to reach their destination. Sometimes transfers are valid in one direction only, requiring a new fare to be paid for the return trip. Penalty fares are fares issued for passengers without valid tickets; standard fare is a term with similar meaning. In the United Kingdom, certain train operating companies, such as South Western Railway and Southern, have revenue protection inspectors who can issue penalty fares to passengers who travel without a valid ticket. As of January 2023, the minimum was £20 or twice the single fare for the journey made. In Canada, the Toronto Transit Commission charges $500 for people evading the $3 fare. Types of fare structure Public transportation fares are organized under various kinds of fare structures which price the service based on criteria such as distance traveled, demand for the service, and time of day. Flat fare The simplest fare structure is a flat fee with a fixed price for a given service. For example, the Los Angeles Metro charges $1.75 for a standard single ride on its buses or rail services. A flat fee may be charged for a single ride, or for an unlimited number of rides within a single time period such as 90 minutes, a day or a week. Zone-based fare Zoned-based fare systems charge a traveler a price that depends on the number of geographically determined fare zones that are expected to be traversed in a given trip. Examples include the London Underground ticketing system and the integrated ticketing system of transportation authorities such as the Verkehrsverbund Berlin-Brandenburg or the Autoritat del Transport Metropolità in the Barcelona metro area. Transfer fare Transfer fare systems charge a fare depending on previous trips. Timed transfers and pre-booked combined transfers are examples of that. Distance-based fare Some transportation systems charge a fare based on the distance traveled between the origin and destination stations or stops of a service. Such a system may use an exit fare at the destination station in order to correctly charge the customer based on the distance traveled. Examples include the Beijing Subway and the San Francisco Bay Area's BART system. Subscription fare Certain transportation systems have subscription passes that provide an advantage over paying fares individually. Variable fares Certain services, often long-distance modes such as high-speed trains, will charge a variable fare with a price that depends on complex factors such as how early the ticket is bought or the demand for the service. A prominent example is airline ticketing. Other examples include high-speed rail services such as Eurostar and regional buses such as Megabus. Farebox A basic farebox of circa 1950s manufacture The top of a modern-day farebox A farebox is a device used to collect fares and tickets on streetcars, trains and buses upon entry, replacing the need for a separate conductor. Nearly all major metropolitan transit agencies in the United States and Canada use a farebox to collect or validate fare payment. The first farebox was invented by Tom Loftin Johnson in 1880 and was used on streetcars built by the St. Louis Car Company. Early models would catch coins and then sort them once the fare was accepted or "rung up". Later models after World War II had a counting function that would allow the fares to be added together so that a total per shift could be maintained by the transit revenue department. In many cases, fareboxes retain the cash in a secure manner with the driver having no access; this increases security as well as reducing employee fraud. Fareboxes did not change again until around 1984, when fares in many larger cities reached $1.00 and the first dollar-bill-accepting farebox was put into service. In 2006, new fareboxes had the capability of accepting cash, credit, or smartcard transactions, and issuing day passes and transfers for riders. See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fareboxes. Free travel pass Manual fare collection Proof-of-payment Ticket Ticket systems on public transport Toll bridge Toll road Train pass Train ticket Transit pass Smart card Zero-fare Integrated ticketing References ^ 鉄道統計年報［平成30年度］：（５）－２　鉄・軌道業営業損益：((旅客収入 + 貨物収入) / 営業費合計(諸税･減価償却費を除く) ) * 100% (((Passenger revenue + Freight revenue)/(Operation cost before taxes and depreciation))*100%) ^ "National Rail Enquiries - Penalty Fares on National Rail". www.nationalrail.co.uk. Retrieved 2023-04-02. ^ "Fares". Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority. Retrieved June 5, 2019. ^ Sheridan, Michael J. - Johnson Farebox Company History vtePublic transportBus service Bus driver list Bus rapid transit Charabanc Circle route Cross-city route Express bus Guided bus Intercity bus driver Marshrutka Open top bus Pesero Public light bus Rail replacement bus Share taxi/Taxibus Shuttle bus Transit bus Trolleybus Rail Passenger rail terminology glossary Airport rail link Cable car Commuter rail Circle route Cross-city route Elevated railway Funicular Heavy rail Heritage railway Heritage streetcar High-speed rail Higher-speed rail Horsecar Inter-city rail Interurban Light rail Maglev Medium-capacity rail system Monorail Narrow-gauge railway People mover Platform screen doors Railbus Metro/Rapid Transit Rubber-tyred metro Regional rail Street running Suspension railway Tram Tram-train Vehicles for hire Auto rickshaw taxi Boda boda Combination bus Cycle rickshaw Demand-responsive transport Microtransit Paratransit Dollar van Dolmuş Gondola Hackney carriage Jeepney Limousine Motorcycle taxi Marshrutka Nanny van Personal rapid transit Pesero Public light bus Pulled rickshaw Share taxi Songthaew Taxi Tuk tuk Carpooling Car jockey Flexible carpooling Real-time ridesharing Slugging Vanpool Ship Cable ferry Ferry Hovercraft Hydrofoil Ocean liner Vaporetto Water taxi Cable Aerial tramway Cable ferry Cable railway Elevator Funicular Gondola lift bicable tricable Inclined elevator Building transport Elevator Escalator Moving walkway Inclined elevator Othertransport Airline Airliner Carsharing Bicycle-sharing Scooter-sharing Elevator Escalator Horse-drawn vehicle Hyperloop Inclined elevator Moving walkway Personal transporter Robotaxi Shweeb Slope car Trackless train Vactrain Locations Airport Bus bulb Bus garage Bus lane Bus stand Bus station Bus stop Bus turnout (bus bay) Dry dock Ferry terminal Hangar Harbor Interchange station Kassel kerb Layover Metro station Park and ride Port Queue jump Taxicab stand Train station Tram stop Transit mall Transport hub Ticketingand fares Automated fare collection Bus advertising Contract of carriage Dead mileage Exit fare Fare avoidance Fare capping Fare evasion Farebox recovery ratio Free public transport Free travel pass Integrated ticketing Manual fare collection Money train Paid area Penalty fare Proof-of-payment Reduced fare program Smart cards (CIPURSE, Calypso) Ticket machine Transfer Transit pass Routing Circle route Cross-city route Network length Non-revenue track Radial route Transport network Facilities Checked baggage First class Sleeper Standing passenger Travel class Scheduling Bus bunching Clock-face scheduling Headway Night (owl) service On-time performance Public transport timetable Short turn Politics Airport security Complete streets Green transport hierarchy Rail subsidies Security Street hierarchy Transit district Transit police Transit-oriented development (TOD) Transportation authority Transportation demand management Transportation planning Technologyand signage Destination sign Passenger information system Platform display Timetable Other topics Boarding Bus rapid transit creep Crush load Destination sign Dwell time Hail and ride Land transport Outline of transport Passenger load factor Public good Request stop Service Sustainable transport Timing point Transit map Transport economics Micromobility Transport portal Authority control databases: National Japan

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_(archaeological_site)

La Tène (archaeological site)

["1 Location","2 Research history","2.1 Discovery","2.2 Early excavations (1880s–1917)","2.3 Resumed excavations","3 Discoveries","4 References"]

Coordinates: 47°00′25″N 7°01′25″E / 47.006944°N 7.023611°E / 47.006944; 7.023611Iron Age archaeological site in Switzerland See also: Iron Age Switzerland La TèneDecorative part of a carnyx kept in the LaténiumShown within SwitzerlandLocationCanton de Neuchâtel, SwitzerlandCoordinates47°00′25″N 7°01′25″E / 47.006944°N 7.023611°E / 47.006944; 7.023611HistoryFoundedIron Age La Tène is a protohistoric archaeological site on the northern shore of Lake Neuchâtel, Switzerland. Dating to the second part of the European Iron Age it is the type site of the La Tène culture, which dates to about 450 BCE to the 1st century BCE and extends from Ireland to Anatolia and from Portugal to Czechia. La Tène is listed as a property of national significance. Location The site is located in the lieu-dit La Tène, which is related to the Latin tenuis evoking the shallow waters of the lake's northernmost extremity. It is also the point where the Thielle river leaves the lake and flows in the direction of lake Biel. Being constantly in the vicinity of the lake, the artifacts were marked by the changes in the lake level. Research history Discovery The site of La Tène was discovered in 1857 during a period dubbed the "lake dwelling fever" (in French: "fièvre lacustre"). Pile-dwellings were found on the banks of many Swiss lakes, most of the time with the collaboration of scientists and fishermen. In November 1857, fisherman Hans Kopp was sailing to a Neolithic dwelling near Concise from Lake Biel under orders from Colonel Friedrich Schwab when he spotted an interesting spot near La Tène. He stopped and started investigating, and within an hour he had found around forty iron objects, among which were eight spearheads and twelve swords. At that time, that is before the Jura water correction, the lake level was 2.7 m higher, and therefore, the site was 60 to 70 cm underwater. The discoveries made by Kopp went into Friedrich Schwab's private collection until his death, when they were given to the city of Biel/Bienne. The first scholars studying the site, Colonel Friedrich Schwab and Ferdinand Keller, did not consider the site of particular interest. However, when Édouard Desor, professor of geology and paleontology, heard of the discoveries, around a year later, he immediately realised the potential of La Tène within the Three-age system. In 1866, the first international congress of prehistoric archaeology and anthropology took place in Neuchâtel, Desor advocated the site of La Tène as the reference for the prehistoric Iron Age. A few years later, during a later meeting of the congress in Stockholm, it was decided to divide the Iron Age in Europe in two periods. The first was labelled Hallstatt culture, from a site located in Austria. The second Iron Age (from around 450 BCE to 25 BCE) was named after the site of La Tène, and thus called the La Tène culture. Early excavations (1880s–1917) Lake depositions at La Tène Reconstructed Celtic bridge at La Tène The site was quickly noted for the quality of the artifacts that were found. After Desor and Schwab, La Tène attracted other archaeology amateurs like Alexis Dardel-Thorens and Victor Gross. It also attracted many looters. Around 1870, the first Jura water correction brought the lake level 2.7 m lower, and the site which was believed to be exhausted proved to have more to be found. With the lowered water, the site's topography became much easier to understand; this led to the discovery of the remains of two bridges over an old branch of the Thielle river as well as buildings of an undetermined function. During the 1880s, while excavations were conducted by Emile Vouga, the organisation of the site was clarified but the interpretation remained unclear. In 1907, on an initiative of the History and Archaeology society of Neuchâtel with a support from the Canton of Neuchâtel, a well organized excavation started. The excavation, led by William Wavre and then Paul Vouga (1909), consisted in systematically emptying the old river Thielle bed. This methodical excavation lasted until 1917 and brought to light a large corpus of remarkably culturally similar artifacts. Six years later, Vouga published a monograph in the form of a typological inventory of the excavation discoveries where he did not try to suggest an interpretation of the site's function. The publication was considered disappointing, because Vouga did not use techniques that were already known at the time, such as studying the site's stratigraphy. However, Vouga's monograph remains useful for the chronotypological studies of the second Iron Age. During the following years, the interest for the site declined because of the difficulty of interpretation. However, many hypotheses were proposed: cult site, sacrificial site, theories concerning the large number of bent or broken weapons and the humans and animals skeletons that were found. La Tène remains a particularly difficult site to interpret, mostly due to three major problems: The large dispersion of the discoveries: due to the site's notoriety and the amount of looting that occurred, the La Tène's artifacts are scattered around a large number of museums and scientific institutions An inequality of the documentation A complex topography: the influence of the lake's changing levels and the constructions on the archaeological zone Resumed excavations The Neuchâtel Department of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology (Office du Patrimoine et de l'Archéologie, OPAN) organized a rescue excavation when construction works took place in the nearby camping area. The dig took place through already excavated layers backfilled by Paul Vouga and its aims were to obtain a precise stratigraphy and to date the already known structures. A new project led by professor Gilbert Kaenel was launched in 2007, with the support of the Swiss National Science Foundation, the University of Neuchâtel and the Neuchâtel Department of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology (Office du Patrimoine et de l'Archéologie, OPAN). The project aimed to establish an inventory of the artifacts and archives concerning the site, to confront them to the results of the 2003 excavation and to stimulate cooperation between the museums in possession of the La Tène discoveries as well as encouraging works about certains categories of artifacts. The project has led to the publications of the La Tène collections from the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Geneva, the Bern Historical Museum and the British Museum in London based on a model establish by Thierry Lejars for the Schwab museum in Biel/Bienne. Discoveries The excavations on the site of La Tène led to the discovery of around 2500 artifacts, including offensive and defensive weapons in iron or wood(swords and scabbard, spears, arrowheads, a bow and shields), tools for industry and agriculture (axes, scythes, knives and a wooden plow), horse harnesses, rings and brochs in iron or bronze, pieces of cloth, a few pots and different Celtic and Roman coinage. The artifacts discovered in La Tène are now dispersed around the globe, many of which have been illegally sold, which means completing a thorough inventory is extremely hard. Nonetheless, the majority of the objects are kept between the Swiss National Museum in Zürich and the archaeology museum of the Canton of Neuchâtel, the Laténium in Hauterive. Part of Colonel Schwab collection is kept in the Schwab Museum in Biel/Bienne and has been the subject of a thorough monograph. References ^ a b Kaeser, Marc-Antoine (2019). La Tène, ou la construction d'un site éponyme (in French). Drémil-Lafage : Editions Mergoil. ISBN 9782355180927. ^ a b Kaeser, Marc-Antoine (2017). "La Tène, nouvelles recherches, nouvelles interprétations". Antiquités (in French). 8: 48–59. ^ Kaeser, Marc-Antoine; Reginelli Servais, Gianna (2018). "La Tène: une dynamique internationale". AS Archéologie Suisse (in French). 41: 11–15. ^ Lejars, Thierry (2013). "La Tène : La collection du Musée Schwab (Bienne, Suisse). La Tène, un site, un mythe 3. Tome I". Cahiers d'archéologie romande (in French). Authority control databases International VIAF National Germany Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iron Age Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"protohistoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protohistoric"},{"link_name":"archaeological site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_site"},{"link_name":"Lake Neuchâtel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Neuch%C3%A2tel"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"European Iron Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe"},{"link_name":"type site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_site"},{"link_name":"La Tène culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland"},{"link_name":"Anatolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal"},{"link_name":"Czechia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"property of national significance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Inventory_of_Cultural_Property_of_National_and_Regional_Significance"}],"text":"Iron Age archaeological site in SwitzerlandSee also: Iron Age SwitzerlandLa Tène is a protohistoric archaeological site on the northern shore of Lake Neuchâtel, Switzerland. Dating to the second part of the European Iron Age it is the type site of the La Tène culture, which dates to about 450 BCE to the 1st century BCE and extends from Ireland to Anatolia and from Portugal to Czechia. La Tène is listed as a property of national significance.","title":"La Tène (archaeological site)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lieu-dit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieu-dit"},{"link_name":"La Tène","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne,_Neuch%C3%A2tel"},{"link_name":"Thielle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thielle"},{"link_name":"lake Biel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Biel"},{"link_name":"artifacts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)"}],"text":"The site is located in the lieu-dit La Tène, which is related to the Latin tenuis evoking the shallow waters of the lake's northernmost extremity. It is also the point where the Thielle river leaves the lake and flows in the direction of lake Biel. Being constantly in the vicinity of the lake, the artifacts were marked by the changes in the lake level.","title":"Location"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Research history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Concise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Lake Biel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Biel"},{"link_name":"La Tène","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne,_Neuch%C3%A2tel"},{"link_name":"spearheads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spear"},{"link_name":"swords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sword"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Jura water correction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jura_water_correction"},{"link_name":"Biel/Bienne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biel/Bienne"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand Keller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Keller_(archaeologist)"},{"link_name":"Édouard Desor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Jean_%C3%89douard_Desor"},{"link_name":"Three-age system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-age_system"},{"link_name":"Iron Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"},{"link_name":"Hallstatt culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallstatt_culture"},{"link_name":"25 BCE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_century_BC"},{"link_name":"La Tène culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture"}],"sub_title":"Discovery","text":"The site of La Tène was discovered in 1857 during a period dubbed the \"lake dwelling fever\" (in French: \"fièvre lacustre\"). Pile-dwellings were found on the banks of many Swiss lakes, most of the time with the collaboration of scientists and fishermen. In November 1857, fisherman Hans Kopp was sailing to a Neolithic dwelling near Concise from Lake Biel under orders from Colonel Friedrich Schwab when he spotted an interesting spot near La Tène. He stopped and started investigating, and within an hour he had found around forty iron objects, among which were eight spearheads and twelve swords.[1] At that time, that is before the Jura water correction, the lake level was 2.7 m higher, and therefore, the site was 60 to 70 cm underwater. The discoveries made by Kopp went into Friedrich Schwab's private collection until his death, when they were given to the city of Biel/Bienne.The first scholars studying the site, Colonel Friedrich Schwab and Ferdinand Keller, did not consider the site of particular interest. However, when Édouard Desor, professor of geology and paleontology, heard of the discoveries, around a year later, he immediately realised the potential of La Tène within the Three-age system. In 1866, the first international congress of prehistoric archaeology and anthropology took place in Neuchâtel, Desor advocated the site of La Tène as the reference for the prehistoric Iron Age. A few years later, during a later meeting of the congress in Stockholm, it was decided to divide the Iron Age in Europe in two periods. The first was labelled Hallstatt culture, from a site located in Austria. The second Iron Age (from around 450 BCE to 25 BCE) was named after the site of La Tène, and thus called the La Tène culture.","title":"Research history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iron_Age_La_Tene_Sacrificial_Site_(28472054990).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Latenium_Celtic_bridge_mg_2221.jpg"},{"link_name":"1870","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1870"},{"link_name":"Jura water correction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jura_water_correction"},{"link_name":"Thielle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thielle"},{"link_name":"stratigraphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratigraphy_(archaeology)"},{"link_name":"second Iron Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"sub_title":"Early excavations (1880s–1917)","text":"Lake depositions at La TèneReconstructed Celtic bridge at La TèneThe site was quickly noted for the quality of the artifacts that were found. After Desor and Schwab, La Tène attracted other archaeology amateurs like Alexis Dardel-Thorens and Victor Gross. It also attracted many looters. Around 1870, the first Jura water correction brought the lake level 2.7 m lower, and the site which was believed to be exhausted proved to have more to be found. With the lowered water, the site's topography became much easier to understand; this led to the discovery of the remains of two bridges over an old branch of the Thielle river as well as buildings of an undetermined function.During the 1880s, while excavations were conducted by Emile Vouga, the organisation of the site was clarified but the interpretation remained unclear. In 1907, on an initiative of the History and Archaeology society of Neuchâtel with a support from the Canton of Neuchâtel, a well organized excavation started. The excavation, led by William Wavre and then Paul Vouga (1909), consisted in systematically emptying the old river Thielle bed. This methodical excavation lasted until 1917 and brought to light a large corpus of remarkably culturally similar artifacts. Six years later, Vouga published a monograph in the form of a typological inventory of the excavation discoveries where he did not try to suggest an interpretation of the site's function. The publication was considered disappointing, because Vouga did not use techniques that were already known at the time, such as studying the site's stratigraphy. However, Vouga's monograph remains useful for the chronotypological studies of the second Iron Age.[1]During the following years, the interest for the site declined because of the difficulty of interpretation. However, many hypotheses were proposed: cult site, sacrificial site, theories concerning the large number of bent or broken weapons and the humans and animals skeletons that were found. La Tène remains a particularly difficult site to interpret, mostly due to three major problems:The large dispersion of the discoveries: due to the site's notoriety and the amount of looting that occurred, the La Tène's artifacts are scattered around a large number of museums and scientific institutions\nAn inequality of the documentation\nA complex topography: the influence of the lake's changing levels and the constructions on the archaeological zone","title":"Research history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rescue excavation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rescue_archaeology"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"Gilbert Kaenel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Kaenel"},{"link_name":"Swiss National Science Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_National_Science_Foundation"},{"link_name":"University of Neuchâtel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel"},{"link_name":"artifacts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)"},{"link_name":"archives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archive"},{"link_name":"Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Art_et_d%27Histoire_(Geneva)"},{"link_name":"Bern Historical Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bern_Historical_Museum"},{"link_name":"British Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"Biel/Bienne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biel/Bienne"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Resumed excavations","text":"The Neuchâtel Department of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology (Office du Patrimoine et de l'Archéologie, OPAN) organized a rescue excavation when construction works took place in the nearby camping area. The dig took place through already excavated layers backfilled by Paul Vouga and its aims were to obtain a precise stratigraphy and to date the already known structures.[2]A new project led by professor Gilbert Kaenel was launched in 2007, with the support of the Swiss National Science Foundation, the University of Neuchâtel and the Neuchâtel Department of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology (Office du Patrimoine et de l'Archéologie, OPAN). The project aimed to establish an inventory of the artifacts and archives concerning the site, to confront them to the results of the 2003 excavation and to stimulate cooperation between the museums in possession of the La Tène discoveries as well as encouraging works about certains categories of artifacts. The project has led to the publications of the La Tène collections from the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Geneva, the Bern Historical Museum and the British Museum in London based on a model establish by Thierry Lejars for the Schwab museum in Biel/Bienne.[2][3]","title":"Research history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"swords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sword"},{"link_name":"scabbard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scabbard"},{"link_name":"spears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spear"},{"link_name":"arrowheads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrowhead"},{"link_name":"bow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bow_and_arrow"},{"link_name":"shields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shield"},{"link_name":"tools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool"},{"link_name":"axes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axe"},{"link_name":"scythes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythe"},{"link_name":"plow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plough"},{"link_name":"horse harnesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_harness"},{"link_name":"pots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cookware_and_bakeware"},{"link_name":"Celtic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_coinage"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_currency"},{"link_name":"Swiss National Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_National_Museum"},{"link_name":"Zürich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich"},{"link_name":"Laténium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lat%C3%A9nium"},{"link_name":"Hauterive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauterive,_Neuch%C3%A2tel"},{"link_name":"Biel/Bienne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biel/Bienne"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The excavations on the site of La Tène led to the discovery of around 2500 artifacts, including offensive and defensive weapons in iron or wood(swords and scabbard, spears, arrowheads, a bow and shields), tools for industry and agriculture (axes, scythes, knives and a wooden plow), horse harnesses, rings and brochs in iron or bronze, pieces of cloth, a few pots and different Celtic and Roman coinage.The artifacts discovered in La Tène are now dispersed around the globe, many of which have been illegally sold, which means completing a thorough inventory is extremely hard. Nonetheless, the majority of the objects are kept between the Swiss National Museum in Zürich and the archaeology museum of the Canton of Neuchâtel, the Laténium in Hauterive. Part of Colonel Schwab collection is kept in the Schwab Museum in Biel/Bienne and has been the subject of a thorough monograph.[4]","title":"Discoveries"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_roulette

Russian roulette

["1 Origin","2 Etymology","3 Probability","3.1 Variant: revolver re-spun after each trigger pull","3.2 Variant: revolver only spun once at the start","4 Notable incidents","5 Russian roulette in art","6 Drinking games","7 See also","8 References"]

Potentially lethal game of chance For the similarly-named 1965 cartoon, see Rushing Roulette. For other uses, see Russian Roulette (disambiguation). Russian roulette as depicted in the 1925 movie The Night Club Russian roulette (Russian: Русская рулетка, romanized: Russkaya ruletka) is a potentially lethal game of chance in which a player places a single round in a revolver, spins the cylinder, places the muzzle against the head or body (of the opponent or themselves), and pulls the trigger. If the loaded chamber aligns with the barrel, the weapon will fire, killing or severely injuring the player. Origin According to Andrew Clarke, the first trace of Russian roulette can be found in the short story "The Fatalist", which was written in 1840 and was part of the collection A Hero of Our Time by Mikhail Lermontov, a Russian poet and writer. In the story, which is set in a Cossack village, the protagonist, Grigory Alexandrovich Pechorin, claims that there is no predestination and proposes a bet in order to prove it, laying about twenty gold pieces onto a table. A lieutenant of the dragoons of the Tsar, Vulič, a man of Serbian origins with a passion for gambling, accepts the challenge and randomly takes one of a number of pistols of various calibres from its nail, cocks it and pours gunpowder onto the pan. Nobody knows if the pistol is loaded or not. "Gentlemen! Who will pay 20 gold pieces for me?", Vulič asks, putting the muzzle of the pistol to his forehead. He then asks Grigory to throw a playing card in the air, and when the card lands, he pulls the trigger. The weapon fails to fire, but when Vulič cocks the pistol again and aims it at a service cap hanging over the window, a shot rings out and smoke fills the room. Etymology The term Russian roulette was possibly first used in a 1937 short story of the same name by Georges Surdez, published in the January 30, 1937, edition of Collier's magazine: 'Did you ever hear of Russian Roulette?' When I said I had not, he told me all about it. When he was with the Russian army in Rumania , around 1917, and things were cracking up, so that their officers felt that they were not only losing prestige, money, family, and country, but were being also dishonored before their colleagues of the Allied armies, some officer would suddenly pull out his revolver, anywhere, at the table, in a café, at a gathering of friends, remove a cartridge from the cylinder, spin the cylinder, snap it back in place, put it to his head and pull the trigger. There were five chances to one that the hammer would set off a live cartridge and blow his brains all over the place. References to the term in the context of the Collier's story appeared in some newspapers during 1937. The first independent appearances of the term in newspapers began in 1938 with the reports of young men being killed while playing it. The earliest instance appears to have been the death of a 21-year-old former journalism student in Austin, Texas, appearing in The Austin Statesman and some other Texas newspapers on January 8, 1938. At least four other deaths were attributed to Russian roulette during the year: a 34-year-old policeman in Peoria, Illinois, a 20-year-old in Houston, an 18-year-old in Saratoga Springs, New York, and a 16-year-old in Los Angeles. Subsequently, the term became a metaphor for taking foolhardy risks and its usage steadily increased in reportage of diplomacy, politics, economics, medicine and sports. Probability This section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources at this section. (October 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A revolver with a single round loaded in the cylinder, emblematic of Russian roulette. The cylinder is in the open (non-firing) position. Math in this section is based on the use of a six-shot revolver with a single chamber loaded. Abnormal factors, such as the possibility of a dud round, are not included. Variant: revolver re-spun after each trigger pull With this variant, turn order is essential, because the probability of losing decreases the later one's turn is. Given a six-shot revolver, for any given single trial (pull), the probability of losing is 1 6 ≈ 16.7 % {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{6}}\approx 16.7\%} . However, since all players only come into the game if and when each of the players before them has caught an empty chamber, the all-game loss probability for player k {\displaystyle k} (starting from 0) is reduced to ( 5 6 ) k ⋅ 1 6 {\displaystyle ({\tfrac {5}{6}})^{k}\cdot {\tfrac {1}{6}}} . The all-game loss probabilities for each of the six players are hence, in order, 16.7 % {\displaystyle 16.7\%} , 13.9 % {\displaystyle 13.9\%} , 11.6 % {\displaystyle 11.6\%} , 9.6 % {\displaystyle 9.6\%} , 8.0 % {\displaystyle 8.0\%} , and 6.7 % {\displaystyle 6.7\%} to one decimal place. More generally, for a revolver with n {\displaystyle n} chambers, player k {\displaystyle k} 's all-game loss probability is ( n − 1 n ) k ⋅ 1 n {\displaystyle ({\tfrac {n-1}{n}})^{k}\cdot {\tfrac {1}{n}}} . The probability of the revolver having fired after six pulls is 1 − ( 5 6 ) 6 {\displaystyle 1-({\tfrac {5}{6}})^{6}} , or about 66.5 % {\displaystyle 66.5\%} . More generally, for a revolver with n {\displaystyle n} chambers, the probability of the revolver having fired after k {\displaystyle k} pulls is 1 − ( n − 1 n ) k {\displaystyle 1-({\tfrac {n-1}{n}})^{k}} , as this would be an instance of a geometric distribution where the success probability is 1 n {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{n}}} . The average number of pulls for the gun to fire is n {\displaystyle n} in this variant (six pulls, for a six-shot revolver). Variant: revolver only spun once at the start With this variant, turn order has no effect on the all-game loss probability, which remains the same for all players, but influences the single-pull probability, which increases with each pull. Given a six-shot revolver, at pull k {\displaystyle k} (starting from 0), the fact that all k {\displaystyle k} previously tested chambers were empty reduces the total number of possible locations of the bullet to 6 − k {\displaystyle {6-k}} , and the loss probability is therefore 1 6 − k {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{6-k}}} . The single-pull loss probabilities for each of the six players are hence, in order, 16.7 % {\displaystyle 16.7\%} , 20 % {\displaystyle 20\%} , 25 % {\displaystyle 25\%} , 33.3 % {\displaystyle 33.3\%} , 50 % {\displaystyle 50\%} , and 100 % {\displaystyle 100\%} to 1 decimal place. More generally, for a revolver with n {\displaystyle n} chambers, the loss probability at pull k {\displaystyle k} (starting from 0) is 1 n − k {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{n-k}}} . However, since, like in the re-spinning variant, all players only come into the game if and when each of the players before them has caught an empty chamber, the all-game loss probability for player k {\displaystyle k} is 1 n − k ⋅ ∏ i = 0 k − 1 n − i − 1 n − i = n − 1 n ⋅ n − 2 n − 1 ⋅ . . . ⋅ n − k n − k − 1 ⋅ 1 n − k = 1 6 ≈ 16.7 % {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{n-k}}\cdot \prod _{i=0}^{k-1}{\frac {n-i-1}{n-i}}={\frac {\cancel {n-1}}{n}}\cdot {\frac {n-2}{\cancel {n-1}}}\cdot ...\cdot {\frac {\cancel {n-k}}{\cancel {n-k-1}}}\cdot {\frac {1}{\cancel {n-k}}}={\frac {1}{6}}\approx 16.7\%} for k > 0 {\displaystyle k>0} and 1 n − k = 1 6 ≈ 16.7 % {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{n-k}}={\frac {1}{6}}\approx 16.7\%} for k = 0 {\displaystyle k=0} . Hence, the all-game loss probability for all players is 16.7 % {\displaystyle 16.7\%} to 1 decimal place. The probability of the revolver having fired after six pulls is 6 6 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {6}{6}}} or 100 % {\displaystyle 100\%} in this variant (meaning the revolver will fire within six trigger pulls). And, more generally, after k {\displaystyle k} pulls, it is k n {\displaystyle {\tfrac {k}{n}}} . The average number of pulls for the gun to fire is n + 1 2 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {n+1}{2}}} in this variant (3.5 pulls, for a six-shot revolver). Notable incidents An American Institute of Physics profile of William Shockley, co-inventor of the transistor and winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics, claims that he attempted suicide by playing a solo game of Russian roulette. In a 1946 U.S. legal case, Commonwealth v. Malone, 47 A.2d 445 (1946), a Pennsylvania teenager's conviction for murder in the second degree as a result of shooting a friend was upheld by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court. In this case, the teenagers involved played a modified version of Russian roulette, called Russian poker, in which they took turns aiming and pulling the trigger of the revolver at each other, rather than at their own heads. The court ruled that "When an individual commits an act of gross recklessness without regard to the probability that death to another is likely to result, that individual exhibits the state of mind required to uphold a conviction of manslaughter even if the individual did not intend for death to ensue." On 25 December 1954, American blues musician Johnny Ace killed himself in Texas, after a gun he pointed at his own head discharged. A report in The Washington Post attributed this to Russian roulette, but this was disputed by two witnesses. Graham Greene related in his first autobiography, A Sort of Life (1971), that he played Russian roulette, alone, a few times as a teenager. Malcolm X, in his 1965 autobiography, recalls an incident during his burglary career when he once played Russian roulette, pulling the trigger three times in a row to convince his partners in crime that he was not afraid to die. In the epilogue to the book, Alex Haley states that Malcolm X revealed to him that he palmed the round. The incident is portrayed in Spike Lee’s 1992 film adaptation of the autobiography. In 1972, under the influence of alcohol and cocaine, the French singer and actor Johnny Hallyday played multiple games of Russian roulette with his mistress, the American singer and actress Nanette Workman. Laeticia Smet, his last wife, revealed in 2018 that he "has done this several times. But that was a long time ago ... At the time, he was playing with his destiny". On 24 July 1973, Dallas Police Officer Darrell L. Cain murdered Santos Rodriguez, a 12-year-old Mexican-American child, while interrogating him and his brother about a burglary. Cain shot Rodriguez after spinning the cylinder of his revolver, Russian roulette-style, in an effort to force a confession. On 10 September 1976, Finnish magician Aimo Leikas  killed himself in front of a crowd while performing his Russian roulette act in Hartola. He had been performing the act for about a year, selecting six bullets from a box of assorted live and dummy ammunition. The 1978 film The Deer Hunter depicts captured South Vietnamese and American soldiers being forced to play Russian roulette as their Viet Cong captors bet on who will survive. Several teen deaths following the movie's release caused both police and the media to accuse the film of inspiring the youths. John Hinckley Jr., who attempted to assassinate President Ronald Reagan in 1981, was known to have played Russian roulette, alone, on two occasions. Hinckley also took a picture of himself in 1980 in which he pointed a gun at his head. On 12 October 1984, while waiting for filming to resume on Cover Up (1985), actor Jon-Erik Hexum played Russian roulette with a .44 Magnum revolver loaded with a blank. The blast fractured his skull and caused massive cerebral hemorrhaging when bone fragments were forced through his brain. He was rushed to Beverly Hills Medical Center, where he was pronounced brain-dead. On 10 July 1993, former French rugby union player Armand Vaquerin died during a “demonstration” of Russian roulette in the Béziers bar “le bar des Amis” on avenue Gambetta. On 5 October 2003, psychological illusionist Derren Brown appeared to take part in a game of Russian roulette live on UK television. Two days later, a statement by the police said they had been informed of the arrangements in advance, and were satisfied that "There was no live ammunition involved and at no time was anyone at risk." The BBC program Who Do You Think You Are?, on 13 September 2010, featured the actor Alan Cumming investigating his grandfather Tommy Darling, who he discovered had died playing Russian roulette while serving as a police officer in British Malaya. The family had previously believed he had died accidentally while cleaning his gun. On 11 June 2016, MMA fighter Ivan "JP" Cole apparently killed himself by playing Russian roulette. Russian roulette in art In literature In the chapter "Fatalist" of M. Y. Lermontov's novel "A Hero of Our Time", a bet is described that vaguely resembles Russian roulette: a single-shot pistol with a flintlock is used, the debaters do not know for sure whether it is loaded; in addition, flintlock weapons are characterized by fairly frequent misfires. In the work "Azazel" by B. Akunin, in chapter five, the bet "American roulette" is mentioned, but the conditions of the bet are the same as the conditions of the game "Russian roulette", with minor additions, two revolvers are used in the bet and each duelist plays with his own weapon, continuing until a shot is fired. "Russian Roulette" is the title of a book about the war in Afghanistan by journalist and writer Gennady Bocharov, which also touches on the topic that "American roulette" thanks to the dueling heroes "Azazel", Akhtyrtsev and Kokorin will be renamed "Russian Roulette". The book was written by order of the English publishing house Hamish Hamilton in 1989, and has since been published. Drinking games There is a drinking game based on Russian roulette. The game involves six shot glasses filled by a non-player: five are filled with water, but the sixth with vodka. Among some groups, low quality vodka is preferred, as it makes the glass representing the filled chamber less desirable. The glasses are arranged in a circle, and players take turns choosing a glass to take a shot from at random. There is also a game called "Beer Hunter" (titled after the Russian roulette scenes in the film The Deer Hunter). In this game, six cans of beer are placed between the participants: one can is vigorously shaken, and the cans are scrambled. The participants take turns opening the cans of beer right under their noses; the person who opens the shaken can (and thus sprays beer up their nose) is deemed the loser. Both are non-lethal compared to the game with the firearm which is almost always lethal. See also Counterphobic attitude Forced suicide Quantum suicide Buckshot Roulette References ^ "The Deer Hunter Roberto Leoni Movie Reviews". YouTube. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2019. ^ "The Fatalist. Mikhail Lermontov. English Translation". LiveJournal.com. 18 October 2017. Retrieved 13 October 2019. ^ Surdez, Georges (30 January 1937). Chenery, William L. (ed.). "Russian Roulette" (PDF). Collier's. Crowell Publishing Company. pp. 16, 57. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 16 July 2019. ^ "'Tween Lines". Omaha World-Herald. 13 June 1937. p. 11-E. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com. ^ "Death Laid to 'Gun Roulette'". The Austin Statesman. 8 January 1938. p. 1. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com. ^ "Russian Roulette Test Fatal to Austin Writer". El Paso Herald-Post. United Press. 8 January 1938. p. 3. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com. ^ "Police Officer Is Latest Victim Of Dangerous 'Russian Roulette'". The Austin Statesman. INS. 6 July 1938. p. 1. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com. ^ "Dies as he Snaps 'Empty' Pistol at Head as Joke". St. Louis Star-Times. INS. 6 July 1938. p. 7. Retrieved 1 March 2023 – via newspapers.com. ^ "Russian Roulette Thrills Houston Youth to Death". The Austin Statesman. United Press. 8 July 1938. p. 3. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com. ^ "Another Life Taken by 'Russian Roulette'". Springfield Leader & Press. Springfield, Missouri. AP. 23 July 1938. p. 1. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com. ^ "Boy's Triple Death Gamble Told by Chum at Inquest". Los Angeles Times. 22 November 1938. p. 7. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com. ^ "Abnormal risks". Statistical Ideas. 1 June 2015. Archived from the original on 6 November 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2017. ^ "Bill Shockley, Part 2 of 3". American Institute of Physics. 1999 – via PBS.org. ^ "Commonwealth v. Malone". casebriefs.com. Retrieved 26 July 2014. ^ Himes, Geoffrey (25 December 1998). "Really Old School". Washington Post. ^ Gallagher, Paul (12 December 2013). "Novelist Graham Greene Played Russian Roulette as a Teenager". dangerousminds.net. Retrieved 1 March 2023. ^ Rothstein, Edward (19 May 2005). "The Personal Evolution of a Civil Rights Giant". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 June 2017. ^ "Roulette russe, paradis artificiels, 'déglingue' : la relation survoltée de Johnny Hallyday et sa maîtresse Nanette Workman". www.programme-tv.net (in French). 1 April 2022. ^ "Quand Johnny Hallyday jouait à la roulette russe". www.parismatch.com (in French). 13 April 2018. ^ "State Rests Case In Cain Murder Trial". Lubbock Avalanche-Journal. UPI. 14 November 1973. p. 15. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com. ^ "Dallas Policeman". The Boston Globe. 17 November 1973. p. 2. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com. ^ "In Memoriam" (PDF). The Circus Report. Vol. 5, no. 38. 20 September 1976. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 September 2012. Retrieved 3 June 2013. ^ "Russian Roulette Act Misfires, Finnish Circus Performer Killed". Toledo Blade. 10 September 1976. p. 11. Retrieved 21 June 2017 – via Google News. ^ "The Deer Hunter Suicides". Snopes. 16 August 2007. Retrieved 26 April 2013. ^ Garbus, Martin (17 September 2002) . Courting Disaster: The Supreme Court and the Unmaking of American Law (hardcover ed.). Times Books. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-8050-6918-1. ^ "Photograph of Hinckley". Archived from the original on 22 November 2008. Retrieved 11 December 2008 – via University of Missouri Kansas City School of Law. ^ "Jon-Erik Hexum's Fatal Joke". Entertainment Weekly. 14 October 1994. Retrieved 5 February 2013. ^ "Podcast : les derniers mystères sur la mort du rugbyman Armand Vaquerin" (in French). Télérama. 4 June 2022. Retrieved 7 November 2023. ^ "Roulette gun stunt 'a hoax'". BBC News. 7 October 2003. Retrieved 2 September 2007. ^ Jarvis, David (12 September 2010). "Alan Cumming's hero grandad died playing Russian roulette". Daily Express. Retrieved 1 March 2023. ^ Boult, Adam (13 June 2016). "MMA fighter 'killed himself playing Russian roulette'". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 13 June 2016. ^ Fishbain, David A., et al. «Relationship between Russian roulette deaths and risk-taking behavior: a controlled study.» Am J Psychiatry 144.5 (1987): 563—567. ^ Борис Акунин. Азазель. ^ "Drinking Roulette Fun Game". roulettegamesvariety.com. Retrieved 21 June 2017. ^ "The Beer Hunter". Modern Drunkard Magazine. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rushing Roulette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rushing_Roulette"},{"link_name":"Russian Roulette (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Roulette_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rosyjska_ruletka.png"},{"link_name":"The Night Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Night_Club"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian"},{"link_name":"game of chance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_of_chance"},{"link_name":"round","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"revolver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolver"},{"link_name":"cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"trigger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigger_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"chamber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_(firearms)"}],"text":"For the similarly-named 1965 cartoon, see Rushing Roulette. For other uses, see Russian Roulette (disambiguation).Russian roulette as depicted in the 1925 movie The Night ClubRussian roulette (Russian: Русская рулетка, romanized: Russkaya ruletka) is a potentially lethal game of chance in which a player places a single round in a revolver, spins the cylinder, places the muzzle against the head or body (of the opponent or themselves), and pulls the trigger. If the loaded chamber aligns with the barrel, the weapon will fire, killing or severely injuring the player.","title":"Russian roulette"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A Hero of Our Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Hero_of_Our_Time"},{"link_name":"Mikhail Lermontov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Cossack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cossack"},{"link_name":"predestination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predestination"},{"link_name":"lieutenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant"},{"link_name":"dragoons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragoons"},{"link_name":"Tsar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Serbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbs"},{"link_name":"pan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_pan"},{"link_name":"playing card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playing_card"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"According to Andrew Clarke, the first trace of Russian roulette can be found in the short story \"The Fatalist\", which was written in 1840 and was part of the collection A Hero of Our Time by Mikhail Lermontov, a Russian poet and writer.[1] In the story, which is set in a Cossack village, the protagonist, Grigory Alexandrovich Pechorin, claims that there is no predestination and proposes a bet in order to prove it, laying about twenty gold pieces onto a table. A lieutenant of the dragoons of the Tsar, Vulič, a man of Serbian origins with a passion for gambling, accepts the challenge and randomly takes one of a number of pistols of various calibres from its nail, cocks it and pours gunpowder onto the pan. Nobody knows if the pistol is loaded or not. \"Gentlemen! Who will pay 20 gold pieces for me?\", Vulič asks, putting the muzzle of the pistol to his forehead. He then asks Grigory to throw a playing card in the air, and when the card lands, he pulls the trigger. The weapon fails to fire, but when Vulič cocks the pistol again and aims it at a service cap hanging over the window, a shot rings out and smoke fills the room.[2]","title":"Origin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Georges Surdez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Surdez"},{"link_name":"Collier's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collier%27s"},{"link_name":"sic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-colliers_19370130_surdez-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Austin, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin,_Texas"},{"link_name":"The Austin Statesman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Austin_Statesman"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Peoria, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peoria,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Saratoga Springs, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saratoga_Springs,_New_York"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"The term Russian roulette was possibly first used in a 1937 short story of the same name by Georges Surdez, published in the January 30, 1937, edition of Collier's magazine:'Did you ever hear of Russian Roulette?' When I said I had not, he told me all about it. When he was with the Russian army in Rumania [sic], around 1917, and things were cracking up, so that their officers felt that they were not only losing prestige, money, family, and country, but were being also dishonored before their colleagues of the Allied armies, some officer would suddenly pull out his revolver, anywhere, at the table, in a café, at a gathering of friends, remove a cartridge from the cylinder, spin the cylinder, snap it back in place, put it to his head and pull the trigger. There were five chances to one that the hammer would set off a live cartridge and blow his brains all over the place.[3]References to the term in the context of the Collier's story appeared in some newspapers during 1937.[4] The first independent appearances of the term in newspapers began in 1938 with the reports of young men being killed while playing it. The earliest instance appears to have been the death of a 21-year-old former journalism student in Austin, Texas, appearing in The Austin Statesman and some other Texas newspapers on January 8, 1938.[5][6] At least four other deaths were attributed to Russian roulette during the year: a 34-year-old policeman in Peoria, Illinois,[7][8] a 20-year-old in Houston,[9] an 18-year-old in Saratoga Springs, New York,[10] and a 16-year-old in Los Angeles.[11]Subsequently, the term became a metaphor for taking foolhardy risks and its usage steadily increased in reportage of diplomacy, politics, economics, medicine and sports.","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Smith_%26_Wesson_Model_686_Plus_with_1_round.jpg"},{"link_name":"round","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"revolver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolver"},{"link_name":"chamber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"dud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dud"}],"text":"A revolver with a single round loaded in the cylinder, emblematic of Russian roulette. The cylinder is in the open (non-firing) position.Math in this section is based on the use of a six-shot revolver with a single chamber loaded. Abnormal factors, such as the possibility of a dud round, are not included.","title":"Probability"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"single trial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment_(probability_theory)#Experiments_and_trials"},{"link_name":"probability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability"},{"link_name":"decimal place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_places"},{"link_name":"geometric distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_distribution"}],"sub_title":"Variant: revolver re-spun after each trigger pull","text":"With this variant, turn order is essential, because the probability of losing decreases the later one's turn is.Given a six-shot revolver, for any given single trial (pull), the probability of losing is \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 6\n \n \n \n ≈\n 16.7\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{6}}\\approx 16.7\\%}\n \n. However, since all players only come into the game if and when each of the players before them has caught an empty chamber, the all-game loss probability for player \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n (starting from 0) is reduced to \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n 5\n 6\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n k\n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n 1\n 6\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\tfrac {5}{6}})^{k}\\cdot {\\tfrac {1}{6}}}\n \n. The all-game loss probabilities for each of the six players are hence, in order, \n \n \n \n 16.7\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 16.7\\%}\n \n, \n \n \n \n 13.9\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 13.9\\%}\n \n, \n \n \n \n 11.6\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 11.6\\%}\n \n, \n \n \n \n 9.6\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 9.6\\%}\n \n, \n \n \n \n 8.0\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 8.0\\%}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n 6.7\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 6.7\\%}\n \n to one decimal place. More generally, for a revolver with \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n chambers, player \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n's all-game loss probability is \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n k\n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n 1\n n\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle ({\\tfrac {n-1}{n}})^{k}\\cdot {\\tfrac {1}{n}}}\n \n.The probability of the revolver having fired after six pulls is \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n (\n \n \n \n 5\n 6\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n 6\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1-({\\tfrac {5}{6}})^{6}}\n \n, or about \n \n \n \n 66.5\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 66.5\\%}\n \n. More generally, for a revolver with \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n chambers, the probability of the revolver having fired after \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n pulls is \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n (\n \n \n \n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1-({\\tfrac {n-1}{n}})^{k}}\n \n, as this would be an instance of a geometric distribution where the success probability is \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n n\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{n}}}\n \n.The average number of pulls for the gun to fire is \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n in this variant (six pulls, for a six-shot revolver).","title":"Probability"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Variant: revolver only spun once at the start","text":"With this variant, turn order has no effect on the all-game loss probability, which remains the same for all players, but influences the single-pull probability, which increases with each pull.Given a six-shot revolver, at pull \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n (starting from 0), the fact that all \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n previously tested chambers were empty reduces the total number of possible locations of the bullet to \n \n \n \n \n 6\n −\n k\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {6-k}}\n \n, and the loss probability is therefore \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n 6\n −\n k\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{6-k}}}\n \n. The single-pull loss probabilities for each of the six players are hence, in order, \n \n \n \n 16.7\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 16.7\\%}\n \n, \n \n \n \n 20\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 20\\%}\n \n, \n \n \n \n 25\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 25\\%}\n \n, \n \n \n \n 33.3\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 33.3\\%}\n \n, \n \n \n \n 50\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 50\\%}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n 100\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 100\\%}\n \n to 1 decimal place.[12] More generally, for a revolver with \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n chambers, the loss probability at pull \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n (starting from 0) is \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n n\n −\n k\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{n-k}}}\n \n.However, since, like in the re-spinning variant, all players only come into the game if and when each of the players before them has caught an empty chamber, the all-game loss probability for player \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n is1\n \n n\n −\n k\n \n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n ∏\n \n i\n =\n 0\n \n \n k\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n n\n −\n i\n −\n 1\n \n \n n\n −\n i\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n n\n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n n\n −\n 2\n \n \n n\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n ⋅\n .\n .\n .\n ⋅\n \n \n \n n\n −\n k\n \n \n n\n −\n k\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n 1\n \n n\n −\n k\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n 6\n \n \n ≈\n 16.7\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {1}{n-k}}\\cdot \\prod _{i=0}^{k-1}{\\frac {n-i-1}{n-i}}={\\frac {\\cancel {n-1}}{n}}\\cdot {\\frac {n-2}{\\cancel {n-1}}}\\cdot ...\\cdot {\\frac {\\cancel {n-k}}{\\cancel {n-k-1}}}\\cdot {\\frac {1}{\\cancel {n-k}}}={\\frac {1}{6}}\\approx 16.7\\%}for \n \n \n \n k\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k>0}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n n\n −\n k\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n 6\n \n \n ≈\n 16.7\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {1}{n-k}}={\\frac {1}{6}}\\approx 16.7\\%}\n \n for \n \n \n \n k\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k=0}\n \n. Hence, the all-game loss probability for all players is \n \n \n \n 16.7\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 16.7\\%}\n \n to 1 decimal place.The probability of the revolver having fired after six pulls is \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 6\n 6\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {6}{6}}}\n \n or \n \n \n \n 100\n %\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 100\\%}\n \n in this variant (meaning the revolver will fire within six trigger pulls). And, more generally, after \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n pulls, it is \n \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n n\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {k}{n}}}\n \n.The average number of pulls for the gun to fire is \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n n\n +\n 1\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {n+1}{2}}}\n \n in this variant (3.5 pulls, for a six-shot revolver).","title":"Probability"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Institute of Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Physics"},{"link_name":"William Shockley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley"},{"link_name":"transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"Nobel Prize for Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physics"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth v. Malone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_v._Malone"},{"link_name":"murder in the second degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_in_the_second_degree"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Supreme_Court"},{"link_name":"manslaughter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manslaughter"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues"},{"link_name":"Johnny Ace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Ace"},{"link_name":"The Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Graham Greene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham_Greene"},{"link_name":"A Sort of Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Sort_of_Life"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Malcolm X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_X"},{"link_name":"his 1965 autobiography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Autobiography_of_Malcolm_X"},{"link_name":"Alex Haley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Haley"},{"link_name":"palmed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palming"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"1992 film adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_X_(1992_film)"},{"link_name":"Johnny Hallyday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Hallyday"},{"link_name":"Nanette Workman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanette_Workman"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Dallas Police","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas_Police_Department"},{"link_name":"Santos Rodriguez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murder_of_Santos_Rodriguez"},{"link_name":"Mexican-American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_Americans"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Aimo Leikas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aimo_Leikas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aimo_Leikas"},{"link_name":"Hartola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartola,_Finland"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"The Deer Hunter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Deer_Hunter"},{"link_name":"Viet Cong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viet_Cong"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"John Hinckley Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hinckley_Jr."},{"link_name":"attempted to assassinate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagan_assassination_attempt"},{"link_name":"Ronald Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Cover Up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cover_Up_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Jon-Erik Hexum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon-Erik_Hexum"},{"link_name":".44 Magnum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.44_Magnum"},{"link_name":"blank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blank_(cartridge)"},{"link_name":"brain-dead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_death"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"rugby union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_union"},{"link_name":"Armand Vaquerin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Vaquerin"},{"link_name":"Béziers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9ziers"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Derren Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derren_Brown"},{"link_name":"Russian roulette live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_by_Derren_Brown#Derren_Brown_Plays_Russian_Roulette_Live_(2003)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Who Do You Think You Are?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who_Do_You_Think_You_Are%3F_(British_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Alan Cumming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Cumming"},{"link_name":"British Malaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Malaya"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"MMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_martial_arts"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"An American Institute of Physics profile of William Shockley, co-inventor of the transistor and winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics, claims that he attempted suicide by playing a solo game of Russian roulette.[13]\nIn a 1946 U.S. legal case, Commonwealth v. Malone, 47 A.2d 445 (1946), a Pennsylvania teenager's conviction for murder in the second degree as a result of shooting a friend was upheld by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court. In this case, the teenagers involved played a modified version of Russian roulette, called Russian poker, in which they took turns aiming and pulling the trigger of the revolver at each other, rather than at their own heads. The court ruled that \"When an individual commits an act of gross recklessness without regard to the probability that death to another is likely to result, that individual exhibits the state of mind required to uphold a conviction of manslaughter even if the individual did not intend for death to ensue.\"[14]\nOn 25 December 1954, American blues musician Johnny Ace killed himself in Texas, after a gun he pointed at his own head discharged. A report in The Washington Post attributed this to Russian roulette, but this was disputed by two witnesses.[15]\nGraham Greene related in his first autobiography, A Sort of Life (1971), that he played Russian roulette, alone, a few times as a teenager.[16]\nMalcolm X, in his 1965 autobiography, recalls an incident during his burglary career when he once played Russian roulette, pulling the trigger three times in a row to convince his partners in crime that he was not afraid to die. In the epilogue to the book, Alex Haley states that Malcolm X revealed to him that he palmed the round.[17] The incident is portrayed in Spike Lee’s 1992 film adaptation of the autobiography.\nIn 1972, under the influence of alcohol and cocaine, the French singer and actor Johnny Hallyday played multiple games of Russian roulette with his mistress, the American singer and actress Nanette Workman.[18] Laeticia Smet, his last wife, revealed in 2018 that he \"has done this several times. But that was a long time ago ... At the time, he was playing with his destiny\".[19]\nOn 24 July 1973, Dallas Police Officer Darrell L. Cain murdered Santos Rodriguez, a 12-year-old Mexican-American child, while interrogating him and his brother about a burglary. Cain shot Rodriguez after spinning the cylinder of his revolver, Russian roulette-style, in an effort to force a confession.[20][21]\nOn 10 September 1976, Finnish magician Aimo Leikas [fi] killed himself in front of a crowd while performing his Russian roulette act in Hartola. He had been performing the act for about a year, selecting six bullets from a box of assorted live and dummy ammunition.[22][23]\nThe 1978 film The Deer Hunter depicts captured South Vietnamese and American soldiers being forced to play Russian roulette as their Viet Cong captors bet on who will survive. Several teen deaths following the movie's release caused both police and the media to accuse the film of inspiring the youths.[24]\nJohn Hinckley Jr., who attempted to assassinate President Ronald Reagan in 1981, was known to have played Russian roulette, alone, on two occasions.[25] Hinckley also took a picture of himself in 1980 in which he pointed a gun at his head.[26]\nOn 12 October 1984, while waiting for filming to resume on Cover Up (1985), actor Jon-Erik Hexum played Russian roulette with a .44 Magnum revolver loaded with a blank. The blast fractured his skull and caused massive cerebral hemorrhaging when bone fragments were forced through his brain. He was rushed to Beverly Hills Medical Center, where he was pronounced brain-dead.[27]\nOn 10 July 1993, former French rugby union player Armand Vaquerin died during a “demonstration” of Russian roulette in the Béziers bar “le bar des Amis” on avenue Gambetta.[28]\nOn 5 October 2003, psychological illusionist Derren Brown appeared to take part in a game of Russian roulette live on UK television. Two days later, a statement by the police said they had been informed of the arrangements in advance, and were satisfied that \"There was no live ammunition involved and at no time was anyone at risk.\"[29]\nThe BBC program Who Do You Think You Are?, on 13 September 2010, featured the actor Alan Cumming investigating his grandfather Tommy Darling, who he discovered had died playing Russian roulette while serving as a police officer in British Malaya. The family had previously believed he had died accidentally while cleaning his gun.[30]\nOn 11 June 2016, MMA fighter Ivan \"JP\" Cole apparently killed himself by playing Russian roulette.[31]","title":"Notable incidents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"M. Y. Lermontov's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov"},{"link_name":"A Hero of Our Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Hero_of_Our_Time"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Hamish Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamish_Hamilton"}],"text":"In literature In the chapter \"Fatalist\" of M. Y. Lermontov's novel \"A Hero of Our Time\", a bet is described that vaguely resembles Russian roulette:[32] a single-shot pistol with a flintlock is used, the debaters do not know for sure whether it is loaded; in addition, flintlock weapons are characterized by fairly frequent misfires.\nIn the work \"Azazel\" by B. Akunin, in chapter five, the bet \"American roulette\" is mentioned, but the conditions of the bet are the same as the conditions of the game \"Russian roulette\", with minor additions, two revolvers are used in the bet and each duelist plays with his own weapon, continuing until a shot is fired.[33]\n\"Russian Roulette\" is the title of a book about the war in Afghanistan by journalist and writer Gennady Bocharov, which also touches on the topic that \"American roulette\" thanks to the dueling heroes \"Azazel\", Akhtyrtsev and Kokorin will be renamed \"Russian Roulette\". The book was written by order of the English publishing house Hamish Hamilton in 1989, and has since been published.","title":"Russian roulette in art"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"drinking game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drinking_game"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"The Deer Hunter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Deer_Hunter"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"firearm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firearm"}],"text":"There is a drinking game based on Russian roulette. The game involves six shot glasses filled by a non-player: five are filled with water, but the sixth with vodka. Among some groups, low quality vodka is preferred, as it makes the glass representing the filled chamber less desirable. The glasses are arranged in a circle, and players take turns choosing a glass to take a shot from at random.[34]There is also a game called \"Beer Hunter\" (titled after the Russian roulette scenes in the film The Deer Hunter). In this game, six cans of beer are placed between the participants: one can is vigorously shaken, and the cans are scrambled. The participants take turns opening the cans of beer right under their noses; the person who opens the shaken can (and thus sprays beer up their nose) is deemed the loser.[35]Both are non-lethal compared to the game with the firearm which is almost always lethal.","title":"Drinking games"}]

[{"image_text":"Russian roulette as depicted in the 1925 movie The Night Club","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Rosyjska_ruletka.png/220px-Rosyjska_ruletka.png"},{"image_text":"A revolver with a single round loaded in the cylinder, emblematic of Russian roulette. The cylinder is in the open (non-firing) position.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Smith_%26_Wesson_Model_686_Plus_with_1_round.jpg/220px-Smith_%26_Wesson_Model_686_Plus_with_1_round.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Counterphobic attitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterphobic_attitude"},{"title":"Forced suicide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_suicide"},{"title":"Quantum suicide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_suicide_and_immortality"},{"title":"Buckshot Roulette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckshot_Roulette"}]

[{"reference":"\"The Deer Hunter Roberto Leoni Movie Reviews\". YouTube. Archived from the original on 11 December 2021. Retrieved 13 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k5gD8SCymTU&list=PLFNYsCQU-KaMPQX8whHd19K6syiywZxwd&index=2&t=2s","url_text":"\"The Deer Hunter Roberto Leoni Movie Reviews\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/k5gD8SCymTU","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Fatalist. Mikhail Lermontov. English Translation\". LiveJournal.com. 18 October 2017. Retrieved 13 October 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://kittylevin.livejournal.com/29535.html","url_text":"\"The Fatalist. Mikhail Lermontov. English Translation\""}]},{"reference":"Surdez, Georges (30 January 1937). Chenery, William L. (ed.). \"Russian Roulette\" (PDF). Collier's. Crowell Publishing Company. pp. 16, 57. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 16 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://monlegionnaire.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/russian-roulette.pdf","url_text":"\"Russian Roulette\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowell-Collier_Publishing_Company","url_text":"Crowell Publishing Company"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181001220530/https://monlegionnaire.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/russian-roulette.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"'Tween Lines\". Omaha World-Herald. 13 June 1937. p. 11-E. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/119886292/tween-lines/","url_text":"\"'Tween Lines\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omaha_World-Herald","url_text":"Omaha World-Herald"}]},{"reference":"\"Death Laid to 'Gun Roulette'\". The Austin Statesman. 8 January 1938. p. 1. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/119885783/death-laid-to-gun-roulette/","url_text":"\"Death Laid to 'Gun Roulette'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Austin_Statesman","url_text":"The Austin Statesman"}]},{"reference":"\"Russian Roulette Test Fatal to Austin Writer\". El Paso Herald-Post. United Press. 8 January 1938. p. 3. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/119886719/russian-roulette-test-fatal-to-austin-wr/","url_text":"\"Russian Roulette Test Fatal to Austin Writer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Paso_Herald-Post","url_text":"El Paso Herald-Post"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Press_International","url_text":"United Press"}]},{"reference":"\"Police Officer Is Latest Victim Of Dangerous 'Russian Roulette'\". The Austin Statesman. INS. 6 July 1938. p. 1. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/119887313/police-officer-is-latest-victim-of-dange/","url_text":"\"Police Officer Is Latest Victim Of Dangerous 'Russian Roulette'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Austin_Statesman","url_text":"The Austin Statesman"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_News_Service","url_text":"INS"}]},{"reference":"\"Dies as he Snaps 'Empty' Pistol at Head as Joke\". St. Louis Star-Times. INS. 6 July 1938. p. 7. Retrieved 1 March 2023 – via newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/119944601/dies-as-he-snaps-empty-pistol-at-head/","url_text":"\"Dies as he Snaps 'Empty' Pistol at Head as Joke\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Star-Times","url_text":"St. Louis Star-Times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_News_Service","url_text":"INS"}]},{"reference":"\"Russian Roulette Thrills Houston Youth to Death\". The Austin Statesman. United Press. 8 July 1938. p. 3. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/119887449/russian-roulette-thrills-houston-youth-t/","url_text":"\"Russian Roulette Thrills Houston Youth to Death\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Austin_Statesman","url_text":"The Austin Statesman"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Press_International","url_text":"United Press"}]},{"reference":"\"Another Life Taken by 'Russian Roulette'\". Springfield Leader & Press. Springfield, Missouri. AP. 23 July 1938. p. 1. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/119887761/another-life-taken-by-russian-roulette/","url_text":"\"Another Life Taken by 'Russian Roulette'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springfield_Leader_%26_Press","url_text":"Springfield Leader & Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springfield,_Missouri","url_text":"Springfield, Missouri"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press","url_text":"AP"}]},{"reference":"\"Boy's Triple Death Gamble Told by Chum at Inquest\". Los Angeles Times. 22 November 1938. p. 7. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/119888139/boys-triple-death-gamble-told-by-chum-a/","url_text":"\"Boy's Triple Death Gamble Told by Chum at Inquest\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Abnormal risks\". Statistical Ideas. 1 June 2015. Archived from the original on 6 November 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://statisticalideas.blogspot.com/2015/06/abnormal-risks.html","url_text":"\"Abnormal risks\""},{"url":"https://archive.today/20191106183440/https://statisticalideas.blogspot.com/2015/06/abnormal-risks.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Bill Shockley, Part 2 of 3\". American Institute of Physics. 1999 – via PBS.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pbs.org/transistor/album1/shockley/shockley2.html","url_text":"\"Bill Shockley, Part 2 of 3\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Physics","url_text":"American Institute of Physics"}]},{"reference":"\"Commonwealth v. Malone\". casebriefs.com. Retrieved 26 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.casebriefs.com/blog/law/criminal-law/criminal-law-keyed-to-kadish/homicide/commonwealth-v-malone/2/","url_text":"\"Commonwealth v. Malone\""}]},{"reference":"Himes, Geoffrey (25 December 1998). \"Really Old School\". Washington Post.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1998/12/25/really-old-school-with-punk-zip/1ca39f04-4405-4311-8c6c-ed2ab5a01981/","url_text":"\"Really Old School\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Post","url_text":"Washington Post"}]},{"reference":"Gallagher, Paul (12 December 2013). \"Novelist Graham Greene Played Russian Roulette as a Teenager\". dangerousminds.net. Retrieved 1 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://dangerousminds.net/comments/novelist_graham_greene_played_russian_roulette_as_a_teenager","url_text":"\"Novelist Graham Greene Played Russian Roulette as a Teenager\""}]},{"reference":"Rothstein, Edward (19 May 2005). \"The Personal Evolution of a Civil Rights Giant\". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/19/arts/design/19malccut.html","url_text":"\"The Personal Evolution of a Civil Rights Giant\""}]},{"reference":"\"Roulette russe, paradis artificiels, 'déglingue' : la relation survoltée de Johnny Hallyday et sa maîtresse Nanette Workman\". www.programme-tv.net (in French). 1 April 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.programme-tv.net/news/musique/297177-roulette-russe-paradis-artificiels-deglingue-la-relation-survoltee-de-johnny-hallyday-et-sa-maitresse-nanette-workman/","url_text":"\"Roulette russe, paradis artificiels, 'déglingue' : la relation survoltée de Johnny Hallyday et sa maîtresse Nanette Workman\""}]},{"reference":"\"Quand Johnny Hallyday jouait à la roulette russe\". www.parismatch.com (in French). 13 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.parismatch.com/People/Quand-Johnny-Hallyday-jouait-a-la-roulette-russe-1496354","url_text":"\"Quand Johnny Hallyday jouait à la roulette russe\""}]},{"reference":"\"State Rests Case In Cain Murder Trial\". Lubbock Avalanche-Journal. UPI. 14 November 1973. p. 15. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/119940063/state-rests-case-in-cain-murder-trial/","url_text":"\"State Rests Case In Cain Murder Trial\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubbock_Avalanche-Journal","url_text":"Lubbock Avalanche-Journal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Press_International","url_text":"UPI"}]},{"reference":"\"Dallas Policeman\". The Boston Globe. 17 November 1973. p. 2. Retrieved 28 February 2023 – via newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/119940248/dallas-policeman/","url_text":"\"Dallas Policeman\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Boston_Globe","url_text":"The Boston Globe"}]},{"reference":"\"In Memoriam\" (PDF). The Circus Report. Vol. 5, no. 38. 20 September 1976. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 September 2012. Retrieved 3 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120903213446/http://www.circushistory.org/Publications/CircusReport20Sep1976.pdf","url_text":"\"In Memoriam\""},{"url":"http://www.circushistory.org/Publications/CircusReport20Sep1976.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Russian Roulette Act Misfires, Finnish Circus Performer Killed\". Toledo Blade. 10 September 1976. p. 11. Retrieved 21 June 2017 – via Google News.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&dat=19760910&id=rD0xAAAAIBAJ&sjid=VgIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6876,2739715","url_text":"\"Russian Roulette Act Misfires, Finnish Circus Performer Killed\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo_Blade","url_text":"Toledo Blade"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_News","url_text":"Google News"}]},{"reference":"\"The Deer Hunter Suicides\". Snopes. 16 August 2007. Retrieved 26 April 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.snopes.com/movies/films/deerhunter.asp","url_text":"\"The Deer Hunter Suicides\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snopes","url_text":"Snopes"}]},{"reference":"Garbus, Martin (17 September 2002) [2002]. Courting Disaster: The Supreme Court and the Unmaking of American Law (hardcover ed.). Times Books. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-8050-6918-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/courtingdisaster00garb","url_text":"Courting Disaster: The Supreme Court and the Unmaking of American Law"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/courtingdisaster00garb/page/135","url_text":"135"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6918-1","url_text":"978-0-8050-6918-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Photograph of Hinckley\". Archived from the original on 22 November 2008. Retrieved 11 December 2008 – via University of Missouri Kansas City School of Law.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081122220144/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hinckley/hinkleygun2.jpg","url_text":"\"Photograph of Hinckley\""},{"url":"http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hinckley/hinkleygun2.jpg","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Jon-Erik Hexum's Fatal Joke\". Entertainment Weekly. 14 October 1994. Retrieved 5 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,304026,00.html","url_text":"\"Jon-Erik Hexum's Fatal Joke\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment_Weekly","url_text":"Entertainment Weekly"}]},{"reference":"\"Podcast : les derniers mystères sur la mort du rugbyman Armand Vaquerin\" [Podcast: the latest mysteries about the death of rugby player Armand Vaquerin] (in French). Télérama. 4 June 2022. Retrieved 7 November 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telerama.fr/radio/podcast-les-derniers-mysteres-de-la-mort-du-rugbyman-armand-vaquerin-7010745.php","url_text":"\"Podcast : les derniers mystères sur la mort du rugbyman Armand Vaquerin\""}]},{"reference":"\"Roulette gun stunt 'a hoax'\". BBC News. 7 October 2003. Retrieved 2 September 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3169388.stm","url_text":"\"Roulette gun stunt 'a hoax'\""}]},{"reference":"Jarvis, David (12 September 2010). \"Alan Cumming's hero grandad died playing Russian roulette\". Daily Express. Retrieved 1 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/198947/Alan-Cumming-s-hero-grandad-died-playing-Russian-roulette","url_text":"\"Alan Cumming's hero grandad died playing Russian roulette\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Express","url_text":"Daily Express"}]},{"reference":"Boult, Adam (13 June 2016). \"MMA fighter 'killed himself playing Russian roulette'\". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 13 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/13/mma-fighter-killed-himself-playing-russian-roulette/","url_text":"\"MMA fighter 'killed himself playing Russian roulette'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph","url_text":"The Telegraph"},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/13/mma-fighter-killed-himself-playing-russian-roulette/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Борис Акунин. Азазель.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Drinking Roulette Fun Game\". roulettegamesvariety.com. Retrieved 21 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://roulettegamesvariety.com/drinking-roulette.htm","url_text":"\"Drinking Roulette Fun Game\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Beer Hunter\". Modern Drunkard Magazine. Archived from the original on 9 December 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141209054418/http://drunkard.com/issues/01_07/md_drinking_games.html","url_text":"\"The Beer Hunter\""},{"url":"http://drunkard.com/issues/01_07/md_drinking_games.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]

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Malone\""},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1998/12/25/really-old-school-with-punk-zip/1ca39f04-4405-4311-8c6c-ed2ab5a01981/","external_links_name":"\"Really Old School\""},{"Link":"https://dangerousminds.net/comments/novelist_graham_greene_played_russian_roulette_as_a_teenager","external_links_name":"\"Novelist Graham Greene Played Russian Roulette as a Teenager\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/19/arts/design/19malccut.html","external_links_name":"\"The Personal Evolution of a Civil Rights Giant\""},{"Link":"https://www.programme-tv.net/news/musique/297177-roulette-russe-paradis-artificiels-deglingue-la-relation-survoltee-de-johnny-hallyday-et-sa-maitresse-nanette-workman/","external_links_name":"\"Roulette russe, paradis artificiels, 'déglingue' : la relation survoltée de Johnny Hallyday et sa maîtresse Nanette Workman\""},{"Link":"https://www.parismatch.com/People/Quand-Johnny-Hallyday-jouait-a-la-roulette-russe-1496354","external_links_name":"\"Quand Johnny Hallyday jouait à la roulette russe\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/119940063/state-rests-case-in-cain-murder-trial/","external_links_name":"\"State Rests Case In Cain Murder Trial\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/119940248/dallas-policeman/","external_links_name":"\"Dallas Policeman\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120903213446/http://www.circushistory.org/Publications/CircusReport20Sep1976.pdf","external_links_name":"\"In Memoriam\""},{"Link":"http://www.circushistory.org/Publications/CircusReport20Sep1976.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1350&dat=19760910&id=rD0xAAAAIBAJ&sjid=VgIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6876,2739715","external_links_name":"\"Russian Roulette Act Misfires, Finnish Circus Performer Killed\""},{"Link":"http://www.snopes.com/movies/films/deerhunter.asp","external_links_name":"\"The Deer Hunter Suicides\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/courtingdisaster00garb","external_links_name":"Courting Disaster: The Supreme Court and the Unmaking of American Law"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/courtingdisaster00garb/page/135","external_links_name":"135"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081122220144/http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hinckley/hinkleygun2.jpg","external_links_name":"\"Photograph of Hinckley\""},{"Link":"http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hinckley/hinkleygun2.jpg","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,304026,00.html","external_links_name":"\"Jon-Erik Hexum's Fatal Joke\""},{"Link":"https://www.telerama.fr/radio/podcast-les-derniers-mysteres-de-la-mort-du-rugbyman-armand-vaquerin-7010745.php","external_links_name":"\"Podcast : les derniers mystères sur la mort du rugbyman Armand Vaquerin\""},{"Link":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3169388.stm","external_links_name":"\"Roulette gun stunt 'a hoax'\""},{"Link":"https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/198947/Alan-Cumming-s-hero-grandad-died-playing-Russian-roulette","external_links_name":"\"Alan Cumming's hero grandad died playing Russian roulette\""},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/13/mma-fighter-killed-himself-playing-russian-roulette/","external_links_name":"\"MMA fighter 'killed himself playing Russian roulette'\""},{"Link":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/06/13/mma-fighter-killed-himself-playing-russian-roulette/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://roulettegamesvariety.com/drinking-roulette.htm","external_links_name":"\"Drinking Roulette Fun Game\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141209054418/http://drunkard.com/issues/01_07/md_drinking_games.html","external_links_name":"\"The Beer Hunter\""},{"Link":"http://drunkard.com/issues/01_07/md_drinking_games.html","external_links_name":"the original"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BTJunkie

BTJunkie

["1 Features","2 Closure","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]

Defunct BitTorrent search engine BTJunkieBTJunkie Homepage in 2008Type of siteTorrent index, magnet links providerAvailable inMultilingual, primarily EnglishDissolved5 February 2012URLBTjunkie.orgCommercialYesRegistrationFreeLaunchedJune 2005Current statusClosed Part of a series onFile sharing Technologies File hosting services Online video platform Peer to peer Usenet Web hosting WebRTC XDCC Video on demand sites 123Movies Dailymotion PeerTube Putlocker YouTube BitTorrent sites 1337x Demonoid ExtraTorrent EZTV isoHunt FitGirl Repacks KickassTorrents Nyaa Torrents RARBG Rutracker.org Tamil Rockers The Pirate Bay YIFY YourBittorrent Academic/scholarly ICanHazPDF Internet Archive Library Genesis Sci-Hub File sharing networks BitTorrent Direct Connect eDonkey Gnutella Gnutella2 Hyphanet I2P Soulseek P2P clients BitComet DC++ eMule Filetopia μTorrent OnionShare qBittorrent Shareaza Transmission Tribler Vuze WinMX Streaming programs Butter Project Kodi Popcorn Time Torrents-Time Anonymous file sharing Anonymous P2P Darknet Friend-to-friend Private P2P Proxy server Seedbox VPN Development and societal aspects Timeline Legality BitTorrent issues By country or region Canada Japan Singapore UK USA Comparisons Comparison of BitTorrent clients Comparison of BitTorrent sites Comparison of eDonkey software Comparison of Internet Relay Chat clients Comparison of Usenet newsreaders vte BTJunkie was a BitTorrent web search engine operating between 2005 and 2012. It used a web crawler to search for torrent files from other torrent sites and store them on its database. It had nearly 4,000,000 active torrents and about 4,200 torrents added daily (compared to runner-up Torrent Portal with 1,500), making it the largest torrent site indexer on the web in 2006. During 2011, BTJunkie was the 5th most popular BitTorrent site. Features BTJunkie indexed both private and public trackers using an automatic web crawler that scanned the Internet for torrent files. Cookies were used to track what a visitor downloaded so that there was no need to register in order to rate torrents. The ratings and feedback given by people were used to help filter and flag malicious torrents uploaded to the website. Closure The screenshot of BTJunkie's message for their closure. On 5 February 2012, BTJunkie announced that it had shut down voluntarily. This was seen as a response to the closure of Megaupload and legal action against The Pirate Bay. The site stated on its main page: "This is the end of the line my friends. The decision does not come easy, but we've decided to voluntarily shut down. We've been fighting for years for your right to communicate, but it's time to move on. It's been an experience of a lifetime, we wish you all the best!" See also Comparison of BitTorrent sites References ^ a b "Whois Lookup Captcha". whois.domaintools.com. ^ "Ten Most Used BitTorrent Sites Compared". ^ "10 Most Popular Torrent Sites of 2021 * TorrentFreak". ^ Newman, Jared (6 February 2012). "BitTorrent Index BTjunkie Bites the Dust". Time. Retrieved 8 February 2012. ^ Cask J. Thomson (6 February 2012). "Torrent Tracker BTJUNKIE has ceased operations". wordswithmeaning.org. Archived from the original on 13 February 2012. Retrieved 6 February 2012. ^ "btjunkie 2005 2012". btjunkie.org. 5 February 2012. Archived from the original on 6 February 2012. . External links Official website vteBitTorrentCompanies BitTorrent, Inc. Vuze, Inc. People Bram Cohen Ross Cohen Eric Klinker Ashwin Navin Technology Glossary Broadcatching Distributed hash tables DNA I2P index Local Peer Discovery Peer exchange Protocol encryption Super-seeding Tracker Torrent file TCP UDP µTP WebRTC WebTorrent Clients(comparison, usage share) BitTorrent (original client) BitComet BitLord Deluge Free Download Manager Flashget FrostWire Getright Go!Zilla KTorrent libtorrent (library) LimeWire µTorrent Miro MLDonkey qBittorrent rTorrent Shareaza Tixati Transmission Tribler Vuze (formerly Azureus) WebTorrent Desktop Xunlei Tracker software(comparison) OpenBitTorrent opentracker PeerTracker Search engines(comparison) 1337x BTDigg Demonoid etree Nyaa Torrents Tamil Rockers The Pirate Bay Rutracker.org YggTorrent YourBittorrent Defunct sites(comparison) BTJunkie ExtraTorrent EZTV isoHunt KickassTorrents LokiTorrent Mininova Oink's Pink Palace RARBG Suprnova.org t411 Torrent Project TorrentSpy Torrentz What.CD YIFY YouTorrent Related topics aXXo BitTorrent Open Source License Glossary of BitTorrent terms Popcorn Time Slyck.com TorrentFreak Category Commons

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[{"image_text":"The screenshot of BTJunkie's message for their closure.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Btjunkie-closed.JPG/250px-Btjunkie-closed.JPG"}]

[{"title":"Comparison of BitTorrent sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_BitTorrent_sites"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubt

Doubt

["1 Psychology","2 Philosophy","3 Theology","4 Law","5 Science","6 See also","7 Notes and references","8 Further reading"]

Status between belief and disbelief This article is about the mental state. For other uses, see Doubt (disambiguation). Part of a series onEmotions Affect Classification In animals Emotional intelligence Mood Regulation Interpersonal Dysregulation Valence Emotions Acceptance Admiration Affection Amusement Anger Angst Anguish Annoyance Anticipation Anxiety Apathy Arousal Awe Belongingness Boredom Confidence Confusion Contempt Contentment Courage Curiosity Depression Desire Determination Disappointment Disgust Distrust Doubt Ecstasy Elevation Embarrassment Emotional Detachment Empathy Enthusiasm Envy Euphoria Faith Fear Frustration Gratification Gratitude Greed Grief Guilt Happiness Hatred Hope Horror Hostility Humiliation Interest Jealousy Joy Kindness Limerence Loneliness Love Lust Nostalgia Outrage Panic Passion Pity Pleasure Pride Rage Regret Rejection Relief Remorse Resentment Sadness Saudade Schadenfreude Self-pity Shame Shock Shyness Social connection Sorrow Suffering Surprise Suspicion Trust Wonder Worry vte Doubt is a mental state in which the mind remains suspended between two or more contradictory propositions, and is uncertain about them. Doubt on an emotional level is indecision between belief and disbelief. It may involve uncertainty, distrust or lack of conviction on certain facts, actions, motives, or decisions. Doubt can result in delaying or rejecting relevant action out of concern for mistakes or missed opportunities. Psychology Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. Philosophy Descartes employed Cartesian doubt as a pre-eminent methodological tool in his fundamental philosophical investigations. Branches of philosophy like logic devote much effort to distinguish the dubious, the probable and the certain. Much of illogic rests on dubious assumptions, dubious data or dubious conclusions, with rhetoric, whitewashing, and deception playing their accustomed roles. In his posthumous work On Certainty (OC), Ludwig Wittgenstein describes how our everyday use of the words ‘doubt’ and ‘certainty’ function. The two concepts are interwoven into our daily lives such that if we cannot be certain of any fact, then we cannot be certain of the meaning of our words either. (OC §114). Theology The Incredulity of Saint Thomas by Caravaggio. Doubts, by Henrietta Rae, 1886 Doubt as a path towards (deeper) belief lies at the heart of the story of Saint Thomas the Apostle. Note in this respect the theological views of Georg Hermes: ... the starting-point and chief principle of every science, and hence of theology also, is not only methodical doubt, but positive doubt. One can believe only what one has perceived to be true from reasonable grounds, and consequently one must have the courage to continue doubting until one has found reliable grounds to satisfy the reason. Doubt that god(s) exist may form the basis of agnosticism — the belief that one cannot determine the existence or non-existence of god(s). It may also form other brands of skepticism, such as Pyrrhonism, which do not take a positive stance in regard to the existence of god(s), but remain negative. Alternatively, doubt over the existence of god(s) may lead to acceptance of a particular religion: compare Pascal's Wager. Doubt of a specific theology, scriptural or deistic, may bring into question the truth of that theology's set of beliefs. On the other hand, doubt as to some doctrines but acceptance of others may lead to the growth of heresy and/or the splitting off of sects or groups of thought. Thus proto-Protestants doubted papal authority, and substituted alternative methods of governance in their new (but still recognizably similar) churches. Christian existentialists such as Søren Kierkegaard suggest that for one to truly have belief in God, one would also have to doubt one's beliefs about God; the doubt is the rational part of a person's thought involved in weighing evidence, without which the belief would have no real substance. Belief is not a decision based on evidence that, say, certain beliefs about God are true or a certain person is worthy of love. No such evidence could ever be enough to pragmatically justify the kind of total commitment involved in true theological belief or romantic love. Belief involves making that commitment anyway. Kierkegaard thought that to have belief is at the same time to have doubt. Law Most criminal cases within an adversarial system require that the prosecution proves its contentions beyond a reasonable doubt — a doctrine also called the "burden of proof". This means that the State must present propositions which preclude "reasonable doubt" in the mind of a reasonable person as to the guilt of defendant. Some doubt may persist, but only to the extent that it would not affect a "reasonable person's" belief in the defendant's guilt. If the doubt raised does affect a "reasonable person's" belief, the jury is not satisfied beyond a "reasonable doubt". The jurisprudence of the applicable jurisdiction usually defines the precise meaning of words such as "reasonable" and "doubt" for such purposes. Science To doubt everything or to believe everything are two equally convenient solutions; both dispense with the necessity of reflection. —Henri Poincaré, Science and Hypothesis (1905) (from Dover abridged edition of 1952) The scientific method regularly quantifies doubt, and uses it to determine whether further research is needed. Isaac Asimov, in his essay collection Fact and Fancy, described science as a system for causing and resolving intelligent doubt. See also Doubting Thomas Fear, uncertainty and doubt Further research is needed List of ethics topics Methodic doubt Philosophical skepticism Question Reasonable doubt Skepticism Self-doubt Notes and references Wikiquote has quotations related to Doubt. Look up doubt or dubious in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Doubt. ^ Sharpe, Alfred. "Doubt". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton. Retrieved 2008-10-21. A state in which the mind is suspended between two contradictory propositions and unable to assent to either of them. ^ Braiker, Harriet B. (2004). Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation. McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07-144672-9. ^ Schulte, Karl Joseph (1910). "George Hermes". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton. Retrieved 2008-10-21. ^ Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments, ed. by Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong, v. 1, Princeton University Press, 1992, pp. 21–57 ^ Soren Kierkegaard's Journals and Papers, trans. Hong and Malantschuk, p. 399. ^ "Isaac Asimov: A Prophet for Our Time". Archived from the original on 2017-06-25. Retrieved 2017-10-09. Further reading Berger, Peter L. and Zijderveld, Anton (2009). In Praise of Doubt: How to Have Convictions Without Becoming a Fanatic. New York: HarperOne. ISBN 978-0-06-177816-2. A book by two eminent sociologists, one American and the other Dutch. Hecht, Jennifer Michael (2003). Doubt: a history: the great doubters and their legacy of innovation from Socrates and Jesus to Thomas Jefferson and Emily Dickinson. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-009795-7. This book traces the role of doubt through human history, all over the world, particularly regarding religion. Hein, David (Winter 2006). "Faith and Doubt in Rose Macaulay's The Towers of Trebizond". Anglican Theological Review 88 (1): 47–68. ISSN 0003-3286. vteEmotions (list)Emotions Acceptance Admiration Adoration Aesthetic Affection Agitation Agony Amusement Anger Angst Anguish Annoyance Anticipation Anxiety Apathy Arousal Attraction Awe Belongingness Boredom Calmness Compassion Confidence Confusion Contempt Contentment Courage Cruelty Curiosity Defeat Depression Desire Disappointment Disgust Distrust Doubt Ecstasy Embarrassment vicarious Emotion work Empathy Emptiness Enthrallment Enthusiasm Envy Euphoria Excitement Faith Fear Flow Frustration Gratification Gratitude Greed Grief Guilt Happiness Joie de vivre Hatred Hiraeth Homesickness Hope Horror Hostility Humiliation Hygge Hysteria Ikigai (sense of purpose) Indulgence Infatuation Insecurity Inspiration Interest Irritation Isolation Jealousy Joy Kindness Loneliness Love limerence at first sight Lust Mono no aware Neglect Nostalgia Outrage Panic Passion Pity self-pity Pleasure Pride grandiosity hubris insult vanity Rage Regret Rejection Relief Remorse Resentment Revenge Sadness melancholy Saudade Schadenfreude Sehnsucht Sentimentality Shame Shock Shyness Social connection Sorrow Spite Stress chronic Suffering Surprise Sympathy Trust Wonder sense of wonder Worry Worldviews Cynicism Defeatism Nihilism Optimism Pessimism Reclusion Weltschmerz Related Affect consciousness in education measures in psychology Affective computing forecasting neuroscience science spectrum Affectivity positive negative Appeal to emotion Amygdala hijack Emotion and art and memory and music and sex and sleep classification evolution expressed functional accounts group homeostatic in animals perception recognition in conversation regulation interpersonal work Emotional aperture bias blackmail competence conflict contagion detachment dysregulation eating exhaustion expression and gender intelligence and bullying Empathy quotient intimacy isolation lability labor lateralization literacy prosody reasoning responsivity security symbiosis thought method well-being Emotionality bounded Emotions and culture history in decision-making in the workplace in virtual communication moral self-conscious social social sharing sociology Feeling Group affective tone Interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems Jealousy in art Meta-emotion Pathognomy Pathos Social emotional development Stoic passions Theory affect appraisal constructed emotion discrete emotion somatic marker Italics indicate emotion names in foreign languages Authority control databases: National Germany Israel United States Czech Republic

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For other uses, see Doubt (disambiguation).Doubt is a mental state in which the mind remains suspended between two or more contradictory propositions, and is uncertain about them.[1][better source needed] Doubt on an emotional level is indecision between belief and disbelief. It may involve uncertainty, distrust or lack of conviction on certain facts, actions, motives, or decisions. 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Note in this respect the theological views of Georg Hermes:... the starting-point and chief principle of every science, and hence of theology also, is not only methodical doubt, but positive doubt. One can believe only what one has perceived to be true from reasonable grounds, and consequently one must have the courage to continue doubting until one has found reliable grounds to satisfy the reason.[3]Doubt that god(s) exist may form the basis of agnosticism — the belief that one cannot determine the existence or non-existence of god(s). It may also form other brands of skepticism, such as Pyrrhonism, which do not take a positive stance in regard to the existence of god(s), but remain negative. Alternatively, doubt over the existence of god(s) may lead to acceptance of a particular religion: compare Pascal's Wager. Doubt of a specific theology, scriptural or deistic, may bring into question the truth of that theology's set of beliefs. 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The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton. Retrieved 2008-10-21. A state in which the mind is suspended between two contradictory propositions and unable to assent to either of them.\n\n^ Braiker, Harriet B. (2004). Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation. McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07-144672-9.\n\n^ \nSchulte, Karl Joseph (1910). \"George Hermes\". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton. Retrieved 2008-10-21.\n\n^ Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments, ed. by Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong, v. 1, Princeton University Press, 1992, pp. 21–57\n\n^ Soren Kierkegaard's Journals and Papers, trans. Hong and Malantschuk, p. 399.\n\n^ \"Isaac Asimov: A Prophet for Our Time\". Archived from the original on 2017-06-25. Retrieved 2017-10-09.","title":"Notes and references"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Berger, Peter L.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_L._Berger"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-06-177816-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-177816-2"},{"link_name":"Hecht, Jennifer Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht"},{"link_name":"Doubt: a history: the great doubters and their legacy of innovation from Socrates and Jesus to Thomas Jefferson and Emily Dickinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/doubthistory00jenn"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-06-009795-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-009795-7"},{"link_name":"The Towers of Trebizond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Towers_of_Trebizond"},{"link_name":"Anglican Theological 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method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_thought_method"},{"link_name":"well-being","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_well-being"},{"link_name":"Emotionality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotionality"},{"link_name":"bounded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_emotionality"},{"link_name":"and culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_and_culture"},{"link_name":"history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_emotions"},{"link_name":"in decision-making","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_in_decision-making"},{"link_name":"in the workplace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_in_the_workplace"},{"link_name":"in virtual communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotions_in_virtual_communication"},{"link_name":"moral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_emotions"},{"link_name":"self-conscious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-conscious_emotions"},{"link_name":"social","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_emotions"},{"link_name":"social sharing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sharing_of_emotions"},{"link_name":"sociology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions"},{"link_name":"Feeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeling"},{"link_name":"Group affective tone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_affective_tone"},{"link_name":"Interactions between the emotional and executive brain systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactions_between_the_emotional_and_executive_brain_systems"},{"link_name":"Jealousy in art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jealousy_in_art"},{"link_name":"Meta-emotion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-emotion"},{"link_name":"Pathognomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathognomy"},{"link_name":"Pathos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathos"},{"link_name":"Social emotional development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_emotional_development"},{"link_name":"Stoic passions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoic_passions"},{"link_name":"affect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affect_theory"},{"link_name":"appraisal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appraisal_theory"},{"link_name":"constructed emotion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_constructed_emotion"},{"link_name":"discrete emotion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_emotion_theory"},{"link_name":"somatic marker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic_marker_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34302#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4124501-5"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007283282205171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85013004"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph722909&CON_LNG=ENG"}],"text":"Berger, Peter L. and Zijderveld, Anton (2009). In Praise of Doubt: How to Have Convictions Without Becoming a Fanatic. New York: HarperOne. ISBN 978-0-06-177816-2. A book by two eminent sociologists, one American and the other Dutch.\nHecht, Jennifer Michael (2003). Doubt: a history: the great doubters and their legacy of innovation from Socrates and Jesus to Thomas Jefferson and Emily Dickinson. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-009795-7. This book traces the role of doubt through human history, all over the world, particularly regarding religion.\nHein, David (Winter 2006). \"Faith and Doubt in Rose Macaulay's The Towers of Trebizond\". Anglican Theological Review 88 (1): 47–68. ISSN 0003-3286.vteEmotions (list)Emotions\nAcceptance\nAdmiration\nAdoration\nAesthetic\nAffection\nAgitation\nAgony\nAmusement\nAnger\nAngst\nAnguish\nAnnoyance\nAnticipation\nAnxiety\nApathy\nArousal\nAttraction\nAwe\nBelongingness\nBoredom\nCalmness\nCompassion\nConfidence\nConfusion\nContempt\nContentment\nCourage\nCruelty\nCuriosity\nDefeat\nDepression\nDesire\nDisappointment\nDisgust\nDistrust\nDoubt\nEcstasy\nEmbarrassment\nvicarious\nEmotion work\nEmpathy\nEmptiness\nEnthrallment\nEnthusiasm\nEnvy\nEuphoria\nExcitement\nFaith\nFear\nFlow\nFrustration\nGratification\nGratitude\nGreed\nGrief\nGuilt\nHappiness\nJoie de vivre\nHatred\nHiraeth\nHomesickness\nHope\nHorror\nHostility\nHumiliation\nHygge\nHysteria\nIkigai (sense of purpose)\nIndulgence\nInfatuation\nInsecurity\nInspiration\nInterest\nIrritation\nIsolation\nJealousy\nJoy\nKindness\nLoneliness\nLove\nlimerence\nat first sight\nLust\nMono no aware\nNeglect\nNostalgia\nOutrage\nPanic\nPassion\nPity\nself-pity\nPleasure\nPride\ngrandiosity\nhubris\ninsult\nvanity\nRage\nRegret\nRejection\nRelief\nRemorse\nResentment\nRevenge\nSadness\nmelancholy\nSaudade\nSchadenfreude\nSehnsucht\nSentimentality\nShame\nShock\nShyness\nSocial connection\nSorrow\nSpite\nStress\nchronic\nSuffering\nSurprise\nSympathy\nTrust\nWonder\nsense of wonder\nWorry\nWorldviews\nCynicism\nDefeatism\nNihilism\nOptimism\nPessimism\nReclusion\nWeltschmerz\nRelated\nAffect\nconsciousness\nin education\nmeasures\nin psychology\nAffective\ncomputing\nforecasting\nneuroscience\nscience\nspectrum\nAffectivity\npositive\nnegative\nAppeal to emotion\nAmygdala hijack\nEmotion\nand art\nand memory\nand music\nand sex\nand sleep\nclassification\nevolution\nexpressed\nfunctional accounts\ngroup\nhomeostatic\nin animals\nperception\nrecognition\nin conversation\nregulation\ninterpersonal\nwork\nEmotional\naperture\nbias\nblackmail\ncompetence\nconflict\ncontagion\ndetachment\ndysregulation\neating\nexhaustion\nexpression\nand gender\nintelligence\nand bullying\nEmpathy quotient\nintimacy\nisolation\nlability\nlabor\nlateralization\nliteracy\nprosody\nreasoning\nresponsivity\nsecurity\nsymbiosis\nthought method\nwell-being\nEmotionality\nbounded\nEmotions\nand culture\nhistory\nin decision-making\nin the workplace\nin virtual communication\nmoral\nself-conscious\nsocial\nsocial sharing\nsociology\nFeeling\nGroup affective tone\nInteractions between the emotional and executive brain systems\nJealousy in art\nMeta-emotion\nPathognomy\nPathos\nSocial emotional development\nStoic passions\nTheory\naffect\nappraisal\nconstructed emotion\ndiscrete emotion\nsomatic marker\nItalics indicate emotion names in foreign languagesAuthority control databases: National \nGermany\nIsrael\nUnited States\nCzech Republic","title":"Further reading"}]

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[{"title":"Doubting Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubting_Thomas"},{"title":"Fear, uncertainty and doubt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear,_uncertainty_and_doubt"},{"title":"Further research is needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Further_research_is_needed"},{"title":"List of ethics topics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ethics_topics"},{"title":"Methodic doubt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodic_doubt"},{"title":"Philosophical skepticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism"},{"title":"Question","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question"},{"title":"Reasonable doubt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reasonable_doubt"},{"title":"Skepticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skepticism"},{"title":"Self-doubt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-doubt"}]

[{"reference":"Sharpe, Alfred. \"Doubt\". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 5. New York: Robert Appleton. Retrieved 2008-10-21. A state in which the mind is suspended between two contradictory propositions and unable to assent to either of them.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05141a.htm","url_text":"\"Doubt\""}]},{"reference":"Braiker, Harriet B. (2004). Who's Pulling Your Strings ? How to Break The Cycle of Manipulation. McGraw Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07-144672-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-144672-9","url_text":"0-07-144672-9"}]},{"reference":"Schulte, Karl Joseph (1910). \"George Hermes\". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 7. New York: Robert Appleton. Retrieved 2008-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07276c.htm","url_text":"\"George Hermes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Isaac Asimov: A Prophet for Our Time\". Archived from the original on 2017-06-25. Retrieved 2017-10-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170625105519/http://patduffyhutcheon.com/humanist%20articles/asimov.htm","url_text":"\"Isaac Asimov: A Prophet for Our Time\""},{"url":"http://patduffyhutcheon.com/humanist%20articles/asimov.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hecht, Jennifer Michael (2003). Doubt: a history: the great doubters and their legacy of innovation from Socrates and Jesus to Thomas Jefferson and Emily Dickinson. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. ISBN 0-06-009795-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jennifer_Michael_Hecht","url_text":"Hecht, Jennifer Michael"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/doubthistory00jenn","url_text":"Doubt: a history: the great doubters and their legacy of innovation from Socrates and Jesus to Thomas Jefferson and Emily Dickinson"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-009795-7","url_text":"0-06-009795-7"}]}]

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